Fruit & Vegetable Gardening; The Definitive Guide to Successful Growing - Dk Publishing

WEED CONTROL 49 Weed control Weeds are plants growing where they Controlling weeds by light deprivation are not wanted. Usually they are native plants that grow successfully in the wild, Using black film plastic Using old carpet but quite often they may be cultivated Annual and perennial weeds can be Any durable, light-excluding material can plants invading new areas. suppressed by covering the area with thick be used to control weeds. Even where some black film plastic buried at the edges. Cover perennials are not killed, they are markedly Some weeds are not only attractive but for a whole season, if possible. weakened and much easier to fork out. may also have beneficial effects. Scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) and wild PERENNIAL WEEDS (Taraxacum officinale), stinging nettle pansy (Viola tricolor) bear attractive Potentially most troublesome weeds are (Urtica dioica), creeping buttercup flowers, cow parsley (Anthriscus sylvestris) those perennials that increase primarily (Ranunculus repens), ground elder supports beneficial hoverflies, and red by vegetative means, such as spreading (Aegopodium podagraria), couch grass dead nettle (Lamium purpureum) attracts roots or runners or rooting stem tips, (Agropyron repens), brambles (Rubus bees. It hardly needs saying that wild rather than by seed production. These species), and horsetail (Equisetum species). plants should be tolerated and indeed weeds are of particular concern on actively nurtured in appropriate places uncropped sites where they have become A new site in which such weeds are near the kitchen garden. well established; they are also potentially well established can be daunting, but troublesome where they spring up it is essential to clear out any of these Crops will, however, be adversely among newly sown or planted fruit inhabitants and destroy early any small affected by weed competition, and for and vegetable crops and are then very colonies within already cultivated plots. most people a weed-free garden is more difficult to eradicate without disturbing attractive than one left to its natural the crop. Notorious perennials are curly MECHANICAL CONTROL development. Weeds can be divided into dock (Rumex species), dandelions Nonwoody perennials can be two groups for the purposes of control: controlled by long-term covering perennial weeds and annual weeds. Forking out perennial weeds with heavy-gauge black film plastic Established perennial weeds may bave deep or other durable, light-excluding HOW WEEDS AFFECT CROPS tap roots or spreading roots, like these nettles. material such as old carpet. To be By far the worst effects of weeds lie in Make sure to loosen and tease out as much most effective it will need to be in competition. Weeds absorb water and of the root as possible. place for at least a whole growing nutrients from the soil, depriving crop season, so forward planning is essential. plants and so restricting their growth. Lift the cover occasionally and carefully They compete for light, and vigorous dig out any struggling weeds. weed growth can seriously shade young developing plants. They also compete The more usual method is to cultivate for space, which may result in restricted the ground with a shovel or fork. Break or stunted growth of cultivated plants. open the ground to a spit depth, and shake or pick out by hand tuberous or Weeds can also affect pest and disease woody roots or underground runners. incidence (see Plant Problems, pp.246– This is best done on hot days, leaving 264). Some weeds may harbor pests weeds exposed for a while to be such as eelworm and diseases such as desiccated and killed; then dispose of clubroot of brassicas or rusts, these them off-site. It is unlikely that one being found in weed plants closely session will clear the land, because many related to cultivated crop species. Dense of the weeds will regenerate from even weed growth may become soaked by the smallest fragment, so be prepared to rain, reducing air movement and repeat the task. increasing humidity around plants, providing ideal conditions for diseases such as botrytis (see p.252), which affects the fruits of strawberries. Heavy weed growth looks unsightly and can make harvesting more difficult; pulling vegetables that are surrounded by nettle growth can be painful. Another effect worth noting, although of very limited importance, is that some weeds may exude chemical substances at root level that have the effect of restricting the growth of nonrelated plants.

50 GROWING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES Using a mechanical rotary cultivator to the range is narrowed due to legal Planting through a plastic sheet mulch chop up the existing ground cover is less restrictions on manufacture. Avoid weeding by laying a sheet mulch (here advisable. It is effective only with many landscape fabric) over the bed and secure at repeat operations, because underground There is no real risk to personal safety if the sides by pushing into a slit trench. Cut weed parts are chopped into pieces, the instructions are followed to the letter, crosses in the sheet and plant through them. each of which will regenerate. Worst of but valued plants are vulnerable to drift all, it can destroy the soil structure and or careless use of weedkiller. Important By and large annuals are more readily produce an impermeable soil pan (see rules are: keep a marked watering can controlled than perennials. The group p.16) at the depth of the spinning blades. or sprayer solely for weedkiller; choose includes chickweed (Stellaria media), the appropriate material; mix and apply groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), annual The persistence of perennial weeds it with great care, preferably on a still meadow grass (Poa annua), goosefoot varies. Curly dock, dandelions, and day—a dribble bar (see p.53) can be (Chenopodium album), hairy bittercress creeping buttercup soon succumb useful; and place physical barriers around (Cardamine hirsuta), speedwell (Veronica to careful cultivation, but couch grass any crop plants in the immediate area. species), and annual nettle (Urtica urens). and stinging nettles require careful These weeds reproduce through the and repeated lifting. Worst of all are The chemical glyphosate is highly prolific production of seeds, making horsetails, which may be very deep- effective; it will be absorbed into actively up a large part of the estimated 100,000 rooted and impossible to eradicate. The growing plants. There are also chemicals seeds in each square yard (square meter) armed stems of brambles are formidable, specifically for perennial grasses and of soil. Many seeds are lost to the but they can be removed with hormone weedkillers for persistent weeds predations of birds and soil-inhabiting methodical use of pruners and a shovel. like brambles and bindweed (Convolvulus creatures, while others fail to develop arvensis). The latter can be painted on to after germination. Cultivating will Bulbous perennials, such as a few aerial parts of plants. Inspect the shelves destroy many, but moves dormant seeds Oxalis species or ramsons (Allium ursinum), of a well-stocked garden center and to conditions favorable to germination. call for meticulous lifting or constant spend a while making a careful selection. removal of leaves to weaken the plant. Bear in mind that many perennial weeds Destroy all flowering weeds before Fortunately, these attractive weeds are are also prolific seeders, including curly they have chance to set seed. Regular less competitive than many, but in high dock and dandelion. hoeing is the most effective means of density they can still smother other plants. controlling annuals, since severed parts ANNUAL WEEDS do not regenerate. Hoe as soon as the USING WEEDKILLERS Annual weeds complete their life cycle crop rows can be identified, and repeat Chemical weedkillers can be a great help in one season; there may even be more frequently. Work shallowly to avoid in preparing new ground, in controlling than one life cycle per season. There are bringing more seeds to the surface persistent or deeply established perennial a few significant biennial weed plants, and to minimize soil moisture loss. weeds, and where weeds invade from which make growth in one season and It is most important to hoe between adjoining land. Their use is a matter of flower in the following one, and these crop rows. imposed as well as personal choice, since may be regarded as annuals. Hand weeding is a quite satisfying Spraying weeds with weedkiller pastime in the control of annual weeds. A flame gun can be used on pathways, 1Herbicides such as those containing 2 Over two weeks the treated weeds but it is a specialized tool rather than glyphosate are an effective aid for progressively die back and are more an essential. A valuable technique for destroying perennial weeds. Make sure not readily removed. Glyphosate does not suppressing seeding weeds is the stale to use them on a windy day; the spray may persist in the soil, so you can plant very seedbed practice of allowing a flush of drift onto valued plants and kill them. soon after the weeds are cleared. weeds to grow on a prepared bed, and then destroying them by shallow hoeing or with a flame gun before sowing.

KEEPING YOUR GARDEN HEALTHY 51 Keeping your garden healthy Neglected crops of fruit and vegetables predators; other pests feed on a range of Keeping equipment clean may fail due to factors such as weather plants. Plants also emit scents that attract Dirty equipment and containers can harbor (see pp.10–13), nutrition (see pp.14–17), predators or parasites of their attackers. In diseases and minute pests. Clean your tools weeds (see pp.49–50), lack of water (see nature, diversity in a plant community regularly and wash all containers between pp.53–54), and from pests and diseases minimizes the effects of pests and uses, scrubbing them out with a stiff brush (see Plant Problems, pp.246–264). diseases; in a kitchen garden, we tend to and horticultural disinfectant. grow blocks of a single crop, advertising Animals, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and its existence and increasing the chances nitrogen-rich fertilizers (see pp.20–21) other organisms can destroy, disfigure, of attack. Keeping the area weed-free are applied, can be far more susceptible or debilitate crops, wasting the time, also reduces the habitat for beneficial to aphid attack (see p.251) or botrytis effort, money, and garden space devoted predators and parasites. disease (see p.252). Liquid conditioners, to them. It is vital to be aware of what including those made from plant problems may occur with each crop, GROWING HEALTHY PLANTS extracts such as comfrey or seaweed (see and think ahead about how to combat Weak or weed-choked crop plants will p.21) keep crops in good health and may them. Above all, inspect crops regularly be more vulnerable to attack by disease, stimulate the plants’ natural defenses. and closely, so that you can deal with so prepare and maintain your garden problems before they become serious. well. Accumulated plant litter perpetuates Plants repeatedly grown on the same diseases, as does infected wood, such as site are likely to suffer from a buildup NATURAL STRATEGIES cankers (see p.253), left in fruit trees and of pests, such as potato cyst nematode Plants have remarkable mechanisms for bushes. Practice good garden hygiene. (see p.260) or onion white rot (see repelling pests. Some produce chemicals p.258). Rotation (see p.31) is therefore that discourage feeding by their scent or Plant problems are encouraged by a good practice. A basic knowledge of taste. Some insects, such as the caterpillars waterlogging and drought, so prepare life cycles assists in knowing how to (see p.253) of the cabbage white butterfly, and manage the soil well (see pp.37–40). prevent diseases from carrying over can tolerate chemicals produced by Plants with unbalanced nutrient levels, in the soil from season to season. brassicas and find a niche as specific especially where large amounts of Buy only healthy stock. Clubroot Mechanical barriers and deterrents of brassicas (see p.254) can easily be imported on purchased plants. Always ▲ Bird scarers look for certificated strawberries and A plastic bird of prey suspended on a line other fruit plants. Remember also that from a cane bobs and twists in the breeze there are degrees of resistance available to scare off birds. Scarecrows may need to in vegetable and fruit cultivars. We have be moved regularly to remain effective. apples resistant to scab (see p.251), carrots less prone to carrot fly (see p.253), and ▲ Using a cage parsnips resistant to canker (see p.258). Protect crops from birds with a cage of nylon netting, supported on metal or wooden PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS posts. You can make one yourself or buy a Plants can be effectively protected from kit like this one, here protecting winter Savoy birds (see p.252), rabbits (see p.260), cabbages and Brussels sprouts. and deer by netting or individual tree guards. Many insect pests can also be ▶ Netting on cabbages controlled by mechanical means: on Low-level netting can be attached to a garden scale it is possible to remove homemade structures made from canes to exclude bird pests. Fine-mesh netting will also protect the crop from egg-laying insects, such as cabbage white butterflies.

52 GROWING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES Natural allies in the garden It is worth thinking of ways to wherever it is Hoverfly Hedgehog encourage the activities of practicable to do Ladybug larva eating blackfly Lacewing natural predators in and so. Bear in mind the around the kitchen garden. well-being of friendly wildlife This can be as simple as at all times, especially when choosing to use hedges, which applying any chemical provide cover for hedgehogs, treatments that might rather than fencing, or harm them. incorporating a pond for frogs and toads. Frog Useful insects such as hoverflies need a range of flowering plants on which to feed. Reserve areas of uncultivated land on the margins of the kitchen garden for the food and cover of useful creatures caterpillars (see p.253) or slugs and to avoid the effects of a pest by planting the range of such pest and disease snails (see p.262) by hand, or to squeeze practices, for example, by not sowing control measures makes it clear that clusters of aphids on shoot tips. carrots until late spring, when carrot the choice is much wider than simply Cabbage root f ly (see p.253) can be f lies are less active. resorting to chemical sprays. deterred by placing small mats or rings around the base of individual plants; USING PREDATORS CHEMICAL WEAPONS carrot f lies can be prevented from Besides the natural predation by birds, It is possible to maintain an armory damaging carrots by surrounding the small animals, and insects (see above), of pesticides to eradicate or protect area with a low level protective barrier. it is possible to introduce parasites against pests and diseases. Because of Horticultural f leece (see p.48) can be or predators artificially. This is most increased regulation on the use of these used for the same purposes. Apples effective under the protection of a substances, the range of treatments that can be protected from winter moth greenhouse or solarium, where the is available has become much reduced, caterpillar (see p.264) by putting sticky atmosphere can be controlled, and a and the use of alternative control tree bands around tree trunks, and successful example is the use of Encarsia methods has now become essential. sticky traps impregnated with attractant wasps to parasitize the young stages of chemicals are available to reduce whitefly (see p.264). For outdoor use, It should be remembered that, infestations of codling moth (see p.254) parasitic nematodes are available for the unlike the commercial producer, or plum fruit moth (see p.259). Peach treatment of slugs, vine weevil grubs, the gardener usually has no need for trees that are provided with winter leatherjackets, and chafer grubs. All of maximum crop yield or unblemished covers are less susceptible to peach leaf these biological controls require careful produce. Many pest- or disease- curl disease (see p.259). It is also possible understanding and management, but induced defects can be cut out of harvested fruit and vegetables. Biological controls Whitefly control These pest controls Encarsia wasps Chemical treatments are expensive in take many forms, in tube ready both purchase price and the time taken from predators to for release in applying them, and need to be applied traps or parasites. at defined times for effectiveness. Biological controls Flying insect control Winter moth control While quite safe for humans if applied are released into the Brightly colored sticky Sticky band wraps strictly according to the instructions, environment (usually traps lure insects such around tree trunk and chemical substances may have harmful in the greenhouse), traps wingless females effects on natural pest predators or or watered into the as aphids other friendly insects like bees. Regard soil or compost as Vine weevil control spraying and dusting as a last resort and appropriate. Some Pathogenic nematodes other methods as the first line of attack must be applied at or defense. The reasonable approach a particular time are watered onto soil is to try to keep pests and diseases at or temperature to around affected plants an acceptably low level; attempting be effective. to eliminate them altogether is impractical and rarely vital.

WATERING AND IRRIGATION 53 Watering and irrigation Good growth and yields depend on Watering can attachments continuous adequate supplies of water. This is much inf luenced by the soil An oval, flat rose with the face upward type and condition (see pp.14–16). produces a fine spray for watering seedlings Clay soils hold more water than sandy or damping down foliage. Face downward, ones, because there are more spaces it provides a fine drenching flow. A round, in the soil to hold it, but plants are conical rose with the face downward will able to extract water from sandy soils give a drenching spray of greater volume more easily, because the spaces are for watering established plants or settling larger. The water-holding capacity of in robust transplants. any soil is improved by the addition of organic matter (see pp.22–23), and Small holes give Oval rose Dribble bar water retention by the use of mulches fine spray A dribble bar attachment is very useful for (see pp.41–42). Round watering crops or applying liquid feed. It Large rose provides an even, steady spray, ensuring The best source of water is rain, but holes give good coverage of the crop. due to seasonal f luctuations in rainfall and high temperatures in summer, soils fast flow often become dry during periods of crucial plant growth, and added water around roots. As a very general guide WATERING CANS from stored sources or the water main to application rate, whether by watering is needed. Many garden centers stock a can, spray gun, or sprinkler, aim at not The most common way of watering is good choice of watering and irrigation less than 21⁄2 gallons per square yard with a plastic or galvanized watering equipment for this purpose. (10 liters per square meter). can. Models with a long spout are most useful, and they can be equipped with WATERING CROPS A good way of ensuring that water various interchangable roses, which Water thoroughly, so that the amount benefits the crop is to make mini- are normally made of brass (see above). applied is absorbed down to a useful reservoirs around widely spaced plants Round roses have large holes, ideal depth. This can be achieved by gentle or along planted rows such as peas and for settling in newly planted crops or and repeated applications of a fine, beans: pull the soil into shallow walls to heavy watering of established crops rainlike spray or continuous droplets form basins or troughs. Similarly useful on a well-structured soil. Oval roses applied around the base of plants. High- are plastic pots—or cut-down plastic with smaller holes deliver a fine spray pressure or rapid, swamping applications bottles—sunk up to their rims close of water onto tender plants or newly lead to the water running off, resulting to individual plants such as tomatoes. sown areas. in waste and in erosion of the soil Large droplets can be gently applied with a dribble bar fitted to the spout of the watering can (see above). This is most usually used for applying liquid feed, or weedkiller for which a separate, marked can and bar will be needed. ▲ Rotating sprinkler SPRAY GUNS AND SPRINKLERS Sprinklers are fixed to the end of a hose to water one area at a time. A handheld spray gun attached to The simplest types have fixed a hose supply can provide the same heads; the rotating types often distribution effects as a watering can. cover a slightly larger area, but Spray guns may or may not have a their spray may be coarser. solid lance (see left) to which the head is fitted. The f low and pattern of ▶ Hose attachment water can be adjusted by turning A spray-gun attachment on a rigid controls at the spray head, and with lance fitted to the end of a hose some models the f low can be locked allows you to reach crops without on manually. stepping on beds. Because the lance can be maneuvered between Low-level sprinklers, fed from a plants, water can be delivered hose attachment, can also be used (see more efficiently close to the soil. far left). Some models have heads that move under water pressure to distribute

54 GROWING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES the f low, but for the kitchen garden the cheaper models made with a push- in spike are adequate. Sprinklers have the advantage of watering unattended—but it is essential to check them frequently to ensure that the pressure and distribution of f low are not causing f looding. Even sprinkers with moving heads can distribute water unevenly, so do check regularly and move them when necessary. LOW-LEVEL IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Drip hose used among strawberry plants directly near the roots, avoiding wasteful A range of low-level watering systems This irrigation system uses a perforated hose evaporation. The system can be controlled made from plastic or rubber are available. connected to a faucet. The hose can be laid either manually or with a timer. They are an excellent choice for effective close to the crops, with the water dripping out distribution in the kitchen garden, station where appropriate, to ensure ensuring that water is delivered close to the pipe along its entire length and that no plants are deprived because the plants, in readily absorbed quantities then flushing it through with a strong of blocked outlets; dig down with a and with a minimum of wastage. flow of water should clear any buildup. trowel near plants to ensure that water Thick-walled rigid plastic pipe systems has penetrated to a useful depth. Fit The simplest form is a thin-walled of 1⁄2–1in (1–2.5cm) diameter are a timed switching device to the main plastic tube, which lies flat and is available for somewhat more permanent supply line for maximum efficiency. connected to a water supply. It emits placement, and these come with thin arching sprays of water from different distribution heads. Some have USING WATER WISELY pin holes 12–20in (30–50cm) apart mini-sprinkler attachments at regular Whatever watering and irrigation (see right). Other useful types are soaker intervals. Others, called drip hoses, systems you use, remember that water hoses, which are small-diameter tubes. have short, flexible, drip lines of a is a valuable resource: use it effectively These may be made from heavy-gauge smaller bore pierced into the feeder and economically. Priorities for flexible plastic, and manufactured by line, with each drip supported on a irrigation are newly established plants stitching the edges in a continuous small plastic pin holder; metal or plastic and all fruits that are beginning to line: water seeps from the stitched trickle nozzles form another system, swell, such as strawberries, raspberries, seam to provide a band of water along and both of these can deliver water peas, and beans, as well as leafy summer a crop row. A variation on this is right to the base of individual plants. vegetables such as lettuce, and bulking small-bore tubing of 1⁄2–1in (1–2.5cm) potato tubers. Water at the start or end diameter formed from porous rubber, Check the output of all of these of a day; in the middle of the day, much or sometimes plastic, from which irrigation systems regularly, at each will be wasted in evaporation. Collect water weeps in small droplets. Both rainwater wherever possible; rain barrels of these flexible systems work with Minisprinkler on hose are soon emptied, but are worthwhile. very low water pressure. They are These small attachments can be strategically prone to blockage over time, however, placed close to particular plants to direct the Household waste water, or gray so regular maintenance is advisable; water to where it is most needed. They are water, usually contains residues that squeezing, rolling, or otherwise flexing available in a variety of spray patterns, are best not used on edible crops, and watering to one or both sides of the hose. should be reserved for watering woody Soaker hose ornamental plants. Keep an eye on the Hoses made from reconstituted weather and the state of the soil, so that rubber ooze water droplets along you can predict when plants are likely their entire length to provide a to be stressed due to inadequate water, steady supply. Wind them among and top off supplies before your crops plants for even distribution. show the obvious visual symptom, which is wilting.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 55 Tools and equipment A set of tools is necessary from the Stainless steel is worth the expense, CHOOSING A RANGE OF TOOLS start in preparing and maintaining a since it is both strong and durable, and A few basic tools are essential, especially kitchen garden. It is worth investing handles of ashwood or aluminum are a shovel, fork, hoe, trowel, hand fork, in the best-quality tools that you can the best choice. When selecting new and pruners. There are many variations afford; they will repay the expense or secondhand tools make sure that on all of these implements. and last a lifetime if they are properly the heads and handles are securely used and cared for. A good-quality joined to the shafts. Test the weight A lesser-known but recommended tool should be well-designed, strong, of the tool and be sure that it feels tool is the arrow-headed hand and, if appropriate, lightweight; such comfortable to hold. Try out a range cultivator, which is very effective for quality is guaranteed in well-known of sizes and designs to find a model breaking down roughly structured branded products. that feels right for you. soil after digging or overwintering. It is also useful for loosening a Shovels and forks Rakes These are essential tools for digging, trenching, Tines are usually Rakes are needed for making seedbeds, and skimming weeds (see pp.37–40) and square in section especially in leveling and preparing tilth. for planting and moving soil. The handles They are also useful for pulling off litter, of standard shovels and forks are about 2ft Head of border tamping seed rows after sowing, and (60cm) long, although longer ones are available fork is shorter pressing out seed drills on soft ground. to suit individual needs. and narrower Metal prongs ideal ▼ Choosing a shovel for preparing a tilth A standard digging shovel has a 11 x 8in (28 x 20cm) blade; a border or lady’s shovel, ▶ Metal rake with a blade usually of 9 x 6in (23 x 15cm), Choose a metal rake is lighter to use and is especially helpful for with a head 12–15in digging in confined spaces. There are other (30–38cm) wide and specialized shovels for specific tasks. prongs 2½in (6cm) long, spaced about Standard shovel Border shovel 1in (2.5cm) apart. The handle should be Handles may about 5ft (1.5m) long. be of wood or metal Digging fork Border fork ▲ Choosing a fork Wide A standard fork has a head of four tines, head of or prongs, each 12in (30cm) long; there wooden is also a border or lady’s version, which is rake is ideal for working between perennial plants. best for clearing Narrow metal ▼ Handle grips for shovels and forks ▼ Wooden rake and strips make Handle grips may be shaped in one of Look for a head leveling digging more several ways; a D- or Y-shaped grip is about 30in (75cm) soil comfortable found to be comfortable by most gardeners. wide, holding wooden peg teeth 3in (8cm) long, and fixed to a handle up to 6ft (2m) long, to allow for wide, sweeping strokes in various directions. T-shaped Y-shaped D-shaped

56 GROWING FRUIT AND VEGETABLES compacted surface between fruit seed sowers make gardening tasks easier necessary for day-to-day maintenance. plantings, and on paths. Also worth but are not essential. Tools made from carbon steel will rust considering at an early stage is a if they are left damp, however, so these spading or potato fork; this has f lat MAINTAINING YOUR TOOLS should also be wiped over with an oily tines, which come in various widths, Whatever tools you buy, it is vital to rag after use. Always store tools in a and is particularly suitable for digging maintain them properly, keeping them dry place: never leave them outside. heavy-textured soils. clean, rust-free, and, where appropriate, properly sharpened. If you neglect this, All tools with cutting edges, such Other, more specialized tools can be the tools will be harder to use and less as pruners and hoes, will need regular added as the kitchen garden develops efficient, and will have a shorter life. sharpening with an oilstone or steel and as your preference and budget will to give the best possible performance. allow: loppers and saws, for example, After using a tool, clean off all dirt, are really only needed in the cultivation plant matter, or other debris promptly. If tools are not used over the winter, of fruit trees. Tools such as dibbers and For stainless-steel tools, this is all that is clean them very thoroughly and oil them well before putting them away. Cultivators and hoes Planting tools Cultivators are excellent tools for breaking down newly dug There are two essential tools for planting: the trowel and the hand ground and working in top-dressings. The push hoe is used fork. The trowel is ideal for making planting holes and firming to slice off weeds with a push-pull action and must be kept soil around transplants, such as module-raised vegetables and sharp; conversely, the draw hoe is used in a chopping strawberry plants. Forks are necessary for hand weeding and for motion, which entails walking forward on the hoed loosening soil along rows and around plants. ground. A draw hoe can also be used for marking out drills or earthing up crops. An Trowels and hand forks onion hoe is most suitable for cultivating The trowel has a scoop-shaped, tapered along vegetable rows and for thinning. blade about 6in (15cm) long, attached to a short, rounded handle. Forks Types of cultivating implement have 3 or 4 prongs and a A cultivator usually has 3 or 5 prongs; similar handle. There are it is possible to buy models with long-handled versions of interchangeable heads. A push both tools available. hoe has a flat, oblong blade, while a draw hoe has a blade mounted Lid can be at a right angle to the handle; an rotated to onion hoe is a smaller, handheld adjust size of version of the draw hoe. opening Trowel Narrow trowel Fork Cultivator with Seed sowers interchangeable These release one seed at a time, five-pronged head and so make it easier to make thin Narrow three- or spaced sowings. The outlet can pronged head be adjusted to suit small- to large- sized seeds. Swan-necked draw hoe Dibbers Tray dibbers are pointed, pencil-like tools of wood, metal, or plastic, used to make planting holes or for pricking out seedlings at the propagating stage. Larger planting dibbers are used to sow bean seeds or to transplant vegetable plants in open ground. Push, Dutch, Onion hoe Plastic tray Metal tray Steel-tipped or scuffle hoe planting dibber dibber dibber

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT 57 Cutting tools Pruners and loppers may be anvil or act more like scissors, and make a cleaner ▼ Pruning saws parrot-bill types. Anvil types have a single cut without crushing. Saws are required Folding saws are easily carried around, but a sharp blade that cuts against a flat anvil, for pruning large branches, and knives for Grecian saw, with a curved blade and teeth and can cut thick wood; parrot-bill types a range of essential tasks. set for use in a single pulling action, makes cutting easier and should be the first choice. ▼ Pruners Look for Blade folds into Pruners should be strong and able to cut comfortable handle for safe woody stems up to 1/2 in (1.5cm) thick. Look cushioned grips for hardened steel blades with reasonably carrying long handles and a comfortable grip, replaceable parts, and a simple safety catch. Folding saw Blade closes Grecian saw down onto flat anvil Anvil pruners Curved handle ▼ Knives gives an easier A good multipurpose knife has a straight Blade slices blade 31/2in (9cm) long; a budding knife has against bar grip for more a fine blade and relatively long handle to effective action make precise cuts. Sharpen with an oilstone, then keep an edge with a diamond steel. Parrot-bill pruners ◀ Loppers Loppers are suitable for reaching into fruit Budding knife Handles may trees and bushes and exerting powerful be fixed, or leverage; they can be used on branches Pocket diamond steel telescopic for of up to about 11/2in (4cm) diameter. greater reach Watering and spraying Hand pump Garden Measuring tools plunger pressure spray Watering cans will be essential for Some measuring and marking tools are maintaining plants both under protection essential for spacing crops properly. and outdoors, and they need to have A folding measure is easily portable, detachable roses to deliver coarse or fine but you can make your own measuring droplets. Long-necked watering cans are stick by marking out a length of light ideal, but there is a wide choice of other lumber at 6in (15cm) intervals. Marker sturdy cans. It is vital to have separate line is used in sowing and planting and clearly labeled cans or sprayers for outdoors, pegged taut at either end. applying weedkillers, to avoid accidents. Brightly colored string is easily seen. Homemade measuring rod Trigger on nozzle controls spray Useful capacity is Long neck gives Marker line 21/2 gallons (10 liters) well-balanced can Folding High-quality metal watering can measuring stick



VEGETABLES The range of vegetables that can be grown in any garden is enormous, and there are many factors that may influence your choice. Certain basic principles and techniques—for example, sowing seed—are common to the majority of vegetable crops, involving skills that are easy and satisfying to master. In fact, for some gardeners the vegetable plot is the only area in which they practice raising and nurturing their plants from tiny seeds to maturity. The crops in this section have been arranged in conventional groupings—the onion family, for example, or salad plants. The members of each group share a number of characteristics, such as soil preferences or vulnerability to certain problems, that make it convenient to grow them together. This also makes it easier to follow a crop rotation, vital for healthy plants and good harvests. Even within the groups, the wealth and variety of produce to be had—leaves, stems, and roots, flower buds, and fruits—will provide good food, fresh or from storage, in every season.

60 VEGETABLES Vegetable seed Most vegetables are grown from seed, inferior plants—and is more expensive with the expected characteristics of of which there are two basic kinds. than open-pollinated seed. Both types the named cultivar. The expertise and The first is open-pollinated seed, which, may be bought untreated, or with reputation of established seed merchants whether bought or home-saved, is various treatments to ease sowing or usually ensures good quality and produced naturally and derived from aid germination (see chart, below). reliability. Buying seed is convenient a mix of parent lines—although good and packets usually carry helpful advice. open-pollinated seed from a reliable SHOULD I BUY OR SAVE SEEDS? seed merchant will have been subject Packaged vegetable seeds, widely Many gardeners also like to save seed to careful selection of breeding material. available in great variety, are subject from the garden, to keep costs down The second is F1 hybrid seed, which is to legal requirements on “trueness” and for the satisfaction involved in produced by crossing two inbred, stable (where the offspring plant conforms raising their own plants. There are two parent lines; the resulting plants are more to a described type) and viability—a main problems, however, with amateur uniform and vigorous. This type can guarantee, in practice, that a statutory seed-saving: extracting and storing the only be bought—seed saved from F1 minimum percentage of the seed will seeds in such a way as to keep them hybrids will produce variable and often germinate and produce healthy seedlings viable, and maintaining trueness to type: any vegetables allowed to set seed TYPES OF VEGETABLE SEED in the open garden are likely to be cross-pollinated—fertilized by pollen Natural/untreated seeds have been saved, cleaned, and not from different cultivars—and their coated in any way. They may be home-saved, conventionally offspring will therefore show variation. produced for sale, organic, or heritage seeds. Organic seed is An additional problem in cool climates produced on land that has been certified as free from chemicals is that it may be difficult to ripen and added fertilizers. home-saved seed sufficiently. Natural (parsnip) HERITAGE SEED Seed merchants are only allowed to Coated (cauliflower) Treated seeds have been coated with fungicides or insecticides sell vegetable cultivars that appear on Primed (carrot) or soaked in hot water in order to produce disease-free seedlings, or, approved official lists. These inevitably for ease of handling, pelleted in a clay coating that disintegrates tend to feature only those cultivars that Multigerm (beets) in the soil. Chemical coatings will not rub off and are usually brightly are commercially viable to produce, and colored. Wear latex gloves when sowing these and wash your hands so many older cultivars suitable for the afterward. They should be sown soon after purchase. amateur garden have disappeared from retailers’ catalogs. Organizations have Primed seeds (usually of carrots and onions) have been specially been set up to conserve such cultivars treated to initiate germination and then dried again; they must both for interest and to maintain the be sown within two months of purchase. Since the seed has gene pool. Since they cannot legally already started to germinate, it is more reliable than conventional sell the seed, they may operate as seed seed for use early in the season when soil conditions are not ideal. “libraries,” where a joining fee enables the member to “borrow” seed. Contact Multigerm seeds (usually of beets and chard) consist of rough details appear in gardening magazines. clusters of seeds, rather than individual ones, each of which may There are many fine traditional cultivars produce a clump of seedlings. These may be thinned or left to worth seeking out in this way. grow into a cluster of baby vegetables as in the multiblock sowing technique (see p.65). Monogerm preparations that produce only CHOOSING VEGETABLE SEED a single plant of these vegetables per seed are also available. Many factors may influence the type of seed that you buy. Organically raised Precision-treated seeds Precision-treated seeds are selected to have a high germination seed may be of particular interest to you, rate and vigor, and often graded so that all the seeds are of equal, for example. The various seed treatments larger size to produce better, more uniform plants. If treated with available (see chart, left) can help in the fungicide and insecticide, they may be brightly colored to warn control of particular pests and diseases. of the presence of chemicals. These seeds are expensive, so sow Pelleted seeds, being larger, are easier in plugs or modules to reduce the need for thinning and wastage. to handle and sow, and are easier to see, enabling more accurate spacing and Pregerminated (pea) Pregerminated seeds can sometimes be obtained by mail order; thus reducing the need for thinning, this is useful for seeds that the amateur finds difficult to germinate: which saves money. cucumber and melon seeds, for example, which require high temperatures for germination. You can also help some seeds, The cultivars you choose will largely such as peas or beans, to pregerminate by soaking them for a be determined by what will succeed in short time (up to 24 hours); this speeds up germination when sown. Seed tapes are available for a limited range of vegetables to enable evenly spaced sowings. These biodegradable paper tapes have seeds embedded at regular spacings and can simply be laid at the bottom of a seed drill (see p.66), enabling long rows of vegetables that will not need thinning to be sown very quickly and easily. Tape (scallion)

Drying pea and bean pods VEGETABLE SEED 61 In damp conditions, it is a good idea to pull up whole stems Preparing seeds from pulpy fruits (here beans), with their pods still attached, and hang them upside down by their roots in a dry, airy, frost-free place. When dry, crush the pods and shake out the seeds. your region and by 1Scoop pulpy seeds (here of sweet 2 Spread the seeds out on a layer of personal preference. If you melon) from very ripe fruits with a paper towels in a shallow container, have little practical experience, look spoon, and place in a household and leave them to dry in a warm and airy for cultivars that have won award from strainer. Rinse them in running water, place for at least a week. When they have reputable organizations, such as the making sure that all the pulp is removed; dried out, store them in a cool, dry place All American Selections Award. Look if left, it will hinder germination. for sowing in the following spring. around local and community gardens, or ask local gardeners, to discover cultivars; otherwise unsuitable second year. Always allow the seeds, cultivars that do particularly well in substitutions may be made. Well before or the fruits that contain them, such as your area, or show good disease sowing, read all of the information tomatoes and sweet melons (above), to resistance. But be adventurous, too: try on the packets. Be particularly careful ripen or mature fully before you collect out different cultivars to compare with to sow at the recommended time, or them. Leave pea and French bean pods your old favorites, and experiment you could face problems such as poor on the plants until they have dried and with new introductions and novel germination, or bolting of mature plants just split, and then extract the seeds; in plants such as differently colored corn. (see also individual crops, pp.74–135). damp weather, you can remove entire stems and dry them out under cover BUYING VEGETABLE SEED HOW TO SAVE SEED (see above left). With fava beans and Seed can be purchased either from retail Choose only strong, healthy plants runner beans, grow one type of cultivar outlets such as garden centers or by mail to save seed from. Remember that only in one location to reduce the risk order from seed merchants. The latter you cannot save seed from F1 hybrids, of cross-pollination, and select the best usually stock a wider range of cultivars. and that some crops, such as carrots, pods from which to collect the seeds. If using a seed merchant, send your are biennial and will need to be order in early to secure your chosen overwintered in order to flower in their STORING VEGETABLE SEED Seed loses viability and vigor with How to test seed for viability age, and this process is accelerated if seed is kept in moist, warm conditions. When seed has been stored long-term, Do not count seeds that have merely Some crops, such as parsley, carrots, test its viability before sowing. Put 50 or and parsnips, are best sown fresh each 100 seeds on damp absorbent paper on swollen; all seeds swell when wet, whether year. Seed of peas, beans, and brassicas a saucer, and keep it moist and in a warm, will last for several years if kept correctly. dark place. The seeds should germinate viable or not. Sixty percent germination within 2–3 weeks, producing roots and Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, first seed leaves. Count the seedlings and (30 out of 50 seeds, for example) is the dark place, at 34–41°F (1–5°C) with work out the percentage of germination. even moisture and temperature levels. minimum required for you to consider Sheds and kitchen drawers are not Low viability suitable. Unopened vacuum-packed sowing that batch of seed, for when sown seeds store best; reseal opened packets securely with tape, or tape home-saved outside, the percentage will be lower. In seeds into small paper packets. Keep packets in an airtight tin or jar, the examples shown here, using cabbage surrounded by silica gel to absorb any moisture. If you open a packet to sow seed, one set (left) shows only some of the seeds, do not let the rest get damp before resealing. Before 60% viability and the sowing seed stored for more than a year, test its viability (see left). other (right) 100%. The growth of the seedlings on the right is also more even and vigorous, indicating that the seed will High viability produce stronger, healthier seedlings.

62 VEGETABLES Sowing seed under cover There are several advantages to starting TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS directly outside, provided that crops by sowing seed under cover, in a conditions are favorable. Other crops greenhouse or cold frame (see pp.43–48), Seed of many crops will germinate in need continued warmth; peppers and or in the house. You can control the an unheated greenhouse or cold frame, eggplants, for example, need to be kept environment—temperature, compost although extra warmth will speed up at 70°F (21°C) until planting. This can moisture and air humidity, and nutrient germination. However, seed of plants be achieved by maintaining bottom supply—to provide optimum conditions indigenous to warm climates—for heat, if convenient, but also by growing for germination and for the seedlings example, tomatoes, cucumbers, on the young plants in a warm room. to establish. Seed of frost-tender eggplants, peppers, corn, and plants can be germinated in favorable zucchini—will only germinate at SEED-RAISING SYSTEMS conditions, and the seedlings grown constant temperatures in the range, on until all risk of frost outdoors is usually, of 59–75°F (15–24°C). Traditionally, most vegetable seed past. Starting off hardier crops such as sown under cover is sown into pots lettuces, onions, and carrots in a cold At this stage, the soil temperature or trays filled with seed compost. greenhouse usually produces stronger matters more than that of the air. Once the seeds germinate and the plants and better crops than from a The most energy-efficient way of seedlings need more room to develop, spring sowing outside. Seed can also raising soil temperature is to warm they are transplanted, spaced more be sown earlier for a longer cropping it from below; hence the expression widely apart, into larger trays or into season. Even seed that will germinate bottom heat. Bottom heat can be their own small pots. This is known outdoors in very low temperatures, provided by putting pots and trays on as pricking out. like peas and fava beans, can benefit a bed of grit or sand containing soil- from being sown under cover, where warming cables or on a heated blanket. The advantage of this system is that the risk of seed and seedlings rotting The heating system may be built into it minimizes the amount of space in a in cold, wet soil is reduced. the base of a specialized propagator heated propagator needed at the first, (see next page), the lid also helping to critical period during which the seeds If you have only a small garden, retain heat and moisture in the air. germinate—especially useful with you may not have room for the outdoor slow germinators such as celery and seedbed that some crops, such as Once seeds have germinated and parsley. It is also an easy way to sow fine many brassicas, require. Young tray- the seedlings are growing they generally seed. The disadvantage is that pricking raised brassica plants suffer less transplant require lower temperatures. Many out the delicate seedlings can cause root shock and resist some plant problems hardy crops can, once hardened off damage and a check to growth. better than seedlings raised in and (see p.65), be planted transplanted from open ground. Flexible 13mm modular strip module tray Half seed tray Rigid modular insert 20mm module tray 3in (9cm) pot 30mm module tray Standard 5in (13cm) pot seed tray Types of container Treated paper 5in (13cm) pan A variety of containers may be used tube pots for sowing. Make sure that pots have 37mm holes at the base for drainage. Modular module tray inserts and trays have a hole at the bottom of each cell. Tube pots are biodegradable, so can be planted without the need to disturb roots.

SOWING SEED UNDER COVER 63 To avoid this pricking-out stage, seed Seedlings in an unheated propagator transplanting. When ready, the young can be raised in trays—individual, self- Propagators keep seeds warm and moist and plants can be pushed out from below. contained cells within a tray—until encourage them to germinate. Here, tomato ready for planting out. This modular and celery seedlings are developing well. Use PROPAGATORS method gives very good results. the vent in the lid to control condensation. A propagator provides a warm and Each seedling can grow without humid microclimate, aiding the rapid competition, and is transplanted Some plants, for example, corn, must and successful germination of seeds. In with its own well-established rootball, be encouraged to form a long root its simplest form, a propagator can be minimizing any check to growth. The from an early stage. For these, long, a sheet of glass or clear plastic, or even disadvantages are that more compost narrow pots known as tube pots are plastic film or fleece, placed over a pot is used, and that the trays take up ideal. If made from treated paper they or tray of seeds until they germinate. more room in a propagator. can be planted directly into the soil, To develop further, however, seedlings as can compressed fiber pots. need more headroom; specially built If propagator space is at a premium, propagators consist of a molded plastic you can sow seed into pots and trays Trays are graded by the size and tray with a boxlike, clear lid (see left), and then prick out the seedlings into number of their individual cells. with vent holes to allow air to circulate. trays. This works particularly well for Those with 13mm cells produce small seed of tomatoes and peppers, which plug plants that will quickly need to Small unheated propagators are fine can be sown in small pots in a heated be transplanted; they are ideal when for windowsills. Large, heated ones propagator and then transplanted into soil conditions will soon be good for are ideal for unheated greenhouses. large-celled trays (see p.64). planting out. The large, 37mm cells are The heating element should provide suitable for plants with large seeds that a minimum compost temperature of CONTAINERS need time and space to develop before 59°F (15°C). An adjustable thermostat Any small pots can be used to sow seed; regulates how much heat is generated. the shallow pots known as pans are also In severe weather, cover propagators ideal for most crops. It is advisable to at night with bubble wrap. choose plastic over terra-cotta; plastic can be kept cleaner and makes it easier to SEED AND POTTING COMPOSTS control soil moisture. If only a few plants Proprietary composts tend to be a are required, say 10–12, a 31/2in (9cm) more even product than homemade pot will suffice. If sowing 30 or more, mixes; they will also be free of pests sow in 5in (13cm) pans, or in a tray. and diseases. It is important to use fresh Large seed trays are known as standard composts every year; they undergo or full trays; small ones as half trays. detrimental chemical changes in storage. Broadcast sowing in a half seed tray 1Fill the tray past the rim with a special 1 2 seed compost or a universal compost. 3 4 Moisten it with water if dry. Tap the tray on a bench in order to settle the compost, and then remove any excess by drawing a piece of wood carefully across the surface. 2 Firm the compost to remove air pockets using the base of another tray or the straight edge of a board. With peat-based composts, only minimum firming is necessary, or you risk compaction. Water the compost lightly, and leave until any excess water has drained off. 3 Carefully scatter the seeds onto the surface of the compost, directly from the seed packet. The seeds should be sown evenly and not too thickly, to avoid overcrowded seedlings later. 4 Sift a fine layer of compost over the seeds, and lightly firm it down. Keep the compost moist, but not wet, to encourage successful germination.

64 VEGETABLES Broadcast sowing in pots 12 1For just a few plants, Using vermiculite to cover seed scatter the seeds (here Vermiculite can be used instead of compost Proprietary seed composts are usually cabbage) thinly and evenly to cover some seed; it allows air to reach soil-less, consisting of a sifted bulky in a 31/2in (9cm) pot of moist the seeds, while keeping them moist. material such as peat or a peat substitute seed compost. Sprinkle with mixed with fine sand to ensure good a layer of compost equal to the In the early stages, ensure the seedlings drainage. Seed composts are low in seed depth, water, and label. are kept warm and moist. It is helpful nutrients, which germinating seeds do to stand seeded containers on water- not need. Multipurpose or home-mixed 2 When 2 seed leaves have absorbent matting, obtainable from composts can be used, with added sand developed, transplant garden centers. Avoid exposure to strong to open them up, but avoid products and the seedlings into individual sun; a temporary covering of newspaper ingredients that are high in nutrients. modules of standard potting is a useful device. Plants on a windowsill compost, discarding any that will grow toward the light, so turn the For transplanting seedlings into larger are damaged or diseased. container regularly. Check regularly for containers, use a potting compost that signs of disease, since this can rapidly contains a higher level of nutrients to water, containers, propagators, and other spread. Once the seed leaves have fully help the young plants develop. Peat- items used must be scrupulously clean to developed, prick out the seedlings. and coir-based composts are widely prevent contamination that might cause available, lightweight, and convenient disease, especially damping off (see also PRICKING OUT SEEDLINGS to use; coir and other peat-free composts Plant Problems, pp.246–264). Do not use Always prick out seedlings promptly, need care with watering and feeding. rainwater collected from downspouts. or they will become crowded and grow Soil-based composts are more retentive weak and leggy. Water the seedlings, of nutrients and easier to keep moist. SOWING SEED IN POTS OR TRAYS and fill the new container with If you are an organic grower, materials Large seeds to be sown in pots or seed moistened potting compost. Hold each such as leaf mold and worm composts trays can be pushed into the compost seedling gently by a leaf; never touch are good ingredients in potting mixes. individually. Fine seed can be sown the stalk or roots. Using a dibber or a broadcast—scattered randomly—and pencil, lift out the seedlings in groups, THE IMPORTANCE OF HYGIENE then spaced out more evenly at the and separate them carefully so as not to Conditions under cover—warmer, and pricking out stage. To sow fine seeds damage the delicate root hairs. Discard with still, humid air—increase the risk in pots (see above) or trays (see p.63), any unhealthy-looking seedlings. of disease, and plants are most vulnerable shake them straight from the packet, at the seed and seedling stage. Composts, or sprinkle pinches from between Transplant them into fresh compost, finger and thumb. Cover thinly with either regularly spaced, 1–2in (2.5–5cm) sifted compost, sand, or vermiculite apart, in a large seed tray, or one plant (see above right), and lightly firm. per tray cell (see left), with the seed The smaller the seeds, the lighter the leaves just above the compost. To covering should be. Water lightly; prevent scorching, keep the seedlings at this stage you could water in a out of full sun for a few days. Grow the copper-based fungicide to protect seedlings on and harden off (see facing against damping off. page) ready for planting outside. Place the container in a propagator, PRICKING OUT INTO INDIVIDUAL POTS or cover with a sheet of glass or plastic This is ideal for frost-tender crops such wrap. Remove covers as soon as as tomatoes and peppers that are to be germination occurs to prevent disease. grown on in the greenhouse before being planted out in warm conditions, Pricking out into trays because they have to be well spaced out To avoid too much damage to the roots, as soon as the seed leaves are fully open (here celery), prick out the seedlings into module trays or small pots. Gently ease out the seedlings from the compost using a dibber or pencil. Hold each seedling by its leaves, because the stems bruise very easily. Dibble a hole in each cell and drop in a seedling. Then use the tip of the tool to push and gently firm compost around it. Water and label.

SOWING SEED UNDER COVER 65 on the staging. Prick out each seedling Multiblock sowing into a 4in (10cm) pot. Place the pots close together initially, and then move 1Fill a tray with moist them apart as the plants develop and potting compost. Make a their leaves begin to touch. slight depression in each cell with your finger, and sow 3–5 SOWING DIRECTLY INTO TRAYS 12 seeds in it. One module tray Large seeds are easy to sow individually could be used for a mixture in trays. Small seeds can be carefully 3 of crops to avoid gluts. Cover pushed off a piece of board, glass, or the seeds with a 1⁄4in (5mm) paper, or lifted individually on a damp number of smaller, or baby, vegetables, layer of grit, and water and artist’s paintbrush. Fill the cells with and is suitable for turnips, beets, round label. Put the tray in a position compost in the same way as described carrots, bulb onions and scallions, with good light. for pots and seed trays. Either sow one chives, leeks, and parsley. Multiblock seed per tray cell, just pushing it into the seedlings should be raised in a 2 When the seedlings surface or, for seed of doubtful viability greenhouse or a frame, where there is have grown further and (for example, old seed), sow three to a good overhead light that will reach all developed 1–2 true leaves, cell and thin to one strong seedling of the seedlings in the cluster, and be carefully plant out each once the seed leaves are fully developed. group, without thinning, at an appropriate spacing for Trays sown with hardy crops can the vegetable (here turnips). be placed in an unheated greenhouse or cold frame. Cover the trays with 3Allow the unthinned plants fleece, plastic wrap, or glass to keep to grow on to form a group the seeds relatively warm and moist of mature baby vegetables. This until they have germinated, especially method enables you to grow if sowing early in the season when many plants in a small space, temperatures are low. When the and is especially suitable for seedlings start to emerge, uncover root, bulb, and stem vegetables. them, and grow them on in good light until large enough to plant out. planted out before they become leggy. It is important to give them enough space MULTIBLOCK SOWING for the whole cluster to grow to maturity. This sowing technique (see above right), in which clusters of plants are grown rather FEEDING YOUNG PLANTS than individual ones, is very useful if you If young plants have to be left in have limited space. It produces a larger pots or trays for long periods because adverse weather conditions prevent GROWING SALAD SEEDLINGS planting out, give them a liquid feed (see p.21) to maintain health and vigor. You can grow mustard, rape, or cress (see eat in 7–10 days. Cress must be sown three As soon as the plant’s roots fill the p.106) in 3/4–11/4in (2–3cm) of compost in days before mustard or rape to obtain a pot or tray cell, pot up into larger small pots, baskets, or shallow pans. Scatter mixture for salad. Alternatively, line a saucer, containers of potting or multipurpose the seeds thickly on the surface and leave 5in (13cm) in diameter, with absorbent compost, and feed regularly. paper, add water to soak the paper, and to germinate. Keep moist but not drain off any excess before sowing the seeds HARDENING OFF overly wet. This will produce a thickly (see below). Cover with a plastic bag Young plants raised from seed under mass of seedlings ready to to retain moisture, and place on a windowsill, cover need to be gradually acclimatized at a maximum temperature of 59°F (15°C). to the outside temperature before they are permanently planted out. This is Scatter cress seeds thickly Cress seedlings ready to eat known as hardening off, and it should take at least 10–14 days. Put the plants in a cold frame, gradually increasing the ventilation each day until the plants are eventually completely uncovered. Leave them for a few days close together to protect each other; this helps them to establish when finally planted out singly. Less hardening off is needed if fleece or cloches are to be used (see pp.46–48).

66 VEGETABLES Sowing seed outdoors Successful vegetable cropping from not be in a rush to sow before spring pp.74–135). For large areas of seedbed, seed sown outdoors is dependent on a temperatures start to rise. The soil can if the soil is very lumpy or soft, carefully satisfactory seedbed and the care with be warmed with covers or cloches to walk over the whole area evenly, but which the sowing is carried out. The advance sowing dates (see pp.46–48). never do this when the soil is wet, or seed is usually sown in rows known it will become compacted and airless. as drills (see below). Most crops are sown PREPARING A SEEDBED For small areas, stand off the bed and where they will be harvested. Some, In the fall before sowing, dig over use the back of a rake head to tamp including leeks and cauliflowers, may be the site of the seedbed thoroughly, down lumps gently to break them up. sown fairly closely spaced in a seedbed, incorporating organic matter (see pp.37– and then transplanted (see p.70) when 40), and allow it to settle over winter, PRODUCING A FINE TILTH the plants are large enough. Seedbeds when frost will help break up clods. If the soil is dry, water it before working are less widely used since the advent of If the soil of the seedbed contains a it. Rake the seedbed until the texture trays (see also pp.62–65), which make it high population of annual weed seeds, of the soil is quite crumbly and friable, possible to raise sturdy plants under cover prepare it in advance: allow a flush of with small particles—this is known as that transplant well after hardening off. weeds to develop, then hoe these off a fine tilth. Soils with a high organic or spray them with a contact weedkiller. matter content are usually easier to work WHEN TO SOW This removes at a stroke large numbers than others. It is essential to use long The site where seed is to be sown must of weeds that would otherwise compete sweeps of the rake and to pull and push always be well prepared in advance. The with seedling crops, and is known as the soil in different directions to ensure soil should be moist enough for the seeds the stale seedbed technique. a level, even seedbed. Keep the rake to take up water, and also sufficiently handle low for the best results. The warm for the crop being sown (see p.62 Cultivate the ground with a three- or surface tilth should be deep enough and individual crops, pp.74–135). Few crops five-tined cultivator, and level it with a to draw out a drill without going into germinate at low soil temperatures, so do wooden rake. Apply a base dressing of undisturbed soil. fertilizer if appropriate (see individual crops, Sowing seed in single drills 12 3 4 5 1Stretch a marker line of 3For seeds in tape form, strong cord over the seedbed which are supplied ready- around stakes marking the spaced (here of scallion), end of each drill line. Use simply cut a length of tape the corner of a hoe to draw out to the length of the drill and an even drill along the line to lay it along the bottom. the depth required for the seed. Stand on the line to keep it 4 For small seeds, such as taut and straight. carrots, sow thinly along a drill. Rub the seeds between 2 If the seeds are large, your fingers to scatter them such as these parsnip evenly, or use a seed sower. seeds, sow 3 of them per station at the required interval, here 5Cover the drill promptly, every 6in (15cm), using a by raking the soil back measuring stick to ensure the over it evenly, holding the rake stations are regularly spaced. at 90° to the drill. You can also use the back of the rake head.

SOWING SEED OUTDOORS 67 SINGLE DRILLS Sowing in wet or dry conditions Small seeds such as lettuce should be sown thinly in regularly spaced, single rows about 1ft (30cm) apart. Using a garden line and a draw or swan-necked hoe, pull out the drill (see facing page), making sure that the line is as tight as possible in order to get an even, straight depression. It is most important to achieve a uniform depth along the drill. Sow pelleted seeds shallowly at a depth of about twice their diameter, and keep the soil moist to aid germination. Sowing in wet conditions Sowing in dry conditions Where a system of narrow beds If the soil is wet, or very heavy and slow If the soil is particularly dry, first water to drain, place a layer of sand in the base the drill well, and then sow the seed is being used (see pp.32–34), drills of the drill before sowing any seed. This immediately. Cover over with dry soil; do can be made by drawing a hoe or will improve conditions for germination. not water again until the seedlings emerge. wide stake along the edge of a plank. Alternatively, it is possible to make drills by pressing a premeasured length of lumber into the tilth. WET OR DRY CONDITIONS Handheld seed sower An adjustable marking tool (see p.68) You may not be able to wait for This useful device is designed can be useful, saving walking up and ideal weather conditions before sowing. to release seeds gradually. down. Draw out the first drill along a It is possible to compensate for too It can be set for the flow of fixed line, then draw the tool down this much or too little soil moisture by differently sized seed, from drill to pull out subsequent ones. adding sand or watering drills before thin sowings of fine seed to space sowing of large sowing (see above). Use a fine-rosed seed, as here with WIDE DRILLS can to water, always before, not after pelleted seed. Wide drills are suitable for sowing peas sowing, or the soil may become (see below), and for broadcast sowing capped, or crusted. strips of early carrots, radishes, and cut- nearer the surface. Check the seed and-come-again seedling crops such as DEPTH OF SOWING packet for recommended sowing depths spinach, cress, and some types of lettuce. The depth at which you should sow (see also individual crops, pp.74–135). Such strips can be very close together, seeds varies according to their size. making good use of land, although they Seedlings depend on their own reserves SOWING METHODS are less easily weeded than single rows. for nutrients in the first few days after When sowing, try to choose a still day; To make a wide drill, draw out a shallow germinating, until they pierce the soil great care will be needed if it is windy, trench 6–8in (15–20cm) wide using a surface and reach the light. Then they especially with light seeds like parsnips. line and a wide draw hoe (see below), or can start to make their own food. Large Sowing seed evenly takes plenty of carefully shovel out the soil to the width seeds have more reserves than small practice. For all the methods described, of a narrow shovel. Make sure that the ones, and can therefore be sown more practice first by sowing seed into a piece depth of the drill is uniform. deeply. Very fine seed should be sown of guttering about 3ft (90cm) long and adjusting the amounts until you achieve Sowing in wide drills the correct density. Seeds large enough to be handled individually can be station or space sown (see p.69) in drills at regular intervals. Use a yardstick until you are practiced and can judge the correct spacing. A handheld plastic sower (see above) with adjustable settings will help. The sower must be shaken evenly and steadily as you go. For small, fine seed, sowing direct 1Draw out a drill with the blade of 2 Sow pea seeds in 2 rows along the from the packet works well with paper a suitable hoe, flicking the soil to one drill. Here, they are sown at 2in (5cm) or rigid-plastic packets, if they have a side as you go. Make the drill as deep intervals in rows 4in (10cm) apart. Cover clean-cut edge and a narrow opening. as required for the crop (here 2in/5cm). over gently and protect from birds. Shake evenly, holding the packet nearly horizontal to regulate the fall of seeds.

68 VEGETABLES You can also sow small seeds from should be 12in (30cm) apart to allow Adjustable marking tool your palm. Hold a small quantity in light to produce good crops. Peas These have adjustable tines that can be set and move your hand horizontally and may grow to 3ft (90cm), so allow at different spacings. Useful tools for marking steadily over the prepared area, tapping 3ft (90cm) between rows. Carrot out planting rows and stations, they can also it gently with your other hand so that and radish rows can be as close as be handy for marking out shallow seed drills. seeds drop off. This is a very good 4in (10cm) apart. Within the rows, means of broadcast sowing. thin root crops so that the vegetables to leave the strongest and best. will be just touching when mature. Pinching is better for carrots and Another method is to put some seed onions because the soil is disturbed in the palm of one hand and take a few To calculate the space required when the seedling is pulled out by between first finger and thumb of the between rows of different crops, as its roots, and the foliage bruised, other hand, rubbing them together a general rule of thumb you can add causing odors that attract carrot and to disperse the seed. The thinner the the recommended row spacing for onion f lies, which may then lay their sowing required, the fewer seeds should each crop together and divide the eggs in the loosened soil. Remove be picked up at a time. total by two. For example, if growing all thinnings, to avoid the risk of parsnips and peas in rows next to each disease and of attracting pests. COVERING SEED IN DRILLS other at the spacings given above, add Once you have sown seed in drills, the row spacing for parsnips—12in STATION OR SPACE SOWING either use a rake to cover the seeds or (30cm)—to the row spacing of peas This method is used to conserve seeds shuffle your feet along the drill with —3ft (90cm)—and halve it to give a that are expensive, and to reduce the your heels together. Gently rake the between-row spacing of 2ft (60cm). amount of thinning required later. surface along the covered drill to ensure Large seeds such as spinach may be firmness. Never rake across the lines, THINNING SEEDLINGS sown 2in (5cm) apart and left to mature as this will disturb the seeds and could Thinning—removing surplus in situ (in position). For squash, sow two remove them from the drill. Cultivating seedlings—is essential to obtain a or three seeds per station 30in (75cm) carefully between drills with a cultivator satisfactory final spacing for each plant apart. For crops like corn, which must will loosen any heavily compacted soil. to grow to maturity. These distances be grown in a block rather than a row, vary with the crop. It should be carried mark out an area of a bed in a grid SPACING OF PLANTS out early, before competition for light pattern, using a marking tool (see above). Space is needed between rows of crops and water occurs and the plants become At each station where the rows cross, for air circulation, thinning, and for drawn. Because thinning disturbs the sow three seeds. These should later weeding. The spacing of crops sown roots of plants growing close by, and be thinned to one strong seedling. directly outdoors, or planted out, is can attract pests, try to reduce the determined by the ultimate height and necessity for thinning by sowing seeds spread of the crop. Parsnips grow to thinly or by station sowing (see below). about 12in (30cm) high, and butterhead lettuces up to 12in (30cm) wide, and When the seedlings have reached therefore with both, the rows of plants the first true leaf stage, either pull or pinch out weaker seedlings (see below) How to thin seedlings Pulling Pinching out BROADCAST SOWING Once seedlings are large enough to handle, With some crops it is best to thin by pinching gently pull them out to leave single, strong seedlings off between thumb and forefinger Random broadcasting of seed is suitable specimens at the appropriate spacings. at ground level, to avoid disturbing the soil. for growing patches of radishes, early carrots, or turnips. It is also used for cut-and-come-again seedling crops, such as mustard and cress. Prepare the seedbed and scatter the seed evenly over the surface. Rake the seed into the surface. The method is easy but there can be a wide variation in size among the seedlings, and sowing in drills better allows for hoeing and weeding. Crops suitable for broadcasting can just as easily be sown in very closely spaced, wide drills (see p.67).

SOWING SEED OUTDOORS 69 SOWING LARGE SEEDS Intersowing parsnip and radish seed USING A DIBBER This means of space sowing is ideal 1 2 for crops with very large seeds, such as fava, French, and runner beans, 1Station sow the parsnip seeds, corn, and squash. First, rake over the 3 to a station, every 4in (10cm). seedbed to ensure that the soil is loose. Then sow radish seeds at 1in (2.5cm) Then make a series of holes with a intervals in between the parsnip seeds. dibber (see below right). Drop one or The radish seedlings will come up very more seeds into the bottom of each quickly, indicating the line of the drill hole and cover with soil. to guide early hoeing of any weeds. For beans, a single seed per hole 2 Harvest the radishes when ready is usual; for corn, three seeds; for so that they do not crowd the parsnip squash, two. Thin the seedlings (see seedlings. Pinch out the parsnip seedlings facing page) to one per site when they to thin them when they have 4 leaves. are large enough. It is wise to sow some spares, to fill any gaps that may RATES OF GERMINATION of sowing. The ground rules for success: appear due to poor germination. use quality seed and give careful You can cover the sites of squash and The percentage of seed you sow that attention to all aspects of sowing it. corn seeds with jamjars—individual will actually germinate depends on USING FLEECE FOR PROTECTION cloches—to keep the soil warm and a variety of factors, not all of which Fleece or other sheet covers (see p.48), moist to encourage germination. can be controlled by good gardening tucked into the soil or held down at the practice. Natural germination rate edges with bricks, can help to warm INTERSOWING varies with crop groups: for example, the soil before sowing. After sowing, Intersowing involves sowing seed of brassicas generally have a germination it encourages early establishment, and two different vegetables in the same rate of 90 percent, whereas with leeks keeps off birds and some insect pests. drill. One crop is quick to mature it is usually no more than 70 percent. Remove it before the seedlings grow and therefore does not compete with Large seeds are usually more viable tall enough to be restricted. the other, which is slow-growing than fine seeds, which are more prone or slow to germinate. Parsnips and to desiccation. In many cases, seed Station sowing large seed radishes make a good combination sown soon after harvest performs Large seeds may be sown into individual holes for this method (see above right). The better than does stored seed. Parsnip made with a dibber. For fava beans, as here, faster-growing radishes will show up and parsley seed is naturally very slow make holes 2in (5cm) deep, 4in (10cm) apart the line of the drill long before the to germinate compared with that of in rows 6in (15cm) apart, and drop the seeds parsnips emerge, enabling earlier radish and turnip. Dormancy of seed is into them. Cover with soil, water, and label. hoeing for weed control, and they affected by temperature—for instance, are harvested before they represent French bean germination is inhibited competition to the slower crop. below 54°F (12°C) and lettuce above 77°F (25°C). SUCCESSIONAL SOWINGS To avoid harvesting gluts and to ensure All these conditions may have an continuity of supplies, especially of effect on how many plants you get salad vegetables, sow just a few seeds compared with the amount of seed at a time, following with a few more at you sow, but given careful seed harvest regular intervals thereafter. This method and storage they are unlikely to affect is suitable for lettuces, radishes, turnips, greatly success in the garden provided beets, and salad onions. Sow the next they are understood. In practice, poor batch when seedlings from the previous germination is more often due to one have just come up; for example, something being amiss in the condition sow a few lettuce seeds every 10–14 of the seedbed, such as moisture content, days for a succession of crops. temperature, and air, or in the method CATCH CROPS To save space, especially in a small garden, plan to grow fast-maturing crops such as radishes or spinach before or between other crops, such as tomatoes, corn, and winter brassicas.

70 VEGETABLES Planting out Plug seedlings buy transplants of vegetables is late Transplants ordered by mail often now arrive spring. This is ideal if you do not Young vegetable plants that are raised in these transparent molded plastic units. have space to propagate crops yourself under cover to be planted out, or Each has its own self-contained rootball, or under cover, but beware of buying frost- raised in an outdoor seedbed and then plug. The leafy tops are held up and protected tender plants such as tomatoes too early transplanted to their final growing site, from bruising by the plastic shell. Remove all in the season if you do not have the are known as transplants. packaging from them immediately on arrival, facilities to protect the young plants and pot up or plant out as soon as possible. until all danger of frost is past. The main point to remember when transplanting is to cause as little damage a mild, dull day to plant out. Seedlings Young plants sold at garden centers to the young plant and its roots as should be well-established, with four are usually offered in large tray cells, possible; handle them carefully and to six true leaves and a good root system. ready to be planted out with minimal no more than is necessary, and never Do not allow them to become tall and root disturbance. Choose stocky, healthy allow roots to dry out. Water the young drawn; if necessary, pot on the plants plants; if possible, check for a good plants well in advance so that they until conditions are right. root system. Plant them as soon as are turgid—plump with water—on possible; they will keep in a sheltered transplanting, to reduce the risk of The soil should be moist but not shady spot, if watered, for a few days. wilting. Do not take transplants out soggy, and relatively warm—for many Brassicas are often sold bare-root in of containers or lift them from seedbeds crops there should be no further danger bundles, and these need planting, or until the planting site is ready—forked of frost. The young plants must also be heeling in (see below), immediately. over, with all weeds removed, and adequately hardened off (see p.65). raked level. Smaller seedlings known as plug For specific planting times, refer to plants can be purchased from nurseries WHEN TO PLANT OUT CROPS individual crop entries (see pp.74–135). and by mail order (see above left). If you Young plants of some crops, like the cannot plant these immediately on sweet peppers shown opposite, are BUYING IN TRANSPLANTS arrival, you will need to pot them. raised or bought in to be grown to Some crops, such as spring cabbages and maturity in pots, growing bags, or soil hardy lettuces, are available as young HEELING IN PLANTS beds in greenhouses (see pp. 43–44), and plants in the fall, but the main time to If bad weather prevents you from these can be planted in their permanent planting bare-root plants right away, homes as soon as their rootballs fill the they should be heeled in temporarily container that they occupy. in a spare corner. Make a shallow hole or trench, about 4in (10cm) deep, with If planting transplants raised under a hoe, and lay the plants up against one cover into beds outside, exactly when side. Cover the plants up to their leaves to plant out will be dictated by the in soil, firm, and water. Keep the plants development of the seedlings and watered until transplanting time. the weather outside, since it affects the condition of the soil. Ideally, choose Transplanting seedlings from a seedbed 1Water the entire row thoroughly to 2 Mark out planting stations (here, Planting out seedlings raised under cover make the young plants (here cabbages) 18in/45cm) in a prepared bed. Make Young tray-raised lettuces are here planted at easy to lift without damage and to retain a planting hole for each transplant and equidistant spacing, following a grid marked soil around the roots. Hold them by their water each hole well. Hold the plant at out across the bed surface. Hold tray-raised leaves, not stems. Put them in a bucket the correct depth and firm by pushing the plants by the rootball, not the leaves. with a little water to prevent wilting. dibber sideways toward the roots.

PLANTING OUT 71 Interplanting alliums with corn 1In spring, plant 3 rows of Do not delay replanting. Holding fast-growing alliums (here, each plant by its leaves, make a hole 12 cold-treated garlic cloves, deep enough for it to be planted to 3 shallot sets, and bunching just below its first leaves. Set the plant onions) along a well-prepared in the hole, holding it upright while bed covered with black you fill and firm in gently around the plastic, laid down for weed roots. Water in and label the plants. control. Run a soaker hose beneath it for irrigation. Use a SPACING dibber to punch holes through When raising transplants at home, the plastic at the appropriate keep the seed packets so that you have spacings to plant each bulb. the information on spacing that they carry when you need it. Advice on 2 In early summer, set out crop spacings is also given in the A–Z 3 rows of young corn listings of individual crops later in this plants in staggered rows section (see pp.74–135). between the alliums. Use a bulb planter or trowel to make Distance between plants will also vary holes in the plastic large according to whether you are planting enough to accommodate in a conventional row arrangement or the transplants’ rootballs. using equidistant or block spacing, as, for example, in a system of 4ft (1.2m) wide 3As summer progresses, beds (see pp.32–34) where there is no the alliums will mature. need to walk between rows of crops. As it ripens, harvest each crop to leave more space INTERCROPPING for the maturing corn. Provided that you get the timing right, you can plant transplants in the space TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS for transplanting. To minimize wilting between rows of maturing crops, ready after replanting, choose a dull, damp to grow and fill the space left when those GROWN IN TRAYS OR CONTAINERS day, or transplant in the evening, and crops are harvested. This intercropping water the seedlings thoroughly before is an efficient use of space. You can also Before planting out (see below right), lifting. Loosen the soil around the use the space between slow-growing water plants well. Knock plants out seedlings with a trowel or small hand transplants, such as brassicas, to sow catch of pots by tapping the rim on a hard fork. Lift the plants and carefully crops (see also p.69) of fast-growing crops surface until the rootball becomes free. tease them apart, if necessary, trying such as salads to harvest before the slower Remove plants from trays either by to keep the roots intact (see far left). crops fill out the plot. squeezing the base of the cell gently, or Select evenly sized plants, and discard by poking them up and out through the any that are bent, damaged, weak, Transplants are also useful in potager drainage hole with a dibber or similar or showing signs of disease. Put the or edible landscape gardening, where tool. If necessary, to prevent damage plants in a plastic bag to prevent them vegetable plants are grown among to roots, cut the cells off the plants. from drying out. established ornamental plants; they will grow away more successfully than plants Plant out carefully into prepared raised from seed. soil with the surface of the rootball just below the soil surface. Firm around Planting out the plant, remove any dead foliage, Here young sweet stake if necessary, water to settle the pepper transplants plants in, and label. If the sun is hot have been raised and strong, shade the young plants with in 31⁄2in (9cm) pots sheets or cones of newspaper, or f leece for planting out in draped lightly over them, and keep well a greenhouse bed. watered. A moisture-conserving mulch Water the plants (see p.41) can be applied around sturdy thoroughly a little transplants such as brassicas and beans, time before removing but do not let it touch stems. the pot. Take out a planting hole with TRANSPLANTING OUTDOORS a trowel and plant When seedlings raised in a drill or firmly with the top a seedbed outdoors reach a height of the rootball just of 4–5in (10–13cm), they are ready below the planting bed surface.

72 VEGETABLES Routine care All vegetables need attention as Propagation and transplanting are Hoe mulching they grow to produce a good crop. critical times for watering, but, once Lessen the need for watering by hoeing regularly However, you can do much to anticipate established, plants outdoors usually to keep the top 1⁄2in (1cm) of soil loose, creating and prevent problems and extra work need no more than one good watering air spaces that reduce evaporation. with good planning and preparation. a week. Water heavily to ensure good A well-nurtured soil to which plenty penetration down to the roots. Frequent Providing supports of organic matter is added every year, light sprinklings are wasteful and less Make sure that supports are sturdy enough for example, reduces the need for effective. Leafy crops usually need more for the weight and number of plants they are extra watering and feeding during the plentiful, regular watering than root to hold, and that the bases of poles and stakes growing season. Regular, early attention crops. Other vegetables may need more are firmly embedded in the soil. to routine tasks such as weeding can water at critical stages of development; lessen the incidence of some pest and for example, pod set in beans and prepared, plants are less likely to go disease problems. For all the topics when tomato fruits are swelling. short of essential nutrients (see also p.17). mentioned below, specific advice on Supplementary feeding may be necessary the requirements of individual crops Fleece-covered crops (see p.48) dry on impoverished soil, however, or are given on pp.74–135. See also Plant out more slowly, but plants growing desirable to boost yields. Since nitrogen Problems (pp.246–264) for help with in containers (see p.35–36) and under is constantly washed out of the soil, diagnosing and controlling specific pest cover (see p.43–48) need more frequent it is the nutrient most likely to need and disease problems. watering than those in open ground. replacing during the growing season, Use moisture-retentive composts, through the addition of organic manures PLANTS THAT NEED SUPPORT and mulch containers, if possible, to or high-nitrogen fertilizers. Fast-acting Providing adequate supports for plants minimize evaporation. Water containers liquid feeds can be useful. High-nitrogen that need it, and checking ties regularly, daily for best results. In hot weather, feeds promote lush, leafy growth in can prevent unnecessary damage. Short, growing bags can need watering three crops such as spinach, but are not stout stakes are needed for winter times a day. Also, just as wind has a advisable for root crops. High-potash brassicas; tomatoes and other fruiting drying effect outdoors, overventilation fertilizers, such as tomato feeds, are vegetables can be supported with can have a similar effect indoors. suitable for fruiting vegetables. individual stakes or with stakes and Damping down—sprinkling water on twine (see p.109). Peas generally require the greenhouse floor—increases air Deficiencies of the minor nutrients only light support; vigorous climbing humidity and discourages some pests. or trace elements are uncommon in beans (see pp.96–97) and cucurbits well-managed soil, but can be caused (see p.115) need rows or wigwams of FEEDING by other cultural problems—drought, stakes or poles braced against each If you have fertile soil to which you for example, can impede the availability other, or more robust frames or nets. regularly add organic matter and of calcium to plants. Details of symptoms general fertilizers when beds are and remedies for the more common WATERING nutrient deficiencies can be found in How much and how often you need Plant Problems (see pp.246–264). to water (see also p.53–54) will depend largely on weather conditions and also WEEDING on the nature of your soil. The lighter Good weed control, ideally by light, the soil (see p.14), the less water it can regular hoeing, lessens competition for hold, so plants in sandy soils need much water and nutrients, and also removes more watering than those in heavy potential hosts for some garden pests ones. A high organic content in the soil and diseases. Both organic and inorganic helps retain water. If crops are shaded mulches (see pp.41–42) are extremely for part of the day, this will also help effective means of suppressing weeds. reduce water loss. Bear in mind that the roots of nearby trees and shrubs, hedges, or other tall crops will take water from a wide area around them. A mulch (see pp.41–42), whether organic or inorganic, also conserves moisture. Hoe mulching (see above, right) is a traditional way of creating a loose surface layer that protects the lower levels of soil against evaporation.

WINTER STORAGE 73 Winter storage Some vegetables will keep fresh in a are very vulnerable to pest damage; hung in a net (see below) or stored on refrigerator for up to a week; others once mature, crops are also best lifted wooden slatted racks. They keep best at freeze well. Preserving and pickling and stored. Potatoes exposed to light an even temperature just above freezing. also provides out-of-season supplies. produce poisonous alkaloids, indicated There are other storage methods, by the greening of tubers, so must Store only good-quality, undamaged however, that can extend the season be stored in complete darkness. Paper produce. Check all stored crops of availability of crops that are sacks (see below) are ideal; plastic bags regularly and remove any that show vulnerable to low temperatures, or will encourage condensation and rots. signs of disease or deterioration. In where it is necessary to harvest all very cold conditions, cover with layers of a crop to clear the ground. For Onions, shallots, and garlic, once of sacking or newpaper for insulation. more detail on storage of individual well ripened and dried, can be stored crops, see pp.74–135. in single layers in stacked slatted CLAMPING boxes, or strung up in braided ropes If you do not have space under cover, STORING IN POSITION (see below), or hung in nets or even this traditional outdoor storage method Parsnips, rutabagas, and carrots can be old nylon hose—anything that allows for root vegetables is effective, although left in the ground and lifted as required. air to circulate freely around the bulbs. rodent pests can be a problem. A However, roots can be difficult to lift Whole plants of peppers can also be clamp—basically, an insulated heap of when the ground is sodden or frozen, hung up for use as required, as can roots—can be made against an outside especially on heavy soil. Hard frosts bean and pea plants to complete the wall or in an outbuilding or cellar. Make will also damage turnips and beets. ripening of drying crops. Alternatively, an 8in (20cm) base layer of light, sandy Beds can be prevented from freezing dry off the pods in slatted boxes soil, or of sand. Stack the roots in a pile hard by covering them with a 6in before shelling and storing the beans with sloping sides, with the largest roots (15cm) blanket of straw or bracken, or peas in jars. at the base (maximum 2ft/60cm in held down with horticultural fleece height for carrots). Blanket the entire or netting, once the temperature While leafy, loose-headed cabbages pile with a 8in (20cm) layer of straw, falls below 40°F (5°C). Remove the do not store well, the densely hearted then a 6in (15cm) layer of soil. covering when the temperature rises to winter and red cabbages can either be avoid encouraging new shoot growth, when the crop will start to deteriorate. Storing vegetables over winter Pumpkins and squashes can be left Storing potatoes Cabbages in net out on the ground after harvest, where Keep only undamaged potatoes in a Make sure cabbages are clean and dry, in favorable weather conditions the sun double-layered paper sack in a clean, and cut any damaged leaves cleanly will complete the hardening of the dry place. Fold the top of the sack over away, before hanging them in a net bag skins that is essential for good keeping loosely after access to exclude light. in a cool, dry place for the winter months. properties. If the ground is wet, a plank or straw placed under the fruits will ◀ Storing root vegetables reduce the risk of rotting. Once the Loosely pack root vegetables in weather deteriorates, bring the crop a shallow wooden box and cover under cover. with moist sand or peat substitute. BRINGING CROPS UNDER COVER ▶ Braiding onions A cool but frost-free, dry place, such as To form a rope of onions, suspend a cellar or shed, is perfect for storing one from a string hung from a beam many crops after harvest. Some must or the ceiling, and then either use not dry out if they are to stay in good the long necks of the onions, or a condition for eating; others must be second string, to secure successive thoroughly dried, but in both cases bulbs above it, working from the good ventilation is essential. Slatted bottom upward. wooden shelves, trays, or racks are ideal, allowing good air circulation. Do not use plastic or cardboard boxes; they increase humidity and encourage rots. Large, shallow, wooden boxes can be used to store lifted root crops, within layers of sand or peat substitute (see right). Potatoes left in the ground

74 VEGETABLES Visual index of vegetables Use this index to locate details of individual vegetable crops. Abelmoschus p.112 Allium cepa p.92 Allium cepa p.94 Allium cepa p.94 Allium fistulosum p.93 esculentus Aggregatum Group Okra Bulb onion Shallot Scallion Green onion Allium porrum p.93 Allium sativum p.92 Amaranthus species p.125 Apium graveolens p.121 Apium graveolens p.121 var. dulce var. dulce Leek Garlic Amaranth Celery Leaf celery Apium graveolens p.122 Asparagus officinalis p.133 Barbarea verna p.103 Beta vulgaris subsp. p.128 Beta vulgaris p.85 var. rapaceum cicla var. flavescens subsp. vulgaris Celery root Asparagus American cress Chard, spinach beet Beets Brassica juncea p.127 Brassica napus p.88 Brassica oleracea p.80 Brassica oleracea p.80 Brassica oleracea p.78 Botrytis Group Capitata Group Napobrassica Group Acephala Group Mustard greens Rutabaga Kale, curly kale Cauliflower Cabbage Brassica oleracea p.78 Brassica oleracea p.81 Brassica oleracea p.79 Brassica oleracea p.81 Brassica rapa p.88 Italica Group Italica Group Rapifera Group Gemmifera Group Gongylodes Group Brussels sprouts Kohlrabi Calabrese broccoli Sprouting broccoli Turnip, turnip top Brassica rapa p.126 Brassica rapa p.125 Brassica rapa var. p.106 Brassica rapa var. p.126 Brassica rapa var. p.105 var. alboglabra var. chinensis nipposinica pekinensis perviridis Japanese mustard spinach Chinese broccoli, Bok choy Mizuna greens Chinese cabbage Chinese kale Capsicum annuum p.111 Cichorium endivia p.104 Cichorium p.103 Cucumis melo p.118 Cucumis sativus p.117 intybus Sweet and Endive Chicory Sweet melon Cucumber and chile pepper gherkin

VISUAL INDEX OF VEGETABLES 75 Cucurbita maxima, p.118 Cucurbita pepo p.119 Cucurbita pepo p.119 Cynara p.134 Cynara scolymus p.133 C. moschata, C. pepo cardunculus Pumpkin Zucchini Vegetable marrow Cardoon Artichoke and winter squash p.85 Eruca vesicaria p.103 Foeniculum p.122 Helianthus tuberosus p.135 Ipomoea batatas p.88 vulgare var. Daucus carota azoricum Arugula Florence Jerusalem fennel artichoke Carrot Sweet potato Lactuca sativa p.105 Lycopersicon esculentum p.113 Mesembryanthemum p.105 Pastinaca sativa p.86 Petroselinum crispum p.86 crystallinum var. tuberosum Lettuce Tomato Ice plant Parsnip Parsley root Phaseolus coccineus p.100 Phaseolus lunatus p.99 Phaseolus vulgaris p.99 Physalis ixocarpa p.112 Pisum sativum p.99 Runner bean Lima, butter bean French, kidney bean Tomatillo Pea Portulaca oleracea p.106 Raphanus sativa p.107 Rheum x hybridum p.135 Scorzonera hispanica p.88 Sinapis alba p.106 Purslane Radish Rhubarb Scorzonera Mustard Solanum melongena p.112 Solanum tuberosum p.87 Spinacia oleracea p.128 Tetragonia p.127 Tragopogon porrifolius p.86 tetragonioides Potato Spinach New Oyster plant Zealand spinach Valerianella locusta p.104 OTHER VEGETABLES Allium cepa .........................p.94 Brassica napus ...................p.106 Diplotaxis species .............p.103 Wild arugula Pickling onion subsp. oleifera Lepidium sativum ..............p.106 Allium cepa Proliferum .......p.94 Salad rape Cress Group Brassica rapa .....................p.106 Lotus tetragonolobus ............p.98 Asparagus pea Tree, Egyptian onion Mibuna greens Montia perfoliata .............. p.107 Corn salad, Allium fistulosum .................p.93 Brassica rapa subsp. ...........p.127 Winter purslane lamb’s lettuce Eggplant Japanese bunching perviridis Pisum sativum ...................p.99 Mangetout, Snow pea, Vicia faba onion Spinach mustard Sugar, snap pea Fava bean p.98 Zea mays p.111 Basella species ....................p.126 Bunias orientalis ................p.103 Stachys affinis ...................p.134 Chinese artichoke Ceylon, Malabar, Turkish arugula Vigna unguiculata ..............p.100 vine spinach Citrullus lanatus ................p.119 subsp. sesquipedalis Brassica campestris subsp. ....p.127 Watermelon Asparagus, yardlong bean chinesis var. utilis Crambe maritima ...............p.135 Flowering greens, Sea kale choy sum Corn Brassica carinata ..................p.81 Cucurbita pepo ..................p.119 Texsel greens Summer squash

76 VEGETABLES Growing brassicas The botanical family Brassicaceae yet moisture-retentive, and Brassica is the largest in the vegetable garden, firm. Brassicas need to get a transplants including not only those members of good roothold, especially those These seedlings the genus Brassica covered in these that must withstand winter are both ready to pages, sometimes called the Western weather, so incorporate plenty of be transplanted— brassicas—Brussels sprouts, cabbage, organic matter into light, sandy soils they have four true calabrese broccoli, cauliflower, kale, (see pp.22–23). Prepare beds (see p.66) leaves in addition kohlrabi, sprouting broccoli, and well in advance—for example, in the fall to their seed texsel greens—but also leafy Oriental prior to spring planting or sowing—to leaves. Take care vegetables such as Japanese mustard allow the ground to firm up again. Do when handling the spinach and Mizuna greens (see Salads, not overwork the soil just before sowing seedlings, especially pp.101–107) and root crops such as or planting. Most brassicas sown or if bare-root (left), rutabaga and radish (see pp.82–88). planted in spring and summer benefit rather than pushed from a base dressing of a general fertilizer out of a tray cell (right). The brassicas in this section are cool- (see pp.20–21). Do not add fertilizer Roots can be easily climate crops, many of them occupying when sowing or planting in fall—it damaged. growing space for a long time; for these, will encourage lush growth that will careful planning is needed as well as be vulnerable to frost damage. Instead, seasons. Within each continued care. Many are attractive top-dress overwintered crops such as of these seasonal cropping plants, several having striking cultivars spring cabbage with fertilizer in spring. periods there are cultivars that mature at —kales with vividly colored leaf stems, slightly different times. F1 hybrids reach for example, or the deep violet heads Although brassicas grow well on maturity simultaneously, ideal for the of the cauliflower ‘Graffiti’. neutral to slightly acid soil, a higher commercial grower but usually not for pH, of 6.8 or above, is desirable because the gardener; open-pollinated cultivars A minimum crop rotation of three it helps to discourage clubroot. If the (see also p.60) may be a better choice. years (see p.31) is important for brassicas, pH of your soil is below this level, apply since they are susceptible to the persistent lime to raise it (see also pp.18–19). If SOWING SEED soil-borne disease clubroot (see box, facing you lime heavily, it is best not to follow Some brassicas are direct-sown where page). Pests such as cabbage root fly and brassicas with potatoes, because alkaline they are to crop in conventional drills. caterpillars must also be controlled. conditions favor potato scab. These include the leafier crops such as kale and texsel greens, often grown SITE AND SOIL CONTINUITY OF CROPPING as cut-and-come-again plants. Calabrese Although brassicas tolerate partial shade, Successional sowing (see p.69) is a simple broccoli and kohlrabi sown in summer choose a sunny site, if possible. Their means of extending supplies of spring should also always be sown direct, tough leaves stand up well to wind, cabbage, calabrese broccoli, and kohlrabi. since they do not transplant well in but some shelter and, usually, staking Some brassicas are divided into distinct warm weather. However, most brassicas, is necessary for tall-stemmed crops such groups for planting and cropping at especially longer-term crops that need as sprouting broccoli, Brussels sprouts, different times of year; there are specific time to form substantial, dense heads, and some kales, to stop them from being groups of cabbages and cauliflowers, for are usually raised either in seedbeds blown over. Cabbage and cauliflower example, for spring, summer, fall, and or in pots or module trays under cover. plants are relatively stable. The best soil winter, sown and planted in different They are then transplanted into their for most brassicas is fertile, well-drained final cropping positions, allowing the space meanwhile to be used for earlier Earthing up Drill gives shelter from Soil mounded up crops such as peas or early potatoes. On very light, sandy wind and directs by about 2in (5cm) soils (left), draw a water to roots Raising plants in trays not only saves drill 4in (10cm) once the plant space but also advances crops and helps deep and plant into has established to guard against clubroot: strong roots it. Once plants have undisturbed on transplanting help the grown clear of the soil Light sandy soil Heavy clay soil plant to grow away quickly. Sow directly surface, gradually fill into module trays, or sow in pots or in the drill. On heavy trays and prick out into trays (see p.64). clay soils (right) Harden off and plant out once seedlings where deep planting are growing strongly, their roots filling would risk water- their container. logging, plant at soil level; then earth up Bare-root transplants are more as the plants grow. straightforward to raise because they do not need protection or hardening

GROWING BRASSICAS 77 seedbed. Protect them with horticultural netting or fleece (see p.51). Planting through landscape fabric Putting collars around seedlings ROUTINE CARE Lay the sheet over the bed and secure the Prevent cabbage root flies from laying eggs at Adequate water is crucial for good edges. Make holes at each planting station the bases of seedling stems by using collars brassica crops. In dry spells, water by cutting two cross slits about 1in (2.5cm) made from 6in (15cm) squares of carpet seedlings and new transplants daily long with a garden knife. Use a large dibber underlay. Cut a slit into the center of each until well-established. Thereafter, to make holes, drop the seedlings in, and firm. square to fit the collar around the plant. water well once or twice a week if conditions are dry during the growing off. Such plants are also often more PROTECTING YOUNG PLANTS season. Plants overwintering rarely robust, which can be an advantage. Place a collar of carpet underlay (see need extra water. One heavy watering, Once soil conditions in the seedbed above, right) or cardboard around the especially around 10–20 days before are suitable for the crop, sow in drills base of brassica stems to deter cabbage the crop is due to reach maturity, (see pp.66–67), and transplant seedlings root fly. This very serious pest lays its is more beneficial than several light to the cropping site once it is vacant. eggs around the base of the plants; the ones. Mulching helps to conserve Although the young plants must not resulting maggots feed on the roots. moisture and suppress weeds. be left too long to become drawn A physical barrier prevents the females and leggy, there is less urgency in from reaching the base of the stems and Garden hygiene (see p.51) and correct moving them to their cropping site laying eggs there. For sturdy transplants, feeding appropriate to the individual compared to seedlings in trays, which an alternative is to plant through crop (see pp.78–81) do much to help soon become root-bound. Bare-root landscape fabric (see above, left). prevent diseases. Check plants regularly transplants take longer to grow away for signs of disease, removing any dead because of the greater planting check Pigeons love young brassicas, either or dying leaves. Follow the advice below to growth, and require even more newly planted out or growing in a (see box) to reduce the risk of clubroot. careful attention than tray-raised plants until established. HARVESTING AND STORING Crops maturing in the warmer months TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS are best harvested when ready and Transplanting is best done on an eaten fresh, but winter and spring crops overcast, ideally showery day; in will stand well in the garden, provided warm summer weather, wait until that they are protected from pigeons, the cool of the evening to minimize especially in hard weather when other overheating and wilting. Brassicas can food is scarce. Many brassicas grow normally be planted to the same depth away again after harvest, even in cold at which they were previously growing. weather, to produce useful secondary Once both tray-raised and bare-root crops of sideshoots or leafy “tops.” plants have established, they may be earthed up (by drawing up a little soil CLUBROOT AND HOW TO PREVENT IT around each plant’s stem) to aid stability. On light soils, planting into a shallow Clubroot is a slime-mold disease that causes If your soil is infected with clubroot, drill aids establishment before earthing brassica roots to develop gross swellings, remember that it is young brassica plants up in a similar fashion (see facing page). which in turn decay to release disease spores that are most vulnerable. The drill provides some protection to into the soil. Infected plants become stunted, ■ Burn all affected material after digging young transplants and also helps retain discolored, and wilted, eventually dying. The it up complete with roots; never compost it. water applied to the plants. spores can remain active in the soil for up ■ Start all plants off in trays, in clean to 20 years, so it is essential to use every compost, and grow larger, sturdier means possible in order to prevent infection. transplants than usual; they will be less ■ Rotate crops (see p.31). Continuous vulnerable than small seedlings. A larger brassica cropping can lead to a buildup planting hole filled with clean soil also of clubroot in the soil. helps transplants establish in safety. ■ Lime soil if necessary (see pp.18–19). ■ Foliar feeding (see p.21) can help ■ Avoid importing clubroot on bought-in young plants to establish quickly and well plants by raising your own transplants. on infected sites. ■ Control weeds. Some common weeds, ■ Choose fast-growing crops such as texsel such as shepherd’s purse, belong to the greens. They may reach maturity before brassica family and can harbor clubroot. being affected. ■ Clean hoes and other tools to avoid ■ Avoid using the green manures fodder bringing in disease from other garden areas. radish and mustard, which are brassicas.

78 VEGETABLES A-Z OF BRASSICAS Brussels sprouts (2–3cm) in diameter for the sweetest taste; snap them off with a downward motion. Brassica oleracea Gemmifera Group At the same time, remove any yellow leaves and discard any loose or yellow sprouts. Whole SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER stems or sticks of sprouts keep well standing SOW •• ••• • in a little water in a bucket in a cool place. TRANSPLANT Later in the season, the leafy tops of the plants HARVEST •••• ••• can also be picked as greens. • ■ Common problems See p.77 for advice on protecting young plants against cabbage These traditional winter vegetables can be picked root f ly (see also p.253) and birds (see also p.252). fresh from late summer to mid-spring; the plants Caterpillars (see p.253), especially those of the are strong and can survive severe winters. cabbage white butterf ly, can cause extensive Most modern cultivars are F1 hybrids (see p.60), crop damage. Flea beetle (see p.255) may be producing uniform plants and compact sprouts. troublesome in dry weather and sheltered spots. Plants grown to full height can produce 60–70 Large colonies of mealy cabbage aphids (see sprouts each; weight depends on the size they are p.257) can quickly establish, causing distorted allowed to reach. The small buttons are excellent foliage. Do not mistake them for whitef ly (see for freezing. There is also a small crop of leafy p.264); although this can be a conspicuous pest, tops. Sprouts are suitable for intercropping it rarely causes significant damage, although (see p.71), for example, with fast-growing salads. in mild winters whitef ly can persist on brassicas ■ Site and soil Brussels sprouts do well in to affect other young plants in spring. Other firm, fertile soils, with plenty of organic matter pests include cutworm (see p.254), leather jackets incorporated well in advance. Lime if necessary (see p.257), and slugs and snails (see p.262). (see p.18) to raise the soil pH to deter clubroot. Before sowing or planting, apply a base dressing In addition to clubroot (see pp.76–77, p.254), of fertilizer (see pp.20–23), except on highly brassicas are susceptible to leaf diseases such fertile soil—too much nitrogen produces loose, as downy mildew (see p.255), and powdery leafy sprouts. mildew (see p.260). Bacterial leaf spot (see p.256) ■ Sowing and planting Sow under cover and white blister (see p.264) are becoming more (see p.62) in late winter for an early crop in late widespread problems. summer and early fall. For winter crops, sow from early to mid-spring, outdoors in a seedbed Plants grown well and fed correctly rarely (see p.67) or under cover in trays (see p.64), suffer nutrient deficiencies. Hollow stems and transplant to the cropping site in early may indicate boron deficiency (see p.252). to midsummer. Close planting (less than 2ft/ Poor seedling growth can be the result of 60cm each way), for example, on narrow beds molybdenum deficiency (see p.257). (see pp.32–33), will produce smaller sprouts of ■ Recommended cultivars uniform maturity, while wider spacing will ‘Cronus’—hybrid, mid season variety, resistant yield larger sprouts to be picked in succession to clubroot. over a longer period. Sowing different cultivars ‘Diablo’—hybrid, good f lavor, crops early. to mature at varying times will ensure a long ‘Evesham Special’—old, traditional cultivar. cropping period. Keep seedlings and new ‘Falstaff ’—rosy sprouts are simply delicious, transplants well watered. Brassica collars (see p.77) with a mild, nutlike f lavor. will protect young plants against cabbage root f ly. ‘Nautic’—plants are vigorous and sturdy, averaging 30in (75cm) tall. SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) ‘Red Bull’—small red sprouts, color improves PLANT SPACING 2ft (60cm) in cold weather. ROW SPACING 2ft (60cm) ‘Rubine’—a striking addition to any vegetable patch and a gourmet special for your table. ■ Routine care To produce small, evenly sized sprouts that will mature simultaneously, Cabbage for example, for freezing, pinch out the growing tips of the plants when the lower sprouts are Brassica oleracea Capitata Group 1⁄2in (1cm) in diameter. To encourage the sprouts to fill out, top-dress in midsummer By growing cultivar groups that mature in with sulfate of ammonia at a rate of 1–2oz different seasons, cabbages can be harvested and per sq yd (25–50g per sq m). Water after top- eaten fresh throughout the year. Spring cabbages dressing. Once established, plants should grow are usually small, and may be either pointed away without further watering unless there or round-headed. Early summer cabbages are is a period of severe drought. Overwintering normally pointed or round, and late-summer plants need supporting with stakes, especially or fall ones rounded or oval, and more compact. on light, sandy soils. The leaves of some spring and fall cabbages may ■ Harvesting Starting from the bottom of also be eaten as greens, before they form a heart. the plant, pick when the sprouts reach 3⁄4–11⁄4in Winter cabbages include the Dutch white types,

A–Z OF BRASSICAS 79 SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER 10–14 days. Winter cabbages should be sown Calabrese broccoli in succession. Protect all seedlings and young SPRING CABBAGE • transplants from cabbage root f ly (see p.77). Brassica oleracea Italica Group SOW ■ Routine care Practice good weed control. Keep young plants well watered, if necessary, TRANSPLANT •• until they are established, then water only HARVEST in very dry weather. Earth up the stems of •• spring and winter cabbages during the winter, SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER and remove dead leaves regularly. Top-dress SOW •• •• •• • • EARLY SUMMER CABBAGE with a high-nitrogen fertilizer or organic TRANSPLANT liquid feed before the leaves touch across HARVEST SOW • • the rows, except in the case of fall-sown and planted crops; top-dress these in spring. TRANSPLANT •• ■ Harvesting For greens, harvest young ••••••• leaves as soon as they are large enough. HARVEST •• Cut spring and summer hearting cabbages when the hearts are solid throughout. Stumps SUMMER/FALL CABBAGE left in the ground may resprout to provide Also known as American, Italian, or green a small crop of greens, especially if a cross-cut sprouting broccoli, calabrese broccoli is a fast- SOW •••• is made across the surface of the cut stem. growing brassica that has become a very popular The hardier winter cabbages such as January vegetable. Calabrese broccoli grows up to TRANSPLANT •••• King types can be left to stand in the ground 2ft (60cm) tall, and produces bluish-green for several months, to harvest as needed. heads, up to 6in (15cm) in diameter and HARVEST ••••• Cut white or red cabbages for storing before 4–8oz (110–225g) in weight, in addition to there is any danger of hard frost, handling further, smaller heads borne on sideshoots that WINTER CABBAGE •• them carefully to avoid bruising. If stored appear after the main head has been cut. It can SOW in a net bag (see p.73), cabbages should keep be sown in fall for early crops, or in spring to for 6–8 weeks. crop in summer. Better heads are produced in TRANSPLANT •• ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts. cooler summers; in hot conditions the heads— ■ Recommended cultivars immature f lower buds—develop and run to HARVEST • •••• Spring greens and spring cabbage seed quickly. Some cultivars resist this tendency ‘Dorado’—short-stemmed, attractive dark better. Calabrese broccoli freezes well. RED CABBAGE blue-green, uniform, spring hearting cabbage. ■ Site and soil A fertile, well-drained, ‘Orient Express’—Chinese cabbage variety moisture-retentive, firm soil (see p.76) is best, SOW •• that matures in 45 days from seed. but calabrese broccoli will grow well on less ‘Ealiana’—heads average 2lb (800g); good f lavor. fertile soils than other brassicas, so a base TRANSPLANT •• ‘First Early Market 218’—fast-growing, well- dressing of fertilizer is not usually necessary. filled heads, for greens or hearts. Lime the soil if necessary to raise the pH and HARVEST •• • ‘Jersey Wakefield’—dense, cone-shaped head, thus deter clubroot (see p.77). with sweet f lavor; short-stemmed and hearting. ■ Sowing and planting Early sowings can be the January King purple-tinged types, and the ‘Gonzales’—crunchy and sweet, with a density made under cover, but calabrese broccoli does crinkly-leaved Savoy types, as well as some and rich bite; successional or summer sowing. not transplant well in warm weather, resulting hybrids between these. The Dutch whites ‘Pyramid’—old, dark-leaved cultivar, pointed in premature production of tiny heads, so from are suitable for lifting and storing for later use, heads; can also be grown for greens. mid-spring onward it is best station-sown (see as are some of the red cabbages, of which there Early summer cabbage p.68) where it is to crop, and thinned to one plant are both summer and fall types. Yields vary ‘Derby Day’—old favorite, round-headed. per site. Closer spacing encourages smaller shoots. according to the type of cabbage being grown ‘Greyhound’—fast-growing, pointed heads. For a spring crop, when other fresh vegetables (see Average crop yields, p.242). ‘Famosa’—inner leaves are tender and delicious; are scarce, sow under cover in trays in mid-fall, ■ Site and soil Cabbages prefer fertile, flavor that gets sweeter as winter approaches. and transplant in early winter to an unheated well-drained, moisture-retentive, but firm ‘Pyramid’—old-fashioned, dark-leaved, for greenhouse or cold frame (see pp.43–48). soil (see p.76). Apply a base dressing of a overwintering or spring sowing. general fertilizer (see pp.20–21) when sowing Summer/fall cabbage SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm), three seeds per station or planting in spring and summer. Lime soil ‘Kilaxy’—white cabbage, suitable for storing, SEED SPACING 12in (30cm) if necessary to raise the pH to deter clubroot resistant to clubroot. ROW SPACING 18in (45cm) (see also p.78). ‘Stonehead’—hybrid, stands well. ■ Sowing and planting Sow either in a Winter cabbage ■ Routine care Keep evenly moist thoughout seedbed or in trays (see p.76) at the correct ‘Alcosa’—well-packed, interior leaves fill the growing season, watering at a rate of about time of year for the type. To produce both in quickly, good for close plantings of 5 gallons per sq yd (20 liters per sq m) every week. spring greens and cabbages in the same bed, mini cabbages. After the main head has been harvested, apply a space the plants 4in (10cm) apart in rows ‘Danish Ballhead’—excellent all-arounder. top-dressing of a nitrogenous fertilizer or organic 12in (30cm) apart. Use two out of each three ‘Deadon’—vigorous, green purple heads. liquid feed to encourage sideshoots to form. for greens, and leave the third to heart up. Sow ‘Famosa’—early maturing, good leaf color. ■ Harvesting Cut the central head while summer cabbages in succession for a continuous ‘Wintessa’—reliable hybrid, stands well, it is still firm, and before any f lowers open. crop. The earliest transplants raised under cover dark, puckered leaves, very hardy. This stimulates the production of sideshoots. should be hardened off carefully (see p.65), or Red cabbage ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts. they may be liable to bolt. ‘Huzzaro’—strong, red storing cabbage. ■ Recommended cultivars ‘Red Flare’—early sweet f lavor, little core. ‘Fiesta’—hybrid, vigorous, heavy and prolonged Covering them with f leece after planting cropping. out will reduce this risk and advance crops by ‘Green Magic’—good crop, many sideshoots, fine quality. SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) ‘Kabuki’—compact, early, can be closely spaced for baby heads. SPRING CABBAGE/SPRING GREENS ‘Marathon’—quick maturing, large deep heads, good for late and early sowings. ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) ‘Tendergreen’—small heads on edible stems, many sideshoots if central bud removed. PLANT SPACING 10in (25cm) for hearted cabbages 6in (15cm) for greens EARLY SUMMER CABBAGE PLANT SPACING 15in (38cm) ROW SPACING 15in (38cm) SUMMER/FALL CABBAGE PLANT SPACING 18in (45cm) ROW SPACING 18in (45cm) WINTER CABBAGE PLANT SPACING 18in (45cm) ROW SPACING 24in (60cm) RED CABBAGE PLANT SPACING 9–15in (23–38cm) ROW SPACING 18in (45cm)

80 VEGETABLES Cauliflower caulif lowers need to be planted firmly, and should Spring-heading cauliflower be transplanted as young as possible, since they ‘Aalsmeer’—robust, very long-cropping. Brassica oleracea Botrytis Group suffer if their growth is checked. For mini ‘Longships’—hybrid, late spring to early summer. caulif lowers, sow in succession, or sow several ‘Lundy’—hybrid, early to mid-spring from early SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER different cultivars, to ensure a prolonged summer sowing. harvesting season. ‘Patriot’—good leaf protection, late spring. EARLY SUMMER CAULIFLOWER ‘Snow Crown’—its hybrid vigor and rapid growth make it one of the easiest to grow of SOW • • SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) all early caulif lower varieties. TRANSPLANT • EARLY SUMMER CAULIFLOWER HARVEST • ROW SPACING 24in (60cm) SUMMER CAULIFLOWER PLANT SPACING 18in (45cm) SOW •• SUMMER CAULIFLOWER Kale TRANSPLANT • ROW SPACING 24in (60cm) HARVEST •• PLANT SPACING 18in (45cm) Brassica oleracea Acephala Group FALL CAULIFLOWER FALL CAULIFLOWER SOW •• PLANT SPACING 24in (60cm) SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER SOW •••• •••• TRANSPLANT •• ROW SPACING 24in (60cm) TRANSPLANT HARVEST ••• HARVEST •• • WINTER- AND SPRING-HEADING CAULIFLOWER •• WINTER-HEADING CAULIFLOWER PLANT SPACING 28in (70cm) SOW • ROW SPACING 28in (70cm) TRANSPLANT • MINI CAULIFLOWER Kale is the hardiest winter vegetable; fresh leaves and shoots can be harvested even in severe HARVEST • • •• SEED OR PLANT SPACING 6in (15cm) winters. As few as six plants picked regularly can provide 4–5lb (1.8–2.25kg) of greens over the SPRING-HEADING CAULIFLOWER ROW SPACING 6in (15cm) season. Modern curly kale cultivars are sweeter and more tender than the older broad-leaved SOW • ■ Routine care It is essential to control weeds types, of which only the young shoots are eaten. and keep the soil moist throughout the growing Kale can grow to a height of 3ft (90cm), but TRANSPLANT • period, or small, deformed heads will form the dwarf types reach only about 1ft (30cm), prematurely. In summer, snap and fold in leaves and are therefore more suitable for small gardens. HARVEST •••• to protect the curd from strong sun. In winter, All make ornamental plants for a winter garden. bunch and tie leaves together over the curd Some kales can be grown as a cut-and-come- MINI CAULIFLOWER to protect it from frost. Top-dress (see p.76) again crop of salad leaves (see p.102). spring-heading types in late winter or in ■ Site and soil Kale grown as a winter crop SOW •••• early spring to stimulate new growth. needs well-drained, rich soil that will not ■ Harvesting Harvest curds while they are become waterlogged. TRANSPLANT •• still firm and dense; they are immature f lower ■ Sowing and planting Sow either in a buds and will open up and deteriorate in time. seedbed or in trays (see p.76). Transplant 6–8 HARVEST ••• • Cut with enough leaf attached to protect the weeks after sowing, planting them firmly. curd. Harvest mini caulif lowers promptly, since Dwarf cultivars may be spaced closer together The typical caulif lower has a cream or white they readily deteriorate. than tall ones. If growing a seedling salad crop, curd, or head, but there are also green- and ■ Common problems As for Brussels cut the seedlings when they are 2–3in (5–8cm) purple-headed cultivars. Caulif lowers make large sprouts (see p.78). Downy mildew (see p.255) tall, or thin them to 3–4in (8–10cm) apart and plants, and those that overwinter will occupy the is a particular problem with caulif lowers; they cut them when 6in (15cm) tall. ground for almost a year. They are quite difficult are also especially vulnerable to problems caused to grow because they need a lot of water, and by nutrient deficiencies, such as whiptail SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) this is not usually provided in sufficient quantity (see Molybdenum deficiency, p.257). Boron PLANT SPACING 24in (60cm) by summer rainfall. Cultivars maturing before deficiency (see p.252) may cause brown rings ROW SPACING 18in (45cm) midsummer are therefore the easiest to raise in the stalk. See also Frost damage, p.255. successfully. At a conventional wide spacing, ■ Recommended cultivars ■ Routine care Control weeds, and water only 5–6 caulif lowers can be grown in a 10ft Summer cauliflower after planting, if necessary, until the plants are (3m) row. Mini caulif lowers are produced by ‘Avalanche’—closely plant for mini-heads. well established. Thereafter, avoid overwatering, plants grown much closer together (up to 20 in ‘Beauty’—hybrid, show variety, long season, because this will produce lush, soft growth less a 10ft/3m) row, taking 13–18 weeks to produce good for successional sowings. able to survive the winter. If the crop shows heads 11⁄2–3in (4–8cm) in diameter. ‘Nautilus’—hybrid, reliable and tolerant, sign of yellowing in early fall, top-dress with ■ Site and soil To produce large, well-formed wide sowing and harvesting period. a nitrogenous fertilizer or organic liquid feed curds, caulif lowers need a fairly rich soil with Fall cauliflower (see pp.20–23) to maintain good color. Remove plenty of nitrogen-rich fertilizer applied as a ‘Belot’—robust late-fall cropping, high- any yellow leaves. base dressing before planting (see p.76). quality curds. ■ Harvesting Harvest young leaves regularly ■ Sowing and planting Sow early summer ‘Cassius’—holds well in field for extended harvest. from all plants to encourage more growth. caulif lowers outdoors under cloches or in a cold ‘Graffiti’—deep violet. Remove any f lower shoots that appear. Continue frame (see pp.45–47) in mid-fall, or in a heated ‘Kestel’—snow white, late summer–fall. to harvest until the plants go to seed, when greenhouse or propagator in midwinter (see p.63). ‘Skywalker’—high-quality caulif lower, early, they will become bitter. Harden off seedlings and transplant in early crops before ‘Belot’. ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts spring, protecting with f leece (see p.65); this will Winter-heading cauliflower (see p.78). Whitef ly (see p.264) can be a problem, advance early crops by 10–14 days. For summer ‘Deakin’—late fall to winter, protected heads. because it infests the edible parts. However, types, sow in a seedbed in early and mid-spring ‘Giant of Naples’—a vigorous grower; very good leaf diseases do not normally occur if plants or in trays in mid-spring, transplanting in early leaf cover. are harvested regularly, and clubroot is less of summer. Water in well if the weather is dry. ‘Triomphant’—mid- to late winter, but only a problem than for other brassicas. for mild regions. Fall types should be sown in trays in mid- to late spring and transplanted in early summer, and kept well watered until established. Winter- and spring-heading caulif lowers are both sown in a seedbed in late spring, with no base dressing applied, and then transplanted in late summer. They need a sheltered site and protection from frost, which can damage the curds. All

A–Z OF BRASSICAS 81 ■ Recommended cultivars be left in the ground in winter, but in colder sideshoots will be produced; harvest these as they ‘Black Tuscany’—very dark straplike leaves, regions lift in fall and store in boxes (see p.73). are ready. Depending on the prevailing weather, can be used as a cut-and-come-again crop. ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts you may be able to harvest for 6–8 weeks. As ‘Redbor’—curly, dark purple. (p.78). Some leaf damage can be tolerated as the weather warms up, the traditional winter ‘Red Russian’—purple-green, frilly leaves. leaves are not edible. Clubroot can be severe. cultivars deteriorate quickly. ‘Ripbor’—beautiful, curled green leaves. ■ Recommended cultivars ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts ‘Winterbor’—tall, tightly curled blue-green ‘Early Purple Vienna’—delicious cabbage- (see p.78), although sprouting broccoli is not leaves. f lavored bulbs that grow above ground. usually affected by leaf diseases. As with other ‘Kolibri’—large, robust, purple, tolerant. winter brassicas, in mild years it may host Kohlrabi ‘Korist’—onamental, pale green, compact. whitef ly to be carried over to affect other spring ‘Kongo’—sweet, very tender; enjoy raw or cooked. vegetables if not controlled. Pigeons will also Brassica oleracea Gongylodes Group ‘Winner’—vigorous, upright plant produces be attracted to the crop in winter; you may bulbs that have a fresh, fruity taste. need to net when it is nearing maturity. ■ Recommended cultivars SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ‘Bordeaux’—crops in summer and fall, does not SOW •• •• •• need a period of cold. TRANSPLANT •• Sprouting broccoli ‘Green Sprouting Calabrese Broccoli’—Italian HARVEST early producing large heads of tender sprouts. •••••••• Brassica oleracea Italica Group ‘Early Purple Sprouting’—frost-hardy, purple. ‘Red Spear’—productive over long period, fair This often underrated, tasty brassica has an SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER color, very hardy. unusual-looking swollen stem that is eaten like SOW •• •• • ••• • ‘White Eye’—white, early sprouting. a turnip, or shredded for use in salads. There TRANSPLANT •• •• •• ‘Santee’—sweet and tender, eat fresh or cooked. is a gap of 1–11⁄2in (2.5–4cm) between the soil HARVEST • ••• • and the base of the swollen stem; you can obtain about 1lb (500g) from four plants, depending on There are both purple and white forms of Texsel greens how large the stems are allowed to grow. Young, sprouting broccoli, the purple ones being much tender leaves are also useful as greens. Green and hardier and producing many more edible shoots. Brassica carinata purple cultivars are available. The green forms These crops are in the ground for a long time, mature rapidly and are normally used for the taking up a lot of space, but give useful produce SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER main summer crop. The purple types are slower from late winter to late spring, when other fresh SOW •• •• ••• to mature and hardier, and more suitable for late garden vegetables are in short supply. Picked HARVEST harvests. Kohlrabi can also be grown as a catch regularly, 10 plants can yield around 7lb (3kg) ••••••• crop (see p.69), because it is fast-growing. over the season. In good, rich soils, plants can ■ Site and soil Kohlrabi needs less nitrogen grow to 3ft (90cm) across and up to 3ft (90cm) This relatively new, fairly hardy brassica has been than other brassicas, and will thrive in a rich, light, tall, and are liable to become top-heavy. Some bred from Ethiopian mustard. Fast-growing, sandy soil, although it will also grow in heavy soil. new cultivars, such as ‘Bordeaux’, do not need maturing in as little as seven weeks, it makes It is essential to lime the soil, if necessary, to raise a cold spell to produce a crop; these can be sown a useful catch crop. Texsel greens have shiny the pH and thus guard against clubroot (see p.77). over a long period for harvest in the same season. leaves, high in nutritional value and with a f lavor ■ Sowing and planting Kohlrabi can be sown ■ Site and soil This crop needs a fertile soil slightly reminiscent of spinach. Young leaves direct, or raised under cover for an early start that is very well-drained in order to avoid winter are used for salads, and older plants for cooking. up until around mid-spring; seedlings do not waterlogging. It also needs shelter from wind to The f lavor and texture is best in spring and transplant well in warm weather. It is important reduce rocking. Lime soil if necessary (see p.18) fall. When grown as a cut-and-come-again to transplant the seedlings before they exceed to raise the pH and deter clubroot. salad crop (see p.102), a 10ft (3m) row of texel 2in (5cm) in height, or they may bolt. Do not ■ Sowing and planting Sow traditional greens yields 13–20lb (6–9kg) over the season, sow outside too early; plants sown when the cultivars in spring, either in trays or in a seedbed depending on the size of the leaves harvested. temperature is below 50°F (10°C) also tend to (see pp.66–68), to transplant to their final site. There are no named cultivars of texsel greens. bolt. Thin at an early stage to avoid unnecessary Sow the newer cultivars such as ‘Bordeaux’ from ■ Site and soil As for all brassicas, texsel root disturbance to the plants that remain. late winter to midsummer and transplant a month greens prefer a fertile, well-drained soil, but, Succession sow every two weeks for continuity. after sowing. because they crop so quickly, they often succeed even on clubroot-infected soils. SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) ■ Sowing and planting Broadcast sow (see SEED SPACING 9in (23cm), 3 seeds per station PLANT SPACING 24in (60cm) p.66) in succession every 2–3 weeks. Thin the ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) ROW SPACING 24in (60cm) seedlings to 1in (2.5cm) apart. If growing them as a seedling crop, there is no need to thin. ■ Routine care It is essential to keep plants ■ Routine care Keep weed-free, and water well watered throughout the growing period, in dry spells until established. Thereafter, avoid SOWING DEPTH 1⁄2in (1cm) in order to avoid a check in growth that will overwatering, so that the plants become tough SEED SPACING broadcast; thin to 1in (2.5cm) lead to unpalatable, woody f lesh being produced. enough to withstand winter temperatures. ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) Control weeds promptly. Plants must be securely supported with stakes ■ Harvesting When the stems are between (see p.72) to avoid windrock. Earth up stems ■ Routine care Keep evenly moist for steady golf- and tennis-ball size, usually 7–8 weeks after to increase stability. growth and to prevent bolting. sowing for summer sowings or 12–16 weeks for ■ Harvesting The new cultivars such as ■ Harvesting For salad crops, harvest the shoots winter ones, cut off at the root and trim off the ‘Bordeaux’ should be ready to harvest 10–15 and leaves when young. Once they are mature, outer leaves to 3⁄4in (2cm), leaving the central leaves weeks after transplanting throughout summer harvesting a few leaves from each plant rather on the stem to help maintain its freshness. Newer and fall. Traditional spring-sown broccoli than picking them all from one or two will cultivars grow rapidly, and can still be tender becomes ready to pick from late winter. When keep plants cropping steadily. when larger. Eat summer crops as they become the f lowering shoots are about 6–8in (15–20cm) ■ Common problems As for Brussels sprouts ready; after 1–2 weeks in hot weather the stems long, but before the f lower buds open, snap off (see p.78). Flea beetle (see p.255) may be a start to deteriorate. In mild areas, kohlrabi can around 3–4in (8–10cm) of their length. New problem if the weather is dry during sowing.

82 VEGETABLES Growing root crops This group of vegetables encompasses soils with a pH 6.5–7.5. Turnips and Edible buds beets, carrots, parsnips and the very rutabagas thrive on slightly acid soil. Shoots and flower similar parsley root, oyster plants, Like other members of the brassica buds of oyster plants potatoes, scorzonera, nonhardy family, however, they are vulnerable may be cooked and sweet potatoes, rutabagas, and turnips, to the persistent soil-borne disease eaten in the same all of which produce edible crops clubroot (see p.254), which is less way as asparagus. below ground or at soil level. Potatoes prevalent on neutral to alkaline soil To obtain them, leave and sweet potatoes have underground with a pH 7 or more. a few plants in the tubers, whereas the others all have ground over winter swollen roots. Oyster plant and SOIL FERTILITY so that they can scorzonera also have edible f lowering It is important to take account of the produce flowering shoots and buds (see right). Most store nutrient requirements of each crop, shoots the following well and make useful winter vegetables. which are various. Parsnips, oyster spring. The buds plants, scorzonera, rutabagas, and turnips should be picked Root crops are prone to several major have low nitrogen needs; those of carrot just before opening, soil-borne pests and diseases, and in and beet are very low. Potatoes and together with about some cases this influences methods of beets have high nitrogen requirements. 4in (10cm) of stem. cultivation. Since root crops represent All root crops do best on soils with a a wide range of species, there are various high content of organic matter, which ROTATION cultural requirements to be considered, is best incorporated into the soil six It is essential to rotate root crops especially with regard to soil conditions. months or more prior to cropping. (See (see p.31) in order to reduce infestation To obtain the best results with each also individual crops, pp.85–88.) by pests and especially disease crop it is important to think about its infections, to keep the soil nutrient requirements with respect to the pH, levels suitably balanced, and to keep texture, and fertility of the soil. weeds in check. A minimum of a three-year rotation lessens the risk SOIL pH of a buildup of pests such as root knot To grow a particular crop successfully, nematodes (see p.261) and diseases check the acidity level of your soil with such as parsnip canker (see p.258). a testing kit to ascertain whether liming will be necessary (see pp.18–19). Rotation helps to maintain fertility by permitting one crop to benefit from Potatoes do best on a slightly acid nutrient levels that were appropriate to soil of pH 5–6; on soils that are rich in the previous crop—a classical example lime, the skin disease potato powdery is planning to grow nitrogen-hungry scab (see p.260) will thrive to attack brassicas after nitrogen-fixing legumes. many cultivars. Following legumes with root crops, which need less nitrogen, can result Parsnips prefer slightly acid soils of in their developing excessive foliage pH 6.5. Beets, carrots, oyster plants, growth at the expense of roots. and scorzonera have a broader range of tolerance and will grow well on Rotation can also assist in controlling weeds. For example, in the cultivation Using fleece to advance crops SOIL TEXTURE of potatoes the ground is well dug You can warm the soil and protect early crops and disturbed because the crop is from frost by covering the bed with a double Crops with long roots that grow down earthed up regularly—a process that layer of fleece (as here), or perforated plastic, into the soil, such as carrots, parsnips, suppresses weed growth. The crop as soon as the seedlings emerge or just after oyster plants, scorzonera, and some also has a good canopy of leaves to planting. Tuck the edges into a slit trench. beet types, do best on light, sandy soils smother annual weeds. Subsequent where the roots can penetrate easily, crops benefit by resulting reduction in making vegetables of good shape and weed population, particularly because length. All of the root crops, however, there is invariably no need for further can be grown on heavy soils, provided deep cultivation that would bring even that they are well-drained, deeply more weed seeds to the surface. cultivated, and free of stones.

GROWING ROOT CROPS 83 SHORT- OR LONG-TERM CROPS? fine tilth (see p.66) and a good depth of Pre-germinate potatoes If you have only limited growing soil in the seedbed so that the roots can space, short-term crops of beets, penetrate unhindered. Improve heavy Seed potatoes are small tubers grown carrots, early potatoes, and turnips soils by digging in plenty of well-rotted in areas of low virus infection, often are helpful in allowing at least two organic matter. Some root crops prefer obtained by mail order. Sprouting aids crops per year to be obtained from soil that has not been freshly dug (see early growth. As soon as tubers are the same piece of land. Clearing individual crops, pp.85–88). obtained in midwinter, place them crops quickly in this way also reduces upright in trays, with the most eyes the likelihood of pests and diseases In most cases, sowing is carried out or dormant sprouts—at the “rose” building up in the area. Harvest from early spring (see individual crops, end—uppermost, in a cool, frost-free, crops as soon as they are ready, to pp.85–88). Large seeds, such as those light place. They will send out healthy, enjoy them at their best and to avoid of parsnips, are best station sown (see short, green shoots (see below, right), any deterioration through splitting p.68), whereas small seeds, such as ideally 1⁄2in (12mm) long. Kept in a warm, and development of pests and diseases. those of carrots and turnips, should dark place, shoots will be pale, weak, be sown thinly in single drills (see p.66) and become too long (see below, left). Long-term crops such as parsnips and and thinned at the seedling stage (see maincrop potatoes are suitable where p.68). Turnips and beets may be sown Weak, pale shoots Strong, dark shoots space is not at a premium, but in order in successive batches (see p.69). Parsnips to ensure good quality they must not be are suitable for intersowing with fast- Planting through black plastic subjected to a check in growth through maturing salad crops such as radishes sheet mulch (see p.84) dispenses lack of water. You should also be vigilant (see p.69). Early carrots and turnips may with the need to earth up and also for signs of pests or disease and take be used as catch crops for intercropping suppresses weeds. appropriate action as soon as possible (see p.71) between long-term crops. (see also Plant Problems, pp.246–264). ADVANCING AND PROTECTING CROPS PLANTING TUBERS To harvest very early roots, protect SOWING Potatoes are normally raised by planting sown crops from the cold with f leece Root vegetables are grown from seed, out small sprouted tubers, referred (see facing page), perforated plastic, with the exception of potatoes, which to as seed potatoes (see box, right) or cloches (see pp.46–48). Cut the may be grown from tubers (see below). directly in the ground. True potato f leece about 12–16in (30–40cm) Root crops are best sown directly seeds are unreliable, less convenient, wider and longer than the plot. With outdoors, where they are to crop to and unsuitable for garden use. a shovel, make a slit trench, about minimize disturbance to their edible half a spit deep, around the plot. Lay roots, but multiblock sowing (see p.65) Seed potatoes are usually planted the f leece with a margin of at least 6in is possible. It is essential to produce a in a deep drill or individual planting (15cm) on all sides. Push it into the holes and earthed up as they grow. slit trench with the shovel and tread the edges to secure it. Remove it as Planting seed potatoes in a drill soon as risk of frost is past and before it restricts growth. 1Draw out a drill 3–6in (8–15cm) deep 2 Push or pull the soil back gently over GROWING ROOT CROPS IN CONTAINERS —sufficient to cover the shoots with the tubers with the back of a rake. at least 1in (2.5cm) of soil. Press a tuber Lightly rake over the soil surface to level it, Where garden space is limited or with shoots uppermost into the soil every and mark the drill. Fertilizer can be added there are persistent problems with pests 12–15in (30–38cm) along the drill. along the drill before planting (see p.87). or diseases, container growing is an alternative method of cultivating early beets, carrots, potatoes, and turnips. Pots should be at least 10in (25cm) deep and wide, filled with a mixture of rotted compost or manure and good garden soil. Tubs, growing bags, and even windowboxes are other options. Always keep containers well watered.

84 VEGETABLES PROTECTING AGAINST CARROT FLY Planting potatoes under plastic sheet mulch Carrot f ly (see p.253) can cause severe 1Lay a sheet of black 1 2 damage to some root crops, especially plastic on the bed. Plant carrots and parsnips. The adult females tubers 6in (15cm) deep at f ly low along the ground, especially usual spacings through slits in sheltered or shady sites, until they cut in the sheet. Plant small find a suitable crop of seedlings or tubers 12in (30cm) apart. plants; they lay their eggs in the Alternatively, cover a newly soil, where larvae hatch out and bore planted crop and cut slits as into the roots. the new shoots push up. In either case, pull developing There are no approved chemical shoots through the slits. treatments available to the amateur gardener, but some cultivars now have 2 To harvest tubers, pull a degree of resistance to carrot f ly. back the sheet and There are also several control strategies gather the new crop of that can be put into action to avoid tubers from the surface; a infestation by this troublesome pest. few will need to be dug out. Two generations of f lies usually —may also be successful in deterring HARVESTING AND STORING hatch out each season, and sowing the carrot f ly. Sowing alternate rows times can be planned so as to avoid of onions and carrots is frequently To avoid encouraging carrot f ly, the worst periods of activity. The first recommended to confuse both carrot harvest carrots and parsnips as soon hatching usually occurs in late spring, f ly and onion f ly (see p.258), which as they are ready. If this pest is not a and the second in midsummer. To locate their preferred crop by its odor. problem, the roots may be left in the avoid the first wave, sow from late ground until needed, as with beets, spring, in a stale seedbed (see p.66) The scent of thinnings attracts adult rutabagas, and turnips; cover with or in a bed prepared well in advance female f lies, so sow seed as thinly as straw or bracken if frosts are expected in an open, sunny site. The second possible to avoid thinning altogether. (see p.73). Lift potatoes by early or wave should then be less of a problem, Alternatively, thin the crop in the mid-fall; the later you leave them since the f lies will not have already evening, nipping off the seedlings at the greater the possible damage from become established and begun to ground level to avoid disturbing the slugs. Leave to dry outside for 2–3 breed in your garden. Sometimes, soil. Firm down the soil again after hours before storing. Lift scorzonera a third hatching occurs in early fall, thinning, and after lifting carrot crops. and oyster plant as needed, and use so protect crops until winter. fresh. Sweet potatoes will need to Remove any infested crops as soon as be cured (see p.88). Most root crops Erecting low physical barriers (see box, possible off site. Storing or composting are suitable for storing (see p.73). Store below) can be a highly effective means infested crops will assist in maintaining only undamaged roots or tubers, of protecting carrots from attack. the life cycle of the carrot f ly so it can which are least prone to rot. return the following year. Companion planting—planting possibly beneficial plant combinations Using barriers to exclude carrot flies To prevent carrot fly from attacking and Waxed cardboard barrier Fine woven mesh barrier devastating carrots and other susceptible crops, erect a barrier, at least 2ft (60cm) high, around the sown area before the seedlings appear. The females fly very low, so the barrier effectively stops them from reaching the crop and laying their eggs. The barrier may be made from waxed cardboard stapled together at the corners (right), film or rigid plastics, or fine woven mesh netting (far right). Staple the netting or film plastic to wooden posts driven into the soil at the corners. Stretch strings between the four corner posts on which to staple the netting or film plastic. Insert stakes at intervals along the sides to hold it in place. Ensure that the material is buried securely all along the base.

A–Z OF ROOT CROPS 85 A-Z OF ROOT CROPS Beets up the beets and twisting off their tops about 1in (2.5cm) above the root. Roots can be Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris overwintered in position by covering them with a 6in (15cm) layer of straw or bracken. SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Common problems Aphid (see p.252), SOW •• •• • cutworm (see p.254), damping off (p.254), HARVEST and fungal leaf spot (p.257) may all be ••••• troublesome, as well as occasional deficiencies of boron (p.252) and manganese (see p.257). Beets are easy to grow and the swollen roots can ■ Recommended cultivars be harvested from early summer to fall. They ‘Boltardy’—round, red, bolt-resistant. can be stored or pickled for use in salads or steamed ‘Burpees Golden’—yellow root, good f lavor; as a sweet vegetable. Beets may be round, long, or tops can be steamed like spinach. oval in shape and come in a range of outer colors, ‘Chioggia’—sweet and tender with striking from purple or deep red to yellow or white. The red and white internal rings. inner flesh may be purple, red, yellow, white, or ‘Merlin’—green glossy tops. even red with white rings. All the color forms are ‘Pronto’—faster growing than most red beets. similar in flavor. Most beet types are short-term ‘Red Ace’—good red, well-shaped hybrid. crops, suitable for catch cropping (see p.69), and they are easier to cook and are sweeter-tasting Carrot when harvested young; long-rooted types are slower-growing, but well-flavored. The young Daucus carota leaves may be eaten like spinach. SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER Beets may also be grown in containers (see SOW •• p.83). Early sowings may be prone to bolt and run TRANSPLANT •• •• • • to seed, but resistant cultivars are usually available. HARVEST • Mature beets normally yields 30 roots, each •• weighing 1–2lb (450g–1kg), per 10ft (3m) row. ■ Site and soil Beets need an open, sunny ••••••• site, with fertile, light, sandy soil, preferably one that has been manured in the previous By successional sowings, it is possible to lift fresh season. Long-rooted cultivars need a good roots of this popular vegetable from late spring depth of soil. A pH of 6.5–7 is ideal. through to early winter. The crop can also be ■ Sowing For spring sowings under cover, stored so that it is available into late winter. use a bolt-resistant cultivar. Make successional Carrots are classified according to shape, maturity, sowings direct outdoors (see p.69) every two and size, although root shape and also color are weeks in early and midsummer. Space sow inf luenced by soil type and growing conditions. seeds 2in (5cm) apart, then thin the seedlings for standard-sized beets. Leave unthinned for The earliest crops are obtained with pickling beets about 2in (5cm) in diameter. Amsterdam-type cultivars: narrow, cylindrical, stump-ended roots with smooth skins and of SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) small size, suitable for forcing. Nantes types PLANT SPACING Standard: 4in (10cm) are of similar shape, but broader and longer; Pickling: 2in (5cm) they are suitable for early crops and forcing ROW SPACING Standard: 9–12in (23–30cm) as Amsterdam types, but also for later crops. Pickling: 6in (15cm) Chantenay cultivars are short, broad and more conical, and are suitable for maincrops for summer ■ Routine care Protect early sowings from and fall lifting. Berlicum types produce long, large frosts, and seedlings from birds, with fleece roots which are suitable for winter use, as are the (see pp.82–83) or cloches (see p.46). Keep the soil long-season, tapering Autumn King types, which moist, and when the roots start to swell after produce the longest roots of all. about 8–9 weeks water the plants well. In a dry spell, use 2 gallons per sq yd (11 liters per sq m) These types have been used as parents to breed at intervals of 2–3 weeks. Too frequent or light new F1 hybrid cultivars with mixed characteristics watering leads to a lot of leafy growth and no and of high quality. Small, round-rooted, “baby” roots. Light, sandy soils of high pH may be low cultivars are also available and are suitable for in manganese and possibly boron (see p.17), so spray container raising where garden space is restricted. once or twice with a foliar, seaweed-based fertilizer All are available from garden centers and it is (see p.22) that has a range of trace elements. worth studying the packet information to choose ■ Harvesting and storing Start lifting roots cultivars for particular seasonal requirements. once they are about 2in (5cm) in diameter; ■ Site and soil The preferred pH range is spring sowings will be ready in summer and 6.5–7.5. Carrots do best on light soils, and a summer ones in fall. Lift the beets as they are relatively dry site produces a sweeter f lavor; needed; this thins out the crop, leaving other heavy soils can carry satisfactory crops if they roots to achieve a larger size. Harvest by pulling are not waterlogged or compacted. All benefit from well-rotted organic matter incorporated in the previous season. A low-nitrogen base

86 VEGETABLES dressing should be added. Prepare a fine tilth Imperator type Parsley root several weeks in advance and destroy any ‘Sugarsnax 54’—long roots, very sweet. germinated weeds just before sowing. Nantes type Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum ■ Sowing Precision-treated seeds (see p.60) ‘Mokum’—enjoy as a baby carrot or full-size treat. give best results for early sowings; sow all ‘Nigel’—bright roots, good f lavor and texture, SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER seed thinly. For a spring crop, sow outdoors stores well. SOW ••• ••• in mid-fall or mid- to late winter under f leece, Round type HARVEST ••• or in greenhouse beds. When thinning seedlings, ‘Parmex’—raise under glass or outdoors. pinch them out to avoid the stronger odour Heritage cultivars •• • that results from pulling, which attracts carrot ‘Danvers’—Victorian, crops early summer f ly, or erect a barrier (see p.84). Early summer to mid-fall. Parsley root has roots similar in taste and liftings can be obtained by sowing under ‘James Scarlet’—good color and f lavor. appearance to parsnips, although smaller. The protection in early spring or outdoors from ‘New Red Intermediate’—good for exhibition plant has parsley-like leaves that remain green mid-spring—as soon as the soil temperature and storage. during severe winters, and can be used instead rises to at least 45°F (7.5°C), naturally or with ‘St. Valory’—maincrop, good for exhibition. of more tender herb parsley (see p.144). Root the aid of glass cloche or plastic film coverings— yield is 61⁄2lb per 10ft (3kg per 3m) row. to midsummer. Round, Amsterdam, and Oyster plant ■ Site and soil As parsnip (see below). Nantes types are all suitable for early sowings. ■ Sowing Sow thinly in rows and thin Sowing seed in modules is another way to seedlings when they have two true leaves. obtain early crops (see pp.62–63). Successional sowings outdoors in mid- and late spring of Tragopogon porrifolius SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) Chantenay and Berlicum types crop from late SEED SPACING thin to 6–8in (15–20cm) summer. Short-season crops are less prone to ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) carrot f ly attack; sowings made in early spring to early summer are likely to miss the most SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Routine care As for parsnip (see below). harmful hatches of the insect, although SOW ••• ••••• ■ Harvesting and storing As for parsnip timings vary by latitude. HARVEST • (see below). Pick the leaves as required. ■ Common problems As for parsnip (see below). Oyster plant is a hardy biennial with long, thin, ■ Recommended cultivar creamy white roots that are used as a winter ‘Hamburg Parsley’—very strong f lavor. vegetable. It is sometimes called the oyster plant, SOWING DEPTH 1⁄2–3⁄4in (1–2cm) because of its taste. It is usually grown as an Parsnip SEED SPACING sow thinly; thin to 4in (10cm) annual, but crops can be overwintered in order ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) in open garden to produce the edible young shoots, known as 6in (15cm) under cover chards, and edible f lower buds (see p.82). Oyster plant is a long-term crop, taking 6 to 10 months Pastinaca sativa to mature, and the roots should be eaten fresh or ■ Routine care Keep weed-free by hand they may shrivel. Oyster plant normally yields SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER weeding until the leaf canopy suppresses any about 3lb (1.5kg) of roots per 3m (10ft) row. SOW competition. Water in dry spells, but do not ■ Site and soil An open, sunny site with deep, HARVEST •• overwater carrots because this encourages leaf light, stone-free soil, that has been manured for growth. Supplementary feeding should not a previous crop, is best (see p.82). The preferred •• ••••••• be necessary on well-prepared sites. soil pH is 6.8. ■ Harvesting and storing Pull the first roots ■ Sowing Seed quickly deteriorates; sow fresh This long-term root crop is valuable for its when 1⁄2–5⁄8in (12–15mm) thick, remembering seed thinly in drills (see p.66) in spring. Thin hardiness and distinct f lavor. All types taste that the roots will grow continuously as the once seedlings have two true leaves (see p.68). similar; the quicker the growth, the sweeter seasonal temperature rises. On heavier soils, the taste. The roots can be 5–10in (13–25cm) it is necessary to ease roots out of the ground SOWING DEPTH 1⁄2in (1cm) long, and of various shapes—some long and with a fork. For winter use, roots can be left SEED SPACING sow thinly; thin to 4in (10cm) narrow, some bulbous—depending on cultivar in the ground; cover with a secure layer of ROW SPACING 6–12in (15–30cm) as well as soil and conditions. In shallow soils, straw or bracken when frost approaches. a cultivar with a shorter root is best. Parsnips Alternatively, roots can be lifted and stored ■ Routine care Control weeds, and water yield about 9lb per 10ft (4kg per 3m) row. (see p.73). Roots left in the ground for long in dry spells at a rate of 3–5 gallons per 10sq ft ■ Site and soil For best results, parsnips need periods are liable to sustain carrot f ly damage. (16–22 liters per sq m). Supplementary feeding an open, sunny site, and a deep, light, sandy ■ Common problems Carrot f ly (see p.253) is unnecessary. If chards and f lower buds are soil, although good crops can be obtained from is the most serious pest; aphids, especially root required, cut off the old leaves to 1in (2.5cm) heavy soils. The ideal pH is 6.5. Manure the aphids (see p.261) can be troublesome. Downy above ground level in fall and earth up the roots soil in the previous season. Parsnips have a low and powdery mildews (see p.255, p.260) and with 5in (13cm) of soil. Alternatively, when nitrogen requirement. violet root rot (see p.263) can cause problems. growth starts in spring, cover the tops of the ■ Sowing Seed sown direct in mid- to late ■ Recommended cultivars leaves with a 5in (13cm) layer of straw or bracken. spring is more likely to germinate than seed Amsterdam type ■ Harvesting and storing Roots may be left sown earlier. Germination is slow. ‘Adelaide’—cylindrical, smooth with blunt roots. in the ground all winter; lift them carefully when Autumn King type needed, from mid-fall to early spring, and use at Sow thinly or station sow with 2–4 seeds per ‘Atomic red’—brilliant red and rich in lycopene. once to avoid shriveling. Cut chards in early spring station (see p.68). Use 4–6in (10–15cm) spacing ‘Healthmaster’—unusual deep reddish-orange when 6in (15cm) tall. Pick f lower buds in early for medium-sized roots up to 2in (5cm) in color is uniform throughout roots. spring before they open, with 4in (10cm) of stem. diameter and a wider spacing for later, stored ‘Kingston’—hybrid, tender, good size. ■ Common problems Aside from white blister roots. Parsnips can be intersown (see p.69) with Berlicum type (see p.264), there are no problems. radishes to mark the rows. ‘Berlicum’—deep orange color, fine carrot f lavor. ■ Recommended cultivars Chantenay type ‘Fiore Blu’—long, golden, f leshy roots, and SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) ‘Chantenay Red Cored 2’—sweet-tasting “blue f lowers.” SEED SPACING Medium: 4–6in (10–14cm) maincrop, good for storing. ‘Sandwich Island’—delicious, oysterlike taste. Large: 8in (20cm) ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) ■ Routine care Control weeds. Water only in very dry conditions, at a rate of 2½ gallons per

A–Z OF ROOT CROPS 87 10sq ft (11 liters per sq m) every 2–3 weeks. a range of “microplants,” grown by a specialized early types, water at the same rate only If left too dry, the roots are liable to split after method known as micropropagation, are when the tubers are starting to swell, watering. Most late-sown seeds need watering available. These are strong and virus-free, and are around the size of marbles; this to aid germination. Feeding is not usually and can be grown in containers or outdoors; usually coincides with f lowering, but not needed, but if growth is poor, apply a liquid plant out as for module-raised seedlings (see all cultivars f lower. feed according to manufacturer’s instructions. p.70) when all risk of frost is past. Some can ■ Harvesting and storing Parsnips are ready be eaten and some seed potatoes saved to plant Do not water maincrop potatoes before for lifting from late summer but may be left for future cropping. the tubers reach marble size; then water, in the soil until needed, although there may using a sprinkler at the rates given above be a risk of carrot f ly (see p.84). Alternatively, Maincrop potatoes normally yield around or through a seep hose (see p.54) until soaked lift and store in sand in boxes (see p.73). 22lb per 10ft (10kg per 3m) row; earlies yield through. Maincrop potatoes prefer higher ■ Common problems Aside from carrot f ly about 10b (4.5kg); container crops much less. nitrogen levels than earlies, so apply a (see p.84 and p.253), parsnip canker (see p.258) ■ Site and soil Potatoes prefer an open site, top-dressing of a nitrogenous fertilizer (see can be a major problem if resistant cultivars which must not be a frost pocket (see p.11), pp.20–23) when earthing up. In early fall, are not used. Powdery mildew (see p.260) can and deep, fertile soil with a pH of 5–6. Rotate or earlier if signs of potato blight (see p.260) be a minor problem in dry weather as well as crops (see p.31) and incorporate plenty of organic appear, cut down the dying top-growth downy mildew in damp conditions (see p.255). matter such as well-rotted manure in the fall to 2in (5cm) above soil level. This should Violet root rot (see p.263) and celery leaf miner before planting. Apply a general fertilizer be done around two weeks before harvest to (see p.253) can also affect parsnip. (see pp.20–23), either on the soil surface and help “set” the skins for better storing quality. ■ Recommended cultivars worked into the soil shortly before planting, ■ Harvesting and storing Lift early potatoes ‘All American’—plant produces long, excellent- or spread along the sides of prepared drills at carefully with a fork as soon as they are ready, quality parsnip. the time of planting. often indicated by the plant f lowering. Check ‘Cobham Improved Morrow’—vigorous ■ Planting There are two methods of planting that tubers are ready by pulling aside the soil. germination, canker-resistant, smooth skins seed tubers, either in a drill (see p.83) or in even in heavier soils. individual holes. A black plastic sheet mulch So long as they are healthy, leave maincrop ‘Gladiator’—hybrid, sow early or late, very can be laid before or immediately after planting plants until early to mid-fall to bulk up, but vigorous, canker-resistant, good in exhibition. (see p.84). Where not covered, plants require remember that the longer they are left in the ‘Javelin’—long-rooted hybrid, good earthing up (see below); where covered, earthing ground, the more prone they are to slug damage. for exhibition. up is not necessary because light is totally Lift on a dry day, and leave the tubers on the ‘Panache’—superb, sweet, nutty f lavor. excluded, so weeds cannot establish and there ground for 2–3 hours. Store in boxes, paper is no risk of tubers greening. sacks, or even clamps (see p.73). When the area Potato has been cleared, fork it over to ensure all small To grow earlies in a container (see p.83), rest tubers have been removed, as these can carry Solanum tuberosum two pregerminated tubers on 4–5in (10–13cm) disease into the next year. of soil or compost in a large pot or tub that is ■ Common problems Pests that may cause SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER least 12in (30cm) deep. Cover the tubers with damage are cutworm (see p.254), slugs (see PLANT ••• 4in (10cm) of soil or compost, water in, and p.262), potato cyst nematode (p.260), wire- HARVEST stand the container in a light, sheltered spot. worm (p.264), and seldom, but disastrously, ••••• Colorado potato beetle (p.254). Frost can PLANTING DEPTH 3–6in (8–15cm) damage crops (see p.255). Potato blight (see The potato is a staple vegetable that stores well and SEED POTATO SPACING Earlies: 12–15in (30–38cm) p.260) thrives in warm, humid conditions and may be eaten all year round. Tubers vary in size, Maincrop: 15in (38cm) is not usually a problem for earlies. Other color, texture, and taste. Early types, often referred ROW SPACING Earlies: 15–20in (38–50cm) common diseases are potato common scab (see to as new potatoes, are small and are cooked Maincrop: 30in (75cm) p.260), potato powdery scab (see p.260), potato whole for hot dishes and salads. Late-maturing black leg (see p.259) and potato viruses (see p.260). types have large tubers that can be cooked in ■ Routine care Protect early crops from frost ■ Recommended cultivars many ways. Potatoes are grouped according to (see pp.82–83). If the skins of the newly formed Early their season of lifting. “Earlies” mature in 100–110 tubers are exposed to light when they are ‘Adirondack Red’—high-yielding plants with days from planting to harvest, “second earlies” pushed to the surface, they will become green purple blooms. in 110–120 days, and “maincrops” in 125–140 and poisonous, and should not be eaten. To ‘Cranberry Red’—the best of the red-skin/red- days, depending on weather conditions. prevent this from happening, plantings that f leshed potatoes. have not been covered with a black plastic sheet ‘Russet Norkotah’—the perfect potato for Where space is limited, grow earlies, which mulch should be earthed up, by drawing soil small gardens. can be closer spaced and occupy the ground around the stems with a draw hoe or shovel. ‘Winston’—waxy, cream f lesh, best baked. for less time. Plants can be raised in containers This is best done when the stems are about Second early (see p.83) and placed under cover for extra, 9in (23cm) tall; draw the soil up to about ‘All-Blue’—quite spectacular with its deep blue early yields. Maincrops, ready at midsummer, 4in (10cm) so as to leave sufficient foliage skin and f lesh. can be left in the soil until needed or stored. for good growth. To make earthing up easier, ‘La Ratte’—rich and chestnutty f lavor, long a fork the soil between the rows beforehand. favorite of fine chefs. To thrive, potatoes need to grow where they It will be necessary to earth up in two stages, ‘Red Norland’—fair storage cooking potato. are unchecked by frost or lack of moisture; excess especially for small, early plants that have ‘Rio Grande Russet’—exceptionally high yields, wet early in the season can produce leaf growth been protected against frost. stores well. at the expense of tubers. Maincrop For plants in containers, add a 4in (10cm) ‘Desirée’—good all-arounder, red skin and pale Potatoes are most conveniently grown from layer of soil or compost when the stems are yellow, waxy f lesh. seed potatoes that are sprouted, or pregerminated 6in (15cm) tall. Repeat until the plants have ‘Kennebec’—smooth with shallow eyes. (see p.83) before planting; use seed tubers raised grown to 2in (5cm) of the top of the pot. Stores well. in isolation and certified free of virus diseases. ‘Purple Viking’—dark purple skin with red Some suppliers offer seed tubers. Keep early plants moist by giving them blotches and exceptionally pure white f lesh. a good soaking of 3–4 gallons per 10sq ft For some cultivars that are old, rare, and (16–22 liters per sq m) every 10–14 days in sought after for their f lavor, color, and shape, dry spells. To get the best yield from very

88 VEGETABLES Rutabaga may repel carrot f lies, and can be planted near Turnip, turnip tops susceptible crops. It yields about 3lb per 10ft Brassica napus Napobrassica Group (1.5kg per 3m) row. Brassica campestris Rapifera Group ■ Site and soil As for oyster plant (see above). SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Sowing As for oyster plant (see above), and SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER SOW •• • also in late summer to grow on for a second TURNIP HARVEST ••• season and harvest in the following fall. SOW •• •• •• • HARVEST ••••••• • SOWING DEPTH 1⁄2in (1cm) TURNIP TOPS Rutabaga is a winter-hardy root crop, SEED SPACING sow thinly; thin to 4in (10cm) SOW • •• belonging to the brassica family (see pp.76–81), ROW SPACING 6–12in (15–30cm) HARVEST • •• with similar cultivation needs. A long-season crop, it takes 20–26 weeks to mature, and is ■ Routine care Control weeds, but do not Turnips belong to the brassica family (see not easy to grow. The f lesh is normally yellow, disturb the roots or they may fork. Treat young pp.76–81). They are biennials, usually grown but skin color varies from purple to green. shoots and f lower buds as for oyster plant. as annuals. The roots may be f lat, round, The roots range in shape from thin and ■ Harvesting Take utmost care when lifting or long; the f lesh is white or yellow. They narrow to the more popular bulbous, roots, as they are prone to bleed. If growth is are best eaten fresh and young but can be inf luenced by seed quality; newer cultivars poor in the first year, leave plants for another stored as a winter vegetable. Turnips take are more reliable. The sweet-tasting roots are year for bigger roots. Harvest young shoots 6–10 weeks to mature, and may be cooked as a winter vegetable. Rutabagas yield and f lower buds as for oyster plant (see above). intercropped (see p.71). They normally 13lb per 10ft (6kg per 3m) row, depending ■ Common problems As for oyster plant. yield ten 1–11⁄2lb (500–750g) roots per on the stage of cutting. 10ft (3m) row. The young leaves, or turnip ■ Site and soil Rutabagas do best on an Sweet potato tops, can be used as spring greens, and make open, sunny site, with light, fertile soil, low a good catch crop (see p.69). in nitrogen, with a pH of at least 6.8, that suffers Ipomoea batatas ■ Site and soil Cool, moist conditions are neither from drought nor waterlogging and preferred, with a soil high in nitrogen and has been manured for a previous crop. SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER a pH of at least 6.8. Turnips need plenty of ■ Sowing Sow direct in drills (see p.66) in SOW/PLANT •• • organic matter worked into the soil. late spring or early summer and thin (see p.68). TRANSPLANT ■ Sowing Sow thinly outdoors in succession HARVEST •• (see p.69) every 2–3 weeks from late winter and thin (see p.68) seedlings. Protect very SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) The sweet potato is a tender perennial grown early sowings (see pp.82–83). Late-spring or SEED SPACING sow thinly; thin to 9in (23cm) as an annual for its sweet-tasting tubers, which summer sowings may not germinate in very ROW SPACING 15in (38cm) are eaten cooked. The leaves may also be eaten hot, dry weather, unless the seedbed is moist like spinach. In cooler regions, grow sweet and shaded. For turnip tops, sow as for turnips ■ Routine care Keep well watered and free potatoes in a greenhouse; in mild climates in late summer, early fall, or early spring. of weeds and pests. they can be grown outdoors in sheltered ■ Harvesting and storing When roots are sites. They normally yield 3lb per 10ft SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) 4–6in (10–15cm) in diameter, in fall to (1.5kg per 3m) row. SEED SPACING thin to 4–6in (10–15cm) early winter, lift carefully and store (see p.73). Site and soil Sweet potatoes require highly ROW SPACING roots: 9–12in (23–30cm) ■ Common problems Cabbage root f ly fertile, sandy soil with a high nitrogen level tops: 6in (15cm) (see p.253), aphid (p.257), and f lea beetle (see and a pH of 5.5–6.5. They must be grown p.255) attack seedlings. Rutabagas are prone in temperatures of 75–82°F (24–28°C) and ■ Routine care Control weeds and keep to clubroot (p.254), boron deficiency prefer high humidity. the plants well watered. In dry periods, (see p.252), downy and powdery mildews ■ Sowing and planting Sow in early or water weekly at a rate of 2½ gallons per (p.255, p.260), and weevil (p.263). mid-spring indoors at a minimum of 75°F 10sq ft (11 liters per sq m). Supplementary ■ Recommended cultivars (24°C). On sheltered, mild sites, transplant feeding is not necessary. ‘Brora’—attractive reddish-purple shiny skin into ridges outdoors, after hardening them ■ Harvesting Pull early roots when 11⁄2–2in and cream base. off. Otherwise, plant in late spring in a (4–5cm) in diameter and use fresh. Later crops ‘Joan’—smooth, round and uniform roots. greenhouse border or in growing bags. may be pulled until early winter and stored in ‘Laurentian’—delicious yellow roots are great boxes or clamps (see p.73). When turnip tops fried or baked, sweet and so tasty. SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) are 5–6in (13–15cm) tall, cut them 1in (2.5cm) ‘Marian’—resistant to mildew and clubroot, PLANTING DEPTH 2–3in (5–8cm) in ridge above ground level. If kept moist, further globe-shaped, with good f lavor. PLANT SPACING 10–12in (25–30cm) cuttings will be possible but the leaves will ROW/RIDGE SPACING 30in (75cm) be tough if allowed to mature. Scorzonera ■ Common problems Cabbage root f ly (see p.253), cutworm (p.254), f lea Scorzonera hispanica ■ Routine care Keep well watered; feed beetle (p.255), aphid (p.257), turnip with a general-purpose fertilizer (see pp.20–21) gall weevil (p.263), wireworm (p.264), SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER every 2–3 weeks until tubers have formed. downy and powdery mildews (p.255, p.263) SOW ••••• ■ Harvesting and storing Carefully lift may occur. HARVEST ••• • tubers and cure in sun for 4–7 days. Store ■ Recommended cultivars (see p.73) at 50–59°F (10–15°C). Pick the ‘Golden Ball’—plant produces good quality • leaves as required. of yellow, globe-shaped turnips. ■ Recommended cultivars ‘Oasis’—can be picked at any size with a This is a hardy perennial similar to oyster ‘Beauregard’—golden f leshed tuber, supplied surprisingly sweet juicy f lavor similar to that plant, but with broader leaves and black- as rooted cutting, or slip. of a melon. skinned roots. These are 8in (20cm) long ■ Common problems Aphids (see p.251), ‘Tokyo Cross’—early, with fine f lavor. or more, and have an unusual f lavor. To whitef ly (see p.264), and red spider mite prevent bleeding, wash them just before (see p.261) may be troublesome. boiling them in salted water. Young shoots and f lower buds are also edible. Scorzonera

GROWING THE ONION FAMILY 89 Growing the onion family The onion family includes all edible requirements, but there are exceptions Seed or sets? crops within the genus Allium—ranging (see individual crops, pp.92–94). Top-dress In this bed, shallots from bulb onions through garlic and overwintered onions in spring. have been grown shallots to leeks. Scallions are harvested in two ways—from for use when the bulbs are very small WHY USE SETS? seed and using sets, and the white stems and leaves are There are advantages and disadvantages or bulbs. The seeds still tender. Green onions are evergreen to raising onions from sets, or bulbs. (main picture) have perennials grown for their leaves, Sets are invariably more expensive germinated well and which may be eaten in salads. Japanese than seed and only a limited range have produced a bunching onions are a type of Green of cultivars is available, although this good crop of large onion. Most alliums have similar is being extended. It is usually much shallots. The sets cultivation requirements, and with easier to buy sets and plant them out (inset) have produced careful choice of cultivars and sowing than to grow from seed (see above), and a healthy, but slightly times you can harvest them almost many gardeners choose from among smaller crop in a all year round. Some onions may also available sets in order to get good-sized much shorter time. be lifted and stored for winter use. Bulb mature onions. Sets are less prone to onions may be raised either from seed disease, easier to manage, and earlier for a few months, which kills the or by planting “sets,” which are tiny to mature. They will tolerate poorer embryos that form flower stems. bulbs, with good food reserves, that soils and are more likely to escape the have been specially produced. Leeks attention of onion fly and bean seed fly, SOWING SEED need different treatment (see p.93) from which attack both seeds and seedlings. For onions maturing in the same year, other alliums, because they are grown and for overwintering leeks, sow from for their blanched stemlike shanks. Plants grown from sets are more midwinter to midsummer. To produce likely to bolt (produce a flower stem large onions, sow seed under cover in SITE AND SOIL early and go to seed prematurely). This midwinter at 50–60°F (10–16°C) Members of the onion family need results in small, poor-quality crops. in modules (see p.65) and transplant an open site in order to avoid the high into 3½in (9cm) pots; then harden humidity that can encourage diseases. To reduce the risk of bolting, choose off and plant out in mid-spring. For The soil must be fertile and well- smaller or heat-treated sets. The latter smaller bulbs, sow in late winter under drained, especially for early sowings have been stored at a high temperature cover, without heat, in multiblocks and overwintered crops. Onions will of six per block or singly in smaller not tolerate soil acidity, and lime modules for planting out in mid-spring. dressing should be done where the pH Sow outdoors only when the soil level is below 6.5 (see pp.18–19). To temperature starts to rise and it begins prevent buildup of soil pests or diseases, to dry (see p.66); if the soil is too cold rotate onions around the garden on or damp, germination will be slow at least a three-year cycle (see p.31). and poor. Sow from late winter to midsummer, depending on the crop The ground should be dug a few (see individual crops, pp.92–94). For months in advance, in fall for spring crops maturing early in the following sowings, incorporating plenty of well- year, sow in late summer or early fall. rotted organic matter; do not sow on When the seedlings are big enough, freshly manured ground because the thin according to the desired size of plants are likely to grow too “soft” the final bulb (see left). and will be more susceptible to disease. Alliums generally have low nitrogen Successional sowings (see p.69) about every two weeks are required Thinning onions for salad onions such as scallions, which Seedlings in drills mature in about 10 weeks. They will should be thinned only stand for a couple of weeks. Wet according to the weather increases their susceptibility desired size of to downy mildew (see p.91). bulb—the closer the spacing the smaller PLANTING the bulb. These For seedlings raised under cover or were thinned to 4in in an outdoor seedbed, and for sets, (10cm), 2in (5cm), and 1in (2.5cm), respectively.

90 VEGETABLES planting should be carried out from Planting sets 1When soil conditions are late winter to mid-spring. For heat- workable, lightly press each treated sets, you should wait until 12 of the sets into the bottom of a mid-spring. Before planting, decide shallow drill. Space about 4in on the final size of onion bulbs you soil. Where soil is heavy and wet, plant (10cm) apart, or less if you want. All sizes are equally good in the cloves in module trays (see below) require smaller bulbs (see p.89). cooking and salads, although small in the fall, and place in a sheltered spot onions ripen better and generally outdoors over winter. In this way they 2 Using your fingers, gently last longer when lifted. Plant in rows experience low temperatures but are bring the soil up around 10–12in (25–30cm) apart. not at risk of becoming waterlogged. the sets and firm it so that the tips can still be seen. Remove To produce a high yield of small PLANTING LEEKS any dead leaves or stems. onions, plant 1in (2.5cm) apart; for Leeks differ from onions in that the Watering the sets is only medium-sized bulbs plant 2in (5cm) white stem, or shank, at the base of necessary if the soil is very apart; and for larger bulbs space 4in the leaves is eaten. Although they are dry when you are planting. (10cm) apart. For very big onions, plant sown initially as other seed, in seedbeds 6in (15cm) apart in 12in (30cm) rows. or under cover, leeks are transplanted bundle on the soil, and cut the roots Wide spacing allows good air movement, in a different way from other alliums back to about 1in (2.5cm) in length. which reduces the likelihood of mildew (for sowing methods and transplanting (see below). To grow a good crop of times, see p.93). Each seedling is planted The leaves should be 6–8in multiblock onions (see p.65), plant the quite deeply in a narrow hole, which (15–20cm) long; if they are longer, clusters 12in (30cm) apart each way. produces a long, blanched stem without trim the tops to this length. Some having to earth up the plant. gardeners argue that trimming leeks Use a trowel when transplanting reduces yield, but if they are planted seed-raised seedlings (see pp.70–71) If the seedlings have been raised in a untrimmed it is more difficult to get into their final positions in well- seedbed, carefully lift and separate them the plants into the bottom of the holes. prepared ground. For planting sets, after 8–10 weeks, when they are about rake the soil (see p.40) so that it is 8in (20cm) tall (see facing page). Discard If the seedlings have been raised in loose enough to push the sets into any diseased or damaged plants. Collect modules, gently push out the rootballs shallow drills without compacting a group of similar size together, lay the from below to remove them from the the ground beneath the set. The modules. Make a row of holes 6in roots, when they emerge, should (15cm) deep and 6in (15cm) apart with be able to penetrate the soil and not a dibber (see right). Drop one plant into push the set out of the ground. each hole, making sure it sits on the bottom. Water in along the row using If a good tilth is made, the sets can a fine-rosed can; fill the holes right to be pushed into the soil without effort. the top to settle in the plants. Ensure After placing each set, cover it with that the heart tip of the plant is at or soil and lightly firm the soil around it, just above soil level; the seedling should leaving just the tip exposed (see above). not be completely buried. If sets are planted any shallower than this, birds may take a dustbath in the After planting, water the young area and pull them out of the ground. leeks daily, especially during dry spells, until the plants are established, which Garlic cloves need experience of cold usually takes about a week. You could to develop and are planted directly into also protect them with f leece (see p.69) for a few days to keep them moist. As Planting garlic cloves in modules the plants expand, and with hoeing, watering, and rainfall, the planting 1In the fall, prepare garlic basal 2 holes will fill up completely. cloves by separating them plate from the bulb. Do not use any INTERCROPPING that show signs of disease. 1 Garlic, shallots, scallions, and onion Remove the papery tunic, but sets are suitable for intercropping keep a piece of basal plate. (see p.71) with taller, slower-maturing vegetables such as corn. 2 Insert each clove into a module-tray cell that is HARVESTING ONIONS partly filled with compost. Allow the foliage to die down naturally Cover with compost and keep before lifting the bulbs; folding down in a cool place over winter. In spring, transplant sprouted cloves into their final positions.

GROWING THE ONION FAMILY 91 Planting out young leeks 1In mid-spring for early leeks, or early to midsummer for late leeks, lift 12 seedlings (here ‘Toledo’) from the seedbed 34 drill about eight weeks after sowing, when they are of about pencil thickness. Water the soil first if it is dry. Use a hand fork to loosen the soil beneath the roots, then gently pull the seedlings. 2Select bundles of about 10 seedlings of equal thickness and trim with a sharp knife. Cut the roots to about 1in (2.5cm) and the leaves to 6–8in (15–20cm). 3Draw out a drill in the planting bed and make planting holes with a large dibber, here 6in (15cm) apart and deep. Place one seedling into each hole, so that the heart, or growing point, is at or only just below the soil surface. 4 Water the seedlings well to settle their roots. It is not necessary to fill in the holes; this will occur naturally as the leeks grow. the leaves to help ripening can affect COMMON PROBLEMS late spring to late summer. When storage quality. Any thick-necked sowing seed at these times, use dressed bulbs should be used fresh, since they Most crops in the onion family are seed, treat the drills, or cover the drills will not store well. Lift carefully, so susceptible to the same problems. To with fleece to keep out the flies until as not to bruise the bulbs, and place minimize the effects, grow some of the the crop has germinated. Be careful, them in a single layer on a drying rack cultivars that have inbred resistance, and however, since allium leaves will grow made from chicken wire (see right), use preventative measures such as crop through the fleece fabric, and they can sacking, netting, or inverted wooden rotation (see p.31) and air circulation. then be damaged when the fleece is slatted trays. This keeps them off the removed. Onion thrips (see p.258) and ground and allows plenty of air to Onion white rot (see p.258) is a soil- stem and bulb nematode (see p.262) f low around them. They will ripen borne disease and can stay in the soil for can attack leeks, onions, and shallots. best in full sun, but should be covered 20 years or more—if your onions have in rainy weather. Turn the bulbs it, stop growing them and remove Drying shallots regularly to achieve even ripening. and destroy affected plants. A more Create a drying rack by attaching a piece expensive solution is to replace the of chicken wire to four short posts to raise Bulbs should not be stored until affected soil with clean soil. Be careful the wire off the ground. Place the bulbs on the green parts and the papery not to spread the disease around on top, where air can circulate around them. skins are “rustling” dry. When fully tools and footwear. Downy mildew dried, clean off any loose skins and (see p.254) appears when wet, humid braid the tops into ropes (see p.73) conditions are causing soft growth, or hang the bulbs in bunches. which increases the plants’ susceptibility Alternatively, trim off the tops and to infection. Onions should be kept as store in nets or in single layers in trays dry and hard as possible, so only water (see p.73). Do not store onions in the in very dry conditions. As soon as you dark, since this encourages sprouting. see the tips of the leaves becoming gray and dying back, remove infected BOLTING parts and burn them. Onion neck rot Like some leafy salads, alliums are prone (see p.258) and fusarium, which rots the to premature flowering, or bolting. basal plates of the bulbs (see p.256), affect Sowing later can protect them from overwintered crops. Viruses (see p.263) exposure to cold soil and waterlogging, are occasionally troublesome, especially which may check growth and initiate with garlic, so always buy certified stock bolting. Use heat-treated sets and bolt- to get the best yields. resistant cultivars to avoid this problem. Onion fly (see p.258) is a particular problem in dry soils, and is active from

92 VEGETABLES A–Z OF THE ONION FAMILY Bulb onion fall and dry them (see p.91). Store some bulbs for winter use (see pp.73 and 91). Allium cepa ■ Common problems See p.91 (for symptoms and controls, see Plant Problems, pp.246–264). SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Recommended cultivars SOW/PLANT •• ••• •• Heat-treated sets TRANSPLANT •• ‘Marshall’s Showmaster’—mild, sweet f lavor. HARVEST • ‘Red Baron’—red onion, plant mid-spring. ••• Untreated sets ‘Ruby’—burgundy color and globed shape. Bulb onions are either lifted at time of use or ‘Santero’—resistant to downy mildew, brown skin. stored for winter use. Small bulbs are usually ‘Walla Walla’—harvest early for mildest f lavor. preferred. Most cultivars are yellow- or brown- Seed skinned with white f lesh, but there are also ‘Bedfordshire Champion’—brown skin. red-skinned ones, some of which have red-and- ‘Hylander’—resistant to downy mildew, white striped layers inside. A long season of vigorous. growth is needed, and the final size of the bulb Overwintering is determined by spacing (see pp.89–90). For late- ‘Granex Yellow’—exceptionally sweet, mild onion. summer crops, size is also governed by how much leaf the plant has developed by early summer, Garlic when leaf growth stops and bulbs swell. A 10ft (3m) row will yield 60 small, 30 large, or 15 Allium sativum very large onions, or 21⁄4–61⁄2lb (1–3kg). Onion sets are suitable for intercropping (see p.71). SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Site and soil Bulb onions require an open, PLANT • ••••• fertile, nonacid soil (see p.89). Good drainage HARVEST is needed, especially for an overwintered crop. ••••• For late winter or spring sowings, use a cloche (see p.46) to warm the soil beforehand. Garlic has a strong f lavor and distinctive ■ Sowing and planting Overwintered crops aroma, and is used extensively. A range of are more susceptible to disease, and therefore cultivars is available, some of which are virus- it is better to sow or plant in spring. For year- and nematode-free. Garlic also has medicinal round supplies of onions, sow seed or plant properties and is often recommended for sets twice a year, first in midwinter to mid- use in a healthy diet. Each bulb consists of a spring, and again in fall. Treated seed is available number of individual cloves, which are used that protects against fungal diseases. From late in cooking. Even if the plants bolt, they will winter, sow seed in multiblocks (see p.89); as still produce reasonable bulbs. soon as conditions are warm and dry enough sow thinly outdoors in rows (see p.67), and thin To grow well, garlic requires a cold period the seedlings according to the desired size (see of 1–2 months at 32–50°F (0–10°C), and is p.89). In fall, sow seed of the hardy Japanese usually therefore planted in fall or winter. overwintering cultivars in a seedbed to which Spring-planted garlic may not mature well, a moderate amount of nitrogenous fertilizer (see especially in a poor summer. Expect a yield p.72) has been added. Plant sets (see p.90) from of 17 bulbs per 10ft (3m) row. Garlic is also late winter to early spring, and heat-treated ones suitable for intercropping (see p.71). in mid-spring. Plant sets for overwintering from ■ Site and soil An open, sunny site and a mid- to late fall. Some seedlings may be lost well-drained, light, alkaline soil are best (see during the winter, so you can afford to plant p.89); heavy soils should be lightened with or sow a little more closely. horticultural sharp sand. Give the soil a good dressing of well-rotted organic matter. Avoid SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) using fresh manure for the dressing. PLANT/SET SPACING 1–4in (2.5–10cm) as desired ■ Planting From fall to early spring, split ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) into cloves, ideally 1⁄2in (1.5cm) in diameter, and plant upright either outdoors or in trays, ■ Routine care Keep the crop well weeded, depending on the suitability of your soil (see especially in the first month or so after sowing p.90). Ensure that the basal plate is facing or planting. Water only until the plants are downward. Planting 4in (10cm) deep on light established; if spring-sown or planted onions soils gives the best yields. are watered after midsummer, they take longer to mature and may keep less well. Check regularly PLANTING DEPTH 1–4in (2.5–10cm) for signs of disease. Top-dress overwintering CLOVE SPACING 7in (18cm) crops in midwinter with a nitrogenous fertilizer ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) (see p.20 and p.72), and thin in spring (see p.89). ■ Harvesting and storing Lift overwintered ■ Routine care Keep weed-free and moist onions in early to midsummer. Harvest spring- throughout, to avoid any check in growth. sown or planted onions in late summer to early Planting through a black plastic mulch (see p.42)

A–Z OF THE ONION FAMILY 93 keeps the plants warm as well as retaining Japanese (in spring). Earlies are generally tall, with moisture and suppressing weeds. bunching onion long, white shanks and pale foliage. Later ■ Harvesting and storing Lift fall or winter- ones have darker foliage and shorter shanks. planted bulbs in late spring or early summer, as Allium fistulosum From a 10ft (3m) row expect 81⁄2–13lb (4–6kg) soon as the leaves start to yellow; if harvesting is of early leeks, or 61⁄2–11lb (3–5kg) of late leeks. delayed, bulbs may resprout, and rot more often SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Site and soil Leeks do best on a deep, in storage. Harvest spring-planted bulbs from SOW •••• ••• ••• rich soil of a neutral or slightly acid pH (see midsummer to early fall. Dry well (see p.91), TRANSPLANT p.89), preferably a light sandy loam. Incorporate taking care to avoid bruising them. Store in a HARVEST ••• ••• ••• plenty of organic matter before sowing or dry place (see p.73) at 41–50°F (5–10°C); if planting. With a high-nitrogen base dressing stored correctly, bulbs keep for up to 10 months. Japanese bunching onions are selections (see pp.20–23), leeks produce a good fibrous ■ Common problems As for bulb onions of green onions (see p.93). They are root system, which improves soil structure and (see p.91); rust is often damaging. For symptoms perennial but best grown as annuals; forms therefore contributes well in crop rotations. and controls, see Plant Problems, pp.246–264. vary from small salad onion types to large- ■ Sowing and planting Sow in early to ■ Recommended cultivars leaved types like leeks. The clusters of mid-spring in an outdoor seedbed (see p.66) ‘Bogatyr’—one of the spiciest varieties around, stems, used in salads, are more pungent at a minimum of 44°F (7°C). Alternatively, and a challenge for the palate. than scallions. They will stand without sow in trays in midwinter under cover (see ‘Purple Glazer’—royal purple tinged with shiny winter protection in the open. Plants mature pp.62–63) at a temperature of 50°F (10°C), gold or silver hues makes this an attractive garlic. in two years, growing up to 2ft (60cm). and harden off (see p.65) before transplanting. ‘Purple Moldovia’—purple bulbs with edible A 10ft (3m) row yields 250–300 salad onions, To produce smaller leeks, sow in multiblocks f lowering spikes. or 40–50 large ones. (see p.65) without heat in late winter. ‘Silver Rose’—rose-colored cloves, white bulbs. ■ Site and soil Japanese bunching onions will tolerate less fertile soil conditions than From mid-spring, when seedlings are Green onion most of the onion family (see p.89). 8in (20cm) tall, transplant them (see pp.90–91) ■ Sowing and planting For salad use, into their final positions, using a dibber to Allium fistulosum sow under cover (see p.64), from early fall make deep planting holes. Plant later leeks to late winter. Sow outside from mid-spring to wider apart in rows, to allow them space to SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER midsummer; thin in stages to 3in (8cm) apart. grow larger. By carefully adjusting sowing SOW ••• For larger onions, at the outset sow 2–3 seeds times, you can crop the same cultivar earlier HARVEST ••• • per clump in holes 3in (8cm) apart. Healthy or later than the usual period, but quality clumps can be divided. may not be as good. •• •• ••• • • The Green onion, or ciboule, is a hollow-leaved, SOWING DEPTH 3⁄4in (2cm) SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) robust perennial that grows in clumps 12–18in PLANT SPACING 1in (2.5cm) for salad onions SEED SPACING sow thinly (30–45cm) tall. The base of the stem is thickened, 3in (8cm) for large onions TRANSPLANTING DEPTH 6in (15cm) but does not form a bulb. It is useful as a year- ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) PLANT SPACING 6–8in (15–20cm) round alternative to scallions. The leaves, which ROW SPACING 12–15in (30–38cm) stay green all year, and tiny bulbs are eaten cooked or raw, often in winter salads. In milder ■ Routine care Keep weed-free and moist. ■ Routine care Keep seedbeds and areas, it may be harvested for 2–3 years before ■ Harvesting Seedling leaves may be picked transplanted seedlings free of weeds during the division of the clump in spring or fall (see below). after 10–14 weeks. In the second year, during growing period. Once established, water only in In areas with severe winters, however, it is better fall and winter, harvest the clusters by lifting very dry spells. Top-dress with a high-nitrogen to sow annually. Seed-raised plants are often the plant and splitting off the stems. fertilizer (see pp.20–23) in mid- to late summer, hardier than those created by division. ■ Common problems As for bulb onions or in late winter for late crops. If the leeks have ■ Site and soil Green onions have the same (see p.91). Downy mildew, and rarely rust, may not been planted in deep holes (see pp.90–91) requirements as bulb onions (see p.92). be particularly troublesome. For symptoms and draw soil up around the stems as far as possible ■ Sowing and planting Sow seeds in spring or controls, see Plant Problems, pp.246–264. to aid the blanching process. late summer, and thin to 8in (20cm) apart. For ■ Recommended cultivars ■ Harvesting Lift leeks as required from perennial plants, in spring lift the clump, divide ‘Ishikura’—strong in f lavor in comparison late summer onward. In late spring, you can it into several pieces, each with healthy leaves with scallions, and resistant to mildew. lift and heel them in until needed, if the same and root system, and replant 8in (20cm) apart. ‘Shimonita’—tubular “bulbless” salad onions, ground is intended for other planting. They mild f lavor, strong-growing. will stand for some time at maturity, as long SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) as they are disease-free. SEED SPACING sow thinly; thin to 8in (20cm) Leek ■ Common problems Leeks are affected by ROW SPACING 9in (23cm) all allium-related disorders (see p.91). Fusarium (see p.256) affects leek roots, so they are best ■ Routine care Keep well weeded. Allium porrum raised in trays to give them a good start. Leek ■ Harvesting Plants sown in spring should rust (see p.257), cutworms (see p.254), onion f ly be big enough to start harvesting by fall, and SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER (see p.258), and onion thrips (see p.258) are also those sown in late summer by the following SOW ••• •• significant problems. spring. Cut single leaves as required, or pull TRANSPLANT •• ■ Recommended cultivars up part or all of the clump. HARVEST ••• ‘Blue Solaise’—true blue-green stalks turn bluer ■ Common problems Prey to the same problems ••••• still as weather cools. as all onions (see p.91), but more tolerant of pests. ‘Longbow’—mid-fall to early spring. ■ Recommended cultivars •• • ‘Mammoth Blanch’—does not bolt if sown early, ‘Welsh Red’—native of Siberia, very hardy, crops late summer to early fall. retains foliage in winter. Leeks are a hardy winter crop, grown for their ‘Oarsman’—late hybrid, long straight shank. ‘Welsh White’—native of Siberia, foliage dies blanched white stem bases, or shanks (see p.90), ‘Upton’—mid-season variety that is highly down in winter. which are harvested from late summer to the uniform and provides superb quality. spring of the following year. Cultivars are available that mature early (in late summer and fall), mid-season (in winter), or late

94 VEGETABLES Pickling onion not usually required. For a spring supply SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) the following year, sow in late summer and early fall. The seedlings should make good SEED SPACING 3⁄4in (2cm) growth before winter, otherwise frost may Allium cepa lift them out of the ground, especially if PLANTING DEPTH (SETS) so that just the tips are showing they are growing on light soils. PLANT SPACING (SETS) 6–8in (15–20cm) SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) SOW •• HARVEST SOWING DEPTH 1⁄2–3⁄4in (1–2cm) ■ Routine care Keep weed-free. If conditions • SEED SPACING 1⁄2in (1cm) are dry, water in sets and seedlings to give them ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) a quick start and a firm rooting. These are bulb onion selections (see p.92), grown ■ Harvesting and storing Lift in mid- to late to produce large quantities of very small, tender ■ Routine care Keep the plants watered summer when the tops have died down and dry onions for pickling. Expect 21⁄4–3lb (1–1.5kg) in dry weather to avoid any check in growth. as for bulb onions. Cleaned shallots can be stored from a 10ft (3m) row. Drought can cause the plants to become in trays or bags in a frost-free place (see p.73). ■ Site and soil They do best on a fertile, bulbous, especially ‘Lisbon’ types. In cold If the stock is healthy, save some sets for the well-drained, alkaline soil, like other alliums areas, protect winter crops with a cloche following year—the best size for seed sets is (see p.89), but will tolerate poorer, drier soils. (see p.46). 3⁄4in (2cm) in diameter. ■ Sowing and planting Sow outdoors in ■ Harvesting Pull and use as required after ■ Common problems Shallots are prone to position in early to mid-spring. The best density about two months. the usual onion problems (see p.91), especially is about 30 plants per 1 sq ft (30 sq cm). Sow in ■ Common problems Of the usual onion downy mildew. For symptoms and controls, 12in (30cm) rows, or in bands 9in (23cm) wide aff lictions (see p.91), onion f ly can be seriously see Plant Problems, pp.246–264. with 12in (30cm) between bands. troublesome, especially in dry weather, as ■ Recommended cultivars well as onion white rot and downy mildew. ‘French Gray’—the top choice of gourmet chefs. SOWING DEPTH 1in (2.5cm) For symptoms and controls, see Plant Problems, ‘Pikant’—strongly f lavored, medium-sized SEED SPACING 1⁄4in (5mm) pp.246–264. shallot, stores well, good skin color. ROW SPACING 12in (30cm) ■ Recommended cultivars ‘Matador’—hybrid, heavy yield from seed, Spring-sown good size and color. ■ Routine care Thinning is not needed, ‘Laser’—hybrid, non-bulbing. since small bulbs are desired. Keep weed-free. ‘White Lisbon’—very susceptible to downy Tree or ■ Harvesting and storing The onions are mildew, but an old favorite. Egyptian onion ready for harvesting when the foliage dies Fall-sown down, usually in late summer. Lift and dry ‘Guardsman’—coated for mildew protection. Allium cepa Proliferum Group as for bulb onions (see p.92) and store in a ‘Red Baron—impervious to weather changes cool, dry place (see p.73) until ready to pickle. or growing conditions; keeps its bright colors. ■ Common problems The usual onion pests and diseases (see p.91) may be troublesome: SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER see Plant Problems, pp.246–264. PLANT ■ Recommended cultivars Shallot HARVEST ••• ••• ‘Brown Pickling’—golden brown skin. ‘Giant Zittau’—onions are medium-sized, • larger than those of other cultivars. ‘Paris Silver Skin’—pickles with white f lesh. Allium cepa Aggregatum Group This perennial onion grows up to 4ft (1.2m) ‘Purplette’—unusual, small purple bulbs within two years of planting. It produces for pickling. SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER clusters of very small aerial bulbs instead SOW •• • of f lowers. The bulblets sprout while still TRANSPLANT • attached to the main plant, developing PLANT SETS ••• shoots and further clusters of bulblets to HARVEST •• form a multilayered plant. The stems Scallion •• eventually drop down to the ground under their own weight, where some of the bulblets Allium cepa This easily grown allium has a distinct f lavor, take root and create new plants. Tree onions and can be used for both cooking and pickling. produce only low yields. The bulblets are SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER The most commonly grown types have firm harvested and used as a hot f lavoring in SOW bulbs and yellow or red skins. Shallots are cooking, and are also pickled. No named HARVEST •• •• ••• usually planted as sets, and need a long cultivars are offered. growing season. Early in the season, offsets ■ Site and soil This allium needs a sunny •• ••••• can be pulled off and used raw in salads. situation in fertile, well-drained, alkaline soil. Types with long, narrow bulbs are available, ■ Sowing and planting Plant single bulbs Scallions are immature bulb onions (A. cepa; as are cultivars that can be raised from seed or clusters (see p.90), in spring and fall. see p.92) grown for their small, white shanks to produce single shallots. A 10ft (3m) row and tender, green stem and leaves. They are produces 60–180 shallots. Shallots are suitable PLANTING DEPTH with just the tip showing usually pulled when about 6in (15cm) tall and for intercropping (see p.71). PLANT SPACING 10in (25cm) eaten raw in salads. Most commonly grown ■ Site and soil A fertile, well-drained, ROW SPACING 10in (25cm) are the ‘Lisbon’ cultivars. Expect 250–300 nonacid soil is best (see p.89). For planting per 10ft (3m) row. Scallions are suitable for sets, the soil should be loose (see p.90). ■ Routine care The plants will reproduce intercropping (see p.71). ■ Sowing and planting Sow seed outdoors readily (see above), so may need thinning out ■ Site and soil Prepare as for bulb onions (see p.66) in mid- to late spring, thinning to if they start to crowd one another. (see p.92). Soil alkalinity of pH 6.8 or above 3⁄4 in (2cm). Sow under cover (see p.64) from ■ Harvesting Pick the aerial bulblets as they is needed to achieve best results. late winter and transplant in mid-spring, spacing ripen in late summer, before they start to grow. ■ Sowing and planting For a continual the seedlings 2in (5cm) apart. Plant sets (see p.90) ■ Common problems This crop is prey to the summer harvest, sow in position in single in winter and early and mid-spring, as soon same problems as all onions (see p.91), but more rows every two weeks from early spring. as the soil is workable. Small sets are less likely tolerant of pests. Higher yields could be obtained in closer to bolt than large ones. rows, but the plants will be more susceptible to downy mildew (see below). Thinning is

GROWING LEGUMES 95 Growing legumes The vegetable legumes include beans Examples of French beans such as fava, French or kidney (see right), Lima or butter, runner, and ‘Sprite’ ‘Purple Podded’ ‘Irago’ ‘Hunter’ ‘Borlotto di Fuoco’ yardlong or asparagus beans, as well as (dwarf) (dwarf) (climbing) shelling and edible-pod peas. Although the young shoots may be used as green CHOOSING A SITE acceptable. Peas and beans are generally vegetables, legumes are mainly grown hungry plants, demanding a rich soil. for their seeds and seedpods, which are Peas and beans are affected by similar For best results, organic matter should eaten fresh or dried. All legumes pests and diseases (see pp.98–100), and be incorporated throughout the soil, but are grown as annual crops. Some, such should not be planted in the same soil a traditional trench can be sufficient (see as fava beans and peas, are robust crops every year. They are best grown in below). Adding some extra organic matter that resist frost and are well adapted rotation (see p.31) as a group, usually will also improve the drainage and soil to cool climates. Others, for example, preceding brassicas, which will benefit structure, on heavy clay soils, for example, French and runner beans, are half- from the nitrogen residues in the soil. and helps to retain soil moisture—which hardy and poorly adapted to cool All legumes grow best in full sun, and is very important at flowering time. weather; they thrive best in warm areas the less hardy types demand a warm, from late spring until the fall frosts. sheltered position. THE NEED FOR LEGUME SUPPORTS Many peas and beans are tall-growing NITROGEN “FIXING” Although fava beans favor clay soil, and require some form of support. All the legume family (Leguminosae) other legumes perform best on lighter Without this, they will sprawl, or get has nitrogen-fixing root nodules (see soil. A neutral to mildly alkaline soil f lattened by rain. The benefits of using below), and consequently they need (pH 6.5–7) is ideal, although mildly acid much less nitrogenous fertilizer than soils (not less than pH of 5.5) are usually many other vegetables. The process of absorbing nitrogen from the air takes Preparing a bean trench energy from peas and beans, so that their yields are proportionately lower than those of other crops; therefore, you will need to grow a reasonable number of plants in order to obtain sufficient pickings through the season. On the plus side, however, pea and bean crops are comparatively rich in protein. Another benefit of nitrogen fixing in peas and beans is that their foliage makes a valuable addition to a compost heap. Nitrogen-fixing nodules All legumes store, or fix, nitrogen with the help  of Rhizobium bacteria that live in nodules on their roots. Root residues from legumes are rich in nitrogen and therefore they reduce the need for fertilizer. Cluster of 1Where organic matter is not abundant 2 Scatter organic matter, such as nodules or the soil is especially poor, a compost or rotted manure, over the traditional bean trench will supply the bottom of the trench and the dug-out soil. Nodule nutrients legumes need. Mark out a Replace the soil and apply some pelleted line and excavate a trench 3ft (90cm) poultry manure at a rate of 2 handfuls wide and 2ft (60cm) deep. Fork over per yard (meter). Leave the soil to settle the soil at the base to loosen it up. for at least 2 weeks before planting.

96 VEGETABLES supports also include easier weeding, Types of pea and bean support watering, and pest control, less weather damage, and more and better pods at Rows of stakes Stakes and netting Peasticks harvest time. The disadvantages are Pairs of stakes 6–9in For double rows of peas, These are usually prunings the cost, effort, and inconvenience (15–23cm) apart tied suspend 12–24in (30–60cm) of hazel or birch, inserted of installing the supports. together at the top form a of chicken wire, or plastic in the soil at 12in (30cm) good support for runner pea and bean netting, from intervals. As the crops grow, Common support methods (see right) beans. Secure the top with 4ft (1.2m) stakes placed the sticks form a natural- include bamboo stakes and twine, stakes another stake as a crossbar. at 4ft (1.2m) intervals. looking support system. and netting, and bushy sticks (peasticks). All supports are most easily installed for these plants (see below). String the bean row. A stake positioned every before they are actually needed, and or twine can be used instead of some 4ft (1.2m), with strings running from this helps avoid damaging delicate of the stakes. Train one plant up each stake to stake, will hold up the heaviest stems when trying to raise fallen crops. string or stake. Mesh supported by tall fava bean crop. posts is also suitable for runner beans. Dwarf cultivars of French and runner SUPPORTS FOR PEAS beans, peas, fava beans, and leafless Fava beans are not natural climbers Peas climb by means of tendrils. Better peas can grow without supports, but and should be supported by means of yields and easier picking come from a string along each side of the row is strings running between stakes along supporting peas with netting, sticks, or often helpful. Supports are also not stakes and string. These supports should required where climbing cultivars are be put in place as soon as the seedlings made to branch by pinching out all emerge. Rustic peasticks (see above) are the leading growth when the plant renewable forest products that make is 9in (23cm) tall, followed by further good pea supports. Insert the sticks so pinching to keep the plant bushy. that a continuous “hedge” of twigs is formed. Wire or plastic netting that SUPPORTS FOR BEANS is supported by stakes is an effective Climbing runner and French beans alternative. Peas need a continuous will twine around their supports as run of netting, possibly with a string they grow. Double rows or strong on each side to restrain the crop. wigwams of bamboo stakes are ideal Positioning legumes for optimum growth and yield SOWING THE CROPS Many peas and beans are tall and need some left between them and adjacent crops. Here, support. Since they cast shade, a distance of at runner beans are grown on wigwams of stakes Pea and bean seeds are large and fairly least half the full height of the crop should be about 3ft (90cm) away from marrow plants. expensive. Deep sowing—possibly using a dibber (see p.69)—is needed for legume seeds, but this often leads to seeds being placed at a wet, cold, and airless soil level. Wrinkled-seeded cultivars of peas as well as runner and French bean seeds are prone to rot in low soil temperatures. Such seeds have to be sown when the soil warms in mid-spring, or started under cover (see pp.62–65). The seeds are very attractive to mice, so sowing indoors, in a length of guttering (see facing page), or in containers under cloches also prevents that problem. To increase the chances

GROWING LEGUMES 97 of success even further, soak the seed for Sowing pea seeds in a length of guttering up to 24 hours before sowing, or try pregerminating the seeds in the same 1Three-quarters fill a length way as for germination testing (see p.61). of plastic guttering with seed Sow them when they have roots 1⁄4in compost and sow the seeds (5mm) long, spacing them carefully and 2in (5cm) apart in 2 staggered evenly in the drill, and discarding any rows. Fill with more compost, that have no roots. water, and label. Keep in a bright place under cover at SOWING UNDER COVER a minimum of 50°F (10°C). Sowing in trays (see p.65) is an economical way of raising legumes under 2 Draw out a shallow drill cover. Another option is to sow three outdoors to the depth of the seeds to a 2in (5cm) or 3in (8cm) pot. guttering, when the seedlings Biodegradable pots are suitable for fava are 3in (8cm) tall. Slide the beans, which have tap roots that can be entire section of seedlings into easily damaged. Deep pots, such as tube pots (see p.62) and root trainers (see p.108), 1 2 the drill, firm well, and water. are ideal for the long tap roots of runner beans. You should transplant the An effective way of deciding when to period greatly increases the intensity seedlings outdoors (see below, right) as soon sow is to use the size of the preceding of flowering and setting of pods. as the roots hold the compost together. seedlings as a rough guide (see individual At least 4 gallons per sq yd (22 liters crops, pp.98–100). of water per sq m) will be needed Alternatively, the soil can be warmed, each week for a good crop. and rain excluded, with cloches (see p.46) ROUTINE CARE or some clear film plastic placed over the Legumes are grown in wide rows, and HARVESTING PEAS AND BEANS soil about four weeks before sowing. In so are vulnerable to weeds. Mulching Garden legumes are unsurpassable in warm, moist soil, seed germination is (see pp.41–42) reduces the need for f lavor and texture as long as they are rapid. Cloche and fleece protection for weeding and hoeing, and keeps the soil consumed very soon after picking. seedlings against cold, wind, rain, and moist. Use black plastic sheet mulches Picking them in the morning, while birds is also useful in early to mid-spring. or organic mulches, but take care not the pods are cool, and keeping them to cover plant stems with organic matter. in the refrigerator help to prolong Peas and beans have a relatively short their shelf life. Because these days harvest period, but this can be extended Watering legumes is unnecessary commercially frozen legumes, by using successional sowing (see p.69). before flowering, unless the plants wilt, especially peas, taste nearly as good The plants grow faster in summer than because it promotes foliage growth at as home-grown ones, some gardeners in spring, so later sowings should be the expense of flowers. However, prefer to concentrate on growing the more frequently made than early ones. plentiful watering during the flowering less common cultivars (see individual crops, pp.98–100). To harvest dry peas and beans, treat the pods in the same way as for saving seed (see below). ▲ Transplanting climbing beans SAVING SEEDS With their support system already in place, plant out young plants that were sown under Some legumes are self-pollinated, and, cover as soon as they are large enough. therefore, their seed can be saved in the Position one plant next to each stake. knowledge that there is very little risk of cross-pollination, and the resulting ◀ Pinching out growing tips plants will be true to type. To save the When the plants reach the top of the stakes, seed of known self-pollinators, select pinch out their growing tips in order to some early pods and mark them with stimulate the production of sideshoots. colored yarn. Let the crop mature, and gather the pods before they split and shed the seed. Alternatively, hang up immature pods to finish ripening. Dry the pods in a cool place (see p.61) and shell them; leave the seeds to dry out again, then store them in a dark, cool, dry place. Correctly stored, they should last for several years.

98 VEGETABLES A–Z OF LEGUMES Asparagus pea well-drained (see pp.14–16). The best yields are usually achieved on relatively heavy soils, but Lotus tetragonolobus early crops do well on lighter soil if the plants are watered when in f lower. SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER ■ Sowing and planting Successional sowing SOW •• in spring (see p.69) will give a constant crop TRANSPLANT • from late spring to midsummer; sow the next HARVEST ••• batch when the preceding seedlings reach 3in (8cm). Dwarf cultivars are best for late harvests. This annual is grown for its small, f luted pods. You can sow outdoors in late winter if your These have a fresh f lavor, although they crop soil is not waterlogged and the temperature is lightly and soon become stringy: average yield at least 41ºF (5ºC). In well-drained, sheltered is 1lb per 10ft (450g per 3m) row. This pea has gardens, fall sowing is possible, although the feathery foliage and red-brown f lowers. crop may be lost in a severe winter. Alternatively, ■ Site and soil Use an open site in full sun, make fall and winter sowings under cover, with light but rich soil. or winter ones indoors, transplanting in early ■ Sowing and planting Sow seed in mid- to mid-spring. spring under cover (see pp.96–97), or in late spring outdoors, as for peas (see facing page). SOWING DEPTH 3in (8cm) SEED SPACING 9in (23cm) SOWING DEPTH 11⁄2in (4cm) deep in moist soils ROW SPACING 18in (45cm) between single rows 2in (5cm) in dry soils Double rows 9in (23cm) apart, SEED SPACING 10–12in (25–30cm) 24in (60cm) between rows ROW SPACING 15in (38cm) apart ■ Routine care Control weeds by hoeing, ■ Routine care No support needed, but sticks drawing a little soil around the base of the and stakes keep it within bounds (see p.96). plants to support and protect them. Stake tall ■ Harvesting After two to three months, start cultivars with stakes and string (see p.96). picking immature pods, 1–2in (2.5–5cm) long, When the lowest blossom has set, pinch out and continue regularly throughout summer. the tops to promote earlier cropping and to ■ Common problems As for pea. Pigeons strip remove any blackf ly that may have appeared off foliage in some areas, so you may need to on the top shoots. Watering during f lowering provide protection. For symptoms and controls, in dry spells greatly increases the crop. see Plant Problems, pp.246–264. ■ Harvesting Crops mature in three to four months, although fall- and winter-sown crops Fava bean may take longer. Pick the pods regularly, before they have a chance to get too old—if the part Vicia faba of the seed that attaches it to the pod is brown or black, the pods are too old and the beans SEASON SPRING SUMMER FALL WINTER will probably be tough. The beans mature SOW •• in succession, starting from the bottom of TRANSPLANT •• •• •• the haulm, and several pickings can therefore HARVEST be taken from each crop. •••• ■ Common problems Aphid (see p.252) often sucks the plant sap, sometimes causing both Fava beans are delicious, easy to grow, and very leaves and stems to look soiled and stunted. Pea hardy. Although these annuals are usually grown and bean weevil (see p.258) notches the leaves for the immature, green or white seeds or beans, of young plants, but is not very harmful. Bean young pods and even the shoot tips can be cooked beetle (see p.251) and mice (see p.257) can damage and eaten. White seeds are reputed to be better the seeds. Chocolate spot (see p.254) is destructive f lavored than green ones. Traditional Longpod in wet seasons, especially for overwintered crops. beans have eight seeds per pod, and Windsors, Rust (see p.261) may be a problem. which have shorter, wider pods, have four large ■ Recommended cultivars seeds per pod. Modern fava bean cultivars are ‘Express’—yields well for early plantings. intermediate in length between Longpods and ‘Extra Precoce Bianco’—long pod of bright Windsors, and have shorter stems and small, green color with 6 to 7 grains of sweet taste. tender seeds. Fava bean yields average 61/2lb per ‘Jubilee Hysor’—Windsor, with excellent f lavor 10ft (3kg per 3m) row. Dwarf cultivars, because and acceptable yield. they grow only to about 2ft (60cm)—which is ‘Statissa’—sets early harvests of savory, small- half the height of most fava bean cultivars—are seeded favas. especially suitable for growing in cloches, ‘Stereo’—small pods, mild f lavor, heavy crop. containers, and small gardens. ‘Windsor’—produces up to 3ft- (1m-) tall plants ■ Site and soil Any moderately fertile, well- that are glossy green with 6-8in- (2.5-3cm-) drained soil is suitable. Fava beans have a long long pods. tap root, so the soil should be deeply dug and