Psychology---Class-12

Key Terms Abnormal psychology, Antisocial behaviour, Anxiety, Autism spectrum disorder, Bipolar and related disorders, Deinstitutionalisation, Delusions, Depressive disorders, Diathesis-stress model, Feeding and eating disorders, Genetics, Hallucinations, Hyperactivity, Intellectual disability, Neurodevelopmental disorders, Neurotransmitters, Norms, Obsessive-compulsive disorders, Phobias, Schizophrenia, Somatic symptom and related disorders, Substance related and addictive disorders. • Abnormal behaviour is behaviour that is deviant, distressing, dysfunctional, and dangerous. Those behaviours are seen as abnormal which represent a deviation from social norms and which interfere with optimal functioning and growth. • In the history of abnormal behaviour, the three perspectives are, i.e. the supernatural, the biological or organic, and the psychological. In interactional or bio-psycho-social approach, all three factors, viz. biological, psychological and social play important roles in psychological disorders. • Classification of psychological disorders has been done by the WHO (ICD-10) and the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-5). • A variety of models have been used to explain abnormal behaviour. These are the biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic-existential, diathesis- stress systems, and socio-cultural approaches. • The major psychological disorders include anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and related, trauma-and stressor-related, somatic symptom and related, dissociative, depressive, bipolar and related, schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic, neurodevelopmental, disruptive, impulse-control and conduct, feeding and eating, and substance related and addictive disorders. Review Questions 1. Identify the symptoms associated with depression and mania. 2. Describe the characteristics of children with hyperactivity. 3. What are the consequences of alcohol substance addiction? 4. Can a distorted body image lead to eating disorders? Classify the various forms of it. 5. “Physicians make diagnosis looking at a person’s physical symptoms”. How are psychological disorders diagnosed? 6. Distinguish between obsessions and compulsions. 7. Can a long-standing pattern of deviant behaviour be considered abnormal? Elaborate. 8. While speaking in public the patient changes topics frequently, is this a positive or a negative symptom of schizophrenia? Describe the other symptoms of schizophrenia. 9. What do you understand by the term ‘dissociation’? Discuss its various forms. 10. What are phobias? If someone had an intense fear of snakes, could this simple phobia be a result of faulty learning? Analyse how this phobia could have developed. 11. Anxiety has been called the “butterflies in the stomach feeling”. At what stage does anxiety become a disorder? Discuss its types. Chapter 4 • Psychological Disorders 87 2019-20

Project 1. All of us have changes in mood or mood swings all day. Keep a small diary or notebook with Ideas you and jot down your emotional experiences over 3–4 days. As you go through the day (for instance, when you wake up, go to school/college, meet your friends, return home), you will observe that there are many highs and lows, ups and downs in your moods. Note down when you felt happy or unhappy, felt joy or sadness, felt anger, irritation and other commonly experienced emotions. Also note down the situations which elicited these various emotions. After collecting this information, you will have a better understanding of your own moods and how they fluctuate through the day. 2. Studies have shown that current standards of physical attractiveness have contributed to eating disorders. Thinness is valued in fashion models, actors, and dancers. To study this, observe the people around you. Select at least 10 people (they may include your family, friends and other acquaintances), and rate them in terms of Large, Average and Thin. Then pick up any fashion or film magazine. Look at the pictures of models, winners of beauty competitions, and film stars. Write a paragraph or two describing the magazine’s message to its readers about the normal or acceptable male or female body. Does this view match what you see as normal body types in the general population? 3. Make a list of movies, TV shows, or plays you have seen where a particular psychological disorder has been highlighted. Match the symptoms shown to the ones you have read. Prepare a report. Weblinks http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders http://psyweb.com http://mentalhealth.com Pedagogical Hints 1. The contents on psychological disorders have to be handled sensitively. After becoming familiar with various kinds of disorders and their symptoms, students may begin to feel and may express that they are suffering from one or more of the given disorders. It is important to explain to the students, not to draw any definite conclusions on the basis of some signs/symptoms experienced. 2. Students need to be made aware that mere knowledge and information about psychological disorders do not provide the necessary skills for either diagnosing or treating psychological disorders. 3. Students should be discouraged from attempting to treat each other, as they are not qualified to do so. Specialised training in clinical psychology/counselling is required to undertake psycho- diagnostic testing. 88 Psychology 2019-20

THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: familiarise yourself with the basic nature and process of psychotherapy, appreciate that there are different types of therapies for helping people, understand the use of psychological forms of intervention, and know how people with mental disorders can be rehabilitated. CONTENTS Nature and Process of Psychotherapy Therapeutic Relationship Type of Therapies Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem (Box 5.1) Psychodynamic Therapy Behaviour Therapy Relaxation Procedures (Box 5.2) Cognitive Therapy Humanistic-existential Therapy Biomedical Therapy Alternative Therapies Rehabilitation of the Mentally Ill Key Terms Summary Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 89 2019-20

Introduction In the preceding chapter, you have studied about major psychological disorders and the distress caused by them to the patient and others. In this chapter, you will learn about the various therapeutic methods that are used by psychotherapists to help their patients. There are various types of psychotherapy. Some of them focus on acquiring self-understanding; other therapies are more action-oriented. All approaches hinge on the basic issue of helping the patient overcome her/his debilitating condition. The effectiveness of a therapeutic approach for a patient depends on a number of factors such as severity of the disorder, degree of distress faced by others, and the availability of time, effort and money, among others. All therapeutic approaches are corrective and helping in nature. All of them involve an interpersonal relationship between the therapist and the client or patient. Some of them are directive in nature, such as psychodynamic, while some are non-directive such as person-centred. In this chapter, we will briefly discuss some of the major forms of psychotherapy. NATURE AND PROCESS OF PSYCHOTHERAPY everybody. An untrained person may unintentionally cause more harm than any Psychotherapy is a voluntary relationship good, (iii) the therapeutic situation involves between the one seeking treatment or the a therapist and a client who seeks and client and the one who treats or the receives help for her/his emotional therapist. The purpose of the relationship problems (this person is the focus of is to help the client to solve the attention in the therapeutic process), and psychological problems being faced by her (iv) the interaction of these two persons — or him. The relationship is conducive for the therapist and the client — results in building the trust of the client so that the consolidation/formation of the problems may be freely discussed. therapeutic relationship. This is a Psychotherapies aim at changing the confidential, interpersonal, and dynamic maladaptive behaviours, decreasing the relationship. This human relationship is sense of personal distress, and helping the central to any sort of psychological therapy client to adapt better to her/his and is the vehicle for change. environment. Inadequate marital, occupational and social adjustment also All psychotherapies aim at a few or all requires that major changes be made in an of the following goals : individual’s personal environment. (i) Reinforcing client’s resolve for All psychotherapeutic approaches have betterment. the following characteristics : (i) there is systematic application of principles (ii) Lessening emotional pressure. underlying the different theories of (iii) Unfolding the potential for positive therapy, (ii) persons who have received practical training under expert supervision growth. can practice psychotherapy, and not (iv) Modifying habits. (v) Changing thinking patterns. (vi) Increasing self-awareness. (vii) Improving interpersonal relations and communication. 90 Psychology 2019-20

(viii) Facilitating decision-making. suffering of another but is not able to feel (ix) Becoming aware of one’s choices in like the other person. Intellectual understanding is cold in the sense that the life. person is unable to feel like the other (x) Relating to one’s social environment in person and does not feel sympathy either. On the other hand, empathy is present a more creative and self-aware when one is able to understand the plight manner. of another person, and feel like the other person. It means understanding things Therapeutic Relationship from the other person’s perspective, i.e. putting oneself in the other person’s shoes. The special relationship between the client Empathy enriches the therapeutic and the therapist is known as the relationship and transforms it into a therapeutic relationship or alliance. It is healing relationship. neither a passing acquaintance, nor a permanent and lasting relationship. There The therapeutic alliance also requires are two major components of a therapeutic that the therapist must keep strict alliance. The first component is the confidentiality of the experiences, events, contractual nature of the relationship in feelings or thoughts disclosed by the client. which two willing individuals, the client The therapist must not exploit the trust and the therapist, enter into a partnership and the confidence of the client in anyway. which aims at helping the client overcome Finally, it is a professional relationship, her/his problems. The second component and must remain so. of therapeutic alliance is the limited duration of the therapy. This alliance lasts A classmate or friend of yours or your Activity until the client becomes able to deal with favourite character in a TV serial may 5.1 her/his problems and take control of her/ have recently experienced a negative his life. This relationship has several or a traumatic life event (e.g., death unique properties. It is a trusting and of a loved one, break-up of an confiding relationship. The high level of important friendship or relationship) trust enables the client to unburden of which you are aware. Try to put herself/himself to the therapist and confide yourself in the other person’s shoes, her/his psychological and personal try to experience how that person is problems to the latter. The therapist feeling, what s/he is thinking and try encourages this by being accepting, to take her/his perspective of the empathic, genuine and warm to the client. entire situation. This will help you to The therapist conveys by her/his words understand better how that person is and behaviours that s/he is not judging feeling. the client and will continue to show the same positive feelings towards the client (Note : This exercise may be done in even if the client is rude or confides all the class, so that teachers can help ‘wrong’ things that s/he may have done or students in overcoming any distress thought about. This is the unconditional experienced). positive regard which the therapist has for the client. The therapist has empathy for TYPE OF THERAPIES the client. Empathy is different from sympathy and intellectual understanding Though all psychotherapies aim at of another person’s situation. In sympathy, removing human distress and fostering one has compassion and pity towards the effective behaviour, they differ greatly in Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 91 2019-20

concepts, methods, and techniques. thoughts and feelings of the client. This Psychotherapies may be classified into material is interpreted to the client to three broad groups, viz. the help her/him to confront and resolve psychodynamic, behaviour, and existential the conflicts and thus overcome psychotherapies. In terms of the problems. Behaviour therapy identifies chronological order, psychodynamic the faulty conditioning patterns and therapy emerged first followed by sets up alternate behavioural behaviour therapy while the existential contingencies to improve behaviour. therapies which are also called the third The cognitive methods employed in this force, emerged last. The classification of type of therapy challenge the faulty psychotherapies is based on the following thinking patterns of the client to help parameters: her/him overcome psychological distress. The existential therapy 1. What is the cause, which has led to the provides a therapeutic environment problem? which is positive, accepting, and non- Psychodynamic therapy is of the view judgmental. The client is able to talk that intrapsychic conflicts, i.e. the about the problems and the therapist conflicts that are present within the acts as a facilitator. The client arrives psyche of the person, are the source of at the solutions through a process of psychological problems. According to personal growth. behaviour therapies, psychological problems arise due to faulty learning of 4. What is the nature of the therapeutic behaviours and cognitions. The relationship between the client and the existential therapies postulate that the therapist? questions about the meaning of one’s Psychodynamic therapy assumes that life and existence are the cause of the therapist understands the client’s psychological problems. intrapsychic conflicts better than the client and hence it is the therapist who 2. How did the cause come into existence? interprets the thoughts and feelings of In the psychodynamic therapy, the client to her/him so that s/he gains unfulfilled desires of childhood and an understanding of the same. The unresolved childhood fears lead to behaviour therapy assumes that the intrapsychic conflicts. The behaviour therapist is able to discern the faulty therapy postulates that faulty behaviour and thought patterns of the conditioning patterns, faulty learning, client. It further assumes that the and faulty thinking and beliefs lead to therapist is capable of finding out the maladaptive behaviours that, in turn, correct behaviour and thought lead to psychological problems. The patterns, which would be adaptive for existential therapy places importance the client. Both the psychodynamic and on the present. It is the current feelings the behaviour therapies assume that of loneliness, alienation, sense of futility the therapist is capable of arriving at of one’s existence, etc., which cause solutions to the client’s problems. In psychological problems. contrast to these therapies, the existential therapies emphasise that the 3. What is the chief method of treatment? therapist merely provides a warm, Psychodynamic therapy uses the empathic relationship in which the methods of free association and client feels secure to explore the nature reporting of dreams to elicit the 92 Psychology 2019-20

and causes of her/his problems by and one’s aspirations, emotions and herself/himself. motives. 5. What is the chief benefit to the client? 6. What is the duration of treatment? Psychodynamic therapy values The duration of classical psycho- emotional insight as the important analysis may continue for several years. benefit that the client derives from the However, several recent versions of treatment. Emotional insight is present psychodynamic therapies are completed when the client understands her/his in 10–15 sessions. Behaviour and conflicts intellectually; is able to accept cognitive behaviour therapies as well as the same emotionally; and is able to existential therapies are shorter and are change her/his emotions towards the completed in a few months. conflicts. The client’s symptoms and distresses reduce as a consequence of Thus, different types of psycho- this emotional insight. The behaviour therapies differ on multiple parameters. therapy considers changing faulty However, they all share the common behaviour and thought patterns to method of providing treatment for adaptive ones as the chief benefit of the psychological distress through psycho- treatment. Instituting adaptive or logical means. The therapist, the healthy behaviour and thought therapeutic relationship, and the process patterns ensures reduction of distress of therapy become the agents of change in and removal of symptoms. The the client leading to the alleviation of humanistic therapy values personal psychological distress. The process of growth as the chief benefit. Personal psychotherapy begins by formulating the growth is the process of gaining client’s problem. Steps involved in the increasing understanding of oneself, formulation of a client’s problem are given in Box 5.1. Steps in the Formulation of a Client’s Problem Box 5.1 Clinical formulation refers to formulating the problem of the client in the therapeutic model being used for the treatment. The clinical formulation has the following advantages: 1. Understanding of the problem : The therapist is able to understand the full implications of the distress being experienced by the client. 2. Identification of the areas to be targetted for treatment in psychotherapy : The theoretical formulation clearly identifies the problem areas to be targetted for therapy. Thus, if a client seeks help for inability to hold a job and reports inability to face superiors, the clinical formulation in behaviour therapy would state it as lack of assertiveness skills and anxiety. The target areas have thus been identified as inability to assert oneself and heightened anxiety. 3. Choice of techniques for treatment : The choice of techniques for treatment depends on the therapeutic system in which the therapist has been trained. However, even within this broad domain, the choice of techniques, timing of the techniques, and expectations of outcome of the therapy depend upon the clinical formulation. The clinical formulation is an ongoing process. Formulations may require reformulations as clinical insights are gained in the process of therapy. Usually the first one or two sessions yield enough clinical material for the initial clinical formulation. It is not advisable to start psychotherapy without a clinical formulation. Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 93 2019-20

Activity Gather information about some a therapeutic relationship is established, 5.2 institutions you know which offer and the client feels comfortable, the psychiatric/psychotherapeutic help. therapist makes her/him lie down on the couch, close her/his eyes and asks her/ The following sections explain him to speak whatever comes to mind representative therapies from each of the without censoring it in anyway. The client three major systems of psychotherapy is encouraged to freely associate one mentioned earlier. thought with another, and this method is called the method of free association. The Psychodynamic Therapy censoring superego and the watchful ego are kept in abeyance as the client speaks As you have already read, the whatever comes to mind in an atmosphere psychodynamic therapy pioneered by that is relaxed and trusting. As the Sigmund Freud is the oldest form of therapist does not interrupt, the free flow psychotherapy. His close collaborator Carl of ideas, desires and conflicts of the Jung modified it to what came to be known unconscious, which had been suppressed as the analytical psychotherapy. by the ego, emerge into the conscious Subsequently, Freud’s successors, known mind. This free uncensored verbal as Neo-Freudians, established their own narrative of the client is a window into the versions of classical psychodynamic client’s unconscious to which the therapist therapy. Broadly, the psychodynamic gains access. Along with this technique, therapy has conceptualised the structure the client is asked to write down her/his of the psyche, dynamics between different dreams upon waking up. Psychoanalysts components of the psyche, and the source look upon dreams as symbols of the of psychological distress. You have already unfulfilled desires present in the studied these concepts in the chapters on unconscious. The images of the dreams are Self and Personality, and Psychological symbols which signify intrapsychic forces. Disorders. The method of treatment, steps Dreams use symbols because they are in the treatment, nature of the therapeutic indirect expressions and hence would not relationship, and the expected outcome alert the ego. If the unfulfilled desires are from the psychodynamic therapy are expressed directly, the ever-vigilant ego explained below. would suppress them and that would lead to anxiety. These symbols are interpreted Methods of Eliciting the Nature of according to an accepted convention of Intrapsychic Conflict translation as the indicators of unfulfilled desires and conflicts. Since the psychoanalytic approach views intrapsychic conflicts to be the cause of Modality of Treatment psychological disorder, the first step in the treatment is to elicit this intrapsychic Transference and Interpretation are the conflict. Psychoanalysis has invented free means of treating the patient. As the association and dream interpretation as unconscious forces are brought into the two important methods for eliciting the conscious realm through free association intrapsychic conflicts. The free association and dream interpretation described above, method is the main method for the client starts identifying the therapist understanding the client’s problems. Once with the authority figures of the past, usually childhood. The therapist may be 94 Psychology 2019-20

seen as the punitive father, or as the anxiety, fear, or shame, which are causing negligent mother. The therapist maintains the resistance. a non-judgmental yet permissive attitude and allows the client to continue with this Interpretation is the fundamental process of emotional identification. This is mechanism by which change is effected. the process of transference. The therapist Confrontation and clarification are the encourages this process because it two analytical techniques of interpretation. helps her/him in understanding the In confrontation, the therapist points out unconscious conflicts of the client. The to the client an aspect of her/his psyche client acts out her/his frustrations, anger, that must be faced by the client. fear, and depression that s/he harboured Clarification is the process by which the towards that person in the past, but could therapist brings a vague or confusing event not express at that time. The therapist into sharp focus. This is done by becomes a substitute for that person in separating and highlighting important the present. This stage is called details about the event from unimportant transference neurosis. A full-blown ones. Interpretation is a more subtle transference neurosis is helpful in making process. It is considered to be the pinnacle the therapist aware of the nature of of psychoanalysis. The therapist uses the intrapsychic conflicts suffered by the unconscious material that has been client. There is the positive transference uncovered in the process of free in which the client idolises, or falls in association, dream interpretation, love with the therapist, and seeks transference and resistance to make the the therapist’s approval. Negative client aware of the psychic contents and transference is present when the client conflicts which have led to the occurrence has feelings of hostility, anger, and of certain events, symptoms and conflicts. resentment towards the therapist. Interpretation can focus on intrapsychic conflicts or on deprivations suffered in The process of transference is met with childhood. The repeated process of using resistance. Since the process of confrontation, clarification, and inter- transference exposes the unconscious pretation is known as working through. wishes and conflicts, thereby increasing Working through helps the patient to the distress levels, the client resists understand herself/himself and the source transference. Due to resistance, the client of the problem and to integrate the opposes the progress of therapy in order uncovered material into her/his ego. to protect herself/himself from the recall of painful unconscious memories. The outcome of working through is Resistance can be conscious or insight. Insight is not a sudden event but unconscious. Conscious resistance is a gradual process wherein the unconscious present when the client deliberately hides memories are repeatedly integrated into some information. Unconscious resistance conscious awareness; these unconscious is assumed to be present when the client events and memories are re-experienced in becomes silent during the therapy session, transference and are worked through. As recalls trivial details without recalling the this process continues, the client starts to emotional ones, misses appointments, and understand herself/himself better at an comes late for therapy sessions. The intellectual and emotional level, and gains therapist overcomes the resistance by insight into her/his conflicts and repeatedly confronting the patient about it problems. The intellectual understanding and by uncovering emotions such as is the intellectual insight. The emotional understanding, acceptance of one’s Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 95 2019-20

irrational reaction to the unpleasant events faulty patterns are corrected in the of the past, and the willingness to change present. emotionally as well as making the change is emotional insight. Insight is the end The clinical application of learning point of therapy as the client has gained theory principles constitute behaviour a new understanding of herself/himself. In therapy. Behaviour therapy consists of a turn, the conflicts of the past, defence large set of specific techniques and mechanisms and physical symptoms are interventions. It is not a unified theory, no longer present and the client becomes which is applied irrespective of the clinical a psychologically healthy person. diagnosis or the symptoms present. The Psychoanalysis is terminated at this symptoms of the client and the clinical stage. diagnosis are the guiding factors in the selection of the specific techniques or Duration of Treatment interventions to be applied. Treatment of phobias or excessive and crippling fears Psychoanalysis lasts for several years, with would require the use of one set of one hour session for 4–5 days per week. techniques while that of anger outbursts It is an intense treatment. There are three would require another. A depressed client stages in the treatment. Stage one is the would be treated differently from a client initial phase. The client becomes familiar who is anxious. The foundation of with the routines, establishes a therapeutic behaviour therapy is on formulating relationship with the analyst, and gets dysfunctional or faulty behaviours, the some relief with the process of recollecting factors which reinforce and maintain these the superficial materials from the behaviours, and devising methods by consciousness about the past and present which they can be changed. troublesome events. Stage two is the middle phase, which is a long process. It Method of Treatment is characterised by transference, resistance on the part of the client, and confrontation The client with psychological distress or and clarification, i.e. working through on with physical symptoms, which cannot be the therapist’s part. All these processes attributed to physical disease, is finally lead to insight. The third phase is interviewed with a view to analyse her/his the termination phase wherein the behaviour patterns. Behavioural analysis is relationship with the analyst is dissolved conducted to find malfunctioning and the client prepares to leave the behaviours, the antecedents of faulty therapy. learning, and the factors that maintain or continue faulty learning. Malfunctioning Behaviour Therapy behaviours are those behaviours which cause distress to the client. Antecedent Behaviour therapies postulate that factors are those causes which predispose psychological distress arises because of the person to indulge in that behaviour. faulty behaviour patterns or thought Maintaining factors are those factors which patterns. It is, therefore, focused on the lead to the persistence of the faulty behaviour and thoughts of the client in the behaviour. An example would be a young present. The past is relevant only to the person who has acquired the extent of understanding the origins of the malfunctioning behaviour of smoking and faulty behaviour and thought patterns. The seeks help to get rid of smoking. past is not activated or relived. Only the Behavioural analysis conducted by 96 Psychology 2019-20

interviewing the client and the family food at dinner. Praising the child when members reveals that the person started s/he eats properly tends to encourage this smoking when he was preparing for the behaviour. The antecedent operation is the annual examination. He had reported relief reduction of food at tea time and the from anxiety upon smoking. Thus, anxiety- consequent operation is praising the child provoking situation becomes the causative for eating dinner. It establishes the or antecedent factor. The feeling of relief response of eating dinner. becomes the maintaining factor for him to continue smoking. The client has acquired Behavioural Techniques the operant response of smoking, which is maintained by the reinforcing value of relief A range of techniques is available for from anxiety. changing behaviour. The principles of these techniques are to reduce the arousal level Once the faulty behaviours which of the client, alter behaviour through cause distress, have been identified, a classical conditioning or operant treatment package is chosen. The aim of conditioning with different contingencies of the treatment is to extinguish or eliminate reinforcements, as well as to use vicarious the faulty behaviours and substitute them learning procedures, if necessary. with adaptive behaviour patterns. The therapist does this through establishing Negative reinforcement and aversive antecedent operations and consequent conditioning are the two major techniques operations. Antecedent operations control of behaviour modification. As you have behaviour by changing something that already studied in Class XI, responses that precedes such a behaviour. The change lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli can be done by increasing or decreasing or avoid and escape from them provide the reinforcing value of a particular negative reinforcement. For example, one consequence. This is called establishing learns to put on woollen clothes, burn operation. For example, if a child gives firewood or use electric heaters to avoid the trouble in eating dinner, an establishing unpleasant cold weather. One learns to operation would be to decrease the move away from dangerous stimuli because quantity of food served at tea time. This they provide negative reinforcement. would increase the hunger at dinner and Aversive conditioning refers to repeated thereby increase the reinforcing value of association of undesired response with an aversive consequence. For example, an Relaxation Procedures Box 5.2 Anxiety is a manifestation of the psychological distress for which the client seeks treatment. The behavioural therapist views anxiety as increasing the arousal level of the client, thereby acting as an antecedent factor in causing the faulty behaviour. The client may smoke to decrease anxiety, may indulge in other activities such as eating, or be unable to concentrate for long hours on her/his study because of the anxiety. Therefore, reduction of anxiety would decrease the unwanted behaviours of excessive eating or smoking. Relaxation procedures are used to decrease the anxiety levels. For instance, progressive muscular relaxation and meditation induce a state of relaxation. In progressive muscular relaxation, the client is taught to contract individual muscle groups in order to give the awareness of tenseness or muscular tension. After the client has learnt to tense the muscle group such as the forearm, the client is asked to let go the tension. The client is told that the tension is what the client has at present and that s/he has to get into the opposite state. With repeated practice the client learns to relax all the muscles of the body. You will learn about meditation at a later point in this chapter. Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 97 2019-20

alcoholic is given a mild electric shock and fears. The client is interviewed to elicit fear- asked to smell the alcohol. With repeated provoking situations and together with the pairings the smell of alcohol is aversive as client, the therapist prepares a hierarchy the pain of the shock is associated with it of anxiety-provoking stimuli with the least and the person will give up alcohol. If an anxiety-provoking stimuli at the bottom of adaptive behaviour occurs rarely, positive the hierarchy. The therapist relaxes the reinforcement is given to increase the client and asks the client to think about deficit. For example, if a child does not do the least anxiety-provoking situation. homework regularly, positive reinforcement Box 5.2 gives details of relaxation may be used by the child’s mother by procedures. The client is asked to stop preparing the child’s favourite dish thinking of the fearful situation if the whenever s/he does homework at the slightest tension is felt. Over sessions, the appointed time. The positive reinforcement client is able to imagine more severe fear- of food will increase the behaviour of doing provoking situations while maintaining the homework at the appointed time. Persons relaxation. The client gets systematically with behavioural problems can be given a desensitised to the fear. token as a reward every time a wanted behaviour occurs. The tokens are collected The principle of reciprocal inhibition and exchanged for a reward such as an operates here. This principle states that the outing for the patient or a treat for the child. presence of two mutually opposing forces This is known as token economy. at the same time, inhibits the weaker force. Thus, the relaxation response is first built Unwanted behaviour can be reduced up and mildly anxiety-provoking scene is and wanted behaviour can be increased imagined, and the anxiety is overcome by simultaneously through differential the relaxation. The client is able to tolerate reinforcement. Positive reinforcement for progressively greater levels of anxiety the wanted behaviour and negative because of her/his relaxed state. reinforcement for the unwanted behaviour Modelling is the procedure wherein the attempted together may be one such client learns to behave in a certain way by method. The other method is to positively observing the behaviour of a role model or reinforce the wanted behaviour and ignore the therapist who initially acts as the role the unwanted behaviour. The latter method model. Vicarious learning, i.e. learning by is less painful and equally effective. For observing others, is used and through a example, let us consider the case of a girl who sulks and cries when she is not taken Your friend is feeling very nervous Activity to the cinema when she asks. The parent and panicky before the examinations. 5.3 is instructed to take her to the cinema if S/he is pacing up and down, is she does not cry and sulk but not to take unable to study and feels s/he has her if she does. Further, the parent is forgotten all that s/he has learnt. Try instructed to ignore the girl when she cries to help her/him to relax by inhaling and sulks. The wanted behaviour of (taking in a deep breath), holding it politely asking to be taken to the cinema for sometime (5–10 seconds), then increases and the unwanted behaviour of exhaling (releasing the breath). Ask crying and sulking decreases. her/him to repeat this 5–10 times. Also ask her/him to remain focused You read about phobias or irrational on her/his breathing. You can do fears in the previous chapter. Systematic the same exercise when you feel desensitisation is a technique introduced nervous. by Wolpe for treating phobias or irrational 98 Psychology 2019-20

process of rewarding small changes in the assumptions about life and problems. behaviour, the client gradually learns to Gradually the client is able to change the acquire the behaviour of the model. irrational beliefs by making a change in her/his philosophy about life. The rational There is a great variety of techniques in belief system replaces the irrational belief behaviour therapy. The skill of the system and there is a reduction in therapist lies in conducting an accurate psychological distress. behavioural analysis and building a treatment package with the appropriate Another cognitive therapy is that of techniques. Aaron Beck. His theory of psychological distress characterised by anxiety or Cognitive Therapy depression, states that childhood experiences provided by the family and Cognitive therapies locate the cause of society develop core schemas or systems, psychological distress in irrational which include beliefs and action patterns thoughts and beliefs. Albert Ellis in the individual. Thus, a client, who was formulated the Rational Emotive Therapy neglected by the parents as a child, (RET). The central thesis of this therapy is develops the core schema of “I am not that irrational beliefs mediate between the wanted”. During the course of life, a critical antecedent events and their consequences. incident occurs in her/his life. S/he is The first step in RET is the antecedent- publicly ridiculed by the teacher in school. belief-consequence (ABC) analysis. This critical incident triggers the core Antecedent events, which caused the schema of “I am not wanted” leading to the psychological distress, are noted. The development of negative automatic client is also interviewed to find the thoughts. Negative thoughts are persistent irrational beliefs, which are distorting the irrational thoughts such as “nobody loves present reality. Irrational beliefs may not me”, “I am ugly”, “I am stupid”, “I will not be supported by empirical evidence in the succeed”, etc. Such negative automatic environment. These beliefs are thoughts are characterised by cognitive characterised by thoughts with ‘musts’ distortions. Cognitive distortions are ways and ‘shoulds’, i.e. things ‘must’ and of thinking which are general in nature but ‘should’ be in a particular manner. which distort the reality in a negative Examples of irrational beliefs are, “One manner. These patterns of thought should be loved by everybody all the time”, are called dysfunctional cognitive “Human misery is caused by external structures. They lead to errors of cognition events over which one does not have any about the social reality. control”, etc. This distorted perception of the antecedent event due to the irrational Repeated occurrence of these thoughts belief leads to the consequence, i.e. leads to the development of feelings of negative emotions and behaviours. anxiety and depression. The therapist uses Irrational beliefs are assessed through questioning, which is gentle, non- questionnaires and interviews. In the threatening disputation of the client’s process of RET, the irrational beliefs are beliefs and thoughts. Examples of such refuted by the therapist through a process question would be, “Why should everyone of non-directive questioning. The nature of love you?”, “What does it mean to you to questioning is gentle, without probing or succeed?”, etc. The questions make the being directive. The questions make the client think in a direction opposite to that client to think deeper into her/his of the negative automatic thoughts whereby s/he gains insight into the nature Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 99 2019-20

of her/his dysfunctional schemas, and is and self-actualisation, and an innate need able to alter her/his cognitive structures. to grow emotionally. When these needs are The aim of the therapy is to achieve this curbed by society and family, human cognitive restructuring which, in turn, beings experience psychological distress. reduces anxiety and depression. Self-actualisation is defined as an innate or inborn force that moves the person to Similar to behaviour therapy, cognitive become more complex, balanced, and therapy focuses on solving a specific integrated, i.e. achieving the complexity problem of the client. Unlike psycho- and balance without being fragmented. dynamic therapy, behaviour therapy is Integrated means a sense of whole, being open, i.e. the therapist shares her/his a complete person, being in essence the method with the client. It is short, lasting same person in spite of the variety of between 10–20 sessions. experiences that one is subjected to. Just as lack of food or water causes distress, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy frustration of self-actualisation also causes distress. The most popular therapy presently is the Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT). Healing occurs when the client is able Research into the outcome and to perceive the obstacles to self- effectiveness of psychotherapy has actualisation in her/his life and is able to conclusively established CBT to be a short remove them. Self-actualisation requires and efficacious treatment for a wide range free emotional expression. The family and of psychological disorders such as anxiety, society curb emotional expression, as it is depression, panic attacks, and borderline feared that a free expression of emotions personality, etc. CBT adopts a bio- can harm society by unleashing psychosocial approach to the delineation of destructive forces. This curb leads to psychopathology. It combines cognitive destructive behaviour and negative therapy with behavioural techniques. emotions by thwarting the process of emotional integration. Therefore, the The rationale is that the client’s distress therapy creates a permissive, non- has its origins in the biological, judgmental and accepting atmosphere in psychological, and social realms. Hence, which the client’s emotions can be freely addressing the biological aspects through expressed and the complexity, balance and relaxation procedures, the psychological integration could be achieved. The ones through behaviour therapy and fundamental assumption is that the client cognitive therapy techniques and the social has the freedom and responsibility to ones with environmental manipulations control her/his own behaviour. The makes CBT a comprehensive technique therapist is merely a facilitator and guide. which is easy to use, applicable to a variety It is the client who is responsible for the of disorders, and has proven efficacy. success of therapy. The chief aim of the therapy is to expand the client’s awareness. Humanistic-existential Therapy Healing takes place by a process of understanding the unique personal The humanistic-existential therapies experience of the client by herself/himself. postulate that psychological distress arises The client initiates the process of self- from feelings of loneliness, alienation, and growth through which healing takes an inability to find meaning and genuine place. fulfilment in life. Human beings are motivated by the desire for personal growth 100 Psychology 2019-20

Existential Therapy relationship in which the client can reconnect with her/his disintegrated Victor Frankl, a psychiatrist and feelings. The therapist shows empathy, i.e. neurologist propounded the Logotherapy. understanding the client’s experience as if Logos is the Greek word for soul and it were her/his own, is warm and has Logotherapy means treatment for the soul. unconditional positive regard, i.e. total Frankl calls this process of finding acceptance of the client as s/he is. meaning even in life-threatening Empathy sets up an emotional resonance circumstances as the process of meaning between the therapist and the client. making. The basis of meaning making is a Unconditional positive regard indicates person’s quest for finding the spiritual that the positive warmth of the therapist truth of one’s existence. Just as there is is not dependent on what the client reveals an unconscious, which is the repository of or does in the therapy sessions. This instincts (see Chapter 2), there is a unique unconditional warmth ensures that spiritual unconscious, which is the the client feels secure and can trust the storehouse of love, aesthetic awareness, therapist. The client feels secure enough to and values of life. Neurotic anxieties arise explore her/his feelings. The therapist when the problems of life are attached to reflects the feelings of the client in a non- the physical, psychological or spiritual judgmental manner. The reflection is aspects of one’s existence. Frankl achieved by rephrasing the statements of emphasised the role of spiritual anxieties the client, i.e. seeking simple clarifications in leading to meaninglessness and hence to enhance the meaning of the client’s it may be called an existential anxiety, i.e. statements. This process of reflection helps neurotic anxiety of spiritual origin. The the client to become integrated. Personal goal of logotherapy is to help the patients relationships improve with an increase in to find meaning and responsibility in adjustment. In essence, this therapy helps their life irrespective of their life a client to become her/his real self with the circumstances. The therapist emphasises therapist working as a facilitator. the unique nature of the patient’s life and encourages them to find meaning in their Gestalt Therapy life. The German word gestalt means ‘whole’. In Logotherapy, the therapist is open This therapy was given by Freiderick (Fritz) and shares her/his feelings, values and Perls together with his wife Laura Perls. his/her own existence with the client. The The goal of gestalt therapy is to increase emphasis is on here and now. Transference an individual’s self-awareness and self- is actively discouraged. The therapist acceptance. The client is taught to reminds the client about the immediacy of recognise the bodily processes and the the present. The goal is to facilitate the emotions that are being blocked out from client to find the meaning of her/his being. awareness. The therapist does this by encouraging the client to act out fantasies Client-centred Therapy about feelings and conflicts. This therapy can also be used in group settings. Client-centred therapy was given by Carl Rogers. Rogers combined scientific rigour Biomedical Therapy with the individualised practice of client- centred psychotherapy. Rogers brought Medicines may be prescribed to treat into psychotherapy the concept of self, with psychological disorders. Prescription of freedom and choice as the core of one’s medicines for treatment of mental being. The therapy provides a warm Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 101 2019-20

disorders is done by qualified medical and the implementation of the same professionals known as psychiatrists. They with the patient/client. If the are medical doctors who have specialised behavioural system and the CBT school in the understanding, diagnosis and are adopted to heal an anxious client, treatment of mental disorders. The nature the relaxation procedures and the of medicines used depends on the nature cognitive restructuring largely of the disorders. Severe mental disorders contribute to the healing. such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder 2. The therapeutic alliance, which is require anti-psychotic drugs. Common formed between the therapist and the mental disorders such as generalised patient/client, has healing properties, anxiety or reactive depression may also because of the regular availability of the require milder drugs. The medicines therapist, and the warmth and prescribed to treat mental disorders can empathy provided by the therapist. cause side-effects which need to be 3. At the outset of therapy while the understood and monitored. Hence, it is patient/client is being interviewed in essential that medication is given under the initial sessions to understand the proper medical supervision. Even the nature of the problem, s/he unburdens drugs which normal individuals use to stay the emotional problems being faced. awake to study for examinations or to get This process of emotional unburdening a ‘high’ at a party have dangerous is known as catharsis, and it has side-effects. These drugs can cause healing properties. addiction, and harm the brain and the 4. There are several non-specific factors body. Therefore, it is dangerous to self- associated with psychotherapy. Some medicate with drugs which affect the mind. of these factors are attributed to the patient/client and some to the You must have seen people with mental therapist. These factors are called problems being given electric shocks in non-specific because they occur across films. Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) different systems of psychotherapy and is another form of biomedical therapy. Mild across different clients/patients and electric shock is given via electrodes to the different therapists. Non-specific factors brain of the patient to induce convulsions. attributable to the client/patient are The shock is given by the psychiatrist only motivation for change, expectation of when it is necessary for the improvement improvement due to the treatment, etc. of the patient. ECT is not a routine These are called patient variables. treatment and is given only when drugs are Non-specific factors attributable to the not effective in controlling the symptoms therapist are positive nature, absence of the patient. of unresolved emotional conflicts, presence of good mental health, Factors Contributing to Healing in etc. These are called therapist Psychotherapy variables. As we have read, psychotherapy is a Ethics in Psychotherapy treatment of psychological distress. There are several factors which contribute to the Some of the ethical standards that need to healing process. Some of these factors are be practiced by professional psycho- as follows : therapists are : 1. A major factor in the healing is the 1. Informed consent needs to be taken. techniques adopted by the therapist 102 Psychology 2019-20

2. Confidentiality of the client should be SKY has been used as a public health maintained. intervention technique to alleviate PTSD in survivors of mass disasters. Yoga 3. Alleviating personal distr ess and techniques enhance well-being, mood, suffering should be the goal of all attention, mental focus, and stress attempts of the therapist. tolerance. Proper training by a skilled teacher and a 30-minute practice every day 4. Integrity of the practitioner -client will maximise the benefits. Research relationship is important. conducted at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences 5. Respect for human rights and dignity. (NIMHANS), India, has shown that SKY 6. Professional competence and skills are reduces depression. Further, alcoholic patients who practice SKY have reduced essential. depression and stress levels. Insomnia is treated with yoga. Yoga reduces the time Alternative Therapies to go to sleep and improves the quality of sleep. Alternative therapies are so called, because they are alternative treatment possibilities Kundalini Yoga taught in the USA has to the conventional drug treatment or been found to be effective in treatment of psychotherapy. There are many alternative mental disorders. The Institute for Non- therapies such as yoga, meditation, linear Science, University of California, San acupuncture, herbal remedies and so on. Diego, USA has found that Kundalini Yoga In the past 25 years, yoga and meditation is effective in the treatment of obsessive- have gained popularity as treatment compulsive disorder. Kundalini Yoga programmes for psychological distress. combines pranayama or breathing techniques with chanting of mantras. Yoga is an ancient Indian technique Prevention of repeated episodes of detailed in the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali’s depression may be helped by mindfulness- Yoga Sutras. Yoga as it is commonly called based meditation or Vipasana. This today either refers to only the asanas or meditation would help the patients to body posture component or to breathing process emotional stimuli better and hence practices or pranayama, or to a prevent biases in the processing of these combination of the two. Meditation refers stimuli. to the practice of focusing attention on breath or on an object or thought or a REHABILITATION OF THE MENTALLY ILL mantra. Here attention is focused. In Vipasana meditation, also known as The treatment of psychological disorders mindfulness-based meditation, there is no has two components, i.e. reduction of fixed object or thought to hold the symptoms, and improving the level of attention. The person passively observes functioning or quality of life. In the case the various bodily sensations and thoughts of milder disorders such as generalised that are passing through in her or his anxiety, reactive depression or phobia, awareness. reduction of symptoms is associated with an improvement in the quality of life. The rapid breathing techniques to However, in the case of severe mental induce hyperventilation as in Sudarshana disorders such as schizophrenia, reduction Kriya Yoga (SKY) is found to be a of symptoms may not be associated with beneficial, low-risk, low-cost adjunct to the treatment of stress, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, stress- related medical illnesses, substance abuse, and rehabilitation of criminal offenders. Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 103 2019-20

an improvement in the quality of life. Many making, paper bag making and weaving to patients suffer from negative symptoms help them to form a work discipline. Social such as disinterest and lack of motivation skills training helps the patients to develop to do work or to interact with people. interpersonal skills through role play, Rehabilitation is required to help such imitation and instruction. The objective is patients become self-sufficient. The aim of to teach the patient to function in a social rehabilitation is to empower the patient to group. Cognitive retraining is given to become a productive member of society to improve the basic cognitive functions of the extent possible. In rehabilitation, the attention, memory and executive functions. patients are given occupational therapy, After the patient improves sufficiently, social skills training, and vocational vocational training is given wherein the therapy. In occupational therapy, the patient is helped to gain skills necessary patients are taught skills such as candle to undertake productive employment. Key Terms Alternative therapy, Behaviour therapy, Biomedical therapy, Client-centred therapy, Cognitive behaviour therapy, Empathy, Gestalt therapy, Humanistic therapy, Psycho dynamic therapy, Psychotherapy, Rehabilitation, Resistance, Self-actualisation, Therapeutic alliance, Transference, Unconditional positive regard. • Psychotherapy is a treatment for the healing of psychological distress. It is not a homogenous treatment method. There are about 400 different types of psychotherapy. • Psychoanalysis, behavioural, cognitive and humanistic-existential are the important systems of psychotherapy. There are many schools within each of the above systems. • The important components of psychotherapy are the clinical formulation, i.e. statement of the client’s problem and treatment in the framework of a particular therapy. • Therapeutic alliance is the relation between the therapist and the client in which the client has trust in the therapist and the therapist has empathy for the client. • The predominant mode of psychotherapy for adults with psychological distress is individual psychotherapy. The therapist requires to be professionally trained before embarking on the journey of psychotherapy. • Alternative therapies such as some yogic and meditative practices have been found to be effective in treating certain psychological disorders. • Rehabilitation of the mentally ill is necessary to improve their quality of life once their active symptoms are reduced. Review Questions 1. Describe the nature and scope of psychotherapy. Highlight the importance of therapeutic relationship in psychotherapy. 2. What are the different types of psychotherapy? On what basis are they classified? 3. A therapist asks the client to reveal all her/his thoughts including early childhood experiences. Describe the technique and type of therapy being used. 4. Discuss the various techniques used in behaviour therapy. 5. Explain with the help of an example how cognitive distortions take place. 6. Which therapy encourages the client to seek personal growth and actualise their potential? Write about the therapies which are based on this principle. 104 Psychology 2019-20

7. What are the factors that contribute to healing in psychotherapy? Enumerate some of the alternative therapies. 8. What are the techniques used in the rehabilitation of the mentally ill? 9. How would a social learning theorist account for a phobic fear of lizards/cockroaches? How would a psychoanalyst account for the same phobia? 10. Should Electro-convulsive Therapy (ECT) be used in the treatment of mental disorders? 11. What kind of problems is cognitive behaviour therapy best suited for? Project 1. In school at times you get good points (or gold points or stars) when you do well and Ideas bad or black points when you do something wrong. This is an example of a token system. With the help of your classmates make a list of all those school and classroom activities for which you are rewarded or receive praise from your teacher or appreciation from your friends. Also make a list of all those activities for which your teacher scolds you or your classmates get angry with you. 2. Describe a person in your past or present who has consistently demonstrated unconditional positive regard towards you. What effect, if any, did (or does) this have on you? Explain. Gather the same information from more friends and prepare a report. Weblinks http://www.sciencedirect.com http://allpsych.com http://mentalhealth.com Pedagogical Hints 105 1. Students could be asked to connect the different therapeutic approaches to some of the theories of personality they have studied in Chapter 2 on Self and Personality. 2. Role-play and dramatisation of certain student-related behavioural issues, such as break-up of relationship with a friend would evoke interest among the students and also emphasise the application of psychology. 3. As therapy is a highly skilled process requiring professional training, students should be refrained from treating it in a frivolous manner. 4. Any activity/discussion, which may have a serious impact on the psyche of the students, should be properly transacted in the presence of the teacher. Chapter 5 • Therapeutic Approaches 2019-20

ATTITUDE AND SOCIAL COGNITION After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand what are attitudes, how they are formed and changed, analyse how people interpret and explain the behaviour of others, comprehend how the presence of others influences our behaviour, explain why people help or do not help others in distress, and understand the concept of pro-social behaviour and factors affecting it. Introduction Explaining Social Behaviour Nature and Components of Attitudes A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude (Box 6.1) Attitude Formation and Change Attitude Formation Attitude Change Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars (Box 6.2) CONTENTS Attitude-Behaviour Relationship Prejudice and Discrimination Strategies for Handling Prejudice Social Cognition Schemas and Stereotypes Key Terms Impression Formation and Explaining Summary Behaviour of Others through Attributions Review Questions Project Ideas Impression Formation Weblinks Attribution of Causality Behaviour in the Presence of Others Pro-social Behaviour Pedagogical Hints Factors Affecting Pro-social Behaviour 106 Psychology 2019-20

Introduction Social psychology is that branch of psychology which investigates how the behaviour of individuals is affected by others and the social environment. All of us form attitudes, or ways of thinking about specific topics and people. We also form impressions about persons we meet, and assign causes to their behaviour. Besides, our own behaviour gets influenced by other individuals and groups. In some situations, people show pro-social behaviour, that is, helping the needy and the distressed, without expecting anything in return. Many of these social behaviours seem to be simple. Yet, explaining the processes that lie behind these behaviours is a complex matter. This chapter will describe the basic ideas related to attitudes, social cognition and pro-social behaviour as explained by social psychologists. EXPLAINING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR the ways they do — that is, we assign causes to the behaviour shown in specific social Social behaviour is a necessary part of situations. This process is called human life, and being social means much attribution. Very often, impression more than merely being in the company of formation and attributions are influenced others. You may recall from what you by attitudes. These three processes are studied in Class XI that social psychology examples of mental activities related to the deals with all behaviour that takes place in gathering and interpretation of information the actual, imagined, or implied presence about the social world, collectively called of others. Take this simple example: if you social cognition. Moreover, social cognition have to memorise a poem and recite it, you is activated by cognitive units called may have no problem in doing this when schemas. Cognitive processes cannot be you are by yourself. But if you have to recite directly seen; they have to be inferred on this poem to an audience, your performance the basis of externally shown behaviour. might get influenced, because you are now There are other examples of social influence in a social situation. Even imagining that that are in the form of observable behaviour. people are listening to your recitation Two such examples are social facilitation/ (although they may not be physically inhibition, i.e. the improvement/decline in present) may change your performance. performance in the presence of others, and This is just one example that demonstrates helping, or pro-social behaviour, i.e. how our social environment influences our responding to others who are in need or thoughts, emotions and behaviour in distress. In order to understand completely complex ways. Social psychologists examine how the social context influences the various forms of social behaviour, and try individual, it is necessary to study both to explain their basis. Because of social social-cognitive processes and social influences, people form views, or attitudes behaviour. Social psychologists have shown about people, and about different issues in that one must go beyond common sense life, that exist in the form of behavioural and folk wisdom in order to explain how tendencies. When we meet people, we make people observe and make sense of their own inferences about their personal qualities. and others’ diverse behaviours. Through This is called impression formation. We systematic and objective observations, and are also interested in why people behave in by adopting scientific methods, it is possible Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 107 2019-20

to establish logical cause-and-effect these views are more than ‘opinions’; they relationships that explain social behaviour. are examples of attitudes. This chapter will give an account of the All definitions of attitudes agree that an fundamental aspects of the topics attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, mentioned above. We will begin with a or thoughts, regarding some topic (called description of attitudes. the ‘attitude object’), which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or NATURE AND COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES neutral quality). It is accompanied by an emotional component, and a tendency to For a few minutes quietly do the following act in a particular way with regard to the mental exercise. Today, how many times did attitude object. The thought component is you tell yourself : “In my opinion…” or referred to as the cognitive aspect, the “Others may say so and so, but I feel…”? emotional component is known as the affective aspect, and the tendency to act What you fill in the blanks are called is called the behavioural (or conative) opinions. Now continue the exercise : how aspect. Taken together, these three aspects important are these opinions to you? The have been referred to as the A-B-C topics of some of these opinions may be only components (Affective-Behavioural- moderately important to you; they are Cognitive components) of attitude. Note that simply ways of thinking, and it does not attitudes are themselves not behaviour, but matter much to you that others agree or they represent a tendency to behave or act disagree with your views. On the other in certain ways. They are part of cognition, hand, you may find that some other topics along with an emotional component, and are extremely important to you. If someone cannot be observed from outside. Box 6.1 opposes or challenges your views about presents an example of an attitude towards these topics, you get emotional. You may the environment, showing the relationship have made some of these views part of your between the three components. behaviour. In other words, if your views are not merely thoughts, but also have Attitudes have to be distinguished from emotional and action components, then two other closely related concepts, namely, Box 6.1 A ‘Green Environment’ : The A-B-C Components of an Attitude Suppose a group of people in your neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part of a ‘green environment’ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment, your view towards a ‘green environment’ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component, along with the evaluative aspect). You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angry when you see trees being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’ component of the same attitude. Now suppose you also actively participate in the tree plantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or ‘B’ component of your attitudes towards a ‘green environment’. In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with each other, that is, in the same direction. However, such consistency may not necessarily be found in all situations. For example, it is quite possible that the cognitive aspect of your ‘green environment’ attitude is very strong, but the affective and behavioural components may be relatively weaker. Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong and positive, but the behavioural component may be neutral. Therefore, predicting one component on the basis of the other two may not always give us the correct picture about an attitude. 108 Psychology 2019-20

beliefs and values. Beliefs refer to the allow for neutral attitudes. In this example, cognitive component of attitudes, and form a neutral attitude towards nuclear research the ground on which attitudes stand, such would be shown by a rating of 3 on the same as belief in God, or belief in democracy as a scale. A neutral attitude would have neither political ideology. Values are attitudes or positive nor negative valence. beliefs that contain a ‘should’ or ‘ought’ aspect, such as moral or ethical values. One Extremeness : The extremeness of an example of a value is the idea that one attitude indicates how positive or negative should work hard, or that one should an attitude is. Taking the nuclear always be honest, because honesty is the research example given above, a rating of best policy. Values are formed when a 1 is as extreme as a rating of 5 : they are particular belief or attitude becomes an only in the opposite directions (valence). inseparable part of the person’s outlook on Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme. A life. Consequently, values are difficult to neutral attitude, of course, is lowest on change. extremeness. What is the purpose served by an Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity) : attitude? We find that attitudes provide a This feature refers to how many attitudes background that makes it easier for a there are within a broader attitude. Think person to decide how to act in new of an attitude as a family containing several situations. For example, our attitude ‘member’ attitudes. In case of various topics, towards foreigners may indirectly provide such as health and world peace, people hold a mental ‘layout’ or ‘blueprint’ for the way many attitudes instead of single attitude. in which we should behave whenever we An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it meet one. contains only one or a few attitudes, and ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes. In addition to the affective, cognitive and Consider the example of attitude towards behavioural components, attitudes also health and well-being. This attitude system have other properties. Four significant is likely to consist of several ‘member’ features of attitudes are : Valence (positivity attitudes, such as one’s concept of physical or negativity), Extremeness, Simplicity or and mental health, views about happiness Complexity (multiplexity), and Centrality. and well-being, and beliefs about how one should achieve health and happiness. By Valence (positivity or negativity) : The contrast, the attitude towards a particular valence of an attitude tells us whether an person is likely to consist of mainly one attitude is positive or negative towards the attitude. The multiple member-attitudes attitude object. Suppose an attitude (say, within an attitude system should not be towards nuclear research) has to be confused with the three components expressed on a 5-point scale, ranging from described earlier. Each member attitude 1 (Very bad), 2 (Bad), 3 (Neutral — neither that belongs to an attitude system also has good nor bad), and 4 (Good), to 5 (Very A-B-C components. good). If an individual rates her/his view towards nuclear research as 4 or 5, this is Centrality : This refers to the role of a clearly a positive attitude. This means that particular attitude in the attitude system. the person likes the idea of nuclear research An attitude with greater centrality would and thinks it is something good. On the influence the other attitudes in the system other hand, if the rating is 1 or 2, the much more than non-central (or peripheral) attitude is negative. This means that the attitudes would. For example, in the person dislikes the idea of nuclear research, attitude towards world peace, a negative and thinks it is something bad. We also Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 109 2019-20

attitude towards high military expenditure • Learning attitudes by being rewarded or may be present as a core or central attitude punished : If an individual is praised for that influences all other attitudes in the showing a particular attitude, chances multiple attitude system. are high that s/he will develop that attitude further. For example, if a ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE teenager does yogasanas regularly, and gets the honour of being ‘Miss Good Attitude Formation Health’ in her school, she may develop a positive attitude towards yoga and One important question that psychologists health in general. Similarly, if a child are interested in answering is : how are constantly falls ill because s/he eats attitudes formed? Like many other thoughts junk food instead of proper meals, then and concepts that develop and become part the child is likely to develop a negative of our cognitive system, attitudes towards attitude towards junk food, and also a different topics, things and people also are positive attitude towards eating healthy formed as we interact with others. However, food. there are specific conditions that lead to the formation of specific attitudes. • Learning attitudes through modelling (observing others) : Often it is not In general, attitudes are learned through association, or through reward through one’s own experiences, and and punishment, that we learn through interaction with others. There are attitudes. Instead, we learn them by a few research studies that show some sort observing others being rewarded or of inborn aspect of attitudes, but such punished for expressing thoughts, or genetic factors influence attitudes only showing behaviour of a particular kind indirectly, along with learning. Therefore, towards the attitude object. For most social psychologists have focused on example, children may form a respectful the conditions which lead to the learning attitude towards elders, by observing of attitudes. that their parents show respect for elders, and are appreciated for it. Process of Attitude Formation • Learning attitudes through group or The processes and conditions of learning cultural norms : Very often, we learn may be different, resulting in varying attitudes through the norms of our attitudes among people. group or culture. Norms are unwritten • Learning attitudes by association : You rules about behaviour that everyone is supposed to show under specific might have seen that students often circumstances. Over time, these norms develop a liking for a particular subject may become part of our social cognition, because of the teacher. This is because in the form of attitudes. Learning they see many positive qualities in that attitudes through group or cultural teacher; these positive qualities get norms may actually be an example of linked to the subject that s/he teaches, all three forms of learning described and ultimately get expressed in the form above — learning through association, of liking for the subject. In other words, reward or punishment, and modelling. a positive attitude towards the subject For example, offering money, sweets, is learned through the positive fruit and flowers in a place of worship is association between a teacher and a a normative behaviour in some religions. student. 110 Psychology 2019-20

When individuals see that such groups. Their influence is noticeable behaviour is shown by others, is especially during the beginning of expected and socially approved, they adolescence, at which time it is may ultimately develop a positive important for the individual to feel that attitude towards such behaviour and the s/he belongs to a group. Therefore, the associated feelings of devotion. role of reference groups in attitude • Learning through exposure to formation may also be a case of learning information : Many attitudes are learned through reward and punishment. in a social context, but not necessarily in the physical presence of others. 3. Personal Experiences : Many attitudes Today, with the huge amount of are formed, not in the family information that is being provided environment or through reference through various media, both positive groups, but through direct personal and negative attitudes are being formed. experiences which bring about a drastic By reading the biographies of self- change in our attitude towards people actualised persons, an individual may and our own life. Here is a real-life develop a positive attitude towards hard example. A driver in the army went work and other aspects as the means of through a personal experience that achieving success in life. transformed his life. On one mission, he narrowly escaped death although all his Factors that Influence Attitude Formation companions got killed. Wondering about the purpose of his own life, he gave up The following factors provide the context for his job in the army, returned to his the learning of attitudes through the native village in Maharashtra, and processes described above. worked actively as a community leader. Through a purely personal experience 1. Family and School Environment : this individual evolved a strong positive Particularly in the early years of life, attitude towards community upliftment. parents and other family members play His efforts completely changed the face a significant role in shaping attitude of his village. formation. Later, the school environment becomes an important 4. Media-related Influences : Technological background for attitude formation. advances in recent times have made Learning of attitudes within the family audio-visual media and the Internet very and school usually takes place by powerful sources of information that association, through rewards and lead to attitude formation and change. punishments, and through modelling. In addition, school level textbooks also influence attitude formation. These 2. Reference Groups : Reference groups sources first strengthen the cognitive indicate to an individual the norms and affective components of attitudes, regarding acceptable behaviour and and subsequently may also affect the ways of thinking. Thus, they reflect behavioural component. The media can learning of attitudes through group or exert both good and bad influences on cultural norms. Attitudes towards attitudes. On one hand, the media and various topics, such as political, Internet make people better informed religious and social groups, than other modes of communication. On occupations, national and other issues the other hand, there may be no check are often developed through reference on the nature of information being Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 111 2019-20

gathered, and therefore no control over between the P-O attitude, O-X attitude, and the attitudes that are being formed, or P-X attitude. This is because imbalance is the direction of change in the existing logically uncomfortable. Therefore, the attitudes. The media can be used to attitude changes in the direction of balance. create consumerist attitudes where none existed, and can also be harnessed Imbalance is found when (i) all three to create positive attitudes to facilitate sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or social harmony. (ii) two sides are positive, and one side is negative. Balance is found when (i) all three Attitude Change sides are positive, or (ii) two sides are negative, and one side is positive. During the process of attitude formation, and also after this process, attitudes may Consider the example of dowry as an be changed and modified through various attitude topic (X). Suppose a person (P) has influences. Some attitudes change more a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X than others do. Attitudes that are still in positive). P is planning to get his son the formative stage, and are more like married to the daughter of some person (O) opinions, are much more likely to change who has a negative attitude towards dowry compared to attitudes that have become (O-X negative). What would be the nature firmly established, and have become a part of the P-O attitude, and how would it of the individual’s values. From a practical determine balance or imbalance in the point of view, bringing about a change in situation? If O initially has a positive people’s attitudes is of interest to attitude towards P, the situation would be community leaders, politicians, producers unbalanced. P-X is positive, O-P is positive, of consumer goods, advertisers, and others. but O-X is negative. That is, there are two Unless we find out how attitudes change, positives and one negative in the triangle. and what conditions account for such This is a situation of imbalance. One of the change, it would not be possible to take three attitudes will therefore have to steps to bring about attitude change. change. This change could take place in the P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry Process of Attitude Change as a custom), or in the O-X relationship (O starts liking dowry as a custom), or in the Three major concepts that draw attention O-P relationship (O starts disliking P). In to some important processes in attitude short, an attitude change will have to take change are described below : place so that there will be three positive relationships, or two negative and one (a) The concept of balance, proposed by positive relationship, in the triangle. Fritz Heider is sometimes described in the form of the ‘P-O-X’ triangle, which (b) The concept of cognitive dissonance represents the relationships between three was proposed by Leon Festinger. It aspects or components of the attitude. P is emphasises the cognitive component. Here the person whose attitude is being studied, the basic idea is that the cognitive O is another person, and X is the topic components of an attitude must be towards which the attitude is being studied ‘consonant’ (opposite of ‘dissonant’), i.e., (attitude object). It is also possible that all they should be logically in line with each three are persons. other. If an individual finds that two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, The basic idea is that an attitude then one of them will be changed in changes if there is a state of imbalance the direction of consonance. For example, 112 Psychology 2019-20

think about the following ideas attitude, or attitude system, must be in the (‘cognitions’) : same direction. Each element should logically fall in line with other elements. If Cognition I : Pan masala causes this does not happen, then the person mouth cancer which is fatal. experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e. Cognition II : I eat pan masala. the sense that ‘something is not quite right’ Holding these two ideas or cognitions in the attitude system. In such a state, some will make any individual feel that something aspect in the attitude system changes in is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude the direction of consistency, because our towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these cognitive system requires logical ideas will have to be changed, so that consistency. consonance can be attained. In the example given above, in order to remove or reduce (c) The two-step concept was proposed by the dissonance, I will stop eating pan S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist. masala (change Cognition II). This would According to him, attitude change takes be the healthy, logical and sensible way of place in the form of two steps. In the first reducing dissonance. step, the target of change identifies with the Festinger and Carlsmith, two social source. The ‘target’ is the person whose psychologists, conducted an experiment attitude is to be changed. The ‘source’ is that showed how cognitive dissonance the person through whose influence the works (see Box 6.2). change is to take place. Identification Both balance and cognitive dissonance means that the target has liking and regard are examples of cognitive consistency. for the source. S/he puts herself/himself Cognitive consistency means that two in the place of the target, and tries to feel components, aspects or elements of the like her/him. The source must also have a Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars Box 6.2 After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tell another group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. For telling this lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, and the other half were paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experiment were asked to recall the experiment, and to say how interesting they had found that experiment to be. The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment as more interesting than the $ 20 group. The explanation was : the $ 1 students changed their attitude towards the experiment because they experienced cognitive dissonance. In the $ 1 group, The initial cognitions would be : The changed cognitions would be: (Dissonant cognitions) (Dissonance reduced) “The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ; “I told the waiting students that it “I told the waiting students that it was was interesting”; interesting” ; “I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.” The $ 20 group did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change their attitude towards the experiment, and rated it as very boring. The cognitions in the $ 20 (No dissonance) group would be : “The experiment was very boring”; “I told the waiting students that it was interesting”; “I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.” Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 113 2019-20

positive attitude towards the target, and the central attitudes are more difficult to change regard and attraction becomes mutual. In than the less extreme, and peripheral (less the second step, the source herself/himself significant) attitudes are. Simple attitudes shows an attitude change, by actually are easier to change than multiple changing her/him behaviour towards the attitudes are. attitude object. Observing the source’s changed attitude and behaviour, the target In addition, one must also consider the also shows an attitude change through direction and extent of attitude change. An behaviour. This is a kind of imitation or attitude change may be congruent — it may observational learning. change in the same direction as the existing attitude (for example, a positive attitude Consider the following example of two- may become more positive, or a negative step attitude change. Preeti reads in the attitude may become more negative). For newspapers that a particular soft drink that instance, suppose a person has a somewhat she enjoys is extremely harmful. But Preeti positive attitude towards empowerment of sees that her favourite sportsperson has women. Reading about a successful woman been advertising the same soft drink. She may make this attitude more positive. This has identified herself with the sportsperson, would be a congruent change. On the other and would like to imitate her/him. Now, hand, an attitude change may be suppose the sportsperson wishes to change incongruent — it may change in a direction people’s attitude towards this soft drink opposite to the existing attitude (for example, from positive to negative. The sportsperson a positive attitude becomes less positive, or must first show positive feelings for her/ negative, or a negative attitude becomes less his fans, and then actually change her/his negative, or positive). In the example just own habit of consuming that soft drink given, after reading about successful women, (Step I) — perhaps by substituting it with a a person may think that women might soon health drink. If the sportsperson actually become too powerful, and neglect their changes her/his behaviour, it is very likely family responsibilities. This may make the that now Preeti will also change her attitude person’s existing positive attitude towards and behaviour, and stop consuming the empowerment of women, less positive, or harmful soft drink (Step II). even negative. If this happens, then it would be a case of incongruent change. It has been Factors that Influence Attitude Change found that, in general, congruent changes are easier to bring about than are the Whether attitudes will change, and if so, to incongruent changes in attitudes. what extent, is a question that puzzles many psychologists. However, most of them agree Moreover, an attitude may change in the upon the following major factors that direction of the information that is influence attitude change : presented, or in a direction opposite to that of the information presented. Posters • Characteristics of the existing attitude : describing the importance of brushing one’s All four properties of attitudes mentioned teeth would strengthen a positive attitude earlier, namely, valence (positivity or towards dental care. But if people are shown negativity), extremeness, simplicity or frightening pictures of dental cavities, they complexity (multiplexity), and centrality may not believe the pictures, and may or significance of the attitude, determine become less positive about dental care. attitude change. In general, positive Research has found that fear sometimes attitudes are easier to change than negative works well in convincing people but if a attitudes are. Extreme attitudes, and message generates too much fear, it turns 114 Psychology 2019-20

off the receiver and has little persuasive • Message characteristics : The message effect. is the information that is presented in order • Source characteristics : Source to bring about an attitude change. Attitudes credibility and attractiveness are two will change when the amount of information features that affect attitude change. that is given about the topic is just enough, Attitudes are more likely to change when neither too much nor too little. Whether the the message comes from a highly credible message contains a rational or an source rather than from a low-credible emotional appeal, also makes a difference. source. For example, adults who are For example, an advertisement for cooking planning to buy a laptop are more convinced food in a pressure cooker may point out by a computer engineer who points out the that this saves fuel such as cooking gas special features of a particular brand of (LPG) and is economical (rational appeal). laptop, than they would be by a schoolchild Alternatively, the advertisement may say who might give the same information. But, that pressure-cooking preserves nutrition, if the buyers are themselves schoolchildren, and that if one cares for the family, nutrition they may be convinced more by another would be a major concern (emotional schoolchild advertising a laptop than they appeal) (see Figure 6.2). would be by a professional giving the same information (see Figure 6.1). In the case of The motives activated by the message some products such as cars, sales may also determine attitude change. For increase if they are publicised, not example, drinking milk may be said to necessarily by experts, but by popular make a person healthy and good-looking, public figures. or more energetic and more successful at one’s job. My laptop is my key My laptop is my key to success — 100 GB to success — 100 GB storage capacity, storage capacity, light in weight, can light in weight, can do wonders for me !! do wonders for me !! Buy one now, and Buy one now, and see how you grow !! see how you grow !! Picture A Picture B Fig.6.1 : Which Picture will Make You More Eager to Buy a Laptop – Picture A, or Picture B ? Why? Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 115 2019-20

Rational appeal Emotional appeal (saving money) (caring for your family) Are you spending too If you care for your much on cooking gas? family, nothing is Switch to the pressure more important than cooker, and say nutrition. Switch to goodbye to your the pressure cooker, budget problems! and ensure healthy eating! Fig.6.2 : Rational and Emotional Appeals Finally, the mode of spreading letters and pamphlets, or even through the message plays a significant role. mass media. For example, a positive Face-to-face transmission of the message attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts is usually more effective than indirect (ORS) for young children is more effectively transmission, as for instance, through created if community social workers and “ORS will “ORS will protect protect your your child child from from heat heat in the in the summer” summer” Fig.6.3 : Face-to-face Interaction versus Media Transmission. Which one works better? Why? 116 Psychology 2019-20

doctors spread the message by talking to • the person’s behaviour is not being people directly, than by only describing the watched or evaluated by others, and benefits of ORS on the radio (see Figure 6.3). These days transmission through visual • the person thinks that the behaviour media such as television and the Internet would have a positive consequence, and are similar to face-to-face interaction, but therefore, intends to engage in that not a substitute for the latter. behaviour. • Target characteristics : Qualities of the In the days when Americans were said target, such as persuasibility, strong to be prejudiced against the Chinese, prejudices, self-esteem, and intelligence Richard LaPiere, an American social influence the likelihood and extent of psychologist, conducted the following attitude change. People, who have a more study. He asked a Chinese couple to travel open and flexible personality, change more across the United States, and stay in easily. Advertisers benefit most from such different hotels. Only once during these people. People with strong prejudices are occasions they were refused service by one less prone to any attitude change than those of the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent who do not hold strong prejudices. Persons out questionnaires to managers of hotels who have a low self-esteem, and do not have and tourist homes in the same areas where sufficient confidence in themselves, change the Chinese couple had travelled, asking their attitudes more easily than those who them if they would give accommodation to are high on self-esteem. More intelligent Chinese guests. A very large percentage said people may change their attitudes less easily that they would not do so. This response than those with lower intelligence. However, showed a negative attitude towards the sometimes more intelligent persons change Chinese, which was inconsistent with the their attitudes more willingly than less positive behaviour that was actually shown intelligent ones, because they base their towards the travelling Chinese couple. attitude on more information and thinking. Thus, attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one’s behaviour. Attitude-Behaviour Relationship Cut out an advertisement from a Activity We usually expect behaviour to follow newspaper or magazine, that 6.1 logically from attitudes. However, an contains something special and individual’s attitudes may not always be catches your attention. Write down exhibited through behaviour. Likewise, the following details about that one’s actual behaviour may be contrary to advertisement, and present it to your one’s attitude towards a particular topic. class. • The topic of the advertisement Psychologists have found that there would be consistency between attitudes and (for example, whether the behaviour when : advertisement is about a consumer product, some food, a • the attitude is strong, and occupies a company, a health matter, a central place in the attitude system, national theme, etc.). • Good and bad consequences of • the person is aware of her/his attitude, the advertisement. • Whether it contains an emotional • there is very little or no external pressure appeal or a rational appeal. for the person to behave in a particular • Whether it contains a popular way. For example, when there is no figure : an expert source, or a group pressure to follow a particular well-liked person. norm, Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 117 2019-20

Sometimes it is behaviour that decides Prejudices can exist without being the attitude. In the experiment by Festinger shown in the form of discrimination. and Carlsmith (see Box 6.2), students who Similarly, discrimination can be shown got only one dollar for telling others that without prejudice. Yet, the two go together the experiment was interesting, discovered very often. Wherever prejudice and that they liked the experiment. That is, on discrimination exist, conflicts are very the basis of their behaviour (telling others likely to arise between groups within the that the experiment was interesting, for only same society. Our own society has a small amount of money), they concluded witnessed many deplorable instances of that their attitude towards the experiment discrimination, with and without prejudice, was positive (“I would not have told a lie for based on gender, religion, community, this small amount of money, which means caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such that the experiment was actually as AIDS. Moreover, in many cases interesting”). discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and emotional PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION components of prejudice are more difficult to change. Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular group. They are Social psychologists have shown that usually negative, and in many cases, may prejudice has one or more of the following be based on stereotypes (the cognitive sources : component) about the specific group. As will • Learning : Like other attitudes, be discussed below in the section on social cognition, a stereotype is a cluster of ideas prejudices can also be learned through regarding the characteristics of a specific association, reward and punishment, group. All members belonging to this observing others, group or cultural group are assumed to possess these norms and exposure to information that characteristics. Often, stereotypes consist encourages prejudice. The family, of undesirable characteristics about the reference groups, personal experiences target group, and they lead to negative and the media may play a role in the attitudes or prejudices towards members learning of prejudices (see section on of specific groups. The cognitive component ‘Attitude Formation and Change’). of prejudice is frequently accompanied by People who learn prejudiced attitudes dislike or hatred, the affective component. may develop a ‘prejudiced personality’, Prejudice may also get translated into and show low adjusting capacity, discrimination, the behavioural component, anxiety, and feelings of hostility against whereby people behave in a less positive the outgroup. way towards a particular target group • A strong social identity and ingroup bias : compared to another group which they Individuals who have a strong sense of favour. History contains numerous social identity and have a very positive examples of discrimination based on race attitude towards their own group boost and social class or caste. The genocide this attitude by holding negative committed by the Nazis in Germany against attitudes towards other groups. These Jewish people is an extreme example of how are shown as prejudices. prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination • Scapegoating : This is a phenomenon by and mass killing of innocent people. which the majority group places the blame on a minority outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems. The minority is too weak or too small in 118 Psychology 2019-20

number to defend itself against such tackling the problem of a strong ingroup accusations. Scapegoating is a group- bias. based way of expressing frustration, and • Increasing intergroup contact allows for it often results in negative attitudes or direct communication, removal of prejudice against the weaker group. mistrust between the groups, and even • Kernel of truth concept : Sometimes discovery of positive qualities in the people may continue to hold stereotypes outgroup. However, these strategies are because they think that, after all, there successful only if : must be some truth, or ‘kernel of truth’ - the two groups meet in a cooperative in what everyone says about the other group. Even a few examples are rather than competitive context, sufficient to support the ‘kernel of truth’ - close interactions between the idea. • Self-fulfilling prophecy : In some cases, groups helps them to know each the group that is the target of prejudice other better, and is itself responsible for continuing the - the two groups are not different in prejudice. The target group may behave power or status. in ways that justify the prejudice, that • Highlighting individual identity rather is, confirm the negative expectations. than group identity, thus weakening the For example, if the target group is importance of group (both ingroup and described as ‘dependent’ and therefore outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the unable to make progress, the members other person. More details about social of this target group may actually behave identity and intergroup conflict have in a way that proves this description to been presented in the next chapter on be true. In this way, they strengthen Social Influence and Group Processes. the existing prejudice. SOCIAL COGNITION STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING PREJUDICE ‘Cognition’ refers to all those mental Knowing about the causes or sources would processes that deal with obtaining and processing of information. Extending this be the first step in handling prejudice. Thus, idea to the social world, the term ‘social cognition’ refers to all those psychological the strategies for handling prejudice would processes that deal with the gathering and processing of information related to social be effective if they aim at : objects. These include all the processes that help in understanding, explaining and (a) minimising opportunities for learning interpreting social behaviour. prejudices, The processing of information related to social objects (particularly individuals, (b) changing such attitudes, groups, people, relationships, social issues, and the like) differs from the processing of (c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity information related to physical objects. People as social objects may themselves based on the ingroup, and change as the cognitive process takes place. For instance, a teacher who observes a (d) discouraging the tendency towards self- student in school may draw conclusions about her/him that are quite different from fulfilling prophecy among the victims of the conclusions drawn by the student’s prejudice. These goals can be accomplished through : • Education and information dissemination, for correcting stereotypes related to specific target groups, and Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 119 2019-20

mother, who observes her/him at home. The The inferences you have drawn are not the student may show a difference in her/his result of your logical thinking or direct behaviour, depending on who is watching experience, but are based on pre-conceived her/him — the teacher or the mother. ideas about a particular group. The next Social cognition is guided by mental units time you actually meet a member of called schemas. group G, your impression of this person, and your behaviour towards her/him will SCHEMAS AND STEREOTYPES be influenced by your stereotype. It was mentioned earlier that stereotypes provide A schema is defined as a mental structure fertile ground for the growth of prejudices that provides a framework, set of rules or and biases against specific groups. But guidelines for processing information about prejudices can also develop without any object. Schemas (or ‘schemata’) are the stereotypes. basic units stored in our memory, and function as shorthand ways of processing IMPRESSION FORMATION AND EXPLAINING information, thus reducing the time and BEHAVIOUR OF OTHERS THROUGH mental effort required in cognition. In the ATTRIBUTIONS case of social cognition, the basic units are social schemas. Some attitudes may also Every social interaction begins with the function like social schemas. We use many formation of an impression about the different schemas, and come to know about person(s) we meet. Public figures and them through analysis and examples. applicants appearing for job interviews are good examples that show it is very Most of the schemas are in the form of important to ‘make a good impression’ on categories or classes. Schemas that others. The process of coming to know a function in the form of categories are called person can be broadly divided into prototypes, which are the entire set of two parts : (a) Impression formation, and features or qualities that help us to define (b) Attribution. an object completely. In social cognition, category-based schemas that are related to The person who forms the impression groups of people are called stereotypes. is called the perceiver. The individual These are category-based schemas that are about whom the impression is formed is overgeneralised, are not directly verified, called the target. The perceiver gathers and do not allow for exceptions. For information, or responds to a given example, suppose you have to define a information, about the qualities of the group G. If you have never directly known target, organises this information, and or interacted with a member of this group, draws inferences about the target. you will most likely use your ‘general knowledge’ about the typical member of In attribution, the perceiver goes further, group G. To that information you will add and explains why the target behaved in a your likes and dislikes. If you have heard particular way. Attaching or assigning a more positive things about group G, then cause for the target’s behaviour is the main your social schema about the whole group idea in attribution. Often perceivers may will be more positive than negative. On the form only an impression about the target, other hand, if you have heard more negative but if the situation requires it, they may things about group G, your social schema also make attributions to the target. will be in the form of a negative stereotype. Impression formation and attribution are influenced by : 120 Psychology 2019-20

• the nature of information available to if we are told that a person is ‘tidy’ and the perceiver, ‘punctual’, we are likely to think that this person must also be ‘hard-working’. • social schemas in the perceiver (including stereotypes), This exercise will help you to see the Activity factors in impression formation. You 6.2 • personality characteristics of the will need two participants, a girl and perceiver, and a boy (who are not students in your class, and who have not read about • situational factors. this topic). Impression Formation Give the following instruction to the participants. For the female The following aspects have been found in participant, please write a male name impression formation : in the blank. For the male participant, • The process of impression formation please write a female name. consists of the following three sub- “_________ is a hard-working processes : student. In your opinion, which of the (a) Selection : we take into account only following qualities would also be found in this student? Please some bits of information about the underline all those qualities.” target person, (b) Organisation : the selected Intelligent Helpful Selfish information is combined in a Friendly Punctual Dishonest systematic way, and Nervous Hot-tempered (c) Inference : we draw a conclusion See (a) what qualities have been about what kind of person the chosen?, and (b) whether there is a target is. difference between the female and • Some specific qualities influence the male participants? impression formation more than other traits do. Attribution of Causality • The order or sequence in which information is presented affects the kind After forming an impression, we often go of impression formed. Mostly, the through the process of assigning causes to information presented first has a a person’s behaviour. This is also a stronger effect than the information systematic process, as indicated by the presented at the end. This is called the researches done on attribution. The primacy effect (first impressions are the following aspects of attribution have been lasting impressions). However, if the found. perceiver may be asked to pay attention • When we assign a cause to a person’s to all the information, and not merely to the first information, whatever behaviour, we can broadly classify the information comes at the end may have cause as being internal — something a stronger influence. This is known as within the person, or external — the recency effect. something outside the person. For • We have a tendency to think that a target example, if we see a person A hitting person who has one set of positive another person B, as observers we may qualities must also be having other explain the hitting behaviour by saying specific positive qualities that are that (i) A hit B because A is a hot- associated with the first set. This is tempered person, which is an internal known as the halo effect. For example, (personality-related) cause, or that (ii) A hit B because B behaved in a nasty way, Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 121 2019-20

which is an external, situational his own positive and negative experiences cause. (actor-role), and the attribution made for • When people make attributions for another person’s positive and negative success and failure, the causes they give experiences (observer-role). This is called can be classified into internal or external the actor-observer effect. For example, factors, and also into stable or unstable if you yourself get good marks in a test, factors. Bernard Wiener suggested you will attribute it to your own ability a classification which is shown in or hard work (actor-role, internal Figure 6.4. Stable factors refer to those attribution for a positive experience). If causes that do not change with time, you get bad marks, you will say that this while unstable factors are those that do was because you were unlucky, or that change. the test was too difficult (actor-role, • In making attributions, there is an external attribution for a negative overall tendency for people to give experience). On the other hand, if one greater weightage to internal or of your classmates gets good marks in dispositional factors, than to external or the test, you will attribute her/his situational factors. This is called the success to good luck or an easy test fundamental attribution error. This (observer-role, external attribution for tendency is stronger in some cultures a positive experience). If the same than it is in others. For instance, classmate gets bad marks, you are likely research shows that Indians tend to to say that her/his failure was because make more external (situational) of low ability or lack of effort (observer- attributions than Americans do. role, internal attribution for a negative • There is a difference between the experience). The basic reason for the attribution made for success, and the difference between the actor and attribution made for failure. In general, observer roles is that people want to people attribute success to internal have a nice image of themselves, as factors, such as their ability or hard compared to others. work. They attribute failure to external So far in this chapter, we have factors, such as bad luck, the difficulty highlighted the cognitive, or thought-related of the task, and so on. aspects of social behaviour. Let us now • A distinction is also found between the examine some aspects of actual behaviour attribution that a person makes for her/ that can be observed from outside. Fig.6.4 : Wiener’s Classification of Causal Factors 122 Psychology 2019-20

BEHAVIOUR IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS fear of criticism or punishment is stronger. So the individual performs One of the first observations made about worse in the presence of others than social behaviour was that performance on s/he does when alone. specific tasks is influenced by the mere • If the others present are also performing presence of others. This is called social the same task, this is called a situation facilitation. For example, Reena is about of co-action. In this situation, there is to participate in a music contest. She is very social comparison and competition. talented, yet she is feeling very nervous Once again, when the task is simple or about the event. If you were in Reena’s a familiar one, performance is better place, would you perform better in front of under co-action than when the person an audience, or when you are alone? As is alone. early as 1897, Norman Triplett observed In short, task performance can be that individuals show better performance facilitated and improved, or inhibited and in the presence of others, than when they worsened by the presence of others. Many are performing the same task alone. For other kinds of social influence have been instance, cyclists racing with each other noticed. For example, if we are working perform better than when they cycle alone. together in a group, the larger the group, With time more details came to be known the less effort each member puts in. This about this phenomenon. • Better performance in the presence of Consider these two situations : Activity 6.3 others is because the person experiences Situation X. A person is performing a arousal, which makes the person react in a mor e intense manner. This solo dance in front of an audience. explanation was given by Zajonc (this name is pronounced to rhyme with Situation Y. A person is running in a ‘science’). • The arousal is because the person feels race with five other athletes. she or he is being evaluated. Cottrell called this idea evaluation Which of the following factors is apprehension. The person will be praised if the performance is good present in Situation Y, but not in (reward), or criticised if it is bad (punishment). We wish to get praise and Situation X? avoid criticism, therefore we try to perform well and avoid mistakes. (a) Arousal • The nature of the task to be performed also affects the performance in the (b) Evaluation apprehension presence of others. For example, in the case of a simple or familiar task, the (c) Competition person is more sure of performing well, and the eagerness to get praise or reward (d) Difficult task is stronger. So the individual performs better in the presence of others than Based on the given situations, s/he does when alone. But in the case of a complex or new task, the person choose the correct alternative. may be afraid of making mistakes. The In the presence of an audience, evaluation apprehension leads to : A. Improvement in performance of both familiar and new tasks. Yes No B. Decline in performance of both familiar and new tasks. Yes No C. Improvement in performance of familiar tasks, and decline in performance of new tasks. Yes No D. Arousal, which leads to C. Yes No Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 123 2019-20

phenomenon is called social loafing, based behaviour, people do not show such on diffusion of responsibility. You will read behaviour very often. Immediately after the about social loafing in the next chapter. Mumbai blasts on 11 July, 2006, the community stepped forward to help the Diffusion of responsibility, which is often blast victims in any way they could. By the basis of social loafing, can also be contrast, on an earlier occasion, nobody frequently seen in situations where people came forward to help a girl on a moving are expected to help. We will look into this suburban train in Mumbai, when her purse aspect and other factors in helping was being snatched. The other passengers behaviour in the section that follows. did nothing to help, and the girl was thrown out of the train. Even as the girl was lying PRO-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR injured on the railway tracks, people living in the buildings around the area did not Throughout the world, doing good to others come to help her. and being helpful is described as a virtue. All religions teach us that we should help The question then is : under what those who are in need. This behaviour is conditions, and with what motives do people called helping or pro-social behaviour. Pro- help others? Research on pro-social social behaviour is very similar to ‘altruism’, behaviour has brought out several factors which means doing something for or that affect pro-social behaviour. thinking about the welfare of others without any self-interest (in Latin ‘alter’ means Factors Influencing Pro-social Behaviour ‘other’, the opposite of ‘ego’ which means ‘self’). Some common examples of pro-social • Pro-social behaviour is based on an behaviour are sharing things, cooperating inborn, natural tendency in human with others, helping during natural beings to help other members of their calamities, showing sympathy, doing own species. This inborn tendency favours to others, and making charitable facilitates survival of the species. donations. • Pro-social behaviour is influenced by Pro-social behaviour has the following learning. Individuals who are brought characteristics. It must : up in a family environment that sets • aim to benefit or do good to another examples of helping others, emphasises helping as a value, and praises person or other persons, helpfulness, and showing more pro- • be done without expecting anything in social behaviour than individuals who are brought up in a family environment return, devoid of these features. • be done willingly by the person, and not • Cultural factors influence pro-social because of any kind of pressure, and behaviour. Some cultures actively • involve some difficulty or ‘cost’ to the encourage people to help the needy and distressed. In cultures that encourage person giving help. independence, individuals will show less pro-social behaviour, because people are For instance, if a rich person donates a expected to take care of themselves, and lot of money that is obtained illegally, with not to depend on help from others. the idea that her/his photograph and name Individuals in cultures suffering from a will appear in the newspapers, this cannot shortage of resources may not show a be called ‘pro-social behaviour’ although the high level of pro-social behaviour. donation may do good to many people. In spite of the great value and importance attached to pro-social 124 Psychology 2019-20

• Pro-social behaviour is expressed when not get help because there are many the situation activates certain social people standing around the scene of the norms that require helping others. accident. Each person thinks that it is Three norms have been mentioned in not her/his responsibility alone to give the context of pro-social behaviour : help, and that someone else may take (a) The norm of social responsibility : the responsibility. This phenomenon is We should help anyone who needs called diffusion of responsibility. On help, without considering any other the other hand, if there is only one factor. bystander, this person is more likely to (b) The norm of reciprocity : We should take the responsibility and actually help help those persons who have helped the victim. us in the past. In this chapter, you have learnt about (c) The norm of equity : We should help the basic concepts of attitudes and social others whenever we find that it is fair cognition, and got a glimpse of some forms to do so. For example, many of us of social behaviour. In the next chapter, you may feel that it is more fair to help a will read about the influence of groups on person who has lost all belongings the individual. in a flood, than to help a person who has lost everything through A. Go to the school library with a pile Activity gambling. of heavy books and other articles. 6.4 Outside the library, at a convenient • Pro-social behaviour is affected by the point, when you find that (a) only expected reactions of the person who is one person (bystander) is present, being helped. For example, people might (b) more than one person be unwilling to give money to a needy (bystanders) is present, drop the person because they feel that the person books and articles as though that might feel insulted, or may become happened accidentally. Observe dependent. the following : (a) when there was only one • Pro-social behaviour is more likely to be bystander, did that person shown by individuals who have a high come forward to help you to level of empathy, that is, the capacity pick up the fallen articles ? to feel the distress of the person who is (b) when there was more than one to be helped, such as Baba Saheb Amte bystander, how many of them and Mother Teresa. Pro-social behaviour came forward to help you to is also more likely in situations that pick up the fallen articles? arouse empathy, such as the picture of Have a detailed class discussion. starving children in a famine. Go through some recent • Pro-social behaviour may be reduced by newspapers and magazines. Collect at factors such as a bad mood, being busy least one report of bystanders giving with one’s own problems, or feeling that help. Make sure you attach the person to be helped is responsible newspaper/ magazine clippings along for her/his own situation (that is, when with the report. Discuss why the an internal attribution is made for the bystanders gave help in the situation need state of the other person). that is described. You can also present descriptions about people you know • Pro-social behaviour may also be personally, who have helped others in reduced when the number of bystanders emergencies. Write a brief description is more than one. For example, the of those reports and present them in victim of a road accident sometimes does your class. Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 125 2019-20

Key Terms Actor-observer effect, Arousal, Attitudes, Attribution, Balance, Beliefs, Centrality of attitude, Co-action, Cognitive consistency, Cognitive dissonance, Congruent attitude change, Diffusion of responsibility, Discrimination, Empathy, Evaluation apprehension, Extremeness of attitude, Fundamental attribution error, Halo effect, Identification, Incongruent attitude change, Kernel of truth, Persuasibility, Prejudice, Primacy effect, Pro-social behaviour, Prototype, Recency effect, Scapegoating, Schema, Self-fulfilling prophecy, Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of attitude, Social facilitation, Social loafing, Stereotype, Valence of attitude, Values. • Human beings have a need to interact with and relate to others, and to explain their own as well as others’ behaviour. • People develop attitudes, or thoughts and behavioural tendencies, through learning processes, family and school influences, reference groups and the media. Attitudes have an affective, cognitive and behavioural component, and can be understood in terms of valence, extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) and centrality. • Attitude change takes according to the balance concept, cognitive consonance and the two-step concept. Attitude change is affected by characteristics of the source, the target, and the message. Negative attitudes (prejudices) towards a group often create conflicts within a society, and are expressed through discrimination, but there are practical strategies for handling prejudice. • The entire set of processes involved in understanding the social world around us is called social cognition, which is guided by mental structures known as social schemas. One kind of social schema, a stereotype, contains overgeneralised beliefs about a particular group, often leads to and strengthens prejudices. • Impression formation takes place in a systematic way, and exhibits effects such as primacy and recency, and the halo effect. • People also assign causes to their own and others’ behaviour, and to experiences such as success and failure, by attributing internal or external causes. Attribution shows effects such as the fundamental attribution error and actor-observer effect. • Because of arousal and evaluation apprehension in the presence of others, performance of familiar tasks may improve (social facilitation) and performance of unfamiliar or new tasks may decline (social inhibition). • People respond to others who are in need by helping them (pro-social behaviour), but this is determined by several factors. Review Questions 1. Define attitude. Discuss the components of an attitude. 2. Are attitudes learnt? Explain how? 3. What are the factors that influence the formation of an attitude? 4. Is behaviour always a reflection of one’s attitude? Explain with a relevant example. 5. Highlight the importance of schemas in social cognition. 6. Differentiate between prejudice and stereotype. 7. Prejudice can exist without discrimination and vice versa. Comment. 8. Describe the important factors that influence impression formation. 9. Explain how the attribution made by an ‘actor’ would be different from that of an ‘observer’. 10. How does social facilitation take place? 11. Explain the concept of pro-social behaviour. 12. Your friend eats too much junk food, how would you be able to bring about a change in her/his attitude towards food? 126 Psychology 2019-20

Project 1. Attitudes Towards and Awareness of Waste Management : A Survey Ideas The problem of household garbage (domestic waste) is common in most Indian cities. The concern for a clean environment is increasing, but we do not know to what extent citizens know how to dispose of the garbage that collects in their household. Along with some of your classmates, conduct a survey in your own colony to find out what people do about household garbage. Each student may visit two houses in their colony, and ask the heads of the household the following questions. Their answers must be written down. 1. What do you do with old newspapers, magazines, tins, and bottles ? 2. What do you do with plastic packets, and other plastic objects (for example, toys, containers etc.)? 3. How do you dispose of kitchen waste (e.g., vegetable and fruit peels, used tea leaves or tea-bags, left-over food that cannot be eaten etc.)? 4. How do you dispose of other used objects that contain chemical substances (e.g. torch cells, used or damaged CDs, cassettes, insecticide and pesticide containers etc.)? 5. Do you put all the garbage collected in your house everyday in the same place, or do you put different kinds of garbage in separate dustbins/waste-baskets? 6. What happens to the garbage that is collected from your house and neighbourhood and where is it taken? 7. What is the meaning of ‘recycling’? 8. What can you do (personally) to make your colony/neighbourhood more clean? Compare the responses collected by all the students, and see what kind of attitudes and awareness people show about waste management at the household level. 2. Interpersonal Judgment Exercise The following exercise will help you to see how well you and your best friend know each other. For each quality listed below, give ratings for yourself (Column 1) and for your best friend in your class (Column 2). Also ask your friend to do the same kind of rating, for himself/herself (Column 1) and for you (Column 2). Use the following rating scale : 12345 Very low Low Neither low High Very high on the quality nor high on the quality After you and your friend have completed the ratings, copy Column 2 ratings from your friend’s sheet on your sheet, under Column 3. Compare Column 3 ratings with Column 1 ratings in the case of each quality. Ask your friend to do the same task – that is, copy Column 2 ratings from your sheet on her/his sheet, under Column 3, and compare these ratings with her/his Column 1 ratings. Enter Column 3 minus Column 1 under Column 4. Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 You rate You rate Rating of you Column 3 yourself your friend by your friend minus Column 1 Friendly Tense Sincere Pleasant Open to new ideas Examine the following. Are there any zeros in Column 4? On which quality is the difference greatest? On which quality is the difference smallest (other than zero)? Chapter 6 • Attitude and Social Cognition 127 2019-20

In general, have you given yourself a higher or lower rating than what your friend has given you? Has your friend given herself/himself a higher or lower rating than what you have given your friend? The sign of the difference (plus or minus) should be noted only to see the direction of the difference. The closer the ratings between Column 1 and Column 3 for both of you, the better you know each other. You can also compare your Column 1 with your friend’s Column 1. The more similar these two ratings are, the greater the similarity between you and your friend. Weblinks http://tip.psychology.org/attitude.html http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/schema.htm http://www.12manage.com/methods_heider_attribution_theory.html http://www.answers.com/topic/social-facilitation Pedagogical Hints 1. In the topic of attitudes, students should be made to understand the distinction between attitudes as such (with the A-B-C components) on one hand, and behaviour related to the attitude, on the other. 2. To explain attitude change, students may be encouraged to think of real- life examples of attitude change, for instance, attempts made by advertisers to promote their products through media. Then discuss whether these attempts to change attitude are actually successful or not. 3. To enable students to understand the relationships among schemas, prototypes and prejudice, give examples of how stereotypes, as forms of prototypes, may lead to prejudice. 4. In the topic of social cognition, students should be able to understand that impression formation and attribution are basic cognitive processes that help in processing information about other persons. The role of schemas has to be emphasised in this context. 5. Social facilitation and pro-social behaviour must be discussed as aspects that highlight the behavioural rather than cognitive aspects of social life. 128 Psychology 2019-20

SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature and types of groups and know how they are formed, examine the influence of group on individual behaviour, describe the process of cooperation and competition, reflect on the importance of social identity, and understand the nature of intergroup conflict and examine conflict resolution strategies. Introduction Nature and Formation of Groups Groupthink (Box 7.1) Type of Groups The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments (Box 7.2) Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour Social Loafing Group Polarisation Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience CONTENTS The Autokinetic Effect (Box 7.3) Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment (Box 7.4) Cooperation and Competition Sherif’s Summer Camp Experiments (Box 7.5) Determinants of Cooperation and Competition Key Terms Social Identity Summary Intergroup Conflict : Nature and Causes Review Questions Conflict Resolution Strategies Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 2019-20

Introduction Think about your day-to-day life and the various social interactions you have. In the morning, before going to school, you interact with your family members; in school, you discuss topics and issues with your teachers and classmates; and after school you phone up, visit or play with your friends. In each of these instances, you are part of a group which not only provides you the needed support and comfort but also facilitates your growth and development as an individual. Have you ever been away to a place where you were without your family, school, and friends? How did you feel? Did you feel there was something vital missing in your life? Our lives are influenced by the nature of group membership we have. It is, therefore, important to be part of groups which would influence us positively and help us in becoming good citizens. In this chapter, we shall try to understand what groups are and how they influence our behaviour. At this point, it is also important to acknowledge that not only do others influence us, but we, as individuals, are also capable of changing others and the society. The benefits of cooperation and competition and how they influence our personal and social lives will also be examined. We will also see how identity develops — how we come to know ourselves. Similarly, we would try to understand why sometimes group conflicts arise; examine the perils of group conflict and apprise ourselves of various conflict resolution strategies so that we are able to contribute towards making a harmonious and cohesive society. NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS family, class and playgroup are examples of groups and are different from other What is a Group? collections of people. The preceding introduction illustrates the A group may be defined as an organised importance of groups in our lives. One system of two or more individuals, who are question that comes to mind is: “How are interacting and interdependent, who have groups (e.g., your family, class, and the common motives, have a set of role group with which you play) different from relationships among its members, and have other collections of people?” For example, norms that regulate the behaviour of its people who have assembled to watch a members. cricket match or your school function are at one place, but are not interdependent Groups have the following salient on each other. They do not have defined characteristics : roles, status and expectations from each • A social unit consisting of two or more other. In the case of your family, class, and the group with which you play, you individuals who perceive themselves will realise that there is mutual as belonging to the group. This interdependence, each member has roles, characteristic of the group helps in there are status differentials, and there are distinguishing one group from the expectations from each other. Thus, your other and gives the group its unique identity. • A collection of individuals who have common motives and goals. Groups 130 Psychology 2019-20

function either working towards a given is also a collection of people who may be goal, or away from certain threats present at a place/situation by chance. facing the group. Suppose you are going on the road and an • A collection of individuals who are accident takes place. Soon a large number interdependent, i.e. what one is doing of people tend to collect. This is an example may have consequences for others. of a crowd. There is neither any structure Suppose one of the fielders in a cricket nor feeling of belongingness in a crowd. team drops an important catch during Behaviour of people in crowds is irrational a match — this will have consequence and there is no interdependence among for the entire team. members. • Individuals who are trying to satisfy a need through their joint association Teams are special kinds of groups. also influence each other. Members of teams often have comple- • A gathering of individuals who interact mentary skills and are committed to a with one another either directly or common goal or purpose. Members are indirectly. mutually accountable for their activities. In • A collection of individuals whose teams, there is a positive synergy attained interactions are structured by a set of through the coordinated efforts of the roles and norms. This means that the members. The main differences between group members perform the same groups and teams are: functions every time the group meets • In groups, performance is dependent and the group members adhere to group norms. Norms tell us how we on contributions of individual ought to behave in the group and members. In teams, both individual specify the behaviours expected from contributions and teamwork matter. group members. • In groups, the leader or whoever is Groups can be differentiated from other heading the group holds responsibility collections of people. For example, a crowd for the work. However in teams, although there is a leader, members hold themselves responsible. Picture A Picture B Fig.7.1 : Look at these Two Pictures Picture A shows a football team — a group in which members interact with one another, have roles and goals. Picture B depicts an audience watching the football match — a mere collection of people who by some coincidence (may be their interest in football) happened to be in the same place at the same time. Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes 131 2019-20

An audience is also a collection of • Satisfaction of one’s psychological people who have assembled for a special and social needs : Groups satisfy one’s purpose, may be to watch a cricket match social and psychological needs such as or a movie. Audiences are generally passive sense of belongingness, giving and but sometimes they go into a frenzy and receiving attention, love, and power become mobs. In mobs, there is a definite through a group. sense of purpose. There is polarisation in attention, and actions of persons are in a • Goal achievement : Groups help in common direction. Mob behaviour is achieving such goals which cannot be characterised by homogeneity of thought attained individually. There is power in and behaviour as well as impulsivity. the majority. Why Do People Join Groups? • Provide knowledge and information : Group membership provides knowledge All of you are members of your family, and information and thus broadens our class and groups with which you interact view. As individuals, we may not have or play. Similarly, other people are also all the required information. Groups members of a number of groups at any supplement this information and given time. Different groups satisfy knowledge. different needs, and therefore, we are simultaneously members of different Group Formation groups. This sometimes creates pressures for us because there may be competing In this section, we will see how groups are demands and expectations. Most often we formed. Basic to group formation is some are able to handle these competing contact and some form of interaction demands and expectations. People join between people. This interaction is groups because these groups satisfy a facilitated by the following conditions: range of needs. In general, people join • Proximity : Just think about your groups for the following reasons : • Security : When we are alone, we feel group of friends. Would you have been friends if you were not living in the insecure. Groups reduce this same colony, or going to the same insecurity. Being with people gives a school, or may be playing in the same sense of comfort, and protection. As a playground? Probably your answer result, people feel stronger, and are less would be ‘No’. Repeated interactions vulnerable to threats. with the same set of individuals give us • Status : When we are members of a a chance to know them, and their group that is perceived to be important interests and attitudes. Common by others, we feel recognised and interests, attitudes, and background experience a sense of power. Suppose are important determinants of your your school wins in an inter- liking for your group members. institutional debate competition, you • Similarity : Being exposed to someone feel proud and think that you are better over a period of time makes us assess than others. our similarities and paves the way for • Self-esteem : Groups provide feelings of formation of groups. Why do we like self-worth and establish a positive social people who are similar? Psychologists identity. Being a member of prestigious have given several explanations for this. groups enhances one’s self-concept. One explanation is that people prefer consistency and like relationships that are consistent. When two people are 132 Psychology 2019-20

similar, there is consistency and they group, the goal, and how it is to be start liking each other. For example, achieved. People try to know each other you like playing football and another and assess whether they will fit in. person in your class also loves playing There is excitement as well as football; there is a matching of your apprehensions. This stage is called the interests. There are higher chances that forming stage. you may become friends. Another • Often, after this stage, there is a stage explanation given by psychologists is of intragroup conflict which is referred that when we meet similar people, they to as storming. In this stage, there is reinforce and validate our opinions and conflict among members about how the values, we feel we are right and thus we target of the group is to be achieved, start liking them. Suppose you are of who is to control the group and its the opinion that too much watching of resources, and who is to perform what television is not good, because it shows task. When this stage is complete, some too much violence. You meet someone sort of hierarchy of leadership in the who also has similar views. This group develops and a clear vision as to validates your opinion, and you start how to achieve the group goal. liking the person who was instrumental • The storming stage is followed by in validating your opinion. another stage known as norming. • Common motives and goals : When Group members by this time develop people have common motives or goals, norms related to group behaviour. This they get together and form a group leads to development of a positive group which may facilitate their goal identity. attainment. Suppose you want to teach • The fourth stage is performing. By this children in a slum area who are unable time, the structure of the group has to go to school. You cannot do this evolved and is accepted by group alone because you have your own members. The group moves towards studies and homework. You, therefore, achieving the group goal. For some form a group of like-minded friends and groups, this may be the last stage of start teaching these children. So you group development. have been able to achieve what you • However, for some groups, for example, could not have done alone. in the case of an organising committee Stages of Group Formation Identifying Stages of Group Activity Formation 7.1 Remember that, like everything else in life, groups develop. You do not become a Select 10 members from your class group member the moment you come randomly and form a committee to together. Groups usually go through plan an open house. See how they go different stages of formation, conflict, ahead. Give them full autonomy to do stabilisation, performance, and dismissal. all the planning. Other members of the Tuckman suggested that groups pass class observe them as they function. through five developmental sequences. These are: forming, storming, norming, Do you see any of these stages performing and adjourning. emerging? Which were those? What • When group members first meet, there was the order of stages? Which stages were skipped? is a great deal of uncertainty about the Discuss in the class. Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes 133 2019-20

for a school function, there may be Four important elements of group another stage known as adjourning structure are : stage. In this stage, once the function • Roles are socially defined expectations is over, the group may be disbanded. that individuals in a given situation are However, it must be stated that all expected to fulfil. Roles refer to the groups do not always proceed from one typical behaviour that depicts a person stage to the next in such a systematic in a given social context. You have the manner. Sometimes several stages go on role of a son or a daughter and with this simultaneously, while in other instances role, there are certain role expectations, groups may go back and forth through the i.e. including the behaviour expected of various stages or they may just skip some someone in a particular role. As a of the stages. daughter or a son, you are expected to respect elders, listen to them, and be During the process of group formation, responsible towards your studies. groups also develop a structure. We should • Norms are expected standards of remember that group structure develops behaviour and beliefs established, as members interact. Over time this agreed upon, and enforced by group interaction shows regularities in members. They may be considered as distribution of task to be performed, a group’s ‘unspoken rules’. In your responsibilities assigned to members, and family, there are norms that guide the the prestige or relative status of members. behaviour of family members. These Box 7.1 Groupthink Generally teamwork in groups leads to beneficial results. However, Irving Janis has suggested that cohesion can interfere with effective leadership and can lead to disastrous decisions. Janis discovered a process known as “groupthink” in which a group allows its concerns for unanimity. They, in fact, “override the motivation to realistically appraise courses of action”. It results in the tendency of decision makers to make irrational and uncritical decisions. Groupthink is characterised by the appearance of consensus or unanimous agreement within a group. Each member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision or a policy. No one expresses dissenting opinion because each person believes it would undermine the cohesion of the group and s/he would be unpopular. Studies have shown that such a group has an exaggerated sense of its own power to control events, and tends to ignore or minimise cues from the real world that suggest danger to its plan. In order to preserve the group’s internal harmony and collective well-being, it becomes increasingly out-of-touch with reality. Groupthink is likely to occur in socially homogenous, cohesive groups that are isolated from outsiders, that have no tradition of considering alternatives, and that face a decision with high costs or failures. Examples of several group decisions at the international level can be cited as illustrations of groupthink phenomenon. These decisions turned out to be major fiascos. The Vietnam War is an example. From 1964 to 1967, President Lyndon Johnson and his advisors in the U.S. escalated the Vietnam War thinking that this would bring North Vietnam to the peace table. The escalation decisions were made despite warnings. The grossly miscalculated move resulted in the loss of 56,000 American and more than one million Vietnamese lives and created huge budget deficits. Some ways to counteract or prevent groupthink are: (i) encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and even disagreement among group members, (ii) encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, (iii) inviting outside experts to evaluate the group’s decisions, and (iv) encouraging members to seek feedback from trusted others. 134 Psychology 2019-20

norms represent shared ways of some are short-lived (e.g., a committee), viewing the world. some remain together for many years (e.g., • Status refers to the relative social religious groups), some are highly position given to group members by organised (e.g., army, police, etc.), and others. This relative position or status others are informally organised (e.g., may be either ascribed (given may be spectators of a match). People may belong because of one’s seniority) or achieved to different types of group. Major types of (the person has achieved status groups are enumerated below : because of expertise or hard work). By • primary and secondary groups being members of the group, we enjoy • formal and informal groups the status associated with that group. • ingroup and outgroup. All of us, therefore, strive to be members of such groups which are Primary and Secondary Groups high in status or are viewed favourably by others. Even within a group, A major difference between primary and different members have different secondary groups is that primary groups prestige and status. For example, the are pre-existing formations which are captain of a cricket team has a higher usually given to the individual whereas status compared to the other members, secondary groups are those which the although all are equally important for individual joins by choice. Thus, family, the team’s success. caste, and religion are primary groups • Cohesiveness refers to togetherness, whereas membership of a political party is binding, or mutual attraction among an example of a secondary group. In a group members. As the group becomes primary group, there is a face-to-face more cohesive, group members start to interaction, members have close physical think, feel and act as a social unit, and proximity, and they share warm emotional less like isolated individuals. Members bonds. Primary groups are central to of a highly cohesive group have a individual’s functioning and have a very greater desire to remain in the group in major role in developing values and ideals comparison to those who belong to low of the individual during the early stages of cohesive groups. Cohesiveness refers to development. In contrast, secondary the team spirit or ‘we feeling’ or a sense groups are those where relationships of belongingness to the group. It is among members are more impersonal, difficult to leave a cohesive group or to indirect, and less frequent. In the primary gain membership of a group which is group, boundaries are less permeable, i.e. highly cohesive. Extreme cohesiveness members do not have the option to choose however, may sometimes not be in a its membership as compared to secondary group’s interest. Psychologists have groups where it is easy to leave and join identified the phenomenon of another group. groupthink (see Box 7.1) which is a consequence of extreme cohesiveness. Formal and Informal Groups TYPE OF GROUPS These groups differ in the degree to which the functions of the group are stated Groups differ in many respects; some have explicitly and formally. The functions of a a large number of members (e.g., a formal group are explicitly stated as in the country), some are small (e.g., a family), case of an office organisation. The roles to be performed by group members are stated Chapter 7 • Social Influence and Group Processes 135 2019-20

in an explicit manner. The formal and differently and are often perceived negatively informal groups differ on the basis of in comparison to the ingroup members. structure. The formation of formal groups Perceptions of ingroup and outgroup affect is based on some specific rules or laws and our social lives. These differences can be members have definite roles. There are a easily understood by studying Tajfel’s set of norms which help in establishing experiments given in Box 7.2. order. A university is an example of a formal group. On the other hand, the Although it is common to make these formation of informal groups is not based categorisations, it should be appreciated on rules or laws and there is close that these categories are not real and are relationship among members. created by us. In some cultures, plurality is celebrated as has been the case in India. Ingroup and Outgroup We have a unique composite culture which is reflected not only in the lives we live, but Just as individuals compare themselves also in our art, architecture, and music. with others in terms of similarities and differences with respect to what they have Ingroup and Outgroup Activity and what others have, individuals also Distinctions 7.2 compare the group they belong to with groups of which they are not a member. Think of any interinstitutional The term ‘ingroup’ refers to one’s own competition held in the near past. Ask group, and ‘outgroup’ refers to another your friends to write a paragraph group. For ingroup members, we use the about your school and its students, word ‘we’ while for outgroup members, the and about another school and word ‘they’ is used. By using the words students of that school. Ask the class they and we, one is categorising people as and list the behaviour and similar or different. It has been found that characteristics of your schoolmates, persons in the ingroup are generally and students of the other school on supposed to be similar, are viewed the board. Observe the differences favourably, and have desirable traits. and discuss in the class. Do you also Members of the outgroup are viewed see similarities? If yes, discuss them too. Box 7.2 The Minimal Group Paradigm Experiments Tajfel and his colleagues were interested in knowing the minimal conditions for intergroup behaviour. ‘Minimal group paradigm’ was developed to answer this question. British school- boys expressed their preference for paintings by two artists — Vassily Kandinsky and Paul Klee. Children were told that it was an experiment on decision-making. They knew the groups in which they were grouped (Kandinsky group and Klee group). The identity of other group members was hidden using code numbers. The children then distributed money between recipients only by code number and group membership. Sample distribution matrix : Ingroup member — 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Outgroup member — 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 You will agree that these groups were created on a flimsy criterion (i.e. preference for paintings by two artists) which had no past history or future. Yet, results showed that children favoured their own group. 136 Psychology 2019-20