Psychology---Class-12

["Latency Stage : This stage lasts from about worked with him and then moved on to seven years until puberty. During this develop their own versions of the period, the child continues to grow psychoanalytic theory. These theorists physically, but sexual urges are relatively have been called neo-analytic, or post- inactive. Much of a child\u2019s energy is Freudian in order to differentiate their channelled into social or achievement- work from Freud\u2019s. These theories are related activities. characterised by less prominent roles to sexual and aggressive tendencies of the id Genital Stage : During this stage, the and expansion of the concept of ego. The person attains maturity in psychosexual human qualities of creativity, competence, development. The sexuality, fears and and problem solving abilities are repressed feelings of earlier stages are once emphasised. Some of these theories are again exhibited. People learn to deal with briefly described here. members of the opposite sex in a socially and sexually mature way. However, if the Carl Jung : Aims and Aspirations journey towards this stage is marked by excessive stress or over-indulgence, it may Jung worked with Freud in his early stages cause fixation to an earlier stage of of career, but later on he broke away from development. Freud. Jung saw human beings guided as much by aims and aspirations as by sex Freud\u2019s theory also postulates that as and aggression. He developed his own children proceed from one stage to another theory of personality, called analytical stage of development, they seem to adjust psychology. The basic assumption of his their view of the world. Failure of a child theory is that personality consists of to pass successfully through a stage leads competing forces and structures within the to fixation to that stage. In this situation, individual (that must be balanced) rather the child\u2019s development gets arrested at an than between the individual and the earlier stage. For example, a child who demands of society, or between the does not pass successfully through the individual and reality. phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal complex and may still feel hostile toward Jung claimed that there was a the parent of the same sex. This failure collective unconscious consisting of may have serious consequences for the archetypes or primordial images. These child\u2019s life. Such a boy may come to are not individually acquired, but are consider that men are generally hostile, inherited. The God or the Mother Earth is and may wish to relate to females in a a good example of archetypes. They are dependable relationship. Regression is found in myths, dreams and arts of all also a likely outcome in such situations. mankind. Jung held that the self strives for It takes a person back to an earlier stage. unity and oneness. It is an archetype that Regression occurs when a person\u2019s is expressed in many ways. He devoted resolution of problems at any stage of much of his efforts to the study of such development is less than adequate. In this expressions in various traditions. situation, people display behaviours typical According to him, for achieving unity and of a less mature stage of development. wholeness, a person must become increasingly aware of the wisdom available Post-Freudian Approaches in one\u2019s personal and collective unconscious, and must learn to live in A number of theorists further developed harmony with it. their ideas following Freud. Some had Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 37 2019-20","Karen Horney : Optimism Erich Fromm : The Human Concerns Horney was another disciple of Freud who In contrast to Freud\u2019s biological developed a theory that deviated from basic orientation, Fromm developed his theory Freudian principles. She adopted a more from a social orientation. He viewed human optimistic view of human life with beings as basically social beings who emphasis on human growth and self- could be understood in terms of their actualisation. relationship with others. He argued that psychological qualities such as growth and Horney\u2019s major contribution lies in her realisation of potentials resulted from a challenge to Freud\u2019s treatment of women desire for freedom, and striving for as inferior. According to her, each sex has justice and truth. attributes to be admired by the other, and neither sex can be viewed as superior or Fromm holds that character traits inferior. She countered that women were (personality) develop from our experiences more likely to be affected by social and with other individuals. While culture is cultural factors than by biological factors. shaped by the mode of existence of a given She argued that psychological disorders society, people\u2019s dominant character traits were caused by disturbed interpersonal in a given society work as forces in shaping relationship during childhood. When the social processes and the culture itself. parents\u2019 behaviour toward a child is His work recognises the value of positive indifferent, discouraging, and erratic, the qualities, such as tenderness and love in child feels insecure and a feeling called personality development. basic anxiety results. Deep resentment toward parents or basic hostility occurs Erik Erikson : Search for Identity due to this anxiety. By showing excessive dominance or indifference, or by providing Erikson\u2019s theory lays stress on rational, too much or too little approval, parents can conscious ego processes in personality generate among children feelings of development. In his theory, development is isolation and helplessness which interfere viewed as a lifelong process, and ego with their healthy development. identity is granted a central place in this process. His concept of identity crisis of Alfred Adler : Lifestyle and Social Interest adolescent age has drawn considerable attention. Erikson argues that young Adler\u2019s theory is known as individual people must generate for themselves a psychology. His basic assumption is that central perspective and a direction that can human behaviour is purposeful and goal- give them a meaningful sense of unity and directed. Each one of us has the capacity purpose. to choose and create. Our personal goals are the sources of our motivation. The Psychodynamic theories face strong goals that provide us with security and criticisms from many quarters. The major help us in overcoming the feelings of criticisms are as follows: inadequacy are important in our (1) The theories are largely based on case personality development. In Adler\u2019s view, every individual suffers from the feelings studies; they lack a rigorous scientific of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority basis. complex, which arise from childhood. (2) They use small and atypical individuals Overcoming this complex is essential for as samples for advancing generali- optimal personality development. sations. (3) The concepts are not properly defined, and it is difficult to submit them to scientific testing. 38 Psychology 2019-20","(4) Freud has used males as the prototype learning principles that involve the use of of all human personality development. stimuli, responses, and reinforcement in He overlooked female experiences and different ways. The theories of classical perspectives. conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Skinner), and observational Behavioural Approach learning (Bandura) are well-known to you. These theories view learning and This approach does not give importance to maintenance of behaviour from different the internal dynamics of behaviour. The angles. The principles of these theories behaviourists believe in data, which they have been widely used in developing feel are definable, observable, and personality theories. For example, measurable. Thus, they focus on learning observational learning theory considers of stimulus-response connections and their thought processes extremely important in reinforcement. According to them, learning, but these find almost no place in personality can be best understood as the classical or instrumental conditioning response of an individual to the theories. Observational learning theory environment. They see the development also emphasises social learning (based on simply as a change in response observation and imitation of others) and characteristics, i.e. a person learns new self-regulation, which again is missed out behaviours in response to new in other theories. environments and stimuli. Observe and note your behaviour Activity For most behaviourists, the structural characteristics and those of your 2.3 unit of personality is the response. Each friends that have been imbibed from response is a behaviour, which is emitted popular youth icons. to satisfy a specific need. As you know, all of us eat because of hunger, but we are Cultural Approach also very choosy about foods. For example, children do not like eating many of the This approach attempts to understand vegetables (e.g., spinach, pumpkin, gourds, personality in relation to the features of etc.), but gradually they learn to eat them. ecological and cultural environment. It Why do they do so? According to the proposes that a group\u2019s \u2018economic behavioural approach, children may maintenance system\u2019 plays a vital role in initially learn to eat such vegetables in the origin of cultural and behavioural anticipation of appreciation (reinforcement) variations. The climatic conditions, the from their parents. Later on they may nature of terrain of the habitat and the eventually learn to eat vegetables not only availability of food (flora and fauna) in it because their parents are pleased with this determine not only people\u2019s economic behaviour, but also because they acquire activities, but also their settlement the taste of those vegetables, and find them patterns, social structures, division of good. Thus, the core tendency that labour, and other features such as child- organises behaviour is the reduction of rearing practices. Taken together these biological or social needs that energise elements constitute a child\u2019s overall behaviour. This is accomplished learning environment. People\u2019s skills, through responses (behaviours) that are abilities, behavioural styles, and value reinforced. priorities are viewed as strongly linked to From your study in Class XI, you may recall that there are several different Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 39 2019-20","these features. Rituals, ceremonies, cultural demands, children in hunting- religious practices, arts, recreational gathering and agricultural societies activities, games and play are the means develop and display different personality through which people\u2019s personality gets patterns. projected in a culture. People develop various personality (behavioural) qualities Humanistic Approach in an attempt to adapt to the ecological and cultural features of a group\u2019s life. Thus, the The humanistic theories are mainly cultural approach considers personality as developed in response to Freud\u2019s theory. an adaptation of individuals or groups to Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have the demands of their ecology and culture. particularly contributed to the development of humanistic perspective on personality. Let us try to understand these aspects We will briefly examine their theories. with a concrete example. As you know, a good proportion of the world\u2019s population, The most important idea proposed by even today, lives in forests and Rogers is that of a fully functioning mountainous regions with hunting and person. He believes that fulfilment is the gathering (economic activities) as their motivating force for personality primary means of livelihood. The Birhor (a development. People try to express their tribal group) of Jharkhand represent such capabilities, potentials and talents to the a population. Most of them live a nomadic fullest extent possible. There is an inborn life, which requires constant movement in tendency among persons that directs them small bands from one forest to another in to actualise their inherited nature. search of games and other forest products (e.g., fruits, roots, mushrooms, honey, Rogers makes two basic assumptions etc.). In the Birhor society, children from about human behaviour. One is that an early age are allowed enormous freedom behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile. to move into forests and learn hunting and The second is that people (who are innately gathering skills. Their child socialisation good) will almost always choose adaptive, practices are also aimed at making self-actualising behaviour. children independent (do many things without help from elders), autonomous Rogers\u2019 theory grew out of his (take several decisions for themselves), and experiences of listening to patients in his achievement-oriented (accept risks and clinic. He noted that self was an important challenges such as those involved in element in the experience of his clients. hunting) from an early age of life. Thus, his theory is structured around the concept of self. The theory assumes that In agricultural societies, children are people are constantly engaged in the socialised to be obedient to elders, process of actualising their true self. nurturant to youngsters, and responsible to their duties. Since these behavioural Rogers suggests that each person also qualities make people more functional in has a concept of ideal self. An ideal self is agricultural societies, they become the self that a person would like to be. dominant features of people\u2019s personality When there is a correspondence between in contrast to independence, autonomy the real self and ideal self, a person is and achievement, which are more generally happy. Discrepancy between the functional (and thus highly valued) in real self and ideal self often results in hunting-gathering societies. Because of unhappiness and dissatisfaction. Rogers\u2019 different economic pursuits and basic principle is that people have a tendency to maximise self-concept through self-actualisation. In this process, the self grows, expands and becomes more social. 40 Psychology 2019-20","Fig.2.3 : Pattern of Adjustment and Self-concept Rogers views personality development from your study of motivation in Class XI. as a continuous process. It involves Maslow has given a detailed account of learning to evaluate oneself and psychologically healthy people in terms of mastering the process of self- their attainment of self-actualisation, a actualisation. He recognises the role of state in which people have reached their social influences in the development of own fullest potential. Maslow had an self-concept. When social conditions are optimistic and positive view of man who positive, the self-concept and self-esteem has the potentialities for love, joy and to are high. In contrast, when the conditions do creative work. Human beings are are negative, the self-concept and self- considered free to shape their lives and to esteem are low. People with high self- self-actualise. Self-actualisation becomes concept and self-esteem are generally possible by analysing the motivations that flexible and open to new experiences, so govern our life. We know that biological, that they can continue to grow and self- security, and belongingness needs (called actualise. survival needs) are commonly found among animals and human beings. Thus, This situation warrants that an an individual\u2019s sole concern with the atmosphere of unconditional positive satisfaction of these needs reduces her\/ regard must be created in order to ensure him to the level of animals. The real enhancement of people\u2019s self-concept. The journey of human life begins with the client-centred therapy that Rogers pursuit of self-esteem and self- developed basically attempts to create this actualisation needs. The humanistic condition. approach emphasises the significance of positive aspects of life (see Box 2.3). You are already familiar with the hierarchy of needs propounded by Maslow Who is a Healthy Person? Box 2.3 The humanistic theorists have indicated that healthy personality lies in not mere adjustment to society. It involves a quest to know oneself deeply and to be true to one\u2019s own feelings without disguise, and to be oneself in the here-and-now. According to them, the healthy people share the following characteristics : 1. They become aware of themselves, their feelings, and their limits; accept themselves, and what they make of their lives as their own responsibility; have \u2018the courage to be\u2019. 2. They experience the \u201chere-and-now\u201d; are not trapped. 3. They do not live in the past or dwell in the future through anxious expectations and distorted defences. Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 41 2019-20","ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY her\/him about herself\/himself. This led to the use of self-report measures. These are To know, understand and describe people fairly structured measures, often based on is a task in which everybody is involved in theory, that require subjects to give verbal day-to-day life. When we meet new people, responses using some kind of rating scale. we often try to understand them and even The method requires the subject to predict what they may do before we objectively report her\/his own feelings with interact with them. In our personal lives, respect to various items. The responses are we rely on our past experiences, accepted at their face value. They are observations, conversations and infor- scored in quantitative terms and mation obtained from other persons. This interpreted on the basis of norms approach to understanding others may be developed for the test. Some of the well- influenced by a number of factors that may known self-report measures are briefly colour our judgement and reduce described below. objectivity. Hence, we need to organise our efforts more formally to analyse The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality personalities. A formal effort aimed at Inventory (MMPI) understanding personality of an individual is termed as personality assessment. This inventory is widely used as a test in personality assessment. Hathaway and Assessment refers to the procedures McKinley developed this test as a helping used to evaluate or differentiate people on tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but the test the basis of certain characteristics. The has been found very effective in identifying goal of assessment is to understand and varieties of psychopathology. Its revised predict behaviour with minimum error and version is available as MMPI-2. It consists maximum accuracy. In assessment, we try of 567 statements. The subject has to judge to study what a person generally does, or each statement as \u2018true\u2019 or \u2018false\u2019 for her\/ how s\/he behaves, in a given situation. him. The test is divided into 10 subscales, Besides promoting our understanding, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, assessment is also useful for diagnosis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic training, placement, counselling, and other deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, purposes. psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion. In India, Mallick and Psychologists have tried to assess Joshi have developed the Jodhpur personality in various ways. The Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) most commonly used techniques are along the lines of MMPI. Psychometric Tests, Self-Report Measures, Projective Techniques, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) Behavioural Analysis. These techniques are rooted in different theoretical Developed by Eysenck this test initially orientations; hence they throw light on assessed two dimensions of personality, different aspects of personality. You have called introverted-extraverted and read about psychometric tests in the emotionally stable-emotionally unstable. previous chapter. We will discuss the other These dimensions are characterised by 32 methods. personality traits. Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It Self-report Measures is linked to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others, a It was Allport who suggested that the best method to assess a person is by asking 42 Psychology 2019-20","tough manner of interacting with people, to an optimum level under careful and a tendency to defy social conventions. supervision of an expert, you should not A person scoring high on this dimension venture into testing and interpreting the tends to be hostile, egocentric, and personality of your friends who do not antisocial. This test is also widely used. study psychology. Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire Projective Techniques (16 PF) The techniques of personality assessment This test was developed by Cattell. On the described so far are known as direct basis of his studies, he identified a large techniques, because they tend to rely on set of personality descriptors, which were information directly obtained from the subjected to factor analysis to identify the person who clearly knows that her\/his basic personality structure. You will learn personality is being assessed. In these about this statistical technique later. The situations, people generally become self- test provides with declarative statements, conscious and hesitate to share their and the subject responds to a specific private feelings, thoughts, and motivations. situation by choosing from a set of given When they do so, they often do it in a alternatives. The test can be used with socially desirable manner. high school level students as well as with adults. It has been found extremely useful The psychoanalytic theory tells us that in career guidance, vocational exploration, a large part of human behaviour is and occupational testing. governed by unconscious motives. Direct methods of personality assessment cannot Apart from the few popular tests which uncover the unconscious part of our use self-report technique which have been behaviour. Hence, they fail to provide us described above, there are several others with a real picture of an individual\u2019s that try to assess specific dimensions of personality. These problems can be personality (e.g., authoritarianism, locus of overcome by using indirect methods of control, optimism, etc.). As you proceed assessment. Projective techniques fall in further with your study of psychology, you this category. will come to know more about them. Projective techniques were developed to The self-report measures suffer from a assess unconscious motives and feelings. number of problems. Social desirability is These techniques are based on the one of them. It is a tendency on the part assumption that a less structured or of the respondent to endorse items in a unstructured stimulus or situation will socially desirable manner. Acquiescence is allow the individual to project her\/his another one. It is a tendency of the subject feelings, desires and needs on to that to agree with items\/questions irrespective situation. These projections are interpreted of their contents. It often appears in the by experts. A variety of projective form of saying \u2018yes\u2019 to items. These techniques have been developed; they use tendencies render the assessment of various kinds of stimulus materials and personality less reliable. situations for assessing personality. Some of them require reporting associations with It is also necessary to sound a note of stimuli (e.g., words, inkblots), some involve caution at this stage. Remember that story writing around pictures, some require psychological testing and understanding sentence completions, some require personality requires great skill and expression through drawings, and some training. Unless you have acquired these Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 43 2019-20","require choice of stimuli from a large set is prepared by asking the subject to tell of stimuli. where, how, and on what basis was a particular response made. Fine judgment While the nature of stimuli and is necessary to place the subject\u2019s responses in these techniques vary responses in a meaningful context. The use enormously, all of them do share the and interpretation of this test requires following features: extensive training. Computer techniques (1) The stimuli are relatively or fully too have been developed for analysis of data. An example of the Rorschach Inkblot unstructured and poorly defined. is given in Figure 2.4. (2) The person being assessed is usually Fig.2.4 : An Example of the Rorschach Inkblot not told about the purpose of assessment and the method of scoring The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and interpretation. This test was developed by Morgan and (3) The person is informed that there are Murray. It is a little more structured than no correct or incorrect responses. the Inkblot test. The test consists of 30 (4) Each response is considered to reveal black and white picture cards and one a significant aspect of personality. blank card. Each picture card depicts one (5) Scoring and interpretation are lengthy or more people in a variety of situations. and sometimes subjective. Each picture is printed on a card. Some Projective techniques are different from cards are used with adult males or females. the psychometric tests in many ways. They Others are used with boys or girls. Still cannot be scored in any objective manner. others are used in some combinations. They generally require qualitative analyses Twenty cards are appropriate for a subject, for which a rigorous training is needed. In although a lesser number of cards (even the following pages, some of the well- five) have also been successfully used. known projective techniques are briefly discussed. The cards are presented one at a time. The subject is asked to tell a story The Rorschach Inkblot Test describing the situation presented in the This test was developed by Hermann Rorschach. The test consists of 10 inkblots. Five of them are in black and white, two with some red ink, and the remaining three in some pastel colours. The blots are symmetrical in design with a specific shape or form. Each blot is printed in the centre of a white cardboard of about 7\u201d\u00b410\u201d size. The blots were originally made by dropping ink on a piece of paper and then folding the paper in half (hence called inkblot test). The cards are administered individually in two phases. In the first phase, called performance proper, the subjects are shown the cards and are asked to tell what they see in each of them. In the second phase, called inquiry, a detailed report of the response 44 Psychology 2019-20","picture: What led up to the situation, what made to examine whether the focus is on is happening at the moment, what will the frustrating object, or on protection of happen in the future, and what the the frustrated person, or on constructive characters are feeling and thinking? A solution of the problem. The direction of standard procedure is available for scoring aggression may be towards the TAT responses. The test has been modified environment, towards oneself, or it may be for children and for the aged. Uma tuned off in an attempt to gloss over or Chaudhury\u2019s Indian adaptation of TAT is evade the situation. Pareek has adapted also available. An example of a TAT card this test for use with the Indian is given in Figure 2.5. population. Fig.2.5 : An Illustration Showing the Drawing of a Sentence Completion Test Card of TAT This test makes use of a number of Rosenzweig\u2019s Picture-Frustration Study incomplete sentences. The starting part of (P-F Study) the sentence is first presented and the subject has to provide an ending to the This test was developed by Rosenzweig to sentence. It is held that the type of assess how people express aggression in endings used by the subjects reflect their the face of a frustrating situation. The test attitudes, motivation and conflicts. The presents with the help of cartoon like test provides subjects with several pictures a series of situations in which one opportunities to reveal their underlying person frustrates another, or calls unconscious motivations. A few sample attention to a frustrating condition. The items of a sentence completion test are subject is asked to tell what the other given below. (frustrated) person will say or do. The 1. My father\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014. analysis of responses is based on the type 2. My greatest fear is \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014. and direction of aggression. An attempt is 3. The best thing about my mother is \u2014 \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014. 4. I am proud of \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014. Draw-a-Person Test It is a simple test in which the subject is asked to draw a person on a sheet of paper. A pencil and eraser is provided to facilitate drawing. After the completion of the drawing, the subject is generally asked to draw the figure of an opposite sex person. Finally, the subject is asked to make a story about the person as if s\/he was a character in a novel or play. Some examples of interpretations are as follows: (1) Omission of facial features suggests that the person tries to evade a highly conflict-ridden interpersonal relationship. Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 45 2019-20","(2) Graphic emphasis on the neck suggests enough potential to reveal her\/his lack of control over impulses. personality. The structured interviews address very specific questions and follow (3) Disproportionately large head suggests a set procedure. This is often done to make organic brain disease and pre- objective comparison of persons being occupation with headaches. interviewed. Use of rating scales may further enhance the objectivity of The analysis of personality with the evaluations. help of projective techniques appears fairly interesting. It helps us to understand Observation unconscious motives, deep-rooted conflicts, and emotional complexes of an Behavioural observation is another method individual. However, the interpretation of which is very commonly used for the the responses requires sophisticated skills assessment of personality. Although all of and specialised training. There are us watch people and form impressions problems associated with the reliability of about their personality, use of observation scoring and validity of interpretations. But, for personality assessment is a the practitioners have found these sophisticated procedure that cannot be techniques quite useful. carried out by untrained people. It requires careful training of the observer, and a fairly Behavioural Analysis detailed guideline about analysis of behaviours in order to assess the A person\u2019s behaviour in a variety of personality of a given person. For example, situations can provide us with meaningful a clinical psychologist may like to observe information about her\/his personality. her\/his client\u2019s interaction with family Observation of behaviour serves as the members and home visitors. With carefully basis of behavioural analysis. An observer\u2019s designed observation, the clinical report may contain data obtained from psychologist may gain considerable insight interview, observation, ratings, into a client\u2019s personality. nomination, and situational tests. We will examine these different procedures in In spite of their frequent and some detail. widespread use, observation and interview methods are characterised by the following Interview limitations: Interview is a commonly used method for (1) Professional training required for assessing personality. This involves talking collection of useful data through these to the person being assessed and asking methods is quite demanding and time- specific questions. Diagnostic interviewing consuming. generally involves in-depth interviewing which seeks to go beyond the replies given (2) Maturity of the psychologist is a by the person. Interviews may be precondition for obtaining valid data structured or unstructured depending on through these techniques. the purpose or goals of assessment. (3) Mere presence of the observer may In unstructured interviews, the contaminate the results. As a stranger, interviewer seeks to develop an impression the observer may influence the about a person by asking a number of behaviour of the person being observed questions. The way a person presents her\/ and thus not obtain good data. himself and answers the questions carries 46 Psychology 2019-20","Behavioural Ratings or by developing such scales in which the response bias is likely to be small. Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational Nomination and industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people This method is often used in obtaining peer who know the assessee intimately and assessment. It can be used with persons have interacted with her\/him over a period who have been in long-term interaction of time or have had a chance to observe and who know each other very well. In her\/him. They attempt to put individuals using nomination, each person is asked to into certain categories in terms of their choose one or more persons of the group behavioural qualities. The categories may with whom s\/he would like to work, study, involve different numbers or descriptive play or participate in any other activity. terms. It has been found that use of The person may also be asked to specify numbers or general descriptive adjectives the reason for her\/his choices. in rating scales always creates confusion Nominations thus received may be for the rater. In order to use ratings analysed to understand the personality effectively, the traits should be clearly and behavioural qualities of the person. defined in terms of carefully stated This technique has been found to be highly behavioural anchors. dependable, although it may also be affected by personal biases. The method of rating suffers from the following major limitations: Situational Tests (1) Raters often display certain biases that A variety of situational tests have been colour their judgments of different devised for the assessment of personality. traits. For example, most of us are The most commonly used test of this kind greatly influenced by a single is the situational stress test. It provides favourable or unfavourable trait. This us with information about how a person often forms the basis of a rater\u2019s overall behaves under stressful situations. The judgment of a person. This tendency is test requires a person to perform a given known as the halo effect. task with other persons who are instructed (2) Raters have a tendency to place to be non-cooperative and interfering. The individuals either in the middle of the test involves a kind of role playing. The scale (called middle category bias) by person is instructed to play a role for which avoiding extreme positions, or in the s\/he is observed. A verbal report is also extreme positions (called extreme obtained on what s\/he was asked to do. response bias) by avoiding middle The situation may be realistic one, or it categories on the scale. may be created through a video play. These tendencies can be overcome by providing raters with appropriate training Key Terms Anal stage, Archetypes, Cardinal traits, Central traits, Client-centred therapy, Collective unconscious, Defence mechanisms, Ego, Extraversion, Humanistic approach, Id, Ideal self, Inferiority complex, Introversion, Latency period, Libido, Metaneeds, Oedipus complex, Personal identity, Phallic stage, Projective techniques, Psychodynamic approach, Projection, Rationalisation, Reaction formation, Regression, Repression, Self-efficacy, Self-esteem, Self-regulation, Social identity, Superego, Trait approach, Type approach, Unconscious. Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 47 2019-20","\u2022 The study of the self and the personality helps us understand ourselves as well as others. An individual\u2019s self develops through social interaction with significant others. \u2022 There are different kinds of self such as personal self, social self, and relational self. Self-esteem and self-efficacy are two very important aspects of behaviour, which have far-reaching consequences in our life. \u2022 The psychological techniques of self-regulation include systematic observation of one\u2019s behaviour, self-reinforcement, and self-instruction. \u2022 Personality refers to psychophysical characteristics of a person that are relatively stable across situations and over time and make her or him unique. Since personality helps us in adapting to a variety of situations in our life, it is likely to change as a result of external or internal forces. \u2022 Personality has been studied through several approaches. The most prominent among these are typological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cultural, and humanistic approaches. \u2022 The typological approach attempts to describe personality in terms of a few types, which are characterised by a cluster of traits. Allport, Cattell and Eysenck have advocated a trait approach to personality, which offers a unified view of a person. \u2022 Freud developed psychodynamic approach and discussed personality in terms of a constant conflict between our internal forces, called id, ego, and superego. In Freud\u2019s view, unconscious conflicts are rooted in the process of psychosexual development, which occurs through oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. \u2022 Post-Freudian theorists focus on interpersonal forces and the contemporary circumstances of life of the person. Jung, Fromm, Adler, Horney and Erikson brought out the role of ego and social forces in personality. \u2022 The behavioural approach views personality as the response of an individual to the environment. They consider response as the structural unit of personality, which is emitted to satisfy a specific need. \u2022 The cultural approach attempts to comprehend personality in terms of the demands of adaptation made on individuals by the economic maintenance systems and the resulting cultural features of a group of people. \u2022 The Humanistic approach focuses on subjective experiences of individuals and their choices. Rogers emphasised the relationship between the \u2018real self\u2019 and the \u2018ideal self\u2019. The congruence of these selves makes a person fully functioning. Maslow discussed personality in terms of the interplay of needs that motivated people. The needs could be arranged in a hierarchy from lower-order (survival related) needs to higher-order (development related) needs. \u2022 Personality assessment refers to the procedure of analysing and evaluating people in terms of certain psychological characteristics. The goal is to predict an individual\u2019s behaviour with a high degree of accuracy. \u2022 An individual\u2019s personality can be assessed by using observer reports, projective techniques, and self-report measures. Observer reports include interview, observation, ratings, nomination and situational tests. Rorschach Inkblot Test, and Thematic Apperception Test are widely used projective tests of personality. Self-report measures attempt to assess personality by using fairly structured tests. Review Questions 1. What is self ? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion? 2. What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development? 3. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality? 4. What is trait approach to personality? How does it differ from type approach? 5. How does Freud explain the structure of personality? 6. How would Horney\u2019s explanation of depression be different from that of Alfred Adler? 48 Psychology 2019-20","7. What is the main proposition of humanistic approach to personality? What did Maslow mean by self-actualisation? 8. Discuss the main observational methods used in personality assessment. What problems do we face in using these methods? 9. What is meant by structured personality tests? Which are the two most widely used structured personality tests? 10. Explain how projective techniques assess personality. Which projective tests of personality are widely used by psychologists? 11. Arihant wants to become a singer even though he belongs to a family of doctors. Though his family members claim to love him but strongly disapprove his choice of career. Using Carl Rogers\u2019 terminology, describe the attitudes shown by Arihant\u2019s family. Project 1. We all have some notions about our ideal selves, i.e. and what we would like to be? Take Ideas time to imagine that you have achieved your ideal self. With this notion of your ideal self, express your attitudes towards these categories : (a) school, (b) friends, (c) family, and (d) money. Write a paragraph on each describing your ideal attitudes. Next write all these categories on four sheets of paper and ask your two friends and two family members to write about what they perceive to be your real attitudes towards these categories. These four persons will describe your real self as they see you. Compare your ideal descriptions with others\u2019 real descriptions in detail. Are they very similar or dissimilar? Prepare a report on this. 2. Select five persons whom you most admire, either from real life or from history. Collect information about their contributions in their respective fields and identify the characteristics in their personality that have impressed you. Do you find any similarities? Prepare a comparative report. Weblinks www.ship.edu\/~cgboeree\/perscontents.html en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/projective_test Pedagogical Hints 49 1. To make students understand the concept of self, certain activities could be organised, such as a student may be asked to tell about herself\/himself. 2. Prepare flow charts\/diagrams to explain the concepts. Help students to prepare charts\/diagrams related to concepts given in the chapter. 3. Emphasise the importance of various personality assessment techniques in different spheres of life. 4. Sample items of various tests of personality could be shown to generate interest among students. They could be asked to compare the test items included in different measures of personality. Chapter 2 \u2022 Self and Personality 2019-20","MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the nature, types and sources of stress as life challenges, examine the effects of stress on psychological functioning, learn ways to cope with stress, know about the life skills that help people to stay healthy, and understand the factors that promote positive health and well-being. Introduction Nature, Types and Sources of Stress A Measure of Stressful Life Events (Box 3.1) Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health Examination Anxiety (Box 3.2) Stress and Health General Adaptation Syndrome Stress and Immune System Lifestyle CONTENTS Coping with Stress Stress Management Techniques Promoting Positive Health and Well-being Life Skills Resilience and Health (Box 3.3) Key Terms Summary Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 50 Psychology 2019-20","Introduction Raj has been studying for his final examination which is going to take place tomorrow morning. He studies till 1 a.m. in the night. Unable to concentrate any more, he sets the alarm for 6 a.m. and tries to go off to sleep. As he is very tense, he keeps tossing and turning in bed. Images flash through his mind of not being able to secure the marks he needs to opt for the subjects of his choice. He blames himself for fooling around with his friends and not preparing thoroughly for the examination. In the morning he wakes up with a heavy head, misses breakfast, and barely makes it in time to school for his examination. He opens the question paper, his heart pounding, hands clammy with sweat and then he feels his mind has gone completely blank. Some of you may have lived through an experience such as Raj\u2019s. The challenge posed by examinations is common to all students. You are perhaps, already thinking about a career. What if you are denied this choice? Will you give up? Life poses challenges all the time. Think of a child who loses her\/his parents at a young age with no one to take care of her\/him; a young woman who loses her husband in a car accident; parents who bring up children who are physically or mentally challenged; young girls\/boys who have to spend long nights in call centres and then catch up on their sleep during the day time. Look around yourself and you will find that life is a big challenge. All of us try to meet these challenges in our own way. Some of us succeed while others succumb to such life stresses. Life challenges are not necessarily stressful. Much depends on how a challenge is viewed. A number 11 batsman in a cricket team will view facing a fast bowler\u2019s delivery differently than would an opening batsman, who will look forward to such a challenge. It is said that one\u2019s best comes out when one is challenged. We will like to consider in this chapter how a life condition turns into a challenge or a cause of stress. Further, we will also see how people respond to various life challenges as well as stressful situations. NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS probability of one\u2019s survival. Stress is like electricity. It gives energy, increases While waiting to cross the road on a busy human arousal and affects performance. Monday morning, you may be temporarily However, if the electric current is too high, stressed. But, because you are alert, it can fuse bulbs, damage appliances, etc. vigilant and aware of the danger, you are High stress too can produce unpleasant able to cross the road safely. Faced with effects and cause our performance to any challenge, we put in additional efforts deteriorate. Conversely, too little stress and mobilise all our resources and the may cause one to feel somewhat listless support system to meet the challenge. All and low on motivation which may lead us the challenges, problems, and difficult to perform slowly and less efficiently. It is circumstances put us to stress. Thus, if important to remember that not all stress handled properly, stress increases the is inherently bad or destructive. \u2018Eustress\u2019 Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 51 2019-20","is the term used to describe the level of demand\u201d that is, regardless of the cause of stress that is good for you and is one of the threat, the individual will respond with a person\u2019s best assets for achieving peak the same physiological pattern of reactions. performance and managing minor crisis. Many researchers do not agree with this Eustress, however, has the potential of definition as they feel that the stress turning into \u2018distress\u2019. It is this latter response is not nearly as general and non- manifestation of stress that causes our specific as Selye suggests. Different body\u2019s wear and tear. Thus, stress can be stressors may produce somewhat different described as the pattern of responses an patterns of stress reaction, and different organism makes to stimulus event that individuals may have different disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a characteristic modes of response. You may person\u2019s ability to cope. recall the case of an opening batsman mentioned earlier. Each one of us will see Nature of Stress the situation through our own eyes and it is our perception of the demands, and our The word stress has its origin in the Latin ability to meet them, which will determine words \u2018strictus\u2019, meaning tight or narrow whether we are feeling \u2018stressed\u2019 or not. and \u2018stringere\u2019, the verb meaning to tighten. These root words reflect the Stress is not a factor that resides in the internal feelings of tightness and individual or the environment, instead it is constriction of the muscles and breathing embedded in an ongoing process that reported by many people under stress. involves individuals transacting with their Stress is often explained in terms of social and cultural environments, making characteristics of the environment that are appraisals of those encounters and disruptive to the individual. Stressors are attempting to cope with the issues that events that cause our body to give the arise. Stress is a dynamic mental\/cognitive stress response. Such events include state. It is a disruption in homeostasis or noise, crowding, a bad relationship, or the an imbalance that gives rise to a daily commuting to school or office. The requirement for resolution of that reaction to external stressors is called imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. \u2018strain\u2019 (see Fig.3.1). The perception of stress is dependent Stress has come to be associated with upon the individual\u2019s cognitive appraisal of both the causes as well as effects. However, events and the resources available to deal this view of stress can cause confusion. with them. The stress process, based on Hans Selye, the father of modern stress the cognitive theory of stress propounded research, defined stress as \u201cthe non- by Lazarus and his colleagues, is described specific response of the body to any in Figure 3.2. An individual\u2019s response to a stressful situation largely depends upon Fig.3.1 : Psychological Meaning of Stress 52 Psychology 2019-20","the perceived events and how they are are likely to make a secondary appraisal, interpreted or appraised. Lazarus has which is the assessment of one\u2019s coping distinguished between two types of abilities and resources and whether they appraisal, i.e. primary and secondary. will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat Primary appraisal refers to the perception or challenge of the event. These resources of a new or changing environment as may be mental, physical, personal or positive, neutral or negative in its social. If one thinks one has a positive consequences. Negative events are attitude, health, skills and social support appraised for their possible harm, threat to deal with the crises s\/he will feel less or challenge. Harm is the assessment of stressed. This two-level appraisal process the damage that has already been done by determines not only our cognitive and an event. Threat is the assessment of behavioural responses but also our possible future damage that may be emotional and physiological responses to brought about by the event. Challenge external events. appraisals are associated with more confident expectations of the ability to cope These appraisals are very subjective with the stressful event, the potential to and will depend on many factors. One overcome and even profit from the event. factor is the past experience of dealing When we perceive an event as stressful, we with such a stressful condition. If one has handled similar situations very Fig.3.2 : A General Model of the Stress Process 53 Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 2019-20","successfully in the past, they would be less (flight) are two general categories of threatening for her\/him. Another factor is behavioural responses. Cognitive whether the stressful event is perceived as responses include beliefs about the harm controllable, i.e. whether one has mastery or threat an event poses and beliefs about or control over a situation. A person who its causes or controllability. These include believes that s\/he can control the onset of responses such as inability to concentrate, a negative situation, or its adverse and intrusive, repetitive or morbid consequences, will experience less amount thoughts. of stress than those who have no such sense of personal control. For example, a As indicated in Figure 3.2, the stresses sense of self-confidence or efficacy can which people experience also vary in terms determine whether the person is likely to of intensity (low intensity vs. high appraise the situation as a threat or a intensity), duration (short-term vs. long- challenge. Thus, the experience and term), complexity ( less complex vs. more outcome of a stressor may vary from complex) and predictability (unexpected individual to individual. Stress, includes all vs. predictable). The outcome of stress those environmental and personal events, depends on the position of a particular which challenge or threaten the well-being stressful experience along these of a person. These stressors can be dimensions. Usually more intense, external, such as environmental (noise, air prolonged or chronic, complex and pollution), social (break-up with a friend, unanticipated stresses have more negative loneliness) or psychological (conflict, consequences than have less intense, frustration) within the individual. short-term, less complex and expected stresses. An individual\u2019s experiences of Very often, these stressors result in a stress depend on the physiological strength variety of stress reactions, which may be of that person. Thus, individuals with poor physiological, behavioural, emotional, and physical health and weak constitution cognitive (see Fig.3.2). At the physiological would be more vulnerable than would be level, arousal plays a key role in stress- those who enjoy good health and strong related behaviours. The hypothalamus constitution. initiates action along two pathways. The first pathway involves the autonomic Psychological characteristics like nervous system. The adrenal gland mental health, temperament, and self- releases large amount of catecholamines concept are relevant to the experience of (epinephrine and norepinephrine) into the stress. The cultural context in which we blood stream. This leads to physiological live determines the meaning of any event changes seen in fight-or-flight response. and defines the nature of response that is The second pathway involves the pituitary expected under various conditions. Finally, gland, which secretes the corticosteroid the stress experience will be determined by (cortisol) which provides energy. The the resources of the person, such as emotional reactions to experience of stress money, social skills, coping style, support include negative emotions such as fear, networks, etc. All these factors determine anxiety, embarrassment, anger, depression the appraisal of a given stressful situation. or even denial. The behavioural responses are virtually limitless, depending on the Signs and Symptoms of Stress nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the stressor (fight) or The way we respond to stress varies withdrawal from the threatening event depending upon our personality, early upbringing and life experiences. Everyone has their own pattern of stress response. 54 Psychology 2019-20","So the warning signs may vary, as may that are often unavoidable such as air their intensity. Some of us know our pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the pattern of stress response and can gauge summer, winter cold, etc. Another group of the depth of the problem by the nature and environmental stresses are catastrophic severity of our own symptoms or changes events or disasters such as fire, in behaviour. These symptoms of stress earthquake, floods, etc. can be physical, emotional and behavioural. Any of the symptoms can Psychological Stress indicate a degree of stress which, if left unresolved, might have serious These are stresses that we generate implications. ourselves in our minds. These are personal and unique to the person experiencing Activity Read the following signs of stress : them and are internal sources of stress. We 3.1 worry about problems, feel anxiety, or Lack of concentration, Memory loss, become depressed. These are not only Poor decision-making, Inconsistency, symptoms of stress, but they cause further Irregular attendance and timekeeping, stress for us. Some of the important Low self-esteem, Poor long-term sources of psychological stress are planning, Frantic bursts of energy, frustration, conflicts, internal and social Extreme mood swings, Emotional pressures, etc. outbursts, Worry, Anxiety, Fear, Depression, Difficulties with sleep, Frustration results from the blocking Difficulties with eating, Misuse of of needs and motives by something or drugs, Physical illness, e.g. stomach someone that hinders us from achieving a upset, headache, backache, etc. desired goal. There could be a number of causes of frustration such as social Tick those applicable to you and discrimination, interpersonal hurt, low then discuss in groups of two or three grades in school, etc. Conflicts may occur students in class. Can you reduce between two or more incompatible needs some of them? Discuss how? Consult or motives, e.g. whether to study dance or your teacher. psychology. You may want to continue studies or take up a job. There may be a Types of Stress conflict of values when you are pressurised to take any action that may be against the The three major types of stress, viz. values held by you. Internal pressures physical and environmental, psychological, stem from beliefs based upon expectations and social are listed in Figure 3.2. It is from inside us to ourselves such as, \u2018I must important to understand that all these do everything perfectly\u2019. Such expectations types of stress are interrelated. can only lead to disappointment. Many of us drive ourselves ruthlessly towards Physical and Environmental Stress achieving unrealistically high standards in achieving our goals. Social pressures may Physical stresses are demands that change be brought about from people who make the state of our body. We feel strained excessive demands on us. This can cause when we overexert ourselves physically, even greater pressure when we have to lack a nutritious diet, suffer an injury, or work with them. Also, there are people with fail to get enough sleep. Environmental whom we face interpersonal difficulties, \u2018a stresses are aspects of our surroundings personality clash\u2019 of sorts. Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 55 2019-20","Social Stress injury, the annoying frequent hassles of everyday life and traumatic events that These are induced externally and result affect our lives. from our interaction with other people. Social events like death or illness in the Life Events family, strained relationships, trouble with neighbours are some examples of social Changes, both big and small, sudden and stresses. These social stresses vary widely gradual affect our life from the moment we from person to person. Attending parties are born. We learn to cope with small, may be stressful for a person who likes to everyday changes but major life events can spend quiet evenings at home while an be stressful, because they disturb our outgoing person may find staying at home routine and cause upheaval. If several of in the evenings stressful. these life events that are planned (e.g. moving into a new house) or unpredicted Sources of Stress (e.g. break-up of a long-term relationship) occur within a short period of time, we A wide range of events and conditions can find it difficult to cope with them and generate stress. Among the most important will be more prone to the symptoms of of these are major stressful life events, stress. such as death of a loved one or personal Box A Measure of Stressful Life Events 3.1 Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A measure of stressful life events based on the above scale known as the Presumptive Stressful Life Events Scale has been developed for the Indian population by Singh, Kaur and Kaur. It is a self-rating questionnaire made up of fifty-one life changes, which a person may have experienced. Each of these life events is assigned a numerical value in terms of their severity. For example, the death of one\u2019s spouse is assigned 95, personal illness or injury 56, failure in examination 43, appearing for examination or interview 43, change in sleeping habits 33, as the mean stress score. Both positive and negative events are taken, believing that both kinds of changes cause stress. The respondent\u2019s stress score is the weighted sum of all the items\/life change events in the past one year checked by her\/him. Some sample items of the measure are : Life Events Mean Stress Score Death of a close family member 66 Unexpected accident or trauma 53 Illness of a family member 52 Break-up with friend 47 Appearing for examinations 43 Change in eating habits 27 The mean number of stressful life events experienced over a period of one year without producing overt physical or mental illness is approximately two. However, the correlations between life events and susceptibility to any particular illness is low, indicating a weak association between life events and stress. It has been argued as to whether life events have caused some stress-related illness or whether stress caused the life events and illness. The impact of most life events varies from person to person. Factors such as age at which the event was first experienced, frequency of occurrence, duration of the stressful event and social support must be studied in evaluating the relationship between stressful life events and the subsequent illness episode. 56 Psychology 2019-20","Hassles EFFECTS OF STRESS ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING AND HEALTH These are the personal stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in What are the effects of stress? Many of the our daily life, such as noisy surroundings, effects are physiological in nature, commuting, quarrelsome neighbours, however, other changes also occur electricity and water shortage, traffic inside stressed individuals. There snarls, and so on. Attending to various are four major effects of stress emergencies are daily hassles experienced associated with the stressed state, viz. by a housewife. There are some jobs in emotional, physiological, cognitive, and which daily hassles are very frequent. behavioural. These daily hassles may sometimes have devastating consequences for the Emotional Effects : Those who suffer from individual who is often the one coping stress are far more likely to experience alone with them as others may not even be mood swings, and show erratic behaviour aware of them as outsiders. The more that may alienate them from family and stress people report as a result of daily friends. In some cases this can start a hassles, the poorer is their psychological vicious circle of decreasing confidence, well-being. leading to more serious emotional problems. Some examples are feelings of Traumatic Events anxiety and depression, increased physical tension, increased psychological tension These include being involved in a variety and mood swings. Box 3.2 presents the of extreme events such as a fire, train or phenomenon of \u2018Examination Anxiety\u2019. road accident, robbery, earthquake, tsunami, etc. The effects of these events Physiological Effects : When the human may occur after some lapse of time and body is placed under physical or sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, psychological stress, it increases the flashbacks, dreams and intrusive production of certain hormones, such as thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones strain relationships. Professional help will produce marked changes in heart rate, be needed to cope with them especially if blood pressure levels, metabolism and they persist for many months after the physical activity. Although, this physical event is over. reaction will help us to function more effectively when we are under pressure for Activity Identify the stressful events, which you short periods of time, it can be extremely 3.2 and two of your classmates have damaging to the body in the long-term experienced in the past one year. List effects. Examples of physiological effects the stressful events and rank them are release of epinephrine and nor- from 1 to 5 that have had negative epinephrine, slowing down of the digestive impact in your day-to-day functioning. system, expansion of air passages in the Then select those that are common to lungs, increased heart rate, and all three of you. Find out how much constriction of blood vessels. ability, skill, and family support your friends and you have in order to deal Cognitive Effects : If pressures due to with each of these stresses. stress continue, one may suffer from mental overload. This suffering from high Discuss these results with your level of stress can rapidly cause individuals teacher. to lose their ability to make sound Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 57 2019-20","decisions. Faulty decisions made at home, Stress and Health in career, or at workplace may lead to arguments, failure, financial loss or even You must have often observed that many loss of job. Cognitive effects of stress are of your friends (may be including yourself poor concentration, and reduced short- as well!) fall sick during the examination term memory capacity. time. They suffer from stomach upsets, body aches, nausea, diarrhoea and fever Behavioural Effects : Stress affects our etc. You must have also noticed that people behaviour in the form of eating less who are unhappy in their personal lives fall nutritional food, increasing intake of sick more often than those who are happy stimulants such as caffeine, excessive and enjoy life. Chronic daily stress can consumption of cigarettes, alcohol and divert an individual\u2019s attention from caring other drugs such as tranquillisers etc. for herself or himself. When stress is Tranquillisers can be addictive and have prolonged, it affects physical health and side effects such as loss of concentration, impairs psychological functioning. People poor coordination, and dizziness. Some of experience exhaustion and attitudinal the typical behavioural effects of stress problems when the stress due to demands seen are disrupted sleep patterns, from the environment and constraints are increased absenteeism, and reduced work too high and little support is available from performance. family and friends. The physical Box Examination Anxiety 3.2 Examination anxiety is a fairly common phenomenon that involves feelings of tension or uneasiness that occur before, during, or after an examination. Many people experience feelings of anxiety around examinations and find it helpful in some ways, as it can be motivating and create the pressure that is needed to stay focused on one\u2019s performance. Examination nerves, worry, or fear of failure are normal for even the most talented student. However, stress of formal examination results in such high degrees of anxiety in some students that they are unable to perform at a level which matches the potential they have shown in less stressful classroom situations. Examination stress has been characterised as \u201cevaluative apprehension\u201d or \u201cevaluative stress\u201d and produces debilitating behavioural, cognitive, and physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stressor. High stress can interfere with the student\u2019s preparation, concentration, and performance. Examination stress can cause test anxiety which adversely affects test performance. Persons who are high in test anxiety tend to perceive evaluative situations as personally threatening; in test situations, they are often tense, apprehensive, nervous, and emotionally aroused. Moreover, the negative self-centred cognitions which they experience distract their attention and interfere with concentration during examinations. High test anxious students respond to examination stress with intense emotional reactions, negative thoughts about themselves, feelings of inadequacy, helplessness, and loss of status and esteem that impair their performance. Generally, the high test anxious person instead of plunging into a task plunges inward, that is, either neglects or misinterprets informational cues that may be readily available to her\/him, or experiences attentional blocks. While preparing for examinations, one must spend enough time for study, overview and weigh one\u2019s strengths and weaknesses, discuss difficulties with teachers and classmates, plan a revision timetable, condense notes, space out revision periods, and most importantly on the examination day concentrate on staying calm. 58 Psychology 2019-20","exhaustion is seen in the signs of chronic 1. Alarm reaction stage : The presence fatigue, weakness and low energy. The of a noxious stimulus or stressor mental exhaustion appears in the form of leads to activation of the adrenal- irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness pituitary-cortex system. This triggers and hopelessness. This state of physical, the release of hormones producing the emotional and psychological exhaustion is stress response. Now the individual is known as burnout. ready for fight or flight. There is also convincing evidence to 2. Resistance stage : If stress is prolonged, show that stress can produce changes in the resistance stage begins. The para- the immune system and increase the sympathetic nervous system calls for chances of someone becoming ill. Stress more cautious use of the body\u2019s has been implicated in the development of resources. The organism makes efforts cardiovascular disorders, high blood to cope with the threat, as through pressure, as well as psychosomatic confrontation. disorders including ulcers, asthma, allergies and headaches. 3. Exhaustion stage : Continued exposure to the same stressor or additional Researchers estimate that stress plays stressors drains the body of its an important role in fifty to seventy per resources and leads to the third stage cent of all physical illnesses. Studies also of exhaustion. The physiological reveal that sixty per cent of medical visits systems involved in alarm reaction and are primarily for stress-related symptoms. resistance become ineffective and susceptibility to stress-related diseases General Adaptation Syndrome such as high blood pressure becomes more likely. What happens to the body when stress is prolonged? Selye studied this issue by Selye\u2019s model has been criticised for subjecting animals to a variety of stressors assigning a very limited role to such as high temperature, X-rays and psychological factors in stress. Researchers insulin injections, in the laboratory over a have reported that the psychological long period of time. He also observed appraisal of events is important for the patients with various injuries and illnesses determination of stress. How people in hospitals. Selye noticed a similar pattern respond to stress is substantially of bodily response in all of them. He called influenced by their perceptions, this pattern the General Adaptation personalities and biological constitutions. Syndrome (GAS). According to him, GAS involves three stages: alarm reaction, Stress and the Immune System resistance, and exhaustion (see Fig.3.3). Stress can cause illness by impairing the Fig.3.3 : The General Adaptation Syndrome workings of the immune system. The immune system guards the body against attackers, both from within and outside. Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on the immune system. How does the immune system work? The white blood cells (leucocytes) within the immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 59 2019-20","(antigens) such as viruses. It also leads to Psychological stress is accompanied by the production of antibodies. There are negative emotions and associated several kinds of white blood cells or behaviours, including depression, hostility, leucocytes within the immune system, anger and aggression. Negative emotion including T cells, B cells and natural killer states are of particular concern to the cells. T cells destroy invaders, and T-helper study of effects of stress on health. The cells increase immunological activity. It is incidence of psychological disorders, such these T-helper cells that are attacked by as panic attacks and obsessive behaviour the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus increases with the build up of long-term (HIV), the virus causing Acquired Immuno stress. Worries can reach such a level that Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). B cells they surface as a frightening, painful produce antibodies. Natural killer cells are physical sensation, which can be mistaken involved in the fight against both viruses for a heart attack. People under prolonged and tumours. stress are more prone to irrational fears, mood swings and phobias, and may Stress can affect natural killer cell experience fits of depression, anger and cytotoxicity, which is of major importance irritability. These negative emotions appear in the defence against various infections to be related to the function of the immune and cancer. Reduced levels of natural killer system. Our ability to interpret our world cell cytotoxicity have been found in people and to invest that interpretation with who are highly stressed, including personal meaning and emotion have a students facing important examinations, powerful and direct effect on the body. bereaved persons, and those who are Negative moods have been associated with severely depressed. Studies reveal that poorer health outcomes. Feelings of immune functioning is better in individuals hopelessness are related to worsening of receiving social support. Also, changes in disease, increased risk of injury and death the immune system will have more effect due to various causes. on health among those whose immune systems are already weakened. Figure 3.4 Lifestyle depicts this sequence comprising negative emotions, release of stress hormones Stress can lead to unhealthy lifestyle or which lead to weakening of the immune health damaging behaviour. Lifestyle is the system, thereby affecting mental and overall pattern of decisions and behaviours physical health. that determine a person\u2019s health and Fig.3.4 : Relation of Stress with Illness 60 Psychology 2019-20","quality of life. Stressed individuals may be impaired immune response and more likely to expose themselves to diminished activity of natural killer cells. pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness. People who are stressed Individuals show consistent individual have poor nutritional habits, sleep less and differences in the coping strategies they are likely to engage in other health risking use to handle stressful situations. These behaviours like smoking and alcohol can include both overt and covert abuse. Such health impairing behaviours activities. The three coping strategies given develop gradually and are accompanied by by Endler and Parker are: pleasant experiences temporarily. However, we tend to ignore their long-term damaging Task-oriented Strategy : This involves effects and underestimate the risk they obtaining information about the stressful pose to our lives. situation and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome; it also Studies have revealed that health involves deciding priorities and acting so promoting behaviour like balanced diet, as to deal directly with the stressful regular exercise, family support, etc. play situation. For example, schedule my time an important role in good health. Adhering better, or think about how I have solved to a lifestyle that includes balanced low fat similar problems. diet, regular exercise and continued activity along with positive thinking Emotion-oriented Strategy : This can enhances health and longevity. The involve efforts to maintain hope and to modern lifestyle of excesses in eating, control one\u2019s emotions; it can also involve drinking and the so called fast-paced good venting feelings of anger and frustration, life has led to violation of basic principles or deciding that nothing can be done to of health in some of us, as to what we eat, change things. For example, tell myself think or do with our lives. that it is not really happening to me, or worry about what I am going to do. COPING WITH STRESS Avoidance-oriented Strategy : This In recent years the conviction has grown involves denying or minimising the that it is how we cope with stress and not seriousness of the situation; it also involves the stress one experiences that influences conscious suppression of stressful our psychological well-being, social thoughts and their replacement by self- functioning and health. Coping is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to Respond to the following items on a Activity stress. It is a set of concrete responses to 5-point scale ranging from 5 = always 3.3 stressful situations or events that are to 1 = never. intended to resolve the problem and reduce stress. The way we cope with stress often I express emotions openly and depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs, based directly. on experience, e.g. when caught in a traffic I work towards my own personal jam we feel angry, because we believe that goals. the traffic \u2018should\u2019 move faster. To manage I accept situations that cannot be stress we often need to reassess the way altered. we think and learn coping strategies. I discuss my worries with friends. People who cope poorly with stress have an I may not get everything just right. Discuss your answers with your classmates and teacher. The higher the score, the better would be your ability to cope. Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 61 2019-20","protective thoughts. Examples of this are Which of the following coping Activity watching TV, phone up a friend, or try to behaviours are problem-focused? Why? 3.4 be with other people. \u2022 Discussing your problem with a Lazarus and Folkman has friend. conceptualised coping as a dynamic \u2022 Feeling sorry for failing in an process rather than an individual trait. Coping refers to constantly changing examination. cognitive and behavioural efforts to master, \u2022 Finding fault with classmates for reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful poor marks in tests. transaction. Coping serves to allow the \u2022 Hiding examination results from individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate the emotional response to parents. that problem. According to them coping \u2022 Blaming friends for bad habits. responses can be divided into two types of \u2022 Reading essential books for the responses, problem-focused and emotion- focused. Problem-focused strategies attack annual examination. the problem itself, with behaviours \u2022 Making efforts to improve one\u2019s designed to gain information, to alter the event, and to alter belief and commitments. performance after a setback. They increase the person\u2019s awareness, level \u2022 Missing school when assignments of knowledge, and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. They can act not completed. to reduce the threat value of the event. For Discuss the answers with your example \u201cI made a plan of action and classmates and teacher. followed it\u201d. Emotion-focused strategies call for psychological changes designed manage stress. Some of these techniques primarily to limit the degree of emotional are: disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself. For Relaxation Techniques : It is an active example \u201cI did some things to let it out of skill that reduces symptoms of stress and my system\u201d. While both problem-focused decreases the incidence of illnesses such and emotion-focused coping are necessary as high blood pressure and heart disease. when facing stressful situations, research Usually relaxation starts from the lower suggests that people generally tend to use part of the body and progresses up to the the former more often than the latter. facial muscles in such a way that the whole body is relaxed. Deep breathing is Stress Management Techniques used along with muscle relaxation to calm the mind and relax the body. Stress is a silent killer. It is estimated to play a significant role in physical illness Meditation Procedures : The yogic method and disease. Hypertension, heart disease, of meditation consists of a sequence of ulcers, diabetes and even cancer are linked learned techniques for refocusing of to stress. Due to lifestyle changes stress is attention that brings about an altered state on the increase. Therefore, schools, other of consciousness. It involves such a institutions, offices and communities are thorough concentration that the meditator concerned about knowing techniques to becomes unaware of any outside stimulation and reaches a different state of consciousness. Biofeedback : It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological aspects of stress by providing feedback about current physiological activity and is often accompanied by relaxation training. 62 Psychology 2019-20","Biofeedback training involves three stages : times a week for 30 minutes at a time. developing an awareness of the particular Each session must have a warm-up, physiological response, e.g. heart rate, exercise and cool down phases. learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions; PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND and transferring that control into the WELL-BEING conditions of everyday life. It is unlikely that we will go through life Creative Visualisation : It is an effective without some experience of personal crises technique for dealing with stress. Creative causing acute pressure for a while. Many visualisation is a subjective experience that people sail through and rebuild their lives uses imagery and imagination. Before very positively. They are likely to have visualising one must set oneself a realistic constructive attitudes and also have lots of goal, as it helps build confidence. It is emotional and social support of various easier to visualise if one\u2019s mind is quiet, kinds available to them. When we find body relaxed and eyes are closed. This ways of managing these pressures and can reduces the risk of interference from use the energy to create something positive unbidden thoughts and provides the out of the situation, then we will have creative energy needed for turning an learned to survive healthily and this will imagined scene into reality. leave us more stress fit for future crises. It is like being immunised against the Cognitive Behavioural Techniques : dangers of unhealthy stress. These techniques aim to inoculate people against stress. Stress inoculation training Stress Resistant Personality : Recent is one effective method developed by studies by Kobasa have shown that people Meichenbaum. The essence of this with high levels of stress but low levels of approach is to replace negative and illness share three characteristics, which irrational thoughts with positive and are referred to as the personality traits of rational ones. There are three main phases hardiness. It consists of \u2018the three Cs\u2019, i.e. in this : assessment, stress reduction commitment, control, and challenge. techniques, and application and follow- Hardiness is a set of beliefs about oneself, through. Assessment involves discussing the world, and how they interact. It takes the nature of the problem and seeing it shape as a sense of personal commitment from the viewpoint of the person\/client. to what you are doing, a sense of control Stress reduction involves learning the over your life, and a feeling of challenge. techniques of reducing stress such as Stress resistant personalities have control relaxation and self-instruction. which is a sense of purpose and direction in life; commitment to work, family, Exercise : Exercise can provide an active hobbies and social life; and challenge, that outlet for the physiological arousal is, they see changes in life as normal and experienced in response to stress. Regular positive rather than as a threat. exercise improves the efficiency of the heart, enhances the function of the lungs, Everyone does not have these maintains good circulation, lowers blood characteristics, many of us have to relearn pressure, reduces fat in the blood and specific life skills in areas such as rational improves the body\u2019s immune system. thinking, and assertiveness to equip Swimming, walking, running, cycling, ourselves better to cope with the demands skipping, etc. help to reduce stress. One of everyday life, etc. must practice these exercises at least four Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 63 2019-20","Life Skills images from the past, which affect our perception of the present and the future. Life skills are abilities for adaptive and Some of the principles of rational thinking positive behaviour that enable individuals are: challenging your distorted thinking and to deal effectively with the demands and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially challenges of everyday life. Our ability to intrusive negative anxiety-provoking cope depends on how well we are prepared thoughts, and making positive statements. to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in our Improving Relationships : The key to a lives. These life skills can be learned and sound lasting relationship is communi- even improved upon. Assertiveness, time cation. This consists of three essential management, rational thinking, improving skills: listening to what the other person relationships, self-care, and overcoming is saying, expressing how you feel and unhelpful habits such as perfectionism, what you think, and accepting the other procrastination, etc. are some life skills person\u2019s opinions and feelings, even if they that will help to meet the challenges of life. are different from your own. It also requires us to avoid misplaced jealousy Assertiveness : Assertiveness is a and sulking behaviour. behaviour or skill that helps to communicate, clearly and confidently, our Self-care : If we keep ourselves healthy, fit feelings, needs, wants, and thoughts. It is and relaxed, we are better prepared the ability to say no to a request, to state physically and emotionally to tackle the an opinion without being self-conscious, or stresses of everyday life. Our breathing to express emotions such as love, anger, patterns reflect our state of mind and etc. openly. If you are assertive, you feel emotions. When we are stressed or confident, and have high self-esteem and anxious, we tend towards rapid and a solid sense of your own identity. shallow breathing from high in the chest, with frequent sighs. The most relaxed Time Management : The way you spend breathing is slow, stomach-centred your time determines the quality of your breathing from the diaphragm, i.e. a dome life. Learning how to plan time and like muscle between the chest and the delegate can help to relieve the pressure. abdominal cavity. Environmental stresses The major way to reduce time stress is to like noise, pollution, space, light, colour, change one\u2019s perception of time. The etc. can all exert an influence on our mood. central principle of time management is to These have a noticeable effect on our spend your time doing the things that you ability to cope with stress, and well-being. value, or that help you to achieve your goals. It depends on being realistic about Overcoming Unhelpful Habits : Unhelpful what you know and that you must do it habits such as perfectionism, avoidance, within a certain time period, knowing what procrastination, etc. are strategies that you want to do, and organising your life to help to cope in the short-term but which achieve a balance between the two. make one more vulnerable to stress. Perfectionists are persons who have to get Rational Thinking : Many stress-related everything just right. They have difficulty problems occur as a result of distorted in varying standards according to factors thinking. The way you think and the way such as time available, consequences of you feel are closely connected. When we not being able to stop work, and the effort are stressed, we have an inbuilt selective needed. They are more likely to feel tense bias to attend to negative thoughts and 64 Psychology 2019-20","and find it difficult to relax, are critical of Diet : A balanced diet can lift one\u2019s mood, self and others, and may become inclined give more energy, feed muscles, improve to avoid challenges. Avoidance is to put the circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the issue under the carpet and refuse to accept immune system and make one feel better or face it. Procrastination means putting off to cope with stresses of life. The key to what we know we need to do. We all are healthy living is to eat three main meals guilty of saying \u201cI will do it later\u201d. People a day, and eat a varied well-balanced diet. who procrastinate are deliberately avoiding How much nutrition one needs depends on confronting their fears of failure or rejection. one\u2019s activity level, genetic make-up, climate, and health history. What people Various factors have been identified eat, and how much do they weigh involve which facilitate the development of behavioural processes. Some people are positive health. Health is a state of able to maintain a healthy diet and weight complete physical, mental, social and while others become obese. When we are spiritual well-being, and not merely the stressed, we seek \u2018comfort foods\u2019 which are absence of disease or infirmity. Positive high in fats, salt and sugar. health comprises the following constructs: \u201ca healthy body; high quality of personal Exercise : A large number of studies relationships; a sense of purpose in life; confirm a consistently positive relationship self-regard, mastery of life\u2019s tasks; and between physical fitness and health. Also, resilience to stress, trauma, and change\u201d. of all the measures an individual can take Box 3.3 presents the relationship between to improve health, exercise is the lifestyle resilience and health. Specifically, factors change with the widest popular approval. that act as stress buffers and facilitate Regular exercise plays an important role in positive health are diet, exercise, positive managing weight and stress, and is shown attitude, positive thinking, and social to have a positive effect on reducing support. Resilience and Health Box 3.3 In recent years, there has been a lot of research in understanding resilience in children and adolescents. Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described as the capacity to \u2018bounce back\u2019 in the face of stress and adversity. Resilience has been conceptualised as reflecting feelings of self-worth and self-confidence, autonomy and self-reliance, finding positive role models, seeking a confidant, cognitive skills such as problem solving, creativity, resourcefulness, and flexibility and a belief that one\u2019s life has purpose and meaning. Resilient individuals are able to overcome the effects of trauma, stress and adversity and learn to live psychologically healthy and meaningful lives. Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three resources: I HAVE (social and interpersonal strengths), i.e. \u2018people around me I trust and who love me no matter what\u2019, I AM (inner strengths), i.e. \u2018respectful of myself and others\u2019, and I CAN ( interpersonal and problem solving skills), i.e. \u2018find ways to solve problems I face\u2019. For a child to be resilient, s\/he needs to have more than one of these strengths. For example, children may have plenty of self-esteem (I am), but may lack anyone whom they can turn to for support (I have), and do not have the capacity to solve problems (I can), will not be resilient. Outcomes of longitudinal studies of children provide evidence that in spite of extreme vulnerabilities related to poverty and other social disadvantages, many individuals develop into capable and caring adults. Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 65 2019-20","tension, anxiety and depression. Physical Social Support : Social support is defined exercises that are essential for good health as the existence and availability of people are stretching exercises such as yogic on whom we can rely upon, people who let asanas and aerobic exercises such as us know that they care about, value, and jogging, swimming, cycling, etc. Whereas love us. Someone who believes that s\/he stretching exercises have a calming effect, belongs to a social network of aerobic exercises increase the arousal level communication and mutual obligation of the body. The health benefits of exercise experiences social support. Perceived work as a stress buffer. Studies suggest support, i.e. the quality of social support that fitness permits individuals to is positively related to health and well- maintain general mental and physical well- being, whereas social network, i.e. the being even in the face of negative life quantity of social support is unrelated to events. well-being, because it is very time- consuming and demanding to maintain a Positive Attitude : Positive health and large social network. Studies have revealed well-being can be realised by having a that women exposed to life event stresses, positive attitude. Some of the factors who had a close friend, were less likely to leading to a positive attitude are: having a be depressed and had lesser medical fairly accurate perception of reality; a sense complications during pregnancy. Social of purpose in life and responsibility; support can help to provide protection acceptance and tolerance for different against stress. People with high levels of viewpoints of others; and taking credit for social support from family and friends may success and accepting blame for failure. experience less stress when they confront Finally, being open to new ideas and a stressful experience, and they may cope having a sense of humour with the ability with it more successfully. to laugh at oneself help us to remain centred, and see things in a proper Social support may be in the form of perspective. tangible support or assistance involving material aid, such as money, goods, Positive Thinking : The power of positive services, etc. For example, a child gives thinking has been increasingly recognised notes to her\/his friend, since s\/he was in reducing and coping with stress. absent from school due to sickness. Family Optimism, which is the inclination to and friends also provide informational expect favourable life outcomes, has been support about stressful events. For linked to psychological and physical well- example, a student facing a stressful event being. People differ in the manner in which such as a difficult board examination, if they cope. For example, optimists tend to provided information by a friend who has assume that adversity can be handled faced a similar one, would not only be able successfully whereas pessimists anticipate to identify the exact procedures involved, disasters. Optimists use more problem- but also it would facilitate in determining focused coping strategies, and seek advice what resources and coping strategies could and help from others. Pessimists ignore the be useful to successfully pass the problem or source of stress, and use examination. During times of stress, one strategies such as giving up the goal with may experience sadness, anxiety, and loss which stress is interfering or denying that of self-esteem. Supportive friends and stress exists. family provide emotional support by 66 Psychology 2019-20","reassuring the individual that she\/he is Identify a child in your neighbourhood Activity loved, valued, and cared for. Research has who had undergone some major stress 3.5 demonstrated that social support in life such as a serious accident or been effectively reduces psychological distress through a recent traumatic experience such as depression or anxiety, during like a robbery, fire, etc. Talk to the child times of stress. There is growing evidence and family. Can you identify some that social support is positively related to factors that have helped her\/him to psychological well-being. Generally, social cope and overcome the trauma? Do you support leads to mental health benefits for see any similar factors in your own life? both the giver and the receiver. Discuss with your teacher. Key Terms Alarm reaction, Appraisal, Coping, Exhaustion, General adaptation syndrome, Hardiness, Homeostasis, Life skills, Optimism, Positive health, Psychoneuroimmunology, Resilience, Social support, Stress, Stressors. \u2022 Stress is a part of life. Stress is neither a stimulus nor a response but an ongoing transactional process between the individual and the environment. \u2022 There are three major types of stresses, physical and environmental, psychological and social. Sources of stress are life events, everyday hassles, traumatic events. The response to stress is emotional, physiological, cognitive and behavioural. \u2022 Coping is a dynamic situation-specific individual reaction to stress. There are three main types of coping, task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping. Coping responses may be problem-focused or emotion-focused. Problem-focused coping focuses to alter the environment and acts to reduce the threat value of the event. Emotion-focused coping are strategies for changing emotions and aim to limit the degree of emotional disruption caused by the event. \u2022 It is essential to have a healthy lifestyle for handling stress and effective coping. Assertiveness, time management, rational thinking, improving relationships, self- care, and overcoming unhelpful habits are life skills that help us to meet life\u2019s challenges. \u2022 Positive health and well-being come through balanced diet, exercise, positive attitude, positive optimistic thinking, and social support. There is also a need for overall harmonious conditions in society. We must avoid taking unhealthy escape routes of smoking, alcohol, drugs and other harmful behaviours. Review Questions 1. Explain the concept of stress. Give examples from daily life. 2. State the symptoms and sources of stress. 3. Describe the GAS model and illustrate the relevance of this model with the help of an example. 4. Enumerate the different ways of coping with stress. 5. Explain the effect of stress on psychological functioning. 6. Describe how life skills can help meet life\u2019s challenges. 7. Discuss the factors that lead to positive health and well-being. 8. How does stress affect the immune system? Chapter 3 \u2022 Meeting Life Challenges 67 2019-20","9. Give an example of a life event which is likely to be stressful. Suggest reasons why it is likely to cause different degrees of stress to the person experiencing it. 10. Given what you know about coping strategies, what suggestions would you give to your friends to avoid stress in their everyday lives. 11. Reflect on the environmental factors that have (a) a positive impact on the being, and (b) a negative effect. 12. We know that certain lifestyle factors can cause stress and may lead to diseases like cancer and coronary heart disease, yet we are unable to change our behaviour. Explain why? Project 1. Record the stresses in the lives of 5\u201310 teenagers. Are these different for girls and boys? Ideas Find out the ways by which they cope with them. 2. Discuss with your parents and grandparents the unique stressors they face in their lives and how they cope with them. Weblinks http:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/medlineplus\/stress.html http:\/\/www.teachhealth.com http:\/\/www.lifepositive.com\/stress.html Pedagogical Hints 1. It is important to make students realise that stress is an integral part of life. They must, therefore, be encouraged to recognise the signs of stress in themselves and in others. 2. Students could brainstorm for possible ways of dealing with different types of stressors. 3. Drawing examples from students\u2019 lives, they need to be made to understand the harmful effects of stress on physical and mental health. 4. Students should be encouraged to search for literature in newspapers, magazines, Internet, etc. suggesting ways of dealing with stress. This could be followed by discussion in the classroom. 68 Psychology 2019-20","PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the basic issues in abnormal behaviour and the criteria used to identify such behaviours, appreciate the factors which cause abnormal behaviour, explain the different models of abnormal behaviour, and describe the major psychological disorders. Introduction Concepts of Abnormality and Psychological Disorders Classification of Psychological Disorders Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour Major Psychological Disorders Anxiety Disorders Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders Dissociative Disorders CONTENTS Salient Features of Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders and Dissociative Disorders (Box 4.1) Depressive Disorders Bipolar and Related Disorders Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Key Terms Psychotic Disorders Summary Neurodevelopmental Disorders Review Questions Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders Project Ideas Feeding and Eating Disorders Weblinks Substance -Related and Addictive Disorders Pedagogical Hints Effects of Alcohol : Some Facts (Box 4.2) Commonly Abused Substances (Box 4.3) Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 69 2019-20","Introduction You must have come across people who are unhappy, troubled and dissatisfied. Their minds and hearts are filled with sorrow, unrest and tension and they feel that they are unable to move ahead in their lives; they feel life is a painful, uphill struggle, sometimes not worth living. Famous analytical psychologist Carl Jung has quite remarkably said, \u201cHow can I be substantial without casting a shadow? I must have a dark side, too, if I am to be whole and by becoming conscious of my shadow, I remember once more that I am a human being like any other\u201d. At times, some of you may have felt nervous before an important examination, tense and concerned about your future career or anxious when someone close to you was unwell. All of us face major problems at some point of our lives. However, some people have an extreme reaction to the problems and stresses of life. In this chapter, we will try to understand what goes wrong when people develop psychological problems, what are the causes and factors which lead to abnormal behaviour, and what are the various signs and symptoms associated with different types of psychological disorders? The study of psychological disorders has intrigued and mystified all cultures for more than 2,500 years. Psychological disorders or mental disorders (as they are commonly referred to), like anything unusual may make us uncomfortable and even a little frightened. Unhappiness, discomfort, anxiety, and unrealised potential are seen all over the world. These failures in living are mainly due to failures in adaptation to life challenges. As you must have studied in the previous chapters, adaptation refers to the person\u2019s ability to modify her\/his behaviour in response to changing environmental requirements. When the behaviour cannot be modified according to the needs of the situation, it is said to be maladaptive. Abnormal Psychology is the area within psychology that is focused on maladaptive behaviour \u2013 its causes, consequences, and treatment. CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY AND way), and possibly dangerous (to the PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS person or to others). Although many definitions of abnormality This definition is a useful starting point have been used over the years, none has from which we can explore psychological won universal acceptance. Still, most abnormality. Since the word \u2018abnormal\u2019 definitions have certain common features, literally means \u201caway from the normal\u201d, it often called the \u2018four Ds\u2019: deviance, implies deviation from some clearly defined distress, dysfunction and danger. That is, norms or standards. In psychology, we psychological disorders are deviant have no \u2018ideal model\u2019 or even \u2018normal (different, extreme, unusual, even bizarre), model\u2019 of human behaviour to use as a distressing (unpleasant and upsetting to base for comparison. Various approaches the person and to others), dysfunctional have been used in distinguishing between (interfering with the person\u2019s ability to normal and abnormal behaviours. From carry out daily activities in a constructive these approaches, there emerge two basic and conflicting views: 70 Psychology 2019-20","The first approach views abnormal prefers to remain silent even when s\/he behaviour as a deviation from social has questions in her\/his mind. Describing norms. Many psychologists have stated behaviour as maladaptive implies that a that \u2018abnormal\u2019 is simply a label that is problem exists; it also suggests that given to a behaviour which is deviant from vulnerability in the individual, inability to social expectations. Abnormal behaviour, cope, or exceptional stress in the thoughts and emotions are those that differ environment have led to problems in life. markedly from a society\u2019s ideas of proper functioning. Each society has norms, If you talk to people around, you will which are stated or unstated rules for see that they have vague ideas about proper conduct. Behaviours, thoughts and psychological disorders that are emotions that break societal norms are characterised by superstition, ignorance called abnormal. A society\u2019s norms grow and fear. Again it is commonly believed from its particular culture \u2014 its history, that psychological disorder is something to values, institutions, habits, skills, be ashamed of. The stigma attached to technology, and arts. Thus, a society whose mental illness means that people are culture values competition and hesitant to consult a doctor or psychologist assertiveness may accept aggressive because they are ashamed of their behaviour, whereas one that emphasises problems. Actually, psychological disorder cooperation and family values (such as in which indicates a failure in adaptation India) may consider aggressive behaviour should be viewed as any other illness. as unacceptable or even abnormal. A society\u2019s values may change over time, Talk to three people: one of your Activity causing its views of what is psychologically friends, a friend of your parents, and 4.1 abnormal to change as well. Serious your neighbour. questions have been raised about this definition. It is based on the assumption Ask them if they have seen that socially accepted behaviour is not someone who is mentally ill or who has abnormal, and that normality is nothing mental problems. Try to understand more than conformity to social norms. why they find this behaviour abnormal, what are the signs and The second approach views abnormal symptoms shown by this person, what behaviour as maladaptive. Many caused this behaviour and can this psychologists believe that the best criterion person be helped. for determining the normality of behaviour is not whether society accepts it but Share the information you elicited whether it fosters the well-being of the in class and see if there are some individual and eventually of the group to common features, which make us label which s\/he belongs. Well-being is not others as \u2018abnormal\u2019. simply maintenance and survival but also includes growth and fulfilment, i.e. the Historical Background actualisation of potential, which you must have studied in Maslow\u2019s need hierarchy To understand psychological disorders, we theory. According to this criterion, would require a brief historical account of conforming behaviour can be seen as how these disorders have been viewed over abnormal if it is maladaptive, i.e. if it the ages. When we study the history of interferes with optimal functioning and abnormal psychology, we find that certain growth. For example, a student in the class theories have occurred over and over again. One ancient theory that is still encountered today holds that abnormal behaviour can be explained by the Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 71 2019-20","operation of supernatural and magical body fluids, viz. blood, black bile, yellow forces such as evil spirits (bhoot-pret), or bile, and phlegm. Each of these fluids was the devil (shaitan). Exorcism, i.e. removing seen to be responsible for a different the evil that resides in the individual temperament. Imbalances among the through countermagic and prayer, is still humours were believed to cause various commonly used. In many societies, the disorders. This is similar to the Indian shaman, or medicine man (ojha) is a notion of the three doshas of vata, pitta person who is believed to have contact with and kapha which were mentioned in the supernatural forces and is the medium Atharva Veda and Ayurvedic texts. You through which spirits communicate with have already read about it in Chapter 2. human beings. Through the shaman, an afflicted person can learn which spirits are In the Middle Ages, demonology and responsible for her\/his problems and what superstition gained renewed importance in needs to be done to appease them. the explanation of abnormal behaviour. Demonology related to a belief that people A recurring theme in the history of with mental problems were evil and there abnormal psychology is the belief that are numerous instances of \u2018witch-hunts\u2019 individuals behave strangely because their during this period. During the early bodies and their brains are not working Middle Ages, the Christian spirit of charity properly. This is the biological or organic prevailed and St. Augustine wrote approach. In the modern era, there is extensively about feelings, mental anguish evidence that body and brain processes and conflict. This laid the groundwork for have been linked to many types of modern psychodynamic theories of maladaptive behaviour. For certain types of abnormal behaviour. disorders, correcting these defective biological processes results in improved The Renaissance Period was marked functioning. by increased humanism and curiosity about behaviour. Johann Weyer Another approach is the psychological emphasised psychological conflict and approach. According to this point of view, disturbed interpersonal relationships as psychological problems are caused by causes of psychological disorders. He also inadequacies in the way an individual insisted that \u2018witches\u2019 were mentally thinks, feels, or perceives the world. disturbed and required medical, not theological, treatment. All three of these perspectives \u2014 supernatural, biological or organic, and The seventeenth and eighteenth psychological \u2014 have recurred throughout centuries were known as the Age of the history of Western civilisation. In the Reason and Enlightenment, as the ancient Western world, it was philosopher- scientific method replaced faith and physicians of ancient Greece such as dogma as ways of understanding Hippocrates, Socrates, and in particular abnormal behaviour. The growth of a Plato who developed the organismic scientific attitude towards psychological approach and viewed disturbed behaviour disorders in the eighteenth century as arising out of conflicts between emotion contributed to the Reform Movement and and reason. Galen elaborated on the role to increased compassion for people who of the four humours in personal character suffered from these disorders. Reforms of and temperament. According to him, the asylums were initiated in both Europe material world was made up of four and America. One aspect of the reform elements, viz. earth, air, fire, and water movement was the new inclination for which combined to form four essential deinstitutionalisation which placed 72 Psychology 2019-20","emphasis on providing community care clinical features or symptoms, and of for recovered mentally ill individuals. other associated features including diagnostic guidelines is provided in this In recent years, there has been a scheme. convergence of these approaches, which has resulted in an interactional, or bio- Certain behaviours like eating sand Activity psycho-social approach. From this would be considered abnormal. But not 4.2 perspective, all three factors, i.e. biological, if it was done after being stranded on psychological and social play important a beach in a plane crash. roles in influencing the expression and outcome of psychological disorders. Listed below are \u2018abnormal\u2019 behaviours followed by situations CLASSIFICATION OF PSYCHOLOGICAL where the behaviours might be DISORDERS considered normal. (i) talking to yourself - you are In order to understand psychological disorders, we need to begin by classifying praying. them. A classification of such disorders (ii) standing in the middle of the street consists of a list of categories of specific psychological disorders grouped into waving your arms wildly - you are various classes on the basis of some a traffic policeman. shared characteristics. Classifications are Think about it and list similar useful because they enable users like examples. psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers to communicate with each other FACTORS UNDERLYING ABNORMAL about the disorder and help in BEHAVIOUR understanding the causes of psychological disorders and the processes involved in In order to understand something as their development and maintenance. complex as abnormal behaviour, psychologists use different approaches. The American Psychiatric Association Each approach in use today emphasises a (APA) has published an official manual different aspect of human behaviour, and describing and classifying various kinds explains and treats abnormality in line of psychological disorders. The current with that aspect. These approaches also version of it, the Diagnostic and emphasise the role of different factors such Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, as biological, psychological and 5th Edition (DSM-5), presents discrete interpersonal, and socio-cultural factors. clinical criteria which indicate the We will examine some of the approaches presence or absence of disorders. which are currently being used to explain abnormal behaviour. The classification scheme officially used in India and elsewhere is the tenth Biological factors influence all aspects revision of the International of our behaviour. A wide range of biological Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), factors such as faulty genes, endocrine which is known as the ICD-10 imbalances, malnutrition, injuries and Classification of Behavioural and other conditions may interfere with normal Mental Disorders. It was prepared by the development and functioning of the human World Health Organisation (WHO). For body. These factors may be potential each disorder, a description of the main causes of abnormal behaviour. We have already come across the biological model. According to this model, abnormal Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 73 2019-20","behaviour has a biochemical or warmth and stimulation during early physiological basis. Biological years of life), faulty parent-child researchers have found that psychological relationships (rejection, overprotection, disorders are often related to problems over-permissiveness, faulty discipline, etc.), in the transmission of messages from one maladaptive family structures (inadequate neuron to another. You have studied in or disturbed family), and severe stress. Class XI, that a tiny space called synapse separates one neuron from the next, and The psychological models include the the message must move across that psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, space. When an electrical impulse and humanistic-existential models. The reaches a neuron\u2019s ending, the nerve psychodynamic model is the oldest and ending is stimulated to release a most famous of the modern psychological chemical, called a neuro-transmitter. models. You have already read about this Studies indicate that abnormal activity model in Chapter 2 on Self and by certain neuro-transmitters can lead to Personality. Psychodynamic theorists specific psychological disorders. Anxiety believe that behaviour, whether normal disorders have been linked to low activity or abnormal, is determined by of the neurotransmitter gamma psychological forces within the person of aminobutyric acid (GABA), schizophrenia which s\/he is not consciously aware. to excess activity of dopamine, and These internal forces are considered depression to low activity of serotonin. dynamic, i.e. they interact with one another and their interaction gives shape Genetic factors have been linked to to behaviour, thoughts and emotions. bipolar and related disorders, Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the schizophrenia, intellectual disability and result of conflicts between these forces. other psychological disorders. Researchers This model was first formulated by Freud have not, however, been able to identify who believed that three central forces the specific genes that are the culprits. shape personality \u2014 instinctual needs, It appears that in most cases, no single drives and impulses (id), rational thinking gene is responsible for a particular (ego), and moral standards (superego). behaviour or a psychological disorder. Freud stated that abnormal behaviour is Infact, many genes combine to help bring a symbolic expression of unconscious about our various behaviours and mental conflicts that can be generally emotional reactions, both functional and traced to early childhood or infancy. dysfunctional. Although there is sound evidence to believe that genetic\/ Another model that emphasises the role biochemical factors are involved in mental of psychological factors is the behavioural disorders as diverse as schizophrenia, model. This model states that both normal depression, anxiety, etc. but biology alone and abnormal behaviours are learned and cannot account for most mental disorders. psychological disorders are the result of learning maladaptive ways of behaving. The There are several psychological model concentrates on behaviours that are models which provide a psychological learned through conditioning and proposes explanation of mental disorders. These that what has been learned can be models maintain that psychological and unlearned. Learning can take place by interpersonal factors have a significant classical conditioning (temporal association role to play in abnormal behaviour. These in which two events repeatedly occur close factors include maternal deprivation together in time), operant conditioning (separation from the mother, or lack of (behaviour is followed by a reward), and 74 Psychology 2019-20","social learning (learning by imitating others\u2019 abnormal functioning in individual behaviour). These three types of members. Some families have an conditioning account for behaviour, enmeshed structure in which the whether adaptive or maladaptive. members are overinvolved in each other\u2019s activities, thoughts, and feelings. Psychological factors are also Children from this kind of family may emphasised by the cognitive model. This have difficulty in becoming independent model states that abnormal functioning in life. The broader social networks in can result from cognitive problems. which people operate include their social People may hold assumptions and and professional relationships. Studies attitudes about themselves that are have shown that people who are isolated irrational and inaccurate. People may and lack social support, i.e. strong and also repeatedly think in illogical ways and fulfilling interpersonal relationships in make overgeneralisations, that is, they their lives are likely to become more may draw broad, negative conclusions on depressed and remain depressed longer the basis of a single insignificant event. than those who have good friendships. Socio-cultural theorists also believe that Another psychological model is the abnormal functioning is influenced by the humanistic-existential model which societal labels and roles assigned to focuses on broader aspects of human troubled people. When people break the existence. Humanists believe that human norms of their society, they are called beings are born with a natural tendency deviant and \u2018mentally ill\u2019. Such labels to be friendly, cooperative and constructive, tend to stick so that the person may be and are driven to self-actualise, i.e. to fulfil viewed as \u2018crazy\u2019 and encouraged to act this potential for goodness and growth. sick. The person gradually learns to Existentialists believe that from birth we accept and play the sick role, and have total freedom to give meaning to our functions in a disturbed manner. existence or to avoid that responsibility. Those who shirk from this responsibility In addition to these models, one of the would live empty, inauthentic, and most widely accepted explanations of dysfunctional lives. abnormal behaviour has been provided by the diathesis-stress model. This model In addition to the biological and states that psychological disorders psychosocial factors, socio-cultural develop when a diathesis (biological factors such as war and violence, group predisposition to the disorder) is set off by prejudice and discrimination, economic a stressful situation. This model has and employment problems, and rapid three components. The first is the social change, put stress on most of us diathesis or the presence of some and can also lead to psychological biological aberration which may be problems in some individuals. According inherited. The second component is that to the socio-cultural model, abnormal the diathesis may carry a vulnerability behaviour is best understood in light of to develop a psychological disorder. This the social and cultural forces that means that the person is \u2018at risk\u2019 or influence an individual. As behaviour is \u2018predisposed\u2019 to develop the disorder. The shaped by societal forces, factors such as third component is the presence of family structure and communication, pathogenic stressors, i.e. factors\/ social networks, societal conditions, and societal labels and roles become more stressors that may lead to important. It has been found that certain family systems are likely to produce psychopathology. If such \u201cat risk\u201d persons Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 75 2019-20","are exposed to these stressors, their include worry and apprehensive feelings predisposition may actually evolve into a about the future; hypervigilance, which disorder. This model has been applied to involves constantly scanning the several disorders including anxiety, environment for dangers. It is marked by depression, and schizophrenia. motor tension, as a result of which the person is unable to relax, is restless, and MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS visibly shaky and tense. Anxiety Disorders Another type of anxiety disorder is panic disorder, which consists of One day while driving home, Deb felt his recurrent anxiety attacks in which the heart beating rapidly, he started sweating person experiences intense terror. A panic profusely, and even felt short of breath. He attack denotes an abrupt surge of intense was so scared that he stopped the car and anxiety rising to a peak when thoughts of stepped out. In the next few months, these a particular stimuli are present. Such attacks increased and now he was hesitant thoughts occur in an unpredictable to drive for fear of being caught in traffic manner. The clinical features include during an attack. Deb started feeling that shortness of breath, dizziness, trembling, he had gone crazy and would die. Soon he palpitations, choking, nausea, chest pain remained indoors and refused to move out or discomfort, fear of going crazy, losing of the house. control or dying. We experience anxiety when we are You might have met or heard of waiting to take an examination, or to visit someone who was afraid to travel in a lift a dentist, or even to give a solo or climb to the tenth floor of a building, or performance. This is normal and expected refused to enter a room if s\/he saw a and even motivates us to do our task well. lizard. You may have also felt it yourself or On the other hand, high levels of anxiety seen a friend unable to speak a word of a that are distressing and interfere with well-memorised and rehearsed speech effective functioning indicate the presence before an audience. These kinds of fears of an anxiety disorder \u2014 the most common are termed as phobias. People who have category of psychological disorders. phobias have irrational fears related to specific objects, people, or situations. Everyone has worries and fears. The Phobias often develop gradually or begin term anxiety is usually defined as a with a generalised anxiety disorder. diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of Phobias can be grouped into three main fear and apprehension. The anxious types, i.e. specific phobias, social phobias, individual also shows combinations of the and agoraphobia. following symptoms: rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, diarrhoea, loss of Specific phobias are the most appetite, fainting, dizziness, sweating, commonly occurring type of phobia. This sleeplessness, frequent urination and group includes irrational fears such as tremors. There are many types of anxiety intense fear of a certain type of animal, or disorders (see Table 4.1). They include of being in an enclosed space. Intense and generalised anxiety disorder, which incapacitating fear and embarrassment consists of prolonged, vague, unexplained when dealing with others characterises and intense fears that are not attached social anxiety disorder (social phobia). to any particular object. The symptoms Agoraphobia is the term used when people develop a fear of entering 76 Psychology 2019-20","unfamiliar situations. Many people with going to school alone, are fearful of agoraphobia are afraid of leaving their entering new situations, and cling to and home. So their ability to carry out normal shadow their parents\u2019 every move. To avoid life activities is severely limited. separation, children with SAD may fuss, scream, throw severe tantrums, or make Separation anxiety disorder (SAD) is suicidal gestures. another type of anxiety disorder. Individuals with separation anxiety Obsessive-Compulsive and Related disorder are fearful and anxious about Disorders separation from attachment figures to an extent that is developmentally not Have you ever noticed someone appropriate. Children with SAD may have washing their hands everytime they difficulty being in a room by themselves, touch something, or washing even things like coins, or stepping only within the Activity Recall how you felt before your patterns on the floor or road while 4.3 Class X Board examination. How did walking? People affected by obsessive- you feel when the examinations were compulsive disorder are unable to drawing near (one month before the control their preoccupation with specific examinations; one week before the ideas or are unable to prevent themselves examinations; on the day of the from repeatedly carrying out a particular examination, and when you were act or series of acts that affect their entering the examination hall)? Also try ability to carry out normal activities. to recollect what you felt when you Obsessive behaviour is the inability to were awaiting your results. Write down stop thinking about a particular idea or your experiences in terms of bodily topic. The person involved, often finds symptoms (e.g. \u2018butterflies in the these thoughts to be unpleasant and stomach\u2019, clammy hands, excessive shameful. Compulsive behaviour is the perspiration, etc.) as well as mental need to perform certain behaviours over experiences (e.g. tension, worry, and over again. Many compulsions deal pressure, etc.). Compare your with counting, ordering, checking, symptoms with those of your touching and washing. Other disorders classmates and classify them as Mild, in this category include hoarding Moderate, or Severe. Table 4.1 : Major Anxiety Disorders and their Symptoms 1. Generalised Anxiety Disorder : prolonged, vague, unexplained and intense fears that have no object, accompanied by hypervigilance and motor tension. 2. Panic Disorder : frequent anxiety attacks characterised by feelings of intense terror and dread; unpredictable \u2018panic attacks\u2019 along with physiological symptoms like breathlessness, palpitations, trembling, dizziness, and a sense of loosing control or even dying. 3. Specific Phobia : irrational fears related to specific objects, interactions with others, and unfamiliar situations. 4. Separation Anxiety Disorder : extreme distress when expecting or going through separation from home or other significant people to whom the individual is immensely attached to. 5. Other disorders included under this category are Selective Mutism, Substance\/Medication- Induced Anxiety Disorder, Anxiety Disorder Due to Another Medical condition, etc. Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 77 2019-20","disorder, trichotillomania (hair -pulling disorder are overly concerned about disorder), excoriation (skin-picking) undiagnosed disease, negative diagnostic disorder etc. results, do not respond to assurance by doctors, and are easily alarmed about Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders illness such as on hearing about someone else's ill-health or some such news. Very often people who have been caught in a natural disaster (such as In general, both somatic symptom tsunami) or have been victims of bomb disorder and illness anxiety disorder are blasts by terrorists, or been in a serious concerned with medical illnesses. But, accident or in a war-related situation, the difference lies in the way this concern experience post-traumatic stress is expressed. In the case of somatic disorder (PTSD). PTSD symptoms vary symptom disorder, this expression is in widely but may include recurrent dreams, terms of physical complaints while in flashbacks, impaired concentration, and case of illness anxiety disorder, as the emotional numbing. Adjustment name suggests, it is the anxiety which Disorders and Acute Stress Disorder are is the main concern. also included under this category. The symptoms of conversion Somatic Symptom and Related disorders are the reported loss of part Disorders or all of some basic body functions. Paralysis, blindness, deafness and These are conditions in which there are difficulty in walking are generally among physical symptoms in the absence of a the symptoms reported. These symptoms physical disease. In these disorders, the often occur after a stressful experience individual has psychological difficulties and may be quite sudden. and complains of physical symptoms, for which there is no biological cause. These Dissociative Disorders include conversion disorders, somatic symptom disorder, and illness anxiety Dissociation can be viewed as severance disorder among others. of the connections between ideas and emotions. Dissociation involves feelings of Somatic symptom disorder involves unreality, estrangement, depersonalisation, a person having persistent body-related and sometimes a loss or shift of identity. symptoms which may or may not be Sudden temporary alterations of related to any serious medical condition. consciousness that blot out painful People with this disorder tend to be overly experiences are a defining characteristic preoccupied with their symptoms and they of dissociative disorders. Conditions continually worry about their health and included in this are Dissociative Amnesia, make frequent visits to doctors. As a Dissociative Identity Disorder, and result, they experience significant distress Depersonalisation\/Derealisation Disorder. and disturbances in their daily life. Salient features of somatic symptom and related disorders and dissociative disorders Illness anxiety disorder involves are given in Box 4.1. persistent preoccupation about developing a serious illness and constantly worrying Dissociative amnesia is characterised about this possibility. This is by extensive but selective memory loss that accompanied by anxiety about one\u2019s has no known organic cause (e.g., head health. Individuals with illness anxiety injury). Some people cannot remember 78 Psychology 2019-20","Salient Features of Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders and Dissociative Disorders Box 4.1 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders Dissociative Disorders Somatic Symptom Disorder : The person Dissociative amnesia : The person is unable experiences body-related symptoms in the to recall important, personal information absence of any medical condition (or even often related to a stressful and traumatic if medical condition is present, it is not as report. The extent of forgetting is beyond serious as the symptoms presented). normal. Illness Anxiety Disorder : The person Depersonalisation\/Derealisation Disorder : experiences worry about the possibility of The person experiences a change in the developing a serious medical condition. person's sense of reality and perception of self. Conversion : The person suffers from a loss or impairment of motor or sensory function Dissociative identity (multiple personality) (e.g., paralysis, blindness, etc.) that has no Disorder : The person exhibits two or more physical cause but may be a response to separate and contrasting personalities, stress and psychological problems. generally associated with a history of abuse. anything about their past. Others can no Depressive Disorders longer recall specific events, people, places, or objects, while their memory for other One of the most widely prevalent and events remains intact. A part of dissociative recognised of all mental disorders is amnesia is dissociative fugue. Essential depression. Depression covers a variety feature of this could be an unexpected of negative moods and behavioural travel away from home and workplace, the changes. Depression can refer to a assumption of a new identity, and the symptom or a disorder. In day-to-day life, inability to recall the previous identity. The we often use the term depression to refer fugue usually ends when the person to normal feelings after a significant loss, suddenly \u2018wakes up\u2019 with no memory of the such as the break-up of a relationship, or events that occurred during the fugue. This the failure to attain a significant goal. disorder is often associated with an Major depressive disorder is defined as overwhelming stress. a period of depressed mood and\/or loss of interest or pleasure in most activities, Dissociative identity disorder, often together with other symptoms which may referred to as multiple personality, is the include change in body weight, constant most dramatic of the dissociative sleep problems, tiredness, inability to disorders. It is often associated with think clearly, agitation, greatly slowed traumatic experiences in childhood. In behaviour, and thoughts of death and this disorder, the person assumes suicide. Other symptoms include excessive alternate personalities that may or may guilt or feelings of worthlessness. not be aware of each other. Factors Predisposing towards Depersonalisation\/Derealisation Depression : Genetic make-up, or heredity disorder involves a dreamlike state in is an important risk factor for major which the person has a sense of being depression and other depressive separated both from self and from reality. disorders. Age is also a risk factor. For In depersonalisation, there is a change instance, women are particularly at risk of self-perception, and the person\u2019s sense during young adulthood, while for men of reality is temporarily lost or changed. Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 79 2019-20","the risk is highest in early middle age. of life. Previous suicidal attempt is the Similarly gender also plays a great role strongest risk factor. in this differential risk addition. For example, women in comparison to men Often, suicidal behavior indicates are more likely to report a depressive difficulties in problem-solving, stress disorder. Other risk factors ar e management, and emotional expression. experiencing negative life events and lack Suicidal thoughts lead to suicidal action of social support. only when acting on these thoughts seems to be the only way out of a person\u2019s Bipolar and Related Disorders difficulties. These thoughts are heightened under acute emotional and Bipolar I disorder involves both mania other distress. The ramifications of and depression, which are alternately suicide on social circle and communities present and sometimes interrupted by tend to be devastating and long-lasting. periods of normal mood. Manic episodes rarely appear by themselves; they The stigma surrounding suicide usually alternate with depression. continues despite recent advances in Bipolar mood disorders were earlier research in this field. Due to this, many referred to as manic-depressive disorders. people who are contemplating or even attempting suicide do not seek help thus, Some examples of types of bipolar and preventing timely help from reaching related disorders include Bipolar I them. Therefore improving identification, Disorder, Bipolar II disorder and referral, and management of behaviour Cyclothymic Disorder. are crucial for preventing suicide. Therefore we need to identify Every suicide is a misfortune. Suicide vulnerability; comprehend the takes place throughout the lifespan. circumstances leading to such behaviour Suicide is a result of complex interface and accordingly plan interventions. of biological, genetic, psychological, sociological, cultural and environmental Suicides are preventable. There is a factors. need for comprehensive multi-sectoral approach where the government, media Some other risk factors are having and civil society all play important role mental disorders (especially depression as stakeholders. Some measures and alcohol use disorders), going through suggested by WHO include: natural disasters, experiencing violence, \u2022 limiting access to the means of suicide; abuse or loss and isolation at any stage \u2022 reporting of suicide by media in a Activity You may have got some bad news in responsible way; 4.4 the family (for example, death of a \u2022 bringing in alcohol-related policies; close relative) or watched your \u2022 early identification, treatment and favourite character dying in a film or got less marks than you hoped for or care of people at risk; lost your pet. This may have made you \u2022 training health workers in assessing sad and depressed and hopeless about the future. Try and recall such and managing for suicide; incidents in your life. List the \u2022 care for people who attempted suicide situations that led to this reaction. Compare your list and reactions with and providing community support. those of others in class. Identifying students in distress : Any unexpected or striking change affecting the adolescent\u2019s performance, attendance 80 Psychology 2019-20","or behaviour should be taken seriously, positive symptoms (i.e. excesses of such as: thought, emotion, and behaviour), negative symptoms (i.e. deficits of \u2022 lack of interest in common activities thought, emotion, and behaviour), and \u2022 declining grades psychomotor symptoms. \u2022 decreasing effort \u2022 misbehavior in the classroom Positive symptoms are \u2018pathological \u2022 mysterious or repeated absence excesses\u2019 or \u2018bizarre additions\u2019 to a \u2022 smoking or drinking, or drug misuse person\u2019s behaviour. Delusions, disorganised thinking and speech, Strengthening students\u2019 self-esteem : heightened perception and hallucinations, Having a positive self-esteem is important and inappropriate affect are the ones most in face of distress and helps in coping often found in schizophrenia. adequately. In order to foster positive self- esteem in children the following Many people with schizophrenia approaches can be useful: develop delusions. A delusion is a false belief that is firmly held on inadequate \u2022 accentuating positive life experiences grounds. It is not affected by rational to develop positive identity. This argument, and has no basis in reality. increases confidence in self. Delusions of persecution are the most common in schizophrenia. People with \u2022 providing opportunities for this delusion believe that they are being development of physical, social and plotted against, spied on, slandered, vocational skills. Can you list some characters in films Activity \u2022 establishing a trustful communication. you have seen or books you have read 4.5 \u2022 goals for the students should be who suffered from any of the disorders we have studied here like depression specific, measurable, achievable, or schizophrenia showing some of relevant, to be completed within a these delusions? relevant time frame. Can you identify which kind of Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other delusion each of these is? Psychotic Disorders 1. A person who believes that s\/he Schizophrenia is the descriptive term for is going to be the next President of a group of psychotic disorders in which India. personal, social and occupational 2. One who believes that the functioning deteriorate as a result of intelligence agencies\/police are disturbed thought processes, strange conspiring to trap her\/him in a spy perceptions, unusual emotional states, scandal. and motor abnormalities. It is a 3. One who believes that s\/he is the debilitating disorder. The social and incarnation of God and can make psychological costs of schizophrenia are things happen. tremendous, both to patients as well as 4. One who believes that the tsunami to their families and society. occurred to prevent her\/him from enjoying her\/his holidays. Symptoms of Schizophrenia 5. One who believes that her\/his actions are controlled by the The symptoms of schizophrenia can be satellite through a chip implanted grouped into three categories, viz. in her\/his brain by some extraterrestrial beings. Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 81 2019-20","threatened, attacked or deliberately People with schizophrenia also show victimised. People with schizophrenia inappropriate affect, i.e. emotions that may also experience delusions of are unsuited to the situation. reference in which they attach special and personal meaning to the actions of Negative symptoms are \u2018pathological others or to objects and events. In deficits\u2019 and include poverty of speech, delusions of grandeur, people believe blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, themselves to be specially empowered and social withdrawal. People with persons and in delusions of control, they schizophrenia show alogia or poverty of believe that their feelings, thoughts and speech, i.e. a reduction in speech and actions are controlled by others. speech content. Many people with schizophrenia show less anger, sadness, People with schizophrenia may not be joy, and other feelings than most people able to think logically and may speak in do. Thus they have blunted affect. Some peculiar ways. These formal thought show no emotions at all, a condition disorders can make communication known as flat affect. Also patients with extremely difficult. These include rapidly schizophrenia experience avolition, or shifting from one topic to another so that apathy and an inability to start or the normal structure of thinking is complete a course of action. People with muddled and becomes illogical (loosening this disorder may withdraw socially and of associations, derailment), inventing new become totally focused on their own ideas words or phrases (neologisms), and and fantasies. persistent and inappropriate repetition of the same thoughts (perseveration). People with schizophrenia also show psychomotor symptoms. They move less People with schizophrenia may have spontaneously or make odd grimaces and hallucinations, i.e. perceptions that gestures. These symptoms may take occur in the absence of external stimuli. extreme forms known as catatonia. Auditory hallucinations are most People in a catatonic stupor remain common in schizophrenia. Patients hear motionless and silent for long stretches sounds or voices that speak words, of time. Some show catatonic rigidity, phrases and sentences directly to the i.e. maintaining a rigid, upright posture patient (second-person hallucination) or for hours. Others exhibit catatonic talk to one another referring to the posturing, i.e. assuming awkward, patient as s\/he (third-person hallucination). bizarre positions for long periods of time. Hallucinations can also involve the other senses. These include tactile Neurodevelopmental Disorders hallucinations (i.e. forms of tingling, burning), somatic hallucinations (i.e. A common feature of the something happening inside the body neurodevelopmental disorders is that such as a snake crawling inside one\u2019s they manifest in the early stage of stomach), visual hallucinations (i.e. development. Often the symptoms appear vague perceptions of colour or distinct before the child enters school or during visions of people or objects), gustatory the early stage of schooling. These hallucinations (i.e. food or drink taste disorders result in hampering personal, strange), and olfactory hallucinations social, academic and occupational (i.e. smell of poison or smoke). functioning. These get characterised as deficits or excesses in a particular 82 Psychology 2019-20","behaviour or delays in achieving a have marked difficulties in social interaction particular age-appropriate behaviour. and communication across different contexts, a restricted range of interests, and We will now discuss several disorders strong desire for routine. About 70 per cent like Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity of children with autism spectrum disorder Disorder (ADHD), Autism Spectrum have intellectual disabilities. Disorder, Intellectual Disability, and Specific Learning Disorder. These Children with autism spectrum disorders, if not attended, can lead to disorder experience profound difficulties more serious and chronic disorders as in relating to other people. They are the child moves into adulthood. unable to initiate social behaviour and seem unresponsive to other people\u2019s The two main features of ADHD are feelings. They are unable to share inattention and hyperactivity- experiences or emotions with others. impulsivity. Children who are They also show serious abnormalities in inattentive find it difficult to sustain communication and language that mental effort during work or play. They persist over time. Many of them never have a hard time keeping their minds on develop speech and those who do, have any one thing or in following repetitive and deviant speech patterns. instructions. Common complaints are Such children often show narrow that the child does not listen, cannot patterns of interests and repetitive concentrate, does not follow instructions, behaviours such as lining up objects or is disorganised, easily distracted, stereotyped body movements such as forgetful, does not finish assignments, rocking. These motor movements may be and is quick to lose interest in boring self-stimulatory such as hand flapping activities. Children who are impulsive or self-injurious such as banging their seem unable to control their immediate head against the wall. Due to the nature reactions or to think before they act. They of these difficulties in terms of verbal find it difficult to wait or take turns, have and non-verbal communication, difficulty resisting immediate temptations individuals with autism spectrum or delaying gratification. Minor mishaps disorder tend to experience difficulties such as knocking things over are common in starting, maintaining and even whereas more serious accidents and understanding relationships. injuries can also occur. Hyperactivity also takes many forms. Children with You have already read about ADHD are in constant motion. Sitting still variations in intelligence in Chapter 1. through a lesson is impossible for them. Intellectual disability refers to below The child may fidget, squirm, climb and average intellectual functioning (with an run around the room aimlessly. Parents IQ of approximately 70 or below), and and teachers describe them as \u2018driven by deficits or impairments in adaptive a motor\u2019, always on the go, and talk behaviour (i.e. in the areas of incessantly. communication, self-care, home living, social\/interpersonal skills, functional Autism Spectrum Disorder is academic skills, work, etc.) which are characterised by widespread impairments manifested before the age of 18 years. in social interaction and communication Table 4.2 describes characteristics of the skills, and stereotyped patterns of intellectually disabled persons. behaviours, interests and activities. Children with autism spectrum disorder Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 83 2019-20","In case of specific learning disorder, the name-calling, swearing), physical individual experiences difficulty in aggression (i.e. hitting, fighting), hostile perceiving or processing information aggression (i.e. directed at inflicting efficiently and accurately. These get injury to others), and proactive manifested during early school years and aggression (i.e. dominating and bullying the individual encounters problems in basic others without provocation). skills in reading, writing and\/or mathematics. The affected child tends to Feeding and Eating Disorders perform below average for her\/his age. However, individuals may be able to reach Another group of disorders which are of acceptable performance levels with special interest to young people are additional inputs and efforts. Specific eating disorders. These include anorexia learning disorder is likely to impair nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating. functioning and performance in activities\/ occupations dependent on the related skills. In anorexia nervosa, the individual has a distorted body image that leads her\/ Disruptive, Impulse-Control and him to see herself\/himself as overweight. Conduct Disorders Often refusing to eat, exercising compulsively and developing unusual The disorders included under this habits such as refusing to eat in front of category are Oppositional Defiant others, the person with anorexia may lose Disorder, Conduct Disorder and others. large amounts of weight and even starve Children with Oppositional Defiant herself\/himself to death. In bulimia Disorder (ODD) display age-inappropriate nervosa, the individual may eat excessive amounts of stubbornness, are irritable, amounts of food, then purge her\/his body defiant, disobedient, and behave in a of food by using medicines such as hostile manner. Individuals with ODD do laxatives or diuretics or by vomiting. The not see themselves as angry, person often feels disgusted and ashamed oppositional, or defiant and often justify when s\/he binges and is relieved of their behaviour as reaction to tension and negative emotions after circumstances\/demands. Thus, the purging. In binge eating, there are symptoms of the disorder become frequent episodes of out-of-control eating. entangled with the problematic The individual tends to eat at a higher interactions with others. The terms speed than normal and continues eating conduct disorder and antisocial till s\/he feels uncomfortably full. In fact, behaviour refer to age-inappropriate large amount of food may be eaten even actions and attitudes that violate family when the individual is not feeling hungry. expectations, societal norms, and the personal or property rights of others. The Substance-Related and Addictive behaviours typical of conduct disorder Disorders include aggressive actions that cause or threaten harm to people or animals, non- Addictive behaviour, whether it involves aggressive conduct that causes property excessive intake of high calorie food damage, major deceitfulness or theft, and resulting in extreme obesity or involving serious rule violations. Children show the abuse of substances such as alcohol many different types of aggressive or cocaine, is one of the most severe behaviour, such as verbal aggression (i.e. problems being faced by society today. Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and 84 Psychology 2019-20","Table 4.2 : Characteristics of Individuals with Different Levels of Intellectual Disability Area of Mild Moderate Severe Functioning (IQ range = 55 to (IQ range = 35\u201340 (IQ range = 20\u201325 to approximately 70) to approximately approximately 35\u201340) Self-help Skills 50\u201355) and Profound Feeds and dresses (IQ = below 20\u201325) Speech and self and cares for Has difficulties and Communication own toilet needs requires training but No skills to partial can learn adequate skills, but some can Academics Receptive and self-help skills care for personal needs Social Skills expressive language on limited basis is adequate; Receptive and Vocational understands expressive language Receptive language Adjustment communication is adequate; is limited; Adult Living has speech problems expressive language Optimal learning is poor environment; third Very few academic to sixth grade skills; first or second No academic skills grade is maximal Has friends; can Not capable of having learn to adjust Capable of making real friends; no social quickly friends but has interactions difficulty in many Can hold a job; social situations Generally no competitive to semi- employment; usually competitive; primarily Sheltered work needs constant care unskilled work environment; usually needs consistent No marriage or Usually marries, supervision children; always has children; needs dependent on others help during stress Usually does not marry or have children; dependent consistent use of the substance involved and ability to think and work. Their bodies then are included under substance related and build up a tolerance for alcohol and they need to addictive disorders. These disorders drink even greater amounts to feel its effects. They include problems associated with the use also experience withdrawal responses when they stop and abuse of alcohol, cocaine, tobacco drinking. Alcoholism destroys millions of families, and opiods among others, which alter the social relationships and careers. Intoxicated drivers way people think, feel and behave. While are responsible for many road accidents. It also has there are many disorders listed under serious effects on the children of persons with this this category, few frequently used disorder. These children have higher rates of substances are discussed below: psychological problems, particularly anxiety, depression, phobias and substance-related disorders. Alcohol Excessive drinking can seriously damage physical health. Some of the ill-effects of alcohol on health People who abuse alcohol drink large and psychological functioning are presented in Box amounts regularly and rely on it to help them 4.2. face difficult situations. Eventually the drinking interferes with their social behaviour Heroin Chapter 4 \u2022 Psychological Disorders 85 2019-20","Box Effects of Alcohol : Some Facts 4.2 \u2022 All alcohol beverages contain ethyl alcohol. \u2022 This chemical is absorbed into the blood and carried into the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) where it depresses or slows down functioning. \u2022 Ethyl alcohol depresses those areas in the brain that control judgment and inhibition; people become more talkative and friendly, and they feel more confident and happy. \u2022 As alcohol is absorbed, it affects other areas of the brain. For example, drinkers are unable to make sound judgments, speech becomes less careful and less clear, and memory falters; many people become emotional, loud and aggressive. \u2022 Motor difficulties increase. For example, people become unsteady when they walk and clumsy in performing simple activities; vision becomes blurred and they have trouble in hearing; they have difficulty in driving or in solving simple problems. Heroin intake significantly interferes with and at work. It may also cause problems social and occupational functioning. Most in short-term memory and attention. abusers further develop a dependence on Dependence may develop, so that cocaine heroin, revolving their lives around the dominates the person\u2019s life, more of the substance, building up a tolerance for it, drug is needed to get the desired effects, and experiencing a withdrawal reaction and stopping it results in feelings of when they stop taking it. The most direct depression, fatigue, sleep problems, danger of heroin abuse is an overdose, irritability and anxiety. Cocaine poses which slows down the respiratory centres serious dangers. It has dangerous effects in the brain, almost paralysing breathing, on psychological functioning and physical and in many cases causing death. well-being. Cocaine Some of the commonly abused substances are given in Box 4.3. Regular use of cocaine may lead to a pattern of abuse in which the person may be intoxicated throughout the day and function poorly in social relationships Box Commonly Abused Substances (Following the DSM-5 Classification) 4.3 \u2022 Alcohol \u2022 Stimulants: dextroamphetamines, metaamphetamines, cocaine \u2022 Caffeine: coffee, tea, caffeinated soda, analgesics, chocolate, cocoa \u2022 Cannabis: marijuana or \u2018bhang\u2019 \u2022 Hallucinogens: LSD, mescaline \u2022 Inhalants: gasoline, glue, paint thinners, spray paints, typewriter correction fluid, sprays \u2022 Tobacco: cigarettes, bidi \u2022 Opioid: morphine, heroin, cough syrup, painkillers (analgesics, anaesthetics) \u2022 Sedatives, Hypnotics or Anxiolytics : sleeping pills, anti-anxiety medication 86 Psychology 2019-20"]