Psychology---Class-12

["words. While reading body language, we body language occurs in conversing with must remember that a single non-verbal others without conscious realisation. signal does not carry complete meaning. Factors such as gestures, postures, eye Psychological Testing Skills contact, clothing style, and body movement \u2014 all of them have to be The next set of competencies which considered together, that is, in a cluster. psychologists require is concerned with the Also, in verbal communication, non-verbal knowledge base of the discipline of signs can have many different meanings. psychology. They involve psychological For example, crossing arms over the chest assessment, evaluation and problem may suggest that a person likes to keep solving with individuals and groups, aloof. But, crossed arms accompanied by organisation, and the community. an erect posture, tightened body muscles, Psychologists have always been interested a set clenched jaw, and narrowing of the in understanding individual differences eyes are likely to communicate anger. from the time of Galton in the late 19th century. Psychological tests have been A person\u2019s background and past devised and are primarily used for the patterns of behaviour are also considered determination and analysis of individual when we analyse body language. The differences in general intelligence, consistency between current and past differential aptitudes, educational patterns of behaviour, as well as harmony achievement, vocational fitness, personality, between verbal and non-verbal social attitudes, and various non- communication, is termed as congruency. intellectual characteristics. Psychological When you say to your friend, \u201cyou do not tests have also been used for studying a look well today\u201d, you are basing your variety of psychological studies on groups statement on an evaluation of the person\u2019s besides making an assessment of a appearance today and comparing it with particular individual. Psychologists study how s\/he looked in the past. In other these differences based on factors such as words, something has changed, and you occupation, age, gender, education, see that difference. If you did not have culture, etc. While using psychological experience to draw on, you would not have tests an attitude of objectivity, scientific noticed the change. Let us recall how much orientation, and standardised inter- we use body language to encourage or pretation must be kept in mind. discourage conversation. For instance, we consciously wave at waiters or friends to For example, in organisational and catch their attention. Much of the use of personnel work, in business and industry, where specialised tests are used to select Activity Observing Non-verbal Behaviour individuals for specific jobs, it is essential 9.2 in Communication to use actual performance records or ratings as a criterion for establishing Carefully observe members of your validity of a test. Suppose, the personnel family. Note their non-verbal behaviour department wants to know whether a or body language when they are certain psychological test can help it to talking to someone. Then focus on your identify potentially best stenographers, it own non-verbal behaviour in a similar must be established that the test way. Do you find any similarities differentiates among employees of several between your non-verbal behaviour or performance levels. In addition, it should body language and theirs? Share it be found that the performance on the job with the class. Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 187 2019-20","Box 9.4 Essentials of Psychological Assessment Skills Psychological assessment is a basic competency required by psychologists. It includes knowledge of comprehensive and integrated assessment of persons based on interviewing, psychological testing, and evaluation of the outcomes of psychological services. The skills needed for psychological assessment are : \u2022 Ability to select and implement multiple methods and means of evaluation in ways that are responsive to, and respectful of diverse individuals, couples, families, and groups. \u2022 Ability to utilise systematic approaches to gather data required for taking decisions. \u2022 Knowledge of psychometric issues and bases of assessment methods. \u2022 Knowledge of issues related to integration of different data sources. \u2022 Ability to integrate assessment data from different sources for diagnostic purposes. \u2022 Ability to formulate and apply diagnoses; to understand strengths and limitations of current diagnostic approaches. \u2022 Capacity for effective use of supervision to implement and enhance skills. Anyone who uses a psychological test has to be a professionally qualified psychologist trained in psychological testing. Psychological tests are administered strictly based on information given in the test manual. The facts required for this purpose are as follows: \u2022 Purpose of the test, i.e. what it has to be used for? \u2022 Target population for which it can be used. \u2022 Type of validation done on the test, i.e. on what basis it can be said that it measures what it claims to measure? \u2022 The external criteria of validation, i.e. the areas in which it has been found working. \u2022 The reliability indices, i.e. how much error is possible in scores? \u2022 The standardisation sample. That is, when the test was constructed, who were tested, e.g. Indians or Americans, rural\/urban, literate\/semi-literate, etc.? \u2022 Time taken in the administration of test. \u2022 Scoring patterns, i.e. what is to be scored and what method is to be used? \u2022 Norms. That is, what kinds are available? What is the appropriate group which is to be used for interpretation of scores, e.g. male\/female, age groups, etc.? \u2022 Influence of any special factors, e.g. presence of others, stress situations, etc. \u2022 Limitations of the test, i.e. who, and what it cannot assess? Conditions in which it may not give good assessment. of a newly employed worker selected on the set purpose and uses a focused structure. basis of a test indeed matches with her\/his There are many kinds of interviews. The test scores. Box 9.4 presents the essentials employment interview is one which most of psychological assessment skills. of you are likely to face. Some other formats are information gathering INTERVIEWING SKILLS interview, counselling interview, interro- gatory interview, radio-television interview, An interview is a purposeful conversation and research interview. between two or more people that follows a basic question and answer format. Interview Format Interviewing is more formal than most other conversations because it has a pre- Once the objectives of the interview are established, the interviewer prepares an 188 Psychology 2019-20","interview format. The basic format, asks questions in an attempt to generate regardless of the interview\u2019s purpose, is information and data that are required for divided into three stages, namely, opening, the purpose. the body, and the closing. We would now discuss these three stages briefly. Sequence of Questions Opening of the Interview To accomplish the purpose of an interview, the interviewer prepares a set of questions, The opening of interview involves also called a schedule, for different establishing rapport between two domains, or categories s\/he wants to cover. communicators. The purpose is to make To do this, the interviewer must first decide the interviewee comfortable. Generally, the on the domains\/categories under which interviewer starts the conversation and information is to be generated. For does most of the talking at the outset. This example, in the questions used in job serves two functions, i.e. it establishes the interview given in Box 9.5, the interviewer goal of interview, and gives the interviewee selected several categories such as nature time to become comfortable with the of the organisation last worked for, situation and the interviewer. satisfaction with the past job, views on product, etc. These categories and the Body of the Interview questions within them are framed ranging from easy-to-answer to difficult-to-answer. The body of the interview is the heart of Questions are also formulated to assess the process. In this stage, the interviewer facts as well as subjective assessment. Types of Interview Questions Box 9.5 Direct Question: They are explicit and require specific information. For example, \u201cWhere did you last work?\u201d Open-ended Question: They are less direct and specify only the topic. For example, \u201cHow happy were you with your job on the whole?\u201d Close-ended Question: They provide response alternatives, narrowing the response variations. For example, \u201cDo you think knowledge of a product or communication skill is more important for a salesperson?\u201d Bipolar Question: It is a form of close-ended question. It requires a yes or no response. For example, \u201cWould you like to work for the company?\u201d Leading Question: It encourages a response in favour of a specific answer. For example, \u201cWouldn\u2019t you say you are in favour of having officer\u2019s union in the company?\u201d Mirror Question: They are intended to get a person to reflect on what she or he had said and expand on it. For example, you said \u201cI work so hard but I am unable to get success.\u201d Please explain as to why this happens. Answering Interview Questions \u2022 If you do not understand the question, ask for clarification. \u2022 Restate the question in your answer. \u2022 Answer one question at a time. \u2022 Try to turn negative questions into positive ones. Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 189 2019-20","Closing the Interview satisfaction in doing the job well. The positive feeling thus generated would have While closing the interview, the interviewer tremendous impact on overall life should summarise what s\/he has been adjustment. Counselling is also one such able to gather. One should end with a domain where a person entering the field discussion of the next step to be taken. is required to engage in self-introspection When the interview is ending, the in order to assess her\/his inclination and interviewer should give a chance to the basic skill set for being effective in her\/his interviewee to ask questions or offer vocation. comments. Meaning and Nature of Counselling COUNSELLING SKILLS Counselling provides a system for planning Another prerequisite for developing as a the interview, analysing the counsellor\u2019s psychologist is the competence in the and client\u2019s behaviour, and determining the domain of counselling and guidance. In developmental impact on the client. In this order to develop these competencies, section, we will discuss skills, concepts, psychologists must undergo proper and methods that are designed to help training and education under guided develop concrete competencies. A supervision. The consequences of getting counsellor is most often interested in into a wrong vocation are pretty serious. building an understanding of the If a person enters a job for which s\/he does clients problem by focusing on what not have requisite aptitude, s\/he can understanding the client has of her\/his develop serious problems of adjustments, problem and how s\/he feels about it. The develop negative emotions, suffer from actual or objective facts of the problems are inferiority complex, etc. These difficulties considered less important, and it is may then come to be projected onto considered more important to work on the someone else. Contrary to this, if anyone feelings and their acknowledgement by the who takes a vocation for which s\/he is well clients. The focus is more on the person adapted, there will be considerable and how s\/he defines the problem. Fig.9.2 : Pre-requisites of Counselling Process 190 Psychology 2019-20","Counselling involves helping relation- Developing Effective Relationships ship, that includes someone seeking help, and someone willing to give help, who is For most people who seek help from a capable of or trained to help in a setting that counsellor, effective or satisfying permits help to be given and received relationships are almost non-existent or (see Fig.9.2). infrequent. Since change in behaviour is often created and supported by a network The following elements about of social support, it is essential for clients counselling are common to the major to start developing more positive theoretical approaches to counselling : relationships with other persons. The 1. Counselling involves responding to the counselling relationship is the initial vehicle through which this begins. Like all feelings, thoughts, and actions of the of us, counsellors too are not perfect, but clients. they are trained in developing a more 2. Counselling involves a basic acceptance healthy and helpful relationship than of the client\u2019s perceptions and feelings, others. without using any evaluative standards. In brief, counselling usually has an all- 3. Confidentiality and privacy constitute inclusive outcome for the clients. Effective essential ingredients in the counselling behavioural change that takes place in the setting. Physical facilities that preserve client is multifaceted. It may show up in this quality are important. the form of a client taking greater 4. Counselling is voluntary. It takes place responsibility, developing new insight, when a client approaches a counsellor. learning to engage in different behaviours, A counsellor never uses any kind of coercion for obtaining information. Listening and Paraphrasing Activity 5. Counsellors and clients both transmit 9.3 and receive verbal and non-verbal For this activity, three students are messages during the process. Therefore, needed, A, B, and C. awareness and sensitivity to the nature of the message is an important A will act as a counsellor, who will prerequisite for a counsellor\u2019s practice listening. Her\/his role will be effectiveness. to repeat to the client in different words what s\/he listened. A will listen not Breaking the Myths of Counselling only to what was said but also how it was said (body language) and the \u2022 Counselling is not merely giving feelings behind it. information. B will share with A some problems \u2022 Counselling is not giving advice. that s\/he has been facing in life lately. \u2022 Counselling is not selection and C will act as an observer and take placement of individuals onto jobs or notes on how good a listener A is. for courses. \u2022 Counselling is not the same as A and B will interact for about interviewing though interviewing may 10 minutes. After the interaction is be involved. over, C will share her\/his \u2022 Counselling is not influencing observations. B may also share her\/ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour by his observations with A and C about persuading, admonishing, threatening, A\u2019s communication. or compelling. The feedback session may be of 10 minutes. After it is over, switch roles so that all three may get a chance to play the three roles. At the end of the activity, summarise what you have learned. Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 191 2019-20","and making an effort to develop more with what you value and the way you effective relationships. feel and relate to your inner self-image. (ii) Positive Regard for Others: In a Characteristics of Effective Helper counselling-counsellor relationship, a good relationship allows freedom of Being a trained helper, the counsellor has expression. It reflects acceptance of the the responsibility for ensuring that her\/his idea that the feelings of both are client is benefited from counselling and its important. We should remember that therapeutic effects are achieved. To a large when we form a new relationship, we extent, however, the success of a experience feelings of uncertainty and counselling process depends on the skill, anxiety. Such feelings get minimised knowledge, attitude, personal qualities and when a counsellor extends a positive behaviour of a counsellor, any or all of regard to the client by accepting that it which can enhance or diminish the helping is all right to feel the way the client is process. In this section, we will discuss feeling. In order to show positive regard four qualities that are associated with to others, the following guidelines may effective counsellors. These include: be kept in mind: (i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard for (1) When you are speaking, get into the others, (iii) Ability to empathise, and (iv) Paraphrasing. habit of using \u201cI\u201d messages rather than \u201cyou\u201d messages. An example of Let us understand these qualities this would be, \u201cI understand\u201d rather briefly. than \u201cyou should not\u201d. (i) Authenticity : Your image or perception (2) Respond to what the other person has said, after checking with her\/him. of yourself makes up your \u201cI\u201d. The self- (3) Give the other person the freedom to perceived \u201cI\u201d is revealed through ideas, share feelings or anything s\/he words, actions, clothing, and your wants to say. Do not interrupt or cut life-style. All of these communicate your in. \u201cI\u201d to others. Those who come into close (4) Do not assume that the other person contact with you also build their own knows what you are thinking. image of you for themselves, and they Express yourself according to the also sometimes communicate this image frame of reference, i.e. in the context to you. For example, friends tell you of the verbal exchange taking place. what they like and dislike about you. (5) Do not label either yourself or the Your teachers and parents praise and\/ other person (e.g., \u201cyou are an or criticise you. You are also evaluated introvert\u201d, etc.). by persons you respect. These collective (iii) Empathy: This is one of the most judgments by people you respect, also critical competencies that a counsellor called \u2018significant others\u2019, develop into a needs to have. You have already read \u2018me\u2019. This other perceived \u2018me\u2019 is the in Chapter 5 that empathy is the ability person that others perceive you to be. of a counsellor to understand the This perception may be the same as or feelings of another person from her\/his different from your own self-perception perspective. It is like stepping into of \u2018I\u2019. The degree to which you are aware someone else\u2019s shoes and trying to of these perceptions of others as well as understand the pain and troubled of your own perception of your self feelings of the other person. There is a indicates that you are self-aware. difference between sympathy and Authenticity means that your behavioural expressions are consistent 192 Psychology 2019-20","Activity Confronting One\u2019s Fear professional identity. A critical criterion for 9.4 any professional group is the development This activity can be carried out in a and implementation of appropriate ethical group situation. Everyone in the group standards. Social workers, marriage writes her\/his worst fears\/doubts\/ counsellors, family therapists, and anxieties on a piece of paper without psychologists \u2014 all have their ethical disclosing her\/his name. After codes. Awareness of the ethical standards everyone has finished writing their and codes is extremely important, because fears, all the slips are collected and counselling is a part of the service sector. thrown in a big basket. Now, everyone Not following the ethical standards may in the group picks up one slip from the have legal implications. basket and reads out aloud the fears mentioned on that list. Then the group While learning about the competencies engages in a discussion about the of a counsellor, it is important for you to nature of the fear, the possible reasons know that the client-counsellor for a particular fear to exist, the relevant relationship is built on ethical practice. The agencies who are in some form related American Psychological Association (APA) to instilling that fear, the potential ways has developed a code of ethical conduct to overcome it, etc. The same process for behaviour and decision-making in is repeated until all the slips in that actual clinical settings. The practical basket have been read. At the end of knowledge of these ethical domains can this activity, you should check: guide the practice of counselling in \u2022 If this activity helped you in achieving its desired purpose. Some of the APA practice guidelines are: understanding something more \u2022 Knowledge of ethical\/professional about your self. \u2022 What elements other than fear codes, standards, and guidelines; would have also contributed in the knowledge of statutes, rules, process of self-awareness? regulations, and case law relevant to \u2022 How did you feel when someone the practice of psychology. was reading out your fears? \u2022 Recognise and analyse ethical and legal issues across the range of professional empathy. In sympathy, you play the activities in the clinical setting. saviour. You may think that someone \u2022 Recognise and understand the ethical deserves your kindness. dimensions\/features of her\/his own (iv) Paraphrasing: This skill has already attitudes and practice in the clinical been discussed in the section on setting. communication earlier. You will recall \u2022 Seek appropriate information and that this involves the ability of a consultation when faced with ethical counsellor to reflect on what the client issues. says and feels using different words. \u2022 Practice appropriate professional assertiveness related to ethical issues. Ethics of Counselling In recent years, counsellors have taken important steps to develop their Key Terms Applied psychology, Assessment skills, Cognitive skills, Competence, Counselling, Ethical observation, Intrapersonal awareness, Intervention and consultation skills, Objectivity, Open mindedness, Problem solving skills, Psychological assessment, Psychological test, Reflective skills, Self-awareness, Sensitivity, Trustworthiness. Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 193 2019-20","\u2022 The general and specific skills form the core competencies essential for a psychologist to act in a more responsive and ethical manner. Before entering any professional arena, it, therefore, becomes pertinent for a psychologist to equip herself\/himself with these indispensable competencies. \u2022 General skills include personal as well as intellectual skills. These skills are essential for all professional psychologists, whether they are working in the field of clinical and health psychology, industrial\/organisational, social, educational, or in environmental settings or are acting as consultants. \u2022 Specific skills are core\/basic to the field of psychological service. For example, psychologists working in clinical settings need to be trained in various techniques of therapeutic interventions, psychological assessment, and counselling. \u2022 In order to become an effective psychologist, one needs to have certain characteristics such as competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for people\u2019s rights and dignity, etc. \u2022 Observational skills are basic skills and are used by psychologists as a starting point for providing insights into behaviour. The two major approaches to observation are naturalistic observation and participant observation. \u2022 Communication is a process that helps in transmitting meaning from one person to another. Speaking and listening are central to interpersonal communication. \u2022 Language is important for communication. Its use should be done according to the characteristics of audience. Non-verbal cues such as gestures, postures, hand movements, etc. are also used to communicate ideas. \u2022 Creating a proper message, tackling environmental noise, and providing feedback are ways of reducing distortions and making effective communication. \u2022 Interviewing is a process of face-to-face communication. It proceeds through three stages which include the warm up (opening stage), the question and answer (the body), and the closing stage. \u2022 Developing the skills of psychological testing is important since tests are important tools used for the assessment of individuals for various purposes. Proper training is required for administration, scoring and interpretation of tests. \u2022 Counselling involves helping relationship, that includes someone seeking help, and someone willing to give help. The qualities that are associated with effective counsellors are (i) Authenticity, (ii) Positive regard for others, (iii) Ability to empathise, and (iv) Paraphrasing. Review Questions 1. What competencies are required for becoming an effective psychologist? 2. What are the generic skills needed by all psychologists? 3. Define communication. Which component of the communication process is most important? Justify your answer with relevant examples. 4. Describe the set of competencies that must be kept in mind while administering a psychological test. 5. What is the typical format of a counselling interview? 6. What do you understand by the term counselling? Explain the characteristics of an effective counsellor. 7. To be an effective counsellor, it is mandatory that s\/he undergoes professional training. Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your arguments. 8. What are the ethical considerations in client-counsellor relationships? 9. Identify an aspect of your friend\u2019s personal life that s\/he wants to change. As a student of psychology, think of specific ways in which you can devise a programme to help your friend modify or solve her\/his problem. 194 Psychology 2019-20","Project 1. Identify 3\u2013 4 separate fields of psychology. For instance, you can choose a clinical Ideas psychologist, a counsellor, and an educational psychologist. Obtain information about the type of work they do and the skills that are used by these psychologists in their unique setting. You can either develop a questionnaire or conduct personal interviews with all of them to identify the competencies related to the kind of work that these psychologists undertake. Prepare a report and discuss in the class. 2. Choose any one skill from the list of competencies for a psychologist. Gather information about the theoretical and practical aspects of that particular skill. On the basis of the obtained information suggest some steps to enhance that skill. Make a presentation in the class. Weblinks www.allpsych.com www.library.unisa.edu.au\/resources\/subject\/counsel.asp Pedagogical Hints 1. Students could be asked to share their views on the increasing applications of psychology in different areas of life. 2. Students can also be asked to brainstorm on the possible skills and competencies needed by psychologists working in different areas. 3. Use of innovative methods such as narration of case vignette and role- play to demonstrate communication skills, effective listening, paraphrasing, etc. would be particularly helpful. Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 195 2019-20","GUIDELINES FOR PRACTICALS IN PSYCHOLOGY Psychological tools and techniques help to studied in Class XI, a psychological test is uncover the latent aspects of an individual\u2019s essentially an objective and standardised behaviour. Thus they aid in understanding, measure of a sample of behaviour. In Class predicting, and controlling the human XII, you will be learning about the concepts of behaviour, which is the fundamental aim of intelligence and aptitude (Chapter 1), psychology. Practicals in psychology are personality and self-concept (Chapter 2), intended to provide students with requisite adjustment and anxiety (Chapter 3), and knowledge and skills in psychological tools attitude (Chapter 6). You are also required to and techniques to gain an understanding of undertake practical training in order to human behaviour. They attempt to provide develop the ability to conduct, score and hands-on experience to the students with both interpret data generated by the administration quantitative tools of measurement, such as of the psychological tests in these areas. In standardised psychological tests and other words, practical training would help you qualitative tools, such as interview and in assessing various dimensions of human observation. Practicals are based on the behaviour, such as intellectual ability, overall principle of learning by doing and thus they personality profile, specific aptitudes, potential provide an opportunity to the students to put for adjustment, attitudinal profile, self- into practice whatever psychological principles concept, and level of anxiety. and theories they have learnt in the classroom. Test Administration Before undertaking practical work, it is important to ensure that the students have The accuracy of psychological testing comes knowledge about various methods of research from standardisation of testing conditions, in psychology and their merits and demerits, materials, procedures, and norms which form the behavioural characteristics being an integral part of test development, its assessed, the nature and uses of psychological administration and interpretation. In this tests, and the ethical guidelines so as to avoid process, it is expected that students will their misuse. Keeping in view the syllabus of develop skills to establish rapport with the test psychology for Class XII, the students would takers to make them comfortable in a relatively undertake practicals in psychological testing new and different context. Establishing which would involve using standardised Rapport involves the test administrator\u2019s psychological tests in different domains, i.e. efforts to arouse the test takers\u2019 interest in intelligence, personality, aptitude, adjustment, the test, elicit their cooperation, and encourage attitude, self-concept, and anxiety. They would them to respond in a manner appropriate to also prepare one case profile which will include the objectives of the test. The main objective developmental history of the individual (case), of establishing rapport is to motivate the using both qualitative and quantitative respondents to follow the instructions as fully approaches. and meticulously as they can. It may be noted that the nature of the test (e.g., individual or I. PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING group, verbal or non-verbal, etc.), and the age and other characteristics of the test takers Practical work in use of psychological tests determine the use of specific techniques for must be carried out under the guidance and the establishment of rapport. For example, supervision of the teacher. As you have already while testing children from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds, the test 196 Psychology 2019-20","administrator cannot assume that they will administrator is not adequately qualified, be motivated to do well on academic tasks, incorrect or inaccurate scoring may render therefore, in such conditions, the test the test scores worthless. administrator makes special efforts to establish rapport to motivate them. Any standardised test is accompanied by a manual which includes the psychometric When establishing rapport, the test properties of the test, norms, and references. administrator also informs the test takers This gives a clear indication regarding the about the confidentiality of test data. The test procedures of the test administration, the taker is informed about the purpose of the scoring methods, and time limits, if any, of test, and how the test results will be used. the test. The manual also includes instructions The test taker is assured that such results to be given to the test takers. would be kept strictly confidential and be made available to a third person (the other two being A thorough understanding of the test, the test administrator and test taker) only after test taker, and the testing conditions is knowledge and consent of the test taker. essential for the proper interpretation of test scores. Some information about the test given The test administration, therefore, is the in the manual like its reliability, validity, task of a professionally trained and skilful norms, etc. are relevant in interpreting any person under controlled conditions. The test score. Similarly, some background data following points may be kept in mind while about the individual being tested (test taker) using a test : are also essential. For example, the same score \u2022 Uniform testing conditions : Basically, the may be obtained by different individuals for different reasons. Therefore, the conclusions function of psychological tests is to to be drawn from such scores may not be measure differences between individuals similar. Finally, some consideration must also or between the responses of the same be given to special factors that may have individual on different occasions. If the influenced a particular score, such as unusual scores obtained by different individuals are testing conditions, temporary emotional to be compared, testing conditions must or physical state of the subject, the extent of obviously be the same for all. Attention the test taker\u2019s previous experience with should be given to the selection of a tests, etc. suitable testing room, which should be free from undue noise and distraction. This The test administrator also provides test room should provide adequate lighting, takers with appropriate and understandable ventilation, seating facilities, etc. for test explanations of test results and of any takers. recommendations stemming from them. It \u2022 Standardised instructions : In order to may be noted here that even when a test has secure uniformity of testing conditions, the been accurately administered, scored, and test constructor provides detailed interpreted, providing merely specific directions for administering the test. numerical scores (e.g., IQ score, aptitude Standardised instructions include the score, etc.) without the opportunity to discuss exact materials used, time limit (if any), it further may be harmful to the test taker. oral instructions to subjects, preliminary demonstrations, ways of handling queries Procedure for Test Administration from subjects, and other possible details of the testing situation. A psychological test can be administered only \u2022 Training of test administrator : The test by a professionally qualified person. A student administrator is the person who of psychology at +2 level would not have administers and scores the test. The reached the stage of a professionally qualified importance of a trained test administrator person. Therefore, s\/he is not fully equipped is evident. For instance, if the test to interpret the scores of a psychological test Guidelines for Practicals in Psychology 197 2019-20","for any conclusive purpose, e.g. selection, 6. The teacher may use the scores of the prediction, diagnosis, etc. For this purpose, hypothetical data and demonstrate how to the test administration may be broken into use the manual to interpret the raw scores small components\/activities. The emphasis with the help of norms. should be on learning skills for understanding the concepts on which the test is based, 7. The students are also told how to draw developing rapport with the participant, conclusions based on the analysis of data. administration of the test including giving instructions, maintaining optimum testing 8. Based on the above guidelines, the conditions, taking precautions, and doing students will be required to prepare a scoring of the test. report of the testing undertaken. The following steps and guidelines are Suggested Format for Writing a suggested to carry out practical work in Psychological Testing Report psychological testing : 1. The teacher would introduce the test to 1. Problem\/Title of the Study (e.g., to study the level of adjustment\/personality\/ the students along with the manual and aptitude of Class X students). the scoring key. The teacher would demonstrate the test to her\/his class 2. Introduction laying stress upon rapport building, \u2022 Basic Concepts imparting instructions, and the \u2022 Variables precautions that need to be taken care of. The test may then be taken by the entire 3. Method class. \u2022 Subject 2. The students may be instructed not to \u2022 Name write their names or to use fictitious names \u2022 Age on the response\/scoring sheets. The \u2022 Gender response sheets of the students may be \u2022 Class collected by the teacher. In order to maintain confidentiality, it is desirable that (Note : As the data is to be kept confidential, the response sheets are reshuffled and\/or the details of the subject may be given fictitious numbers are given to each under a fictitious number.) response sheet. 3. One response sheet each may then be \u2022 Material given back by the teacher to students in \u2022 Brief description of the test (name of the class for scoring. As per the instructions given in the manual, the the test, author, year, psychometric students would be guided to do the properties, etc.). scoring. \u2022 Other materials (e.g., stop watch, 4. The response\/scoring sheets should be screen, etc.). kept with the teacher to be used later as \u2022 Procedure hypothetical data for providing hands-on \u2022 Process of test administration, such as experience in interpretation of test scores. rapport formation, instructions, 5. The students will then be required to precautions, actual conduct of test, etc. conduct the same test on the selected \u2022 Scoring of the test participants with the teacher examining \u2022 Preparation of graph, psychogram, etc. their rapport building skills, instruction (if required). imparting skills, etc. 4. Results and Conclusions \u2022 Describing subject\u2019s scores in terms of norms and drawing conclusions. 5. References \u2022 List the books, manuals and materials consulted on the topic. 198 Psychology 2019-20","II. CASE PROFILE 1. Introduction Developing a case profile would primarily \u2022 A brief introduction of about one or two involve the use of qualitative techniques, such pages presenting the nature of the as observation, interview, survey, etc. During problem, its incidence, likely causes, the course of preparing a case profile, the and possible counselling outcomes. students would gain a first-hand experience in the use of these qualitative techniques. The \u2022 A half page (brief) summary of the case. main objective of preparing a case profile is to understand the individual in totality. This 2. Identification of Data would further help in establishing the cause \u2022 Name (may be fictitious) and effect relationship more accurately. The students may prepare a case profile of an \u2022 Diagnosed Problem individual who has excelled in areas like sports, academics, music, etc. or having \u2022 Voluntary or Referral (i.e., by whom special needs like learning disability, autism, referred \u2014 such as teacher, parent, Down\u2019s syndrome, etc. or those with sibling, etc.) interpersonal social problems, i.e. poor body image, obesity, temper tantrums, substance 3. Case History abuse, not getting along with peers, withdrawn, etc. They may be encouraged to \u2022 A paragraph giving age, gender, school find out the background information and attended, class (grade) presently developmental history of the individual. The enrolled in, etc. students are required to identify the method of inquiry, i.e. interview or observation that \u2022 Information about socio-economic they would like to undertake to get complete status (SES) consisting of information information of the case. A case profile may about mother\u2019s\/father\u2019s education and be prepared based on the suggested format. occupation, family income, house type, The students may be encouraged to reflect number of members in the family\u2014 on the causes to draw some preliminary brothers, sisters and their birth order, conclusions. adjustment in the family, etc. Suggested Format for Preparing a Case \u2022 Information about physical health, Profile physical characteristics (e.g., height and weight), any disability\/illness (in A format for case presentation covering broad the past and present), etc. aspects is given below. It is suggested that the case be developed in a narrative format along \u2022 Any professional help taken (past and the following points: present), giving a brief history of the problem, attitude towards counselling (indicating the motivation to seek help, etc.). \u2022 Recording signs (i.e., what is observed in terms of facial expressions, mannerisms, etc.) and symptoms (i.e., what the subject reports, for example, fears, worry, tension, sleeplessness, etc.). 4. Concluding Comments Guidelines for Practicals in Psychology 199 2019-20","GLOSSARY Actor-observer effect: The tendency to make Applied psychology : The practical application different attributions for one\u2019s own of what is known about the mind, brain, experience or behaviour (actor), and for the and behaviour as a result of theoretical and same experience or behaviour in the case experimental psychology. of another person (observer). Aptitude: A combination of characteristics Adaptation: Structural or functional change indicative of individual\u2019s potential to acquire that enhances the organism\u2019s survival some specific skills with training. value. Aptitude tests: Tests meant to measure Aggression: An overt behaviour intended to hurt individual\u2019s potential to predict future someone, either physically or verbally. performance. Air pollution: Degraded quality of air is air Archetypes: Jung\u2019s term for the contents of the pollution. collective unconscious; images or symbols expressing the inherited patterns for the Alarm reaction: The first stage of the general organisation of experience. adaptation syndrome characterised by an emergency reaction involving the Arousal: The tension experienced at the thought mobilisation of energy through adrenal and of others being present, and\/or sympathetic activity. performance being evaluated. Alienation: The feeling of not being part of society Attitudes: States of the mind, thoughts or ideas or a group. regarding a topic, containing a cognitive, affective and behavioural component. Anal stage: The second of Freud\u2019s psychosexual stages, which occurs during the child\u2019s Attitude object: The target of an attitude. second year. Pleasure is focused on the anus and on retention and expulsion of Attribution: Explaining our own or others\u2019 faeces. behaviour by pointing out the cause(s). Anorexia nervosa: Disorder involving severe loss Authority: The rights inherent in a position (e.g., of body weight, accompanied by an intense managerial) to give orders and to expect the fear of gaining weight or becoming \u201cfat\u201d. orders to be obeyed, Antisocial personality: A behavioural disorder Autism spectrum disorder: Neuro- characterised by truancy, delinquency, developmental disorder beginning in promiscuity, theft, vandalism, fighting, infancy and involving a wide range of violation of common social rules, poor work abnormalities, including deficits in record, impulsiveness, irrationality, language, perceptual, and motor aggressiveness, reckless behaviour, and development, defective reality testing, and inability to plan ahead. The particular social withdrawal. pattern of behaviour varies from individual to individual. Balance: The state of an attitude system in which the attitudes between a person (P) and Anxiety: A state of psychic distress characterised another individual (O), the person (P) and by fear, apprehension, and physiological the attitude object (X), and between the arousal. other individual (O) and the attitude object (X) are in the same direction, or logically Anxiety disorders: Disorders in which anxiety consistent with each other. is a central symptom. The disorder is characterised by feelings of vulnerability, Behaviour therapy: Therapy based on the apprehension, or fear. principles of behaviouristic learning theories in order to change the maladaptive behaviour. 200 Psychology 2019-20","Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts The unconscious shared by all human or ideas regarding a topic. beings. Bipolar and related disorders: These include Communicable disease: An illness due to periods of mania and depression both specific infectious agent capable of being alternately present sometimes interrupted directly or indirectly transmitted from man by normal mood. to man, animal to animal, or from the environment to man or animal. Cardinal trait: According to Allport, a single trait that dominates an individual\u2019s entire Competition: Mutual striving between two personality. individuals or groups for the same objective. Case study: An intensive study of an individual Competition tolerance: The ability to put up or a situation to develop general principles with a situation in which individuals would about behaviour. have to compete with many others for even basic resources, including physical space. Central traits: The major trait considered in forming an impression of others. Compliance: A form of social influence in which one or more persons, not holding authority, Centrality of attitude: The extent to which a accepts direct requests from one or more specific attitude affects the entire attitude others. system. Componential intelligence: In Sternberg\u2019s Client-centred (Rogerian) therapy: The triarchic theory, it refers to ability to think therapeutic approach developed by Carl critically and analytically. Rogers in which therapist helps clients to clarify their true feelings and come to value Conflict: A state of disturbance or tension who they are. resulting from opposing motives, drives, needs or goals. Coaction: A situation in which many people are performing the same task individually in Conformity: A type of social influence in which the presence of others. individuals change their attitudes or behaviour in order to adhere to existing Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental social norms. activities associated with thought, decision- making, language, and other higher mental Congruent attitude change: Attitude change processes. in the same direction as that of the existing attitude. Cognitive assessment system: A battery of tests designed to measure the four basic Contextual intelligence: In Sternberg\u2019s PASS (Planning-Attention-Simultaneous- triarchic theory, it is the practical Successive) processes. intelligence used in solving everyday problems. Cognitive consistency: A state in which thoughts or ideas are logically in line with Coping: The process of trying to manage each other. demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding one\u2019s resources. Cognitive dissonance: The state of an attitude system in which two cognitive elements are Counselling: A broad name for a wide variety of logically contradictory, or inconsistent. procedures for helping individuals achieve adjustment, such as the giving of advice, Cognitive therapies: Forms of therapy focused therapeutic discussion, the administration on changing distorted and maladaptive and interpretation of tests, and vocational patterns of thought. assistance. Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause Counselling interview: An interview whose group members to remain in the group. purpose is counselling or providing guidance in the area of personality, Collective unconscious: Inherited portion of the vocational choice, etc. unconscious, as postulated by Carl Jung. Glossary 201 2019-20","Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, Displacement: Redirecting an impulse towards and problem solutions that are novel and a less threatening or safer target; a key appropriate. concept in psychoanalytic theory; a defence mechanism. Crowding: A psychological feeling of too little space; perception of crampedness. Dissociation: A split in consciousness whereby certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviour Crowding tolerance: The ability to mentally deal operate independently from others. with a high density or crowded environment, such as a crowded residence. Ecology: That branch of biology which deals with the relations of organisms to their Culture-fair test: A test that does not environment. discriminate examinees on the basis of their cultural experiences. Ego: The part of the personality that provides a buffer between the id and the outside world. Defence mechanisms: According to Freud, ways in which the ego unconsciously tries to cope Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): Commonly with unacceptable id impulses, as in called \u201cshock treatment\u201d. A biological repression, projection, reaction formation, treatment for unipolar depression in which sublimation, rationalisation, etc. electrodes attached to a patient\u2019s head send an electric current through the brain, Deinstitutionalisation: The transfer of former causing a convulsion. It is effective in the mental patients from institutions into the treatment of cases of several depression community. that fail to respond to drug therapy. Delusions: Irrational beliefs that are held despite Emotional intelligence: A cluster of traits or overwhelming evidence to the contrary. abilities relating to the emotional side of life \u2014 abilities such as recognising and Depersonalisation\/derealisation disorder: managing one\u2019s own emotions, being able Dissociative disorder in which there is a to motivate oneself and restrain one\u2019s loss of the sense of self. impulses, recognising and managing others\u2019 emotions, and handling Depressive disorders: These disorders include interpersonal relationships in an effective a period of depressed mood and\/or loss of manner. It is expressed in the form of an interest or pleasure in most activities with emotional quotient (EQ) score. other changes in appetite, sleep and fatigue. Empathy: Reacting to another\u2019s feelings with an Diathesis-stress model: A view that the emotional response that is similar to the interaction of factors such as biological other\u2019s feelings. predisposition combined with life stress may cause a specific disorder. Environment: Totality, or any aspect of physical and social set-up that surround and affect Diffusion of responsibility: The thought that an individual organism. when others are present, one person alone will not be held responsible for doing, or not Environmental psychology: The branch of doing, something; other members are also psychology that concentrates on the responsible and will therefore do the task. interaction between the physical world and human behaviour. Disaster: A disaster is an unforeseen and often sudden event that disrupts the normal Evaluation apprehension: The fear of being conditions within a society and causes evaluated negatively by others who are widespread damage, destruction, and present (an audience). human suffering. Exhaustion: State in which energy resources Discrimination: Behaviour that shows a have been used up and responsiveness is distinction being made between two or more reduced to a minimum. persons, often on the basis of the person\u2019s (or persons\u2019) membership of a particular Exorcism: Religiously inspired treatment group. procedure designed to drive out evil spirits or forces from a \u201cpossessed\u201d person. 202 Psychology 2019-20","Experiential intelligence: In Sternberg\u2019s interdependent, and consider themselves triarchic theory, it is the ability to use past as members of group. experiences creatively to solve novel problems. Group test: A test designed to be administered to more than one individual at the same Extraversion: One of the dimensions of time, in contrast to individual test. personality in which interests are directed outwards to nature and other people rather Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the than inwards to the thoughts and feelings desire to reach unanimous agreement over- of self (introvert). rides the wish to adopt proper, rational, decision-making procedures; an example of Extremeness of attitude: Refers to how far an group polarisation. attitude is from the neutral point. Hallucination: A false perception which has a Factor analysis: Mathematical procedure, compulsive sense of the reality of objects involving correlations, for sorting trait terms although relevant and adequate stimuli for or test responses into clusters or factors; such perception is lacking. It is an abnormal used in the development of tests designed phenomenon. to discover basic personality traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or Halo effect: The tendency to link positive internally consistent and independent of qualities with other positive qualities about others. which information is not available. Fluid intelligence: Ability to perceive complex Hardiness: It is a set of beliefs about oneself, relationships, reason abstractly, and solve the world, and how they interact. It has three problems. characteristics, i.e. commitment, control, and challenge. Free association: A psychodynamic technique in which the patient describes verbally any Homeostasis: A state of physiological balance thought, feeling, or image that comes to within the body. mind, even if it seems unimportant. Humanistic approach: The theory that people Fundamental attribution error: The tendency are basically good and tend to grow to higher to attribute internal causes more than levels of functioning. external causes for behaviour. Humanistic therapy: A therapy in which the General adaptation syndrome (GAS): It consists underlying assumption is that people have of three phases : an alarm phase which control over their behaviour, can make promotes sympathetic nervous system choices about their lives, and are activity, a resistance phase during which essentially responsible for solving their own the organism makes efforts to cope with the problems. threat, and an exhaustion phase which occurs if the organism fails to overcome the Id: According to Freud, the impulsive and threat and depletes its physiological unconscious part of the psyche that resources. operates through the pleasure principle toward the gratification of instinctual Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living drives. The id is conceived as the true things are passed on in their genes. unconscious, or the deepest part of the psyche. Gestalt therapy: An approach to therapy that attempts to integrate a client\u2019s thoughts, Ideal self: The kind of person we would like to feelings, and behaviour into a unified whole. be. Also called ego-ideal\/idealised self- image. g-factor: General intelligence factor referring to a basic intellectual capacity underlying all Identification: The process of feeling one with manifestations of intelligence. another person, usually resulting from liking or extreme regard for the other Group: Two or more persons who interact with person. one another, have shared goals, are Glossary 203 2019-20","Identity: The distinguishing character of the Intelligence tests: Tests designed to measure individual: who each of us is, what our roles person\u2019s level of intelligence. are, and what we are capable of. Interest: An individual\u2019s preference for one or Incongruent attitude change: Attitude change more specific activities. in a direction opposite to that of the existing attitude. Interview: Verbal interaction between a respondent and a researcher to gather Individual differences: Distinctiveness and information about the respondent. unique variations among people\u2019s characteristics and behaviour patterns. Introversion: One of the dimensions of personality in which interests are directed Individual test: A test that must be given to a inwards rather than outwards (extravert). single individual at a time, typically by a specially trained person. The Binet and Kernel of truth: The small element of truth that Wechsler intelligence tests are examples of may be perceived in overgeneralised individual tests. clusters of beliefs about groups (stereotypes). Industrial\/organisational psychology: A sub- field of psychology that focuses on Latency period: In Freud\u2019s theory of relationship between people and work. In psychosexual stages, the period between the contemporary context, the emphasis the phallic stage and the mature genital has shifted from industrial psychology to stage (period from age 4 or 5 to about 12) organisational psychology, which includes during which interest in sex is sublimated. industrial and all other organisations. Libido: Freud introduced this term. In Freud\u2019s Inferiority complex: According to Adler, a treatment, libido was quite simply a direct complex developed by adults who have not or indirect sexual expression. been able to overcome the feelings of inferiority they developed as children, when Life skills: Abilities for adaptive and positive they were small and limited in their behaviour that enable individuals to deal knowledge about the world. effectively with the environment. Ingroup: The social group to which an individual Lifestyle: In the context of health psychology, perceives herself or himself as belonging the overall pattern of decisions and (\u201cus\u201d). The group with which one identifies. behaviours that determine health and The other groups are outgroups. quality of life. Instrumental perspective: The approach that Meditation: A technique of turning one\u2019s suggests that the physical environment concentration inward and achieving an exists mainly for use by human beings for altered state of consciousness. their comfort and well-being. Mental age (MA): A measure of intellectual Intellectual disability: Sub-average intellectual functioning expressed in terms of age. functioning combined with varying degrees of deficits in adaptive behaviour. Metaneeds: In the hierarchy of needs, those at the top, such as self-actualisation, self- Intellectual giftedness: Exceptional general esteem, aesthetic needs, and the like, which intellectual efficiency shown in superior can only be satisfied when lower order needs performance in a wide range of tasks. are satisfied. Intelligence: The capacity to understand the Modelling: A process of learning in which an world, to think rationally, and to use individual acquires responses by observing resources effectively when faced with and imitating others. challenges. Neurodevelopmental disorders: These Intelligence quotient (IQ): An index derived disorders are characterized by symptoms from standardised intelligence tests appearing in the early stage of development. indicating a ratio of mental age to They affect the personal, social, academic chronological age. and occupational functioning of the individual. 204 Psychology 2019-20","Neurotransmitter: Chemicals that carry Persuasibility: The degree to which people can messages across the synapse to the be made to change their attitudes. dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron. Phallic stage: Third of Freud\u2019s psychosexual stages (at about age five) when pleasure is Noise: An unwanted sound, one that brings focused on the genitals and both males and about a negative affective response. females experience the \u201cOedipus complex\u201d. Normal probability curve: A symmetrical, bell- Phobia: A strong, persistent, and irrational fear shaped frequency distribution. Most scores of some specific object or situation that are found near the middle, and fewer and presents little or no actual danger to a fewer occur towards the extremes. Many person. psychological characteristics are distributed in this manner. Physical environment: It is the nature that includes climate, air, water, temperature, Norms: Standards of test performance that flora and fauna. permit the comparison of one person\u2019s score on the test to the scores of others who have Planning: In Das\u2019s PASS model of intelligence, taken the same test. it involves goal setting, strategy selection, and monitoring of goal-orientation. Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to the commands of others. Positive health: It includes a healthy body, good interpersonal relationships, a sense of Observational method: A method in which purpose in life, and resilience to stress, researcher observes a phenomenon that trauma and change. occurs naturally without being able to manipulate any of the factors. Post-traumatic stress disorder: Patterns of symptoms involving anxiety reactions, Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A disorder tensions, nightmares, and depression characterised by obsessions or following a disaster such as an earthquake compulsions. or a flood. Oedipus complex: The Freudian concept in Poverty: Poverty is the economic deprivation. It which the young child develops an intense desire to replace the parent of the same sex is associated with low income, hunger, low and enjoy that affection of the opposite sex parent. caste and class status, illiteracy, poor Optimism: The tendency to seek out, remember, housing, overcrowding, lack of public and expect pleasurable experiences. amenities, mal- and under-nutrition, Outgroup: Any group of which an individual is not a member. and increased susceptibility to diseases. Peace: It is the absence of hostility and an Poverty alleviation: Measures\/programmes expression of harmony with fellow human taken up to reduce poverty. beings and the environment. Prejudice: A prejudgment, usually a negative Performance test: A test in which the role of attitude that is unverified, and is often language is minimised, the task requiring towards a group. overt motor responses other than verbal. Primacy effect: The stronger role of information Personal identity: Awareness of oneself as a that comes first. separate, distinct being. Primary group: Group in which each member Personal space: The small area around an is personally known to each of the other individual considered belonging to her\/him member, and in which the members, at whose invasion is experienced as least on occasion, meet face-to-face. threatening or unpleasant. Problem solving behaviour: The activity and mental processes involved in overcoming the obstacles, physical or conceptual, which lie between an animal and its goal. Glossary 205 2019-20","Pro-environmental behaviour: Willingness and Rationalisation: A defence mechanism that activities of human beings to protect the occurs when one attempts to explain failure environment are pro-environmental or short-comings by attributing them to behaviour. more acceptable causes. Projection: A defence mechanism; the process Reaction formation: A defence mechanism in of unwittingly attributing one\u2019s own traits, which a person denies a disapproved motive attitudes, or subjective processes to others. through giving strong expression to its opposite. Projective techniques: The utilisation of vague, ambiguous, unstructured stimulus objects Recency effect: The stronger role of information or situations in order to elicit the that comes last. individual\u2019s characteristic modes of perceiving her\/his world or of behaving in Regression: A defence mechanism that involves it. a return to behaviours characteristic of an earlier stage in life. The term is also used Pro-social behaviour: Behaviour that does good in statistics, in which with the help of to another person, is done without any correlation prediction is made. pressure from outside, and without any expectation of a reward or return. Rehabilitation: Restoring an individual to normal, or as satisfactory a state as Prototype: A schema in the form of a category possible, following an illness, criminal representing all the possible qualities of an episode, etc. object or a person. Relaxation training: A procedure in which Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology clients are taught to release all the tension that stimuli close together tend to be in their bodies. perceived as a group. Repression: A defence mechanism by which Psychodynamic approach: Approach that people push unacceptable, anxiety- strives for explanation of behaviour in terms provoking thoughts and impulses into the of motives, or drives. unconscious to avoid confronting them directly. Psychodynamic therapy: First suggested by Freud; therapy based on the premise that Resilience: The maintenance of positive the primary sources of abnormal behaviour adjustment under challenging life are unresolved past conflicts and the conditions. possibility that unacceptable unconscious impulses will enter consciousness. Resistance: In psychoanalysis, attempts by the patient to block treatment. Psychological test: An objective and standardised instrument for measuring an Roles: An important concept in social psychology individual\u2019s mental and behavioural traits; which refers to the behaviour expected of used by psychologists to help people make an individual in accordance with the decisions about their lives and understand position s\/he holds in a particular society. more about themselves. Scapegoating: Placing the blame on a group for Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions among something that has gone wrong, because behavioural, neuroendocrine, and immuno- the blamed group cannot defend itself. logical processes of adaptation. Schema: A mental structure that guides social Psychotherapy: The use of any psychological (and other) cognition. technique in the treatment of mental\/ psychological disorder or maladjustment. Schizophrenia: A group of psychotic reactions characterised by the breakdown of Rational emotive therapy (RET): A therapeutic integrated personality functioning, system developed by Albert Ellis. It seeks to withdrawal from reality, emotional blunting replace irrational, problem-provoking and distortion, and disturbances in thought outlooks with more realistic ones. and behaviour. 206 Psychology 2019-20","Self-actualisation: A state of self-fulfilment in Social inhibition: Social restraint on conduct. which people realise their highest potential in their own unique way. Social loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that Self-awareness: Insight into one\u2019s own motives, others will be putting in their effort. potential and limitations. Social support: Information from other people Self-efficacy: Bandura\u2019s term for the that one is loved and cared for, esteemed individual\u2019s beliefs about her or his own and valued, and part of a network of effectiveness; the expectation that one can communication and mutual obligation. master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Somatoform disorders: Conditions involving physical complaints or disabilities Self-esteem: The individual\u2019s personal judgment occurring in the absence of any identifiable of her or his own worth; one\u2019s attitude organic cause. toward oneself along a positive-negative dimension. Spiritual perspective: The perspective that specifies to do activities what are desirable Self-fulfilling prophecy: Behaving in a way that in accordance with the scriptures. It pleads confirms the prediction others make. for a harmony between man and nature. Self-regulation: Refers to our ability to organise Status: Social rank within a group. and monitor our own behaviour. Stereotype: An overgeneralised and unverified Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low prototype about a particular group. levels of physical stimulation. Stress: Our response to events that disrupt or Simplicity or complexity (multiplexity) of threaten to disrupt our physical and attitude: Whether the whole attitude psychological functioning. consists of a single or very few sub-attitudes (simple), or contains many sub-attitudes Stressors: Events or situations in our (multiplex). environment that cause stress. Simultaneous processing: Cognitive processing Structure: The enduring form and composition in the PASS model that involves integrating of a complex system or phenomenon. elements of the stimulus situation into Contrast with function, which is a process composite and meaningful patterns. of a relatively brief duration, arising out of structure. Situationism: A principle which states that situations and circumstances outside Substance abuse: The use of any drug or oneself have the power to influence chemical to modify mood or behaviour that behaviour. results in impairment. Social cognition: The processes through which Successive processing: Cognitive processing in we notice, interpret, remember, and later the PASS model where elements of the use social information. It helps in making stimulus situation are responded to sense of other people and ourselves. sequentially. Social facilitation: The tendency for people\u2019s Superego: According to Freud, the final performance to improve in the presence of personality structure to develop; it others, or an audience. represents society\u2019s standards of right and wrong as handed down by person\u2019s parents, Social identity: A person\u2019s definition of who she teachers, and other important figures. or he is; includes personal attributes (self- concept) along with membership in various Surface traits: R.B. Cattell\u2019s term for clusters groups. of observable trait elements (responses) that seem to go together. Factor analysis of the Social influence: The process by which the correlations reveals source traits. actions of an individual or group affect the behaviour of others. Glossary 207 2019-20","Syndrome: Group or pattern of symptoms that Transference: Strong positive or negative occur together in a disorder and represent feelings toward the therapist on the part of the typical picture of the disorder. individual undergoing psychoanalysis. Systematic desensitisation: A form of Typology: Ways of categorising individuals into behavioural therapy in which phobic client discrete categories or types, e.g. Type-A learns to induce a relaxed state and then personality. exposed to stimuli that elicit fear or phobia. Unconditional positive regard: An attitude of Therapeutic alliance: The special relationship acceptance and respect on the part of an between the client and the therapist; observer, no matter what the other person contractual nature of the relationship and says or does. limited duration of the therapy are its two major components. Unconscious: In psychoanalytic theory, characterising any activity or Token economy: Forms of behaviour therapy mental structure which a person is not based on operant conditioning in which aware of. hospitalised patients earn tokens they can exchange for valued rewards, when they Valence of attitude: Whether an attitude is behave in ways the hospital staff consider positive or negative. to be desirable. Values: Enduring beliefs about ideal modes of Trait: A relatively persistent and consistent behaviour or end-state of existence; behaviour pattern manifested in a wide attitudes that have a strong evaluative and range of circumstances. \u2018ought\u2019 aspect. Trait approach: An approach to personality that Verbal test: Test in which a subject\u2019s ability to seeks to identify the basic traits necessary understand and use words and concepts to describe personality. is important in making the required responses. Transactional approach: It includes interactions between people and environment. Human beings affect the environment and in turn are affected by the environment. 208 Psychology 2019-20","SUGGESTED READINGS For developing further understanding on the topics, you may like to read the following books \u2022 Baron, R.A. 2001\/Indian reprint 2002. Psychology (5th ed.). Allyn & Bacon. \u2022 Bellack, A.S., & Hersen, M. 1998. Comprehensive Clinical Psychology. Elsevier. London. \u2022 Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., & Mineka, S. 2004. Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life. Pearson Education. Delhi. \u2022 Davis, S.F., & Palladino, J.H. 1997. Psychology. Prentice-Hall, Inc. \u2022 Davison, G.C. 1998. Abnormal Psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. \u2022 Gerow, J.R. 1997. Psychology : An Introduction. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc. \u2022 Gleitman, H. 1996. Basic Psychology. W.W. Norton & Company. \u2022 Sadock, B.J., & Sadock, V.A. (Eds.) 2004. Kaplan & Sadock\u2019s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (8th ed., Vol. II). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. \u2022 Lahey, B.B. 1998. Psychology : An Introduction. Tata McGraw-Hill. \u2022 Malim, T., & Birch, A. 1998. Introductory Psychology. Macmillan Press Ltd. \u2022 McMahon, J.W., McMahon, F.B., & Romano, T. 1995. Psychology and You. West Publishing Company. \u2022 Weiten, W. 2001. Psychology : Themes and Variations. Thomson Learning, Inc. Wadsworth. \u2022 Zimbardo, P.G., & Weber, A.L. 1997. Psychology. Longman. New York. 2019-20","NOTES 210 Psychology 2019-20"]