Psychology---Class-12

["INFLUENCE OF GROUP ON INDIVIDUAL associates who asked group of male BEHAVIOUR students to clap or cheer as loudly as possible as they (experimenters) were We have seen that groups are powerful as interested in knowing how much noise they are able to influence the behaviour of people make in social settings. They varied individuals. What is the nature of this the group size; individuals were either influence? What impact does the presence alone, or in groups of two, four and six. of others have on our performance? We will The results of the study showed that discuss two situations : (i) an individual although the total amount of noise rose up, performing an activity alone in the as size increased, the amount of noise presence of others (social facilitation), produced by each participant dropped. In and (ii) an individual performing an activity other words, each participant put in less along with the others as part of a larger effort as the group size increased. Why group (social loafing). Since social does social loafing occur? The explanations facilitation has been briefly discussed in offered are: Chapter 6, we would try to understand the \u2022 Group members feel less responsible for phenomenon of social loafing in this section. the overall task being performed and therefore exert less effort. Social Loafing \u2022 Motivation of members decreases because they realise that their Social facilitation research suggests that contributions will not be evaluated on presence of others leads to arousal and can individual basis. motivate individuals to enhance their \u2022 The performance of the group is not to performance if they are already good at be compared with other groups. solving something. This enhancement \u2022 There is an improper coordination (or occurs when a person\u2019s efforts are no coordination) among members. individually evaluated. What would happen \u2022 Belonging to the same group is not if efforts of an individual in a group are important for members. It is only an pooled so that you look at the performance aggregate of individuals. of the group as a whole? Do you know what often happens? It has been found Social loafing may be reduced by: that individuals work less hard in a group \u2022 Making the efforts of each person than they do when performing alone. This points to a phenomenon referred to as identifiable. \u2018social loafing\u2019. Social loafing is a reduction \u2022 Increasing the pressure to work hard in individual effort when working on a collective task, i.e. one in which outputs (making group members committed to are pooled with those of other group successful task performance). members. An example of such a task is the \u2022 Increasing the apparent importance or game of tug-of-war. It is not possible for value of a task. you to identify how much force each \u2022 Making people feel that their individual member of the team has been exerting. contribution is important. Such situations give opportunities to group \u2022 Strengthening group cohesiveness members to relax and become a free rider. which increases the motivation for This phenomenon has been demonstrated successful group outcome. in many experiments by Latane and his Group Polarisation We all know that important decisions are taken by groups and not by individuals Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 137 2019-20","alone. For example, a decision is to be view is validated by the public. This is taken whether a school has to be a sort of bandwagon effect. established in a village. Such a decision \u2022 When you find people having similar has to be a group decision. We have also views, you are likely to perceive them seen that when groups take decisions, as ingroup. You start identifying with there is a fear that the phenomenon of the group, begin showing conformity, groupthink may sometimes occur (see and as a consequence your views Box 7.1). Groups show another tendency become strengthened. referred to as \u2018group polarisation\u2019. It has been found that groups are more likely to Assessing Polarisation Activity take extreme decisions than individuals 7.3 alone. Suppose there is an employee who Give the class a short, 5-item attitude has been caught taking bribe or engaging scale developed by your teacher to in some other unethical act. Her\/his assess attitudes towards capital colleagues are asked to decide on what punishment. Based on their responses, punishment s\/he should be given. They divide the class into two groups, i.e. may let her\/him go scot-free or decide to those pro-capital punishment and terminate her\/his services instead of those anti-capital punishment. Now imposing a punishment which may be seat these groups into two different commensurate with the unethical act s\/he rooms and ask them to discuss a recent had engaged in. Whatever the initial case in which death sentence has been position in the group, this position becomes given by the court. See how the much stronger as a result of discussions in discussion proceeds in the two groups. the group. This strengthening of the group\u2019s After the discussion, re-administer the initial position as a result of group attitude scale to the group members. interaction and discussion is referred to as Examine if, in both groups, positions group polarisation. This may sometimes have hardened in comparison to their have dangerous repercussions as groups initial position as a result of group may take extreme positions, i.e. from very discussion. weak to very strong decisions. CONFORMITY, COMPLIANCE, AND Why does group polarisation occur? Let OBEDIENCE us take an example whether capital punishment should be there. Suppose you Groups and individuals exert influence on favour capital punishment for heinous us. This influence may force us to change crimes, what would happen if you were our behaviours in a particular direction. interacting with and discussing this issue The term \u2018social influence\u2019 refers to those with like-minded people? After this processes whereby our attitudes and interaction, your views may become behaviours are influenced by the real or stronger. This firm conviction is because of imagined presence of other people. the following three reasons: Throughout the day you may encounter a \u2022 In the company of like-minded people, number of situations where others have tried to influence you and make you think you are likely to hear newer arguments in ways they want. Your parents, teachers, favouring your viewpoints. This will friends, radio and television commercials make you more favourable towards create one or the other kind of social capital punishment. influence. Social influence is a part of our \u2022 When you find others also favouring life. In some situations, social influence on capital punishment, you feel that this 138 Psychology 2019-20","us is very strong as a result of which we a norm. For example, a member of a tend to do things which we otherwise community group for \u2018clean environment\u2019 would have not done. On other occasions, requests you to put a sticker on your bike we are able to defy influence of others and that reads, \u2018Say No to Plastic Bags\u2019. You may even influence them to adopt our own agree to do so, not because of a group viewpoint. This section describes three norm, or even because you personally important group influence processes, i.e. believe in banning plastic bags, but because conformity, compliance and obedience. you see no harm or problem in putting such a sticker on your bike. At the same time, Imagine the following situation in your you find it easier to say \u2018yes\u2019 rather than \u2018no\u2019 school. Some of your friends come to you to such a harmless (and eventually with a letter of protest against a rule that meaningful) request. Identification, has been recently announced, i.e. banning according to Kelman, refers to influence use of mobile phones in the school. process based on agreement-seeking or Personally you believe that the rule is very identity-seeking. Internalisation, on the sensible and should be enforced. But you other hand, is a process based on also know that if you do not sign the letter, information-seeking. you will lose many friends and get a bad name for not keeping \u2018student unity\u2019. What Yet another form of behaviour is would you do in such a situation? What \u2018obedience\u2019. A distinguishing feature of do you think most people of your age obedience is that such behaviour is a would do? If your answer is that you would response to a person in authority. In the agree to sign the letter, you have expressed example given above, you may sign the a form of social influence called letter more readily if a senior teacher or a \u2018conformity\u2019 which means behaving student leader asks you to do so. In such according to the group norm, i.e. the a situation, you are not necessarily expectations of other group members. following a group norm but rather carrying Persons who do not conform (called out an instruction or an order. The presence \u2018deviants\u2019 or \u2018non-conformists\u2019) get noticed of an authority figure immediately makes more than those who do conform. this behaviour different from conformity. For instance, you may stop talking loudly Kelman distinguished three forms of in the classroom when the teacher asks you social influence, viz. compliance, to keep quiet, but not when your classmate identification, and internalisation. In tells you to do the same thing. compliance, there are external conditions that force the individual to accept the We can see that there are some influence of the significant other. similarities between conformity, Compliance also refers to behaving in a compliance, and obedience, but there are particular way in response to a request also some differences. All three indicate the made by someone. Thus, in the example influence of others on an individual\u2019s described above, you may sign the letter behaviour. Obedience is the most direct with the thought that you were accepting and explicit form of social influence, the request, not because you agree with whereas compliance is less direct than other students, but because you have been obedience because someone has requested requested to do so by a significant member. and thus you comply (here, the probability This would be a case of compliance also of refusal is there). Conformity is the most called \u2018external\/public conformity\u2019. indirect form (you are conforming because Compliance could take place even without you do not want to deviate from the norm). Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 139 2019-20","Conformity disapproval and obtaining approval from others. Third, the norm is seen as Why do people follow group norms, when reflecting the views and beliefs of the the only \u2018punishment\u2019 they may face if they majority. Most people believe that the do not, is the displeasure of the group, or majority is more likely to be right rather being perceived as \u2018different\u2019? Why do than wrong. An instance of this is often people conform even when they know that observed in quiz shows on television. When the norm itself is not desirable? a contestant is at a loss for the correct answer to a question, s\/he may opt for an It seems that the tendency to follow a audience opinion, the person most often norm is natural, and does not need any tends to choose the same option that the special explanation. Yet, we need to majority of the audience chooses. By the understand why such a tendency appears same reasoning, people conform to the to be natural or spontaneous. First, norm because they believe that the norms represent a set of unwritten and majority must be right. informal \u2018rules\u2019 of behaviour that provide information to members of a group about The pioneering experiments on what is expected of them in specific conformity were carried out by Sherif and situations. This makes the whole situation Asch. They illustrate some of the clearer, and allows both the individual and conditions that determine the extent of the group to function more smoothly. conformity, and also methods that may be Second, in general, people feel un- adopted for the study of conformity in comfortable if they are considered groups. These experiments demonstrate \u2018different\u2019 from others. Behaving in a way what Sherif called the \u2018autokinetic that differs from the expected form of effect\u2019 (Box 7.3) and the \u2018Asch technique\u2019 behaviour may lead to disapproval or (Box 7.4). dislike by others, which is a form of social punishment. This is something that most What lessons are to be learned from people fear, often in an imagined way. the results of these experiments on Recall the question we ask so often: \u201cWhat conformity? The main lesson is that the will people (\u2018then\u2019) say?\u201d Following the degree of conformity among the group norm is, thus, the simplest way of avoiding members is determined by many factors which are situation-specific. Box 7.3 The Autokinetic Effect Sherif conducted a series of experiments to demonstrate how groups form their norms, and members make their judgments according to these norms. Participants were seated in a darkroom, and asked to concentrate on a point of light. After watching this point of light, each person was asked to estimate the distance through which the point had moved. This kind of judgment had to be made over a number of trials. After each trial, the group was given information about the average distance judged by the members. It was observed that on subsequent trials, subjects modified their judgments in a way that made them more similar to the group average. The interesting aspect of this experiment was that the point of light actually did not move at all. The light was only seen as moving by the participant (therefore, the effect has been called the \u2018autokinetic effect\u2019). Yet in response to instructions from the experimenter, the participants not only judged the distance the light moved, but also created a norm for this distance. Note that the participants were not given any information regarding the nature of change, if any, in their judgments over trials. 140 Psychology 2019-20","Determinants of Conformity Suppose the subject finds that after some rounds of judgment of the lines, there is (i) Size of the group : Conformity is another participant who starts agreeing greater when the group is small than when with the subject\u2019s answer. Would the the group is large. Why does it happen? It subject now be more likely to conform, or is easier for a deviant member (one who less likely to do so? When the dissenting does not conform) to be noticed in a small or deviating minority size increases, the group. However, in a large group, if there likelihood of conformity decreases. In fact, is strong agreement among most of the it may increase the number of dissenters members, this makes the majority or non-conformists in the group. stronger, and therefore, the norm is also stronger. In such a case, the minority (iii) Nature of the task : In Asch\u2019s member(s) would be more likely to conform experiment, the task required an answer because the group pressure would be that could be verified, and could be correct stronger. or incorrect. Suppose the task involves giving an opinion about some topic. In (ii) Size of the minority : Take the case such a case, there is no correct or incorrect of the Asch experiment (see Box 7.4). Group Pressure and Conformity : The Asch Experiment Box 7.4 Asch examined how much conformity there would be when one member of a group experiences pressure from the rest of the group to behave in a specific way, or to give a particular judgment. A group of seven persons participated in an experiment that was a \u2018vision test\u2019. There was actually only one true subject. The other six participants were associates of the experimenter, or \u2018confederates\u2019 as they are called in social psychology. These confederates were given instructions to give specific responses. Of course, this was not known to the true subject. All participants were shown a vertical line (standard line) that had to be compared with three vertical lines of different lengths, A, B, and C (comparison lines). Participants had to state which of the comparison lines, A, B, or C, was equal to the standard line. Standard Line Comparison Lines ABC When the experiment began, each participant, by turn, announced her\/his answer. The first five persons gave wrong answers (as they had been instructed to do so). The true subject\u2019s turn came last-but-one in each round. So the true subject had the experience of 5 persons giving incorrect answers before her\/him. The last person (also a confederate) gave the same incorrect answer as the first five persons. Even if the true subject felt that these answers were incorrect, a norm had been presented to her\/him. There were twelve trials. Did the true subject conform to the majority answer, or did s\/he give her\/his own judgments ? It was observed that 67 per cent subjects showed conformity, and gave the same incorrect answer as the majority. Remember that this was a situation in which the answers were to be given publicly. Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 141 2019-20","answer. In which situation is there likely members. Conformity may also occur to be more conformity, the first one where because of normative influence, i.e. there is something like a correct or an influence based on a person\u2019s desire to be incorrect answer, or the second one where accepted or admired by others. In such answers can vary widely without any cases, people conform because deviation answer being correct or incorrect? You may from group may lead to rejection or at the have guessed right; conformity would be least, non-acceptance of some form of less likely in the second situation. punishment. It is generally observed that the group majority determines the final (iv) Public or private expression of decision, but in certain conditions, a behaviour : In the Asch technique, the minority may be more influential. This group members are asked to give their occurs when the minority takes a firm and answers publicly, i.e. all members know uncompromising stand, thereby creating a who has given which response. However, doubt on the correctness of the majority\u2019s there can be other situations (for example, viewpoint. This creates a conflict within the voting by secret ballot) in which the group (see Box 7.4). behaviour of members is private (not known to others). Less conformity is found Compliance under private expression than it is seen under public expression. It was stated earlier that compliance refers simply to behaving in response to a request (v) Personality : The conditions described from another person or group even in the above show how the features of the absence of a norm. A good example of situation are important in determining the compliance is the kind of behaviour shown degree of conformity shown. We also find when a salesperson comes to our door. that some individuals have a conforming Very often, this person comes with some personality. Such persons have a tendency goods that we really do not wish to buy. to change their behaviour according to Yet, sometimes to our own surprise, we what others say or do in most situations. find that the salesperson has spoken to us By contrast, there are individuals who are for a few minutes and the conversation has independent, and do not look for a norm ended with a purchase of what he or she in order to decide how to behave in a wished to sell. So why do people comply? specific situation. Research has shown that highly intelligent people, those who In many situations, this happens are confident of themselves, those who are because it is an easy way out of the strongly committed and have a high self- situation. It is more polite and the other esteem are less likely to conform. party is pleased. In other situations, there could be other factors at work. The Conformity takes place because of following techniques have been found to informational influence, i.e. influence that work when someone wants another person results from accepting evidence rather to comply. than reality. This kind of rational \u2022 The foot-in-the-door technique : The conformity can be thought of as learning about the world from the actions of others. person begins by making a small We learn by observing people, who are the request that the other person is not best source of information about many likely to refuse. Once the other person social conventions. New group members carries out the request, a bigger request learn about the group\u2019s customs by is made. Simply because the other observing the actions of other group person has already complied with the 142 Psychology 2019-20","smaller request, he or she may feel experiment was conducted on pairs. One uncomfortable refusing the second person in each pair was the \u201clearner\u201d, request. For example, someone may whose work was to memorise pairs of come to us on behalf of a group and words. The other participant was the give us a gift (something free), saying \u201cteacher\u201d, who would read these words that it is for promotion. Soon aloud and punish the learner when s\/he afterwards, another member of the made errors by giving her\/him shock. The same group may come to us again, and learner would make errors according to ask us to buy a product made by the prearranged instructions. The teacher was group. asked to deliver a shock each time the \u2022 The deadline technique : In this learner made errors. The teacher was technique, a \u2018last date\u2019 is announced further told to increase the strength of the until which a particular product or \u2018an shock each time the learner made an error. offer\u2019 will be available. The aim is to In reality, no shocks were given. The make people \u2018hurry\u2019 and make the instructions were so arranged that the purchase before they miss the rare teacher was faced with a dilemma \u2014 opportunity. It is more likely that should s\/he continue shocks even when people will buy a product under this they were increasingly painful? The deadline condition than if there is no experimenter kept on motivating the such deadline. teacher to continue. In all, 65 per cent \u2022 The door-in-the-face technique : In showed total obedience. Some participants, this technique, you begin with a large however, protested and asked the session request and when this is refused a later to end. Milgram\u2019s study suggests that even request for something smaller, the one ordinary people are willing to harm an that was actually desired, is made, innocent person if ordered by someone in which is usually granted by the person. authority. Obedience Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour is harming When compliance is shown to an others? Psychologists have identified instruction or order from a person in several reasons for this. Some of these authority, such as parents, teachers, reasons are : leaders, or policemen, that behaviour is \u2022 People obey because they feel that they called obedience. Why people show obedience is easy to understand. Most are not responsible for their own often it is because if we disobey, some actions, they are simply carrying out punishment might follow. Sometimes, it is orders from the authority. because we believe that persons in \u2022 Authority generally possesses symbols authority must be obeyed. People in of status (e.g., uniform, title) which authority have effective means for people find difficult to resist. enforcing their orders. Milgram conducted \u2022 Authority gradually increases an experiment to show that individuals commands from lesser to greater levels obey commands from people who are and initial obedience binds the strangers. The experimenter informed the followers for commitment. Once you respondents in the study that they were obey small orders, slowly there is an participating in an experiment to study the escalation of commitment for the effects of punishment on learning. The person who is in authority and one starts obeying bigger orders. Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 143 2019-20","\u2022 Many times, events are moving at such example, you can come first in a a fast speed, for example in a riot competition only if others do not perform situation, that one has no time to think, to such a level that they can be judged as just obey orders from above. first. A cooperative goal, on the other hand, is one in which each individual can attain Activity Demonstrating Obedience in the goal only if other members of the group 7.4 Daily Life also attain the goal. Let us try to understand this from an example from Do you believe the results of Milgram athletics. In a hundred metres race studies on obedience to authority? See between six people, only one can be the for yourself whether obedience occurs winner. Success depends on individual or not. performance. In a relay race, victory depends on the collective performance of Take permission from your teacher all members of a team. Deutsch to go to one of the junior classes. Go investigated cooperation and competition and make a series of requests to the within groups. College students were students. Some examples of such assigned to groups of five persons and requests are : were required to solve puzzles and problems. One set of groups, referred to as Ask students to change their seats the \u2018cooperative group\u2019, were told that they with another student. would be rewarded collectively for their Ask students to croak like a frog. performance. The other set of groups, Ask students to say \u2018jai hind\u2019. labelled as \u2018competitive group\u2019 were told Ask students to put their hands up. that there was a reward for individual (Feel free to add your own ideas) excellence. Results showed that in What did you see? Did students cooperative groups, there was more obey you? Ask them why they did so? coordination, there was acceptance for Explain to them that you were studying each other\u2019s ideas, and members were why we obey seniors. Come back and more friendly than those in the competitive discuss what you saw in the class with group. The main concern of the members your teacher and classmates. of the cooperative group was to see that the group excels. COOPERATION AND COMPETITION Although competition between People interact with each other in different individuals within a group may result in contexts. Behaviours in most social conflict and disharmony, competition situations are characterised by either between groups may increase within group \u2018cooperation\u2019 or \u2018competition\u2019. When groups cohesion and solidarity. work together to achieve shared goals, we refer to it as cooperation. The rewards in Prisoner\u2019s Dilemma Game, which is a cooperative situations are group rewards two person game in which both parties are and not individual rewards. However, when faced with cooperation or competition, and members try to maximise their own depending upon their choices both can win benefits and work for the realisation of self- or lose, is often used to study cooperation interest, competition is likely to result. or competition. This game is based on an Social groups may have both competitive anecdote. Two suspects were quizzed by as well as cooperative goals. Competitive detectives separately. The detectives had goals are set in such a way that each only enough evidence to convict them for individual can get her\/his goal only if a small offence. Separately the two convicts others do not attain their goals. For 144 Psychology 2019-20","Sherif\u2019s Summer Camp Experiments : A Journey from Ingroup Formation to Box Intergroup Competition and Finally Intergroup Cooperation 7.5 Sherif conducted a series of experiments on 11\u201312 year old boys who did not know each other. The boys were attending a summer camp. Unknown to the boys, there were researchers in the camp who examined their (the boys) behaviour. The experiment consisted of four phases, viz. friendship formation, group formation, intergroup competition, and intergroup cooperation. \u2022 Friendship formation : When the boys arrived at the camp, they spent their initial time together. They mixed freely with each other and chose their friends for games and other activities. \u2022 Ingroup formation : The boys were then divided into two groups by the experimenter. The boys belonging to the two groups lived separately. Members within the group engaged in cooperative projects to increase cohesiveness. The groups were given separate names. Over time, they developed their own norms. \u2022 Intergroup competition : The two groups were brought together in several competitive situations. Matches were organised in which the groups competed against each other. This competition brought in tension and hostility against each other as a group; so much so that the groups started calling each other names. At the same time, ingroup cohesion and loyalty became stronger. \u2022 Intergroup cooperation : To reduce the hostility generated by intergroup competition, the researchers created a problem which affected both the groups, and both groups wanted to solve them. Superordinate goals could be achieved only through cooperation between the groups. The water supply of both groups was disrupted. Members of both groups helped each other to overcome this. This intergroup cooperation phase reduced the hostility. This resulted in the development of a superordinate goal, i.e. a goal to which personal goals were subordinated. This research is important as it showed that antagonistic and hostile behaviour can be generated by group situations. At the same time, it shows that hostility between groups can be reduced by focusing on superordinate goals, which are important and beneficial to both groups alike. were offered a chance to confess. If one Player A confesses and the other does not, the one Cooperation Competition who confesses will get no punishment and her\/his confession will be used to convict Player B 3 5 the other with a serious offence. If both Competition Cooperation 3 0 confess, the punishment to both will be mild. If neither confesses, each will receive 02 a light sentence. This game has been used in hundreds of experiments to demonstrate 52 that when two parties are involved, there is a conflict between motive to cooperate Fig.7.2 : Cooperation vs. Competition and motive to compete (see Figure 7.2). For example, there are two players, A and B. If both cooperate, both get three points each. If player A competes and wins, Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 145 2019-20","s\/he gets 5 points and B gets 0 points. If you are a hard-working, happy-go-lucky B competes and wins s\/he gets 5 points girl\/boy. This answer tells you about your and A gets 0 points. If both A and B social identity which is one\u2019s self-definition compete, both get two points each. What of who s\/he is. This self-definition may outcomes do you expect? Why do you include both personal attributes, e.g. hard expect so? Give reasons. working, happy-go-lucky, or attributes which you share with others, e.g. girl or Determinants of Cooperation and boy. Although some aspects of our identity Competition are determined by physical characteristics, we may acquire other aspects as a What factors determine whether people will consequence of our interaction with others cooperate or compete? Some of the in society. Sometimes we perceive ourselves important ones are given below: as unique individuals and at other times we (i) Reward structure : Psychologists perceive ourselves as members of groups. Both are equally valid expressions of self. believe that whether people will co- Our personal identities derived from views operate or compete will depend on the of oneself as a unique individual, and social reward structure. Cooperative reward identities derived from groups we perceive structure is one in which there is ourselves to be members of, are both promotive interdependence. Each is important to us. The extent to which we beneficiary of the reward and reward is define ourselves either at personal or at possible only if all contribute. A social levels is flexible. From your own competitive reward structure is one in experience, you would realise that which one can get a reward only if identification with social groups can have others do not get it. a great deal of importance for your self- (ii) Interpersonal communication : When concept. How do you feel when India wins there is good interpersonal a cricket match? You feel elated and proud. communication, then cooperation is the You feel so because of your social identity likely consequence. Communication as an Indian. Social identity is, thus, that facilitates interaction, and discussion. aspect of our self-concept which is based As a result, group members can on our group membership. Social identity convince each other and learn about places us, i.e. tells us what and where we each other. are in the larger social context, and thus (iii) Reciprocity : Reciprocity means that helps us to locate ourselves in society. You people feel obliged to return what they have a social identity of a student of your get. Initial cooperation may encourage school. Once you have this identity of a more cooperation. Competition may student of your school, you internalise the provoke more competition. If someone values emphasised in your school and helps, you feel like helping that person; make these values your own. You strive to on the other hand, if someone refuses fulfil the motto of your school. Social to help you when you need help, you identity provides members with a shared would not like to help that person also. set of values, beliefs and goals about themselves and about their social world. SOCIAL IDENTITY Once you internalise the values of your school, this helps to coordinate and Have you ever asked the question \u201cwho regulate your attitudes and behaviour. You am I?\u201d What was your answer to this question? Probably your answer was that 146 Psychology 2019-20","work hard for your school to make it the there is a lack of trust. Hence, conflict best school in your city\/state. When we results. develop a strong identity with our own \u2022 Another reason for intergroup conflict group, the categorisation as ingroup and is relative deprivation. It arises when outgroup becomes salient. The group with members of a group compare which you identify yourself becomes the themselves with members of another ingroup and others become the outgroup. group, and perceive that they do not The negative aspect of this own group and have what they desire to have, which outgroup categorisation is that we start the other group has. In other words, showing favouritism towards our ingroup by they feel that they are not doing well in rating it more favourably in comparison to comparison to other groups. This may the outgroup, and begin devaluating the lead to feelings of deprivation and outgroup. This devaluation of the outgroup discontentment, which may trigger off is the basis of a number of intergroup conflict. conflicts. \u2022 Another cause of conflict is one party\u2019s belief that it is better than the other, INTERGROUP CONFLICT : NATURE AND and what it is saying should be done. CAUSES When this does not happen, both parties start accusing each other. One Conflict is a process in which either an may often witness a tendency to individual or a group perceives that others magnify even smaller differences, (individual or group) have opposing thereby conflict gets escalated because interests, and both try to contradict each every member wants to respect the other. There is this intense feeling of \u2018we\u2019 norms of her\/his group. and \u2018other\u2019 (also referred to as \u2018they\u2019). \u2022 A feeling that the other group does not There is also a belief by both parties that respect the norms of my group, and the other will protect only its own interests; actually violates those norms because their (the other side\u2019s) interests will, of a malevolent intent. therefore, not be protected. There is not \u2022 Desire for retaliation for some harm only opposition of each other, but they also done in the past could be another try to exert power on each other. Groups reason for conflict. have been found to be more aggressive \u2022 Biased perceptions are at the root of than individuals. This often leads to most conflicts. As already mentioned escalation of conflict. All conflicts are costly earlier, feelings of \u2018they\u2019 and \u2018we\u2019 lead to as there is a human price for them. In biased perceptions. wars, there are both victories and defeats, \u2022 Research has shown that when acting but the human cost of war is far beyond in groups, people are more competitive all this. Various types of conflict are as well as more aggressive than when commonly seen in society, which turn out they are on their own. Groups compete to be costly for both sides as well as for over scarce resources, both material society. resources, e.g. territory, and money as well as social resources, e.g. respect Mentioned below are some of the major and esteem. reasons for group conflicts. \u2022 Perceived inequity is another reason for \u2022 One major reason is lack of conflict. Equity refers to distribution of rewards in proportion to an individual\u2019s communication and faulty communi- contributions, if: cation by both parties. This kind of communication leads to suspicion, i.e. Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 147 2019-20","Your rewards Your friends\u2019 \u2022 Communication between the groups rewards becomes poor. The groups do not trust = each other, thereby leading to a Your contributions Your friends\u2019 breakdown in communication and this contributions generates suspicion for each other. But, if you contribute more and get \u2022 Groups start magnifying their less, you are likely to feel irritated and differences and start perceiving their exploited. behaviour as fair and the other\u2019s behaviour as unfair. Conflicts between groups give impetus to a series of social and cognitive processes. \u2022 Each side tries to increase its own These processes harden the stand of each power and legitimacy. As a conse- side leading to ingroup polarisation. This quence, the conflict gets escalated may result in coalition formation of like- shifting from few specific issues to minded parties, thereby increasing the much larger issues. apprehensions of both parties resulting in misperceptions, and biased interpretations \u2022 Once conflict starts, several other and attributions. The result is increased factors lead to escalation of conflict. conflict. Present-day society is fraught with Hardening of ingroup opinion, explicit various intergroup conflicts. These are threats directed at the outgroup, each related to caste, class, religion, region, group retaliating more and more, and language, just to name a few of them. other parties also choosing to take sides Gardner Murphy wrote a book entitled lead to escalation of conflict. \u2018In the Minds of Men\u2019. Most conflicts begin in the minds of men and then go to the field. CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES Explanations of such conflicts can be at the structural, group, and individual levels. Conflicts can be reduced if we know about Structural conditions include high rates of their causes. The processes that increase poverty, economic and social stratification, conflict can be turned around to reduce it inequality, limited political and social also. A number of strategies have been opportunity, etc. Research on group level suggested by psychologists. Some of these factors has shown that social identity, are : realistic conflict between groups over resources, and unequal power relations Introduction of superordinate goals : between groups lead to escalation of Sherif\u2019s study, already mentioned in the conflict. At the individual level, beliefs, section on cooperation and competition, biased attitudes, and personality showed that by introducing superordinate characteristics are important determinants. goals, intergroup conflict can be reduced. It has been found that at the individual A superordinate goal is mutually beneficial level, there is a progression along a to both parties, hence both groups work continuum of violence. Very small acts that cooperatively. initially may have no significance, like calling the other group a name, may lead Altering perceptions : Conflicts can also to psychological changes that make further be reduced by altering perceptions and destructive actions possible. reactions through persuasion, educational and media appeals, and portrayal of groups Deutsch identified the following differently in society. Promoting empathy consequences of intergroup conflict. for others should be taught to everyone right from the beginning. 148 Psychology 2019-20","Increasing intergroup contacts : Conflict there is a conflict. Sometimes it is difficult can also be reduced by increasing contacts to dissipate conflict through negotiations; between the groups. This can be done by at that time mediation and arbitration by involving groups in conflict on neutral a third party is needed. Mediators help grounds through community projects and both parties to focus their discussions on events. The idea is to bring them together the relevant issues and reach a voluntary so that they become more appreciative of agreement. In arbitration, the third party each other\u2019s stand. However, for contacts has the authority to give a decision after to be successful, they need to be hearing both parties. maintained, which means that they should be supported over a period of time. Structural solutions : Conflict can also be reduced by redistributing the societal Redrawing group boundaries : Another resources according to principles based on technique that has been suggested by justice. Research on justice has identified some psychologists is redrawing the group several principles of justice. Some of these boundaries. This can be done by creating are : equality (allocating equally to every conditions where groups boundaries are one), need (allocating on the basis of redefined and groups come to perceive needs), and equity (allocating on the basis themselves as belonging to a common of contributions of members). group. Respect for other group\u2019s norms : In a Negotiations : Conflict can also be pluralist society like India, it is necessary resolved through negotiations and third to respect and be sensitive to the strong party interventions. Warring groups can norms of various social and ethnic groups. resolve conflict by trying to find mutually It has been noticed that a number of acceptable solutions. This requires communal riots between different groups understanding and trust. Negotiation refers have taken place because of such to reciprocal communications so as to insensitivity. reach an agreement in situations in which Key Terms Arbitration, Cohesiveness, Competition, Compliance, Conflict, Conformity, Cooperation, Goal achievement, Group, Group formation, Groupthink, Identity, Ingroup, Interdependence, Intergroup, Negotiation, Norms, Obedience, Outgroup, Proximity, Roles, Social facilitation, Social influence, Social inhibition, Social loafing, Status, Structure, Superordinate goals. \u2022 Groups are different from other collections of people. Mutual interdependence, roles, status, and expectations are the main characteristics of groups. \u2022 Groups are organised systems of two or more individuals. \u2022 People join groups because they provide security, status, self-esteem, satisfaction of one\u2019s psychological and social needs, goal achievement, and knowledge and information. \u2022 Proximity, similarity, and common motives and goals facilitate group formation. \u2022 Generally, group work leads to beneficial results. However, sometimes in cohesive and homogeneous groups, the phenomenon of groupthink may occur. \u2022 Groups are of different types, i.e. primary and secondary, formal and informal, and ingroup and outgroup. Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 149 2019-20","\u2022 Groups influence individual behaviour. Social facilitation and social loafing are two important influences of groups. \u2022 Conformity, compliance, and obedience are three important forms of social influence. \u2022 Conformity is the most indirect form of social influence; obedience the most direct form; compliance is in-between the two. \u2022 People interact in social situations by either cooperating or competing. \u2022 One\u2019s self-definition of who s\/he is referred to as social identity. \u2022 Group conflicts occur in all societies. \u2022 Group conflicts can be reduced if we know the causes of such conflicts. Review Questions 1. Compare and contrast formal and informal groups, and ingroups and outgroups. 2. Are you a member of a certain group? Discuss what motivated you to join that group. 3. How does Tuckman\u2019s stage model help you to understand the formation of groups? 4. How do groups influence our behaviour? 5. How can you reduce social loafing in groups? Think of any two incidents of social loafing in school. How did you overcome it? 6. How often do you show conformity in your behaviour? What are the determinants of conformity? 7. Why do people obey even when they know that their behaviour may be harming others? Explain. 8. What are the benefits of cooperation? 9. How is one\u2019s identity formed? 10. What are some of the causes of intergroup conflict? Think of any international conflict. Reflect on the human price of this conflict. Project 1. \u201cS\/he who does not ask will never get a bargain.\u201d Collect the newspapers of last one Ideas month. List the different bargains that were offered by shopkeepers. What compliance techniques were used by them? Ask your friends how many were attracted by these bargains. 2. Make a list of different conflicts that have occurred among different houses in the school. How were these conflicts resolved? 3. Identify any Test series in cricket which India played recently. Collect the newspapers of that period. Evaluate the reviews of the matches and comments made by Indian and rival commentators. Do you see any difference between the comments? 4. Imagine that you have to collect money to help an NGO working for the girl child. What techniques of social influence would you use? Try any two techniques and see the difference. Weblinks http:\/\/www.mapnp.org\/library\/grp_skill\/theory\/theory.htm http:\/\/www.socialpsychology.org\/social.htm http:\/\/www.stanleymilgram.com\/main.htm http:\/\/www.psychclassics.yorku.ca\/sheriff\/chap1.htm 150 Psychology 2019-20","Pedagogical Hints 1. In the topic of nature and formation of groups, students should be made to understand the importance of groups in real-life. Here, it needs to be emphasised that they should be careful in choosing groups. Teachers can ask a few students how they have become members of different groups, and what do they get from membership in these groups. 2. For explaining social loafing, simple experiments can be conducted in the class by asking students to perform some activities in groups and then asking them about their contributions in the activities undertaken. Learning experience for students should be on ways to avoid social loafing. 3. In the topic of cooperation and competition, students should be told the benefits of both cooperation and competition. They should be able to appreciate that cooperation is a better strategy in society. Some cases of real-life where cooperative efforts have been successful can be discussed. 4. Students should be able to appreciate that identities are important and how our identities influence our social behaviour. 5. In the section on intergroup conflict, emphasis should be on conflict resolution strategies rather than conflict per se. Chapter 7 \u2022 Social Influence and Group Processes 151 2019-20","PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand how psychology can be applied to common problems in our lives, appreciate the relationship between human beings and the environment, analyse how pro-environmental behaviour helps to deal with environmental stressors, explain the causes and consequences of social problems from a psychological perspective, and learn about the possible remedies of problems such as poverty, aggression, and health. Introduction Human-Environment Relationship Different Views of the Human-Environment Relationship The Bishnois and the Chipko Movement (Box 8.1) Environmental Effects on Human Behaviour Human Influence on the Environment Noise Pollution Crowding CONTENTS Natural Disasters Promoting Pro-environmental Behaviour Psychology and Social Concerns Poverty and Discrimination Aggression, Violence, and Peace Key Terms Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence : Why Does Summary Non-violence Work (Box 8.2) Review Questions Health Project Ideas Impact of Television on Behaviour Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 152 Psychology 2019-20","Introduction In the previous two chapters, you read about some topics related to social behaviour and groups. We will now reflect on a set of social concerns with a wider scope, which are linked to each other and involve psychological aspects. These issues have to be understood and resolved at the level of the community rather than the individual. It is now known that besides affecting our physical health, the environment also influences our psychological processes and behaviour. Human beings also influence the environment through their behaviour, and some of these effects are demonstrated in stress-producing environmental conditions, such as noise, pollution and crowding. At the same time, environmental stressors such as natural disasters are not under human control. Many damaging environmental effects can be reduced with the help of environment-friendly behaviour and a state of preparedness. You will read about the causes and consequences of some social problems such as aggression and violence, health, and poverty and discrimination. You will also get a glimpse of how poverty and deprivation can make people victims of discrimination and social exclusion. An environment of poverty and deprivation has far-reaching implications for developing human potential, social harmony and mental health. Some ways of reducing poverty are also described. In addition, psychological aspects of health, and the impact of television viewing on violence as well as other forms of behaviour are explained. This chapter will show you how psychological understanding can be applied practically to aspects such as pro-environmental behaviour, the reduction of violence and discrimination, and promotion of positive health attitudes. HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP A common idea that comes out of these questions is that the relationship between Take a moment and try to answer these human behaviour and the environment questions : Can a tree be your \u2018best friend\u2019? plays a special role in our lives. These When it gets hot, or when it is crowded, days, there is a growing awareness that do people become more aggressive? If rivers environmental problems such as noise, are said to be holy, why do people make air, water and soil pollution, and them dirty? How can one remedy the unsatisfactory ways of garbage disposal traumatic effects of a natural disaster such have damaging effects on physical health. as an earthquake or tsunami, or of a man- Less known is the fact that these forms of made disaster such as a poisonous gas pollution, along with many other hidden leak in a factory? Compare two children factors in the environment, influence who grow up in different physical psychological health and functioning as environments, one in an environment filled well. A branch of psychology called with colourful toys, pictures and books, environmental psychology deals with and the other in an environment that various psychological issues pertaining to contains only the bare necessities of life. the human-environment interaction in a Will the two children develop the same very broad sense of the term. kind of cognitive skills? People might give different answers to these questions. The word \u2018environment\u2019 refers to all that is around us, literally everything that Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 153 2019-20","surrounds us, including the physical, seats in an office for formal and social, work, and cultural environment. In informal gatherings. general, it includes all the forces outside human beings to which they respond in Different Views of the Human- some way. In the present section, the Environment Relationship discussion will centre around the physical environment. \u2018Ecology\u2019 is the study of the There is more than one way of looking at relationships between living beings and the human-environment relationship, their environment. In psychology, the focus depending largely on how this relationship is on the interdependence between is perceived by human beings. A the environment and people, as the psychologist named Stokols (1990) environment becomes meaningful with describes three approaches that may be reference to the human beings who live in adopted to describe the human- it. In this context, a distinction can be environment relationship. made between the natural environment (a) The minimalist perspective assumes and the built environment. As the name itself suggests, that part of nature which that the physical environment has remains untouched by human hand is the minimal or negligible influence on natural environment. On the other hand, human behaviour, health and well- whatever has been created by human being. The physical environment and beings within the natural environment is human beings exist as parallel the built environment. Cities, houses, components. offices, factories, bridges, shopping malls, (b) The instrumental perspective railway tracks, roads, dams, and even suggests that the physical environment artificially created parks and ponds are exists mainly for use by human beings some examples of the built environment for their comfort and well-being. Most which show how human beings have made of the human influences on the changes in the environment given by environment reflect the instrumental nature. perspective. (c) The spiritual perspective refers to the The built environment usually involves view of the environment as something the concept of environmental design. to be respected and valued rather than The idea of \u2018design\u2019 contains some exploited. It implies that human beings psychological features, such as : recognise the interdependent relation- \u2022 The creativity of the human mind, as ship between themselves and the environment, i.e. human beings will expressed in the work of architects, exist and will be happy only as long as town planners and civil engineers. the environment is kept healthy and \u2022 The sense of human control over the natural. natural environment, as shown in the building of dams to regulate the natural The traditional Indian view about the flow of rivers. environment supports the spiritual \u2022 The influence on the kind of social perspective. We have at least two examples interaction that takes place in the of this perspective in our country, viz. the designed environment. This feature is customs of the Bishnoi community of reflected, for instance, in the distance Rajasthan, and the Chipko movement in between houses in a colony, the the Uttarakhand region (see Box 8.1). By location of rooms within a home, or in contrast, we also find examples of people the arrangement of work desks and damaging or destroying the environment, 154 Psychology 2019-20","The Bishnois and the Chipko Movement Box 8.1 The Bishnois, a small community in Rajasthan, value their trees and wildlife as much as their lives. Following one of the 29 rules given by their guru, the Bishnois would do anything to prevent the destruction of trees by human beings, including hugging the trees if they are threatened in any way; the destroyer cannot cut the trees without cutting these human bodies. Similarly, the forest cover in the Himalayan Uttarakhand region has been protected through the Chipko movement (\u2018chipko\u2019 literally means \u2018sticking to\u2019 or hugging trees). The aim of this movement is to conserve forests, prevent landslides and soil erosion in the region, and to support the livelihood of the inhabitants. In the 1960s, when the forest department of the government was not quite successful in curbing the indiscriminate felling of trees in large numbers, people of the economically backward Uttarakhand region expressed their concern through the Chipko movement, which became stronger because of devastating floods in 1970. The Chipko movement\u2019s memorandum of demands included six principles: (a) only specific trees and vegetation suitable for a particular geographical region should be grown, (b) forests in landslide and soil erosion zones need to be identified and renewed, (c) those who have been customarily living near the forests and depending on them for survival should be given the right to do so, (d) the contractor system for commercial timber exploitation should be abolished, (e) trees used by the villagers must be planted near the villages, and (f) village cottage industries based on minor forest products should be set up to provide jobs to locals for checking migration from villages. This movement has been recognised by environmentalists in India and abroad as well as by the government. which is a negative instance of the perception. For example, as you have instrumental perspective. studied in Class XI, a tribal society of Africa lives in circular huts, that is, in ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON HUMAN houses without angular walls. They BEHAVIOUR show less error in a geometric illusion (the Muller-Lyer illusion) than people The human-environment relationship can from cities, who live in houses with be appreciated fully by understanding that angular walls. the two influence each other, and depend on each other for their survival and \u2022 Environmental influences on maintenance. When we focus our attention emotions : The environment affects our on the effects of the natural environment emotional reactions as well. Watching on human beings, we find a variety of nature in any form, whether it is a environmental influences, ranging from quietly flowing river, a smiling flower, or physical effects such as a change of a tranquil mountain top, provides a clothing in response to climate changes to kind of joy that cannot be matched by severe psychological effects such as any other experience. Natural disasters, serious depression after a natural disaster. such as floods, droughts, landslides, Some of the effects pointed out by quakes on the earth or under the psychologists are described below. ocean, can affect people\u2019s emotions to such an extent that they experience \u2022 Environmental influences on deep depression and sorrow, a sense of perception : Some aspects of the complete helplessness and lack of environment influence human control over their lives. Such an Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 155 2019-20","influence on human emotions is a Human Influence on the Environment traumatic experience that changes people\u2019s lives forever, and can last for Human beings also exert their influence on a very long time after the actual event the natural environment for fulfilling their in the form of post-traumatic stress physical needs and other purposes. All the disorder (PTSD). examples of the built environment express human influence over the environment. \u2022 Ecological influences on occupation, For example, the human being started living style and attitudes : The building something called \u2018houses\u2019 by natural environment of a particular changing the natural environment in order region determines whether people living to provide shelter for herself\/himself. in that region rely on agriculture (as Some of these human actions harm and in the plains), or on other occupations damage the environment, and ultimately such as hunting and gathering (as in harm themselves, in numerous ways. For forest, mountainous or desert regions), example, human beings use appliances or on industries (as in areas that are such as refrigerators and airconditioners not fertile enough for agriculture). In that generate chemical substances (e.g., turn, the occupation determines the CFCs, or chlorofluorocarbons) that pollute lifestyle and attitudes of the residents the air and, in the long run, may be of a particular geographical region. responsible for physical diseases such as Compare the daily routine followed by some forms of cancer. Smoking is known a person living in a desert with one to pollute the air around us, and the living in a mountainous region, and burning of plastic or metal articles has with one living on the plains. It has disastrous polluting effects on the been observed that an agricultural environment. Cutting down trees, or society has to depend on the collective deforestation, may disrupt the carbon cycle efforts of its members. Therefore, the and the water cycle. This may eventually members of an agricultural society affect the pattern of rainfall in a region, develop an attitude of cooperativeness, and increase soil erosion and and consider group interests more desertification. Industries that discharge important than the individual\u2019s wishes. effluents, and pump this untreated sewage They are also closer to nature, more into rivers, seem to be unconcerned about dependent on natural events such as the dangerous physical and psychological the monsoon, and may face situations consequences of this kind of pollution. in which necessary natural resources such as water are in limited supply. What is the psychological message in Accordingly, the members of an all of these examples? The message is that agricultural society may become more although most of the effects mentioned fatalistic in their beliefs. On the other above are physical in nature, human hand, highly industrialised societies feel beings have brought about these effects in less close to and less dependent on order to exhibit their control and power nature. Members of industrialised over the natural environment. It is societies may value independent somewhat paradoxical that human beings thinking, develop an attitude of are using technology to change the natural competitiveness, and cultivate a belief environment in order to improve the of personal control over what happens quality of their life but, in reality, they may to them. actually be worsening the quality of life! Noise, pollution, crowding, and natural disasters are some examples of 156 Psychology 2019-20","environmental stressors, which are \u2022 When the noise comes at intervals, and stimuli or conditions in the environment in an unpredictable way, it is that create a stress for human beings. As experienced as more disturbing than if you have already read in Chapter 3, stress the noise is continuously present. is an unpleasant psychological state which creates tension and anxiety in the \u2022 When the task being performed is individual. However, human reactions to difficult, or requires full concentration, these varying stressors may differ. Some of then intense, unpredictable, and the damaging environmental effects are uncontrollable noise reduces the level described below. of task performance. Noise \u2022 When tolerating or switching off the noise is within the control of the Any sound that is annoying or irritating, person, the number of errors in task and felt to be unpleasant is said to be performance decreases. noise. From common experience it is known that noise, especially for long \u2022 In terms of emotional effects, noise periods of time, is uncomfortable, and puts above a certain level causes annoyance, people in an unpleasant mood. Exposure and can also lead to sleep disturbance. to noise for a long period of time may lead These effects are also reduced if the to hearing loss. Apart from that, noise has noise is controllable, or is necessary as negative effects on mental activity because a part of the person\u2019s occupation. it reduces concentration. Many of you However, continued exposure to might have experienced this when you uncontrollable and annoying noise can tried to study for your examination, with have harmful effects on mental health. the neighbours celebrating a marriage with loud music. From these observations, one may conclude that the stressful effects of noise Three characteristics of noise have are determined, not only by its high or low been found to determine its effect on task intensity, but also by the extent to which performance, namely, intensity, people are able to adapt to it, the nature predictability, and controllability of of the task being performed, and whether noise. Systematic research on the effects noise is predictable and controllable. of noise on human beings shows the following : Pollution \u2022 When the task being performed is a Environmental pollution may be in the simple mental task, such as addition of form of air, water, and soil pollution. Waste numbers, noise does not affect overall or garbage that comes from households or performance, whether it is loud or soft. from industries are a big source of air, In such situations, people adapt, or \u2018get water, and soil pollution. Scientists know used\u2019 to noise. it very well that any of these forms of \u2022 If the task being performed is very pollution is hazardous to physical health. interesting, then, too, the presence of However, there are some research studies noise does not affect performance. This that have shown direct or indirect is because the nature of the task helps psychological effects of these forms of the individual to pay full attention to pollution as well. It has to be understood the task, and ignore the noise. This that in general, any form of environmental may also be one kind of adaptation. pollution may affect the nervous system because of the presence of toxic substances and, to that extent, influence Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 157 2019-20","psychological processes in some way. cause psychological effects. Such effects Another form of influence is seen in the are supposed to be more dangerous for the emotional reactions to pollution which, in smoker; however, those who inhale tobacco turn, create discomfort, and have smoke (passive smoking) can also suffer consequences such as decreased work the negative effects. One researcher found efficiency, lowered interest in the job, and that inhaling tobacco smoke can increase increase in anxiety level. People do not like the aggression level of individuals. to live or work in a locality that is littered with garbage, or has a constant foul smell. The presence of polluting substances in Similarly, the presence of dust particles, or water and soil are hazardous for physical other suspended particles, may give a health. Some of these chemicals can also feeling of suffocation and difficulty in have damaging psychological effects. The breathing, and may actually lead to presence of specific chemicals such as lead respiratory disorders. People who can cause mental retardation by affecting experience this kind of discomfort cannot brain development. Such toxic substances pay full attention to their work, or be in affect human beings through various a pleasant mood. routes, i.e. through water, or through soil by being absorbed by vegetables grown in Specific psychological effects of air polluted soil. pollution have been reported by some researchers. For example, in one part of Another source of toxicity is household Kolkata, the psychological reactions to air and industrial waste, or garbage, which are pollution were compared between a group non-biodegradable. Common examples of living in an industrial area, and a group such waste are plastics, tin or any metal living in a non-industrial residential area. container. This kind of waste material Those living in the industrial area reported should be destroyed or burned through greater tension and anxiety than those special techniques, and the smoke should living in a non-industrial residential area. not be allowed to escape into the air that In a study conducted in Germany, the people breathe. presence of pollutants such as sulphur dioxide in the air was found to decrease In general, there is sufficient evidence the ability to concentrate on a task, and to show that toxic chemicals in the air, lowering performance efficiency. water and soil may lead to harmful effects not only on normal psychological Pollution caused by leaks of dangerous functioning, but may also cause serious chemical substances can cause other kinds mental disorders. Therefore, there is of harm. The infamous Bhopal gas tragedy absolutely no doubt that all forms of of December 1984 that claimed many lives, pollution need to be curbed. also left behind psychological effects because of the gas. Many of those who had Crowding inhaled the poisonous gas, methyl- isocyanate (MIC) along with other Most of us are familiar with crowds, which substances, showed disturbances in are large informal groups of persons memory, attention and alertness. coming together temporarily without any particular goal. For example, when a There can be harmful air pollution in famous person suddenly appears on the the home and office environment (indoor road, people who are present in the environments) also. For example, tobacco situation at the time often collect around smoke pollution, that is, pollution through the scene, just to watch this person. But cigarette, cigar or beedi smoking, can also crowding has a different meaning. It refers 158 Psychology 2019-20","to a feeling of discomfort because there are fifteen persons trying to squeeze into four too many people or things around us, seats in a railway compartment, each giving us the experience of physical person is likely to experience crowding. restriction, and sometimes the lack of Place the same fifteen persons in a large privacy. Crowding is the person\u2019s reaction hall, and nobody experiences crowding. to the presence of a large number of persons within a particular area or space. One may ask : Is crowding always When this number goes beyond a certain experienced in high density settings, and level, it causes stress to individuals caught do all people experience its negative effects in that situation. In this sense, crowding to the same extent? If you answered both is another example of an environmental questions by saying \u2018no\u2019, you are right. stressor. When we go to a fair (mela) or a wedding ceremony, usually the physical setting has The experience of crowding has the high density, and we enjoy it in that form. following features : After all, what is a mela or wedding \u2022 Feeling of discomfort, ceremony if there are very few people? On \u2022 Loss or decrease in privacy, the other hand, if there are many people \u2022 Negative view of the space around the sharing a small room, everyone feels uncomfortable. person, and \u2022 Feeling of loss of control over social The stressful effects of crowding can be completely understood only when we look interaction. into its consequences. A summary is given below of the effects of crowding and high The psychological consequences of density as reported in several research crowding in our country have been studies conducted in India and other systematically studied by several Indian countries. psychologists in many Indian cities such \u2022 Crowding and high density may lead to as Allahabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Varanasi, and Jaipur as well as some rural areas of abnormal behaviour and aggression. Rajasthan. Some of these research This was shown many years ago in a investigations of crowding have been study of rats. These animals were conducted in the psychology laboratory, placed in an enclosure, initially in small but many more have been carried out in numbers. As their population increased commonly encountered settings such as within this enclosed space, they started households, offices, traffic, public showing aggressive and unusual transport such as autorickshaw, cinema behaviour, such as biting the tails of halls, etc. The large population of our other rats. This aggressive behaviour country makes crowding much more here increased to such an extent that than in other less populated countries. ultimately the animals died in large This feature has prompted some foreign numbers, thus decreasing the psychologists to study the effects of population in the enclosure. Among crowding in India. human beings also, an increase in population has sometimes been found It should be understood that the to be accompanied by an increase in experience of crowding is brought about violent crime. not merely because of the large number of \u2022 Crowding leads to lowered performance persons as such, nor merely because of the on difficult tasks that involve cognitive shortage of space. It is related to density, processes, and has adverse effects on that is, the number of persons within the memory and the emotional state. These available space. For example, if there are Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 159 2019-20","negative effects are seen to a smaller Indians in general should have more extent in people who are used to crowding tolerance than people from crowded surroundings. other, less populated countries. \u2022 Children growing up in very crowded households show lower academic Competition tolerance is the ability to performance. They also show a weaker put up with a situation in which tendency to continue working on a task individuals would have to compete with if they are unsuccessful at it, compared many others for even basic resources, to children growing up in non-crowded including physical space. Since there is households. They experience greater a greater possibility of competition for conflict with their parents, and get less resources in a crowded setting, the support from their family members. reaction to that setting would be \u2022 The nature of social interaction influenced by the extent of tolerance for determines the degree to which an competition for resources. individual will react to crowding. For \u2022 Cultural characteristics may determine example, if the interaction is on a the extent to which a particular happy social occasion, such as a party environment is judged to be subjec- or public celebration, the presence of a tively more crowded or less crowded. large number of persons in the same They may also affect the nature and physical setting may cause no stress at extent of negative reactions to all. Rather, it may lead to positive crowding. For example, in cultures that emotional reactions. At the same time, emphasise the importance of the group crowding, in turn, also influences the or collectivity over the individual, the nature of social interaction. presence of a large number of people in \u2022 Individuals differ in the degree to which the surroundings is not taken as an they show negative effects of crowding, undesirable state. On the other hand, and also in the nature of these in cultures that emphasise the reactions. Two kinds of tolerance can importance of the individual over the be mentioned that may explain these group or collectivity, the presence of individual differences, i.e. crowding many other persons in the environment tolerance and competition tolerance. around us may make us un- comfortable. Overall, though, regardless Crowding tolerance refers to the of whether the culture considers the ability to mentally deal with a high group more important than the density or crowded environment, such individual, or the other way round, it as a crowded residence (a large number is clear that in all cultures, crowding is of persons within a small room). People experienced as being stressful. who are used to an environment \u2022 Personal space, or the comfortable containing many persons around them physical space one generally likes to (for example, individuals growing up in maintain around oneself, is affected by a large family that lives in a small a high density environment. In a house) develop more crowding tolerance crowded context, there is a restriction than people who are used to only a few on personal space, and this can also be persons around them. Our country has a cause of negative reactions to a large population and many people live crowding. with large families in small houses. This might lead us to expect that We find many examples of people responding to the physical environment in 160 Psychology 2019-20","terms of space. In social situations, a lift, or in a train compartment where human beings like to maintain a certain there are too many people). In such physical distance from the person with cramped spaces, an individual is likely to whom they are interacting. This is called feel crowded, even though objectively, the interpersonal physical distance, and is a number of persons is not very large. In part of a broader concept called personal short, people react to available space as a space, i.e. the physical space we like to part of the physical environment. When have all around us. One reason for the freedom of movement, the sense of privacy, negative reactions to crowding, as and personal space cannot be maintained described earlier, is the decrease in normally, the person experiences stress personal space. Personal space can vary and responds negatively \u2014 with a bad between people, between situations and mood, or aggressively, and tries to leave settings, and between cultures. Some the situation as soon as possible. average distances have been observed in certain cultures. Edward Hall, an The concept of personal space is anthropologist, mentioned four kinds of important for the following reasons. First, interpersonal physical distance, depending it explains many of the negative effects of on the situation: crowding as an environmental stressor. \u2022 Intimate distance (upto 18 inches) : The Second, it tells us about social relation- ships. For example, two persons sitting or distance you maintain when you are standing close together are seen to be talking privately to someone, or friends or related to each other. When you interacting with a very close friend or visit your school library, and if your friend relative. is sitting at a table and the place next to \u2022 Personal distance (18 inches to 4 feet) : her\/him is empty, you like to sit next to The distance you maintain when you her\/him. But if a person you do not know are interacting one-to-one with a close is sitting at the table, even if the place next friend, relative, or even with someone to her\/him is empty, it is unlikely that you not very close to you in a work setting will sit next to this person. Third, it gives or other social situation. us some idea about how physical space \u2022 Social distance (4 to 10 feet) : The can be modified in order to reduce stress distance you maintain when the or discomfort in social situations, or to interaction is formal, and not close. make social interaction more enjoyable and \u2022 Public distance (10 feet to infinity) : The fruitful. distance you maintain in a formal setting, where there is a large number Here are some simple examples. of persons. For example, the distance Suppose the staff in your school have to of an audience from a public speaker, decide how to arrange chairs when (i) there or a teacher in a classroom. is a social event, such as a cultural programme, (ii) there is a meeting between It may be noted that these distances are parents and teachers, and (iii) some guest maintained voluntarily, keeping in mind speakers have been invited to address the the comfort experienced by the persons students and teachers. Should the involved in the interaction. However, when arrangement of chairs be the same in all there is a shortage of space, people are three situations? You will find out more forced to maintain much smaller physical about what kind of seating arrangement distance from each other (for instance, in people choose in non-crowded settings if you conduct Activity 8.1. Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 161 2019-20","Activity What Kind of Seating Arrangements Do People Prefer? 8.1 Show the following diagrams, A, B, and C to 5 persons you know, and ask them where they would like to sit by writing \u2018P\u2019 in that place. [The \u2018X\u2019 in these pictures indicates the person who is already sitting there.] Note the places chosen by these 5 persons. Do these persons choose the same places? You may repeat this exercise by comparing the chosen places, when, in diagram A, X is a friend, in diagram B, X is someone you do not know, and in diagram C, X is someone you know well. A. X is your friend : B. X is someone you C. X is someone you know you are joining do not know well, and you well, both of you are her\/him for tea have to do some work participating in a in the canteen. with her\/him as a competition, and each team member. one wants to win. Where would you like to sit? Indicate by writing \u2018P\u2019 in the chosen place. Diagram A Diagram B Diagram C X X X Natural Disasters human lives and property. Sadly, they also lead to a psychological disorder, called Environmental stressors such as noise, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). various forms of pollution and crowding Science and technology have now are the result of human behaviour. By progressed sufficiently to make it possible contrast, natural disasters are stressful for human beings to predict these events, experiences that are the result of nature\u2019s to some extent. Yet the psychological fury, i.e. the consequence of disturbances effects of natural disasters need to be in the natural environment. Common understood and remedied. examples of natural disasters are earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones, What are the effects of natural and volcanic eruptions. One finds disasters? First, they leave people examples of other disasters also, such as poverty-stricken, homeless, without any wars, industrial accidents such as the resources, usually along with a loss of leaking of poisonous or radioactive everything they owned. Second, the elements in industrial plants, or epidemics sudden loss of all their belongings as well (e.g., the plague that affected some parts as their dear ones leaves people shocked of our country in 1994). However, wars and and stunned. This is sufficient to create a epidemics are human-made events, deep-seated psychological disorder. Natural although their effects can also be as severe disasters are traumatic experiences, i.e. as those of natural disasters. These events emotionally wounding and shocking to are called \u2018disasters\u2019 because they cannot those who survive the disaster. Post- be prevented, usually come without any traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a warning, and result in immense damage to severe psychological problem that results from traumatic events such as natural 162 Psychology 2019-20","disasters. This disorder has the following with proper counselling and psychiatric features. treatment, PTSD can be remedied at least \u2022 The immediate reaction to a disaster is upto a level where the victims can be motivated, and helped to start life afresh. commonly one of disorientation. People The poor, women who have lost all their take some time to understand the full relatives, and orphaned children who are meaning of what the disaster has done survivors of natural disasters need special to them. They may actually deny to treatment and care. As in the case of the themselves that something terrible has other environmental stressors, people react happened. Following the immediate with different intensities to natural reaction are the physical reactions. disasters. In general, the intensity of \u2022 Physical reactions, such as bodily reaction is affected by : exhaustion even without physical \u2022 The severity of the disaster, and the loss activity, difficulty in sleeping, change in the eating pattern, increased heartbeat incurred (both in terms of property and and blood pressure, and getting startled life), easily can be found among the victims. \u2022 The individual\u2019s general coping ability, \u2022 Emotional reactions, such as grief and and fear, irritability, anger (\u201cWhy should \u2022 Other stressful experiences before the this happen to me?\u201d), helplessness, disaster. For example, people who have hopelessness (\u201cI could do nothing to experienced stress before may find it prevent this event\u201d), depression, more difficult to deal with yet another sometimes absolute lack of emotion difficult and stressful situation. (numbness), guilt feelings for having survived while someone else in the Although we are aware that most family died, blaming oneself, and lack natural disasters can be predicted only in of interest in even routine activities. a limited way, there are ways of being \u2022 Cognitive reactions, such as worry, prepared to minimise their devastating difficulty in concentration, reduced consequences in the form of (a) warnings, span of attention, confusion, loss of (b) safety measures that can be taken memory, or vivid memories that immediately after the event, and are unwanted (or nightmares of the (c) treatment of psychological disorders. event). These measures, usually taken at the \u2022 Social reactions, such as withdrawal community level, are described below. from others, getting into conflict with \u2022 Warnings : If you have been listening others, having frequent arguments with even loved ones, and feeling rejected or to the radio in the recent past, you left out. Surprisingly, very often, in the might have heard advertisements that midst of severe emotional reactions to mention what people should do when stress, some survivors may actually it is announced that some natural help in the healing processes. Having disaster, such as a flood, is likely. been through the experience, yet When cyclones or high tides are survived it and staying alive, these predicted, fishermen are asked not to persons may develop a positive outlook venture into the sea. on life and, with empathy, pass on this \u2022 Safety measures : Unfortunately, in attitude to other survivors. the case of some natural disasters such as earthquakes, even if prediction is These reactions may last for a long time, possible, the events come too suddenly in some cases throughout life. However, for people to be warned or to be mentally prepared. Therefore, tips are Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 163 2019-20","given beforehand about what to do regard to crowding, it is entirely a human- when there is an earthquake. made problem. Natural disasters, of \u2022 Treatment of psychological course, are beyond human control. Yet one disorders : This includes self-help can take the necessary precautions. Some approaches as well as professional thoughts regarding environment-friendly treatment. Often, the very first step behaviour are stated in the next section. involves providing material relief in the form of food, clothing, medical help, PROMOTING PRO-ENVIRONMENTAL shelter, and financial help. Counselling BEHAVIOUR at the individual and group level is the next step. This can take many forms, Pro-environmental behaviour includes such as encouraging the survivors to both actions that are meant to protect the talk about their experiences and environment from problems, and to emotional state, and giving them time promote a healthy environment. Some for their emotional wounds to heal. promotive actions to protect the According to some experts who deal environment from pollution are : with PTSD, one of the key attitudes to \u2022 Reducing air pollution by keeping be developed in the survivors is that of self-efficacy, i.e. the belief that \u2018I can vehicles in good condition, or changing do it!\u2019, or \u2018I can come out of this phase to non-fuel driven vehicles, stopping successfully.\u2019 Psychiatric help may be the practice of smoking. needed for those showing extreme stress \u2022 Reducing noise pollution by ensuring reactions. Finally, rehabilitation in the that noise levels are low, for example, form of employment and a gradual discouraging needless honking on the return to the normal routine should be road, or making rules regarding noisy undertaken. At some stage, follow-up of music at certain hours. the victims and survivors is also needed \u2022 Managing disposal of garbage sensibly, in order to ensure that they have, for example, by encouraging separation indeed, recovered sufficiently from their of biodegradable garbage from non- traumatic experience. biodegradable waste, or composting of kitchen waste. These practices need to Activity Ask your teacher to help you to be adopted both at home and in public 8.2 conduct the following role play, along places. Special attention has to be paid with your classmates. Some students to the management of industrial and enact the role of victims of a natural hospital waste. disaster, showing symptoms of PTSD, \u2022 Planting trees and ensuring their care, while some others enact the role of keeping in mind that those plants and counsellors. Get the opinions of your trees should not be planted that have classmates and teacher about the adverse health effects. behaviour shown by the counsellors. \u2022 Saying \u2018no\u2019 to plastics in any form, thus reducing toxic wastes that pollute It may be pointed out that although water, air and the soil. pollution due to noise, air and water is now \u2022 Reducing the non-biodegradable here to stay, some practices on the part of packaging of consumer goods. the community can go a long way in \u2022 Laws related to construction (especially making our precious environment less in urban areas) that violate optimal polluted and healthier for all of us. With environmental design. 164 Psychology 2019-20","PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL CONCERNS person feels that s\/he has lost something valuable, and is not getting something If you ask someone to list the main what s\/he deserves. Poverty refers to an problems that our society faces today, you actual shortage of the resources necessary can be fairly sure that two problems will for living, and thus can be somewhat be mentioned, among others \u2014 poverty objectively defined. In deprivation, it is and violence. Both of these phenomena more a question of perceiving or thinking have noticeable effects on the physical as that one has got less than what one should well as psychological health of people. It have got. Thus, a poor person may has to be understood that poverty is not experience deprivation, but poverty is not merely an economic problem, and violence a necessary condition for experiencing is not merely a question of breaking the deprivation. The situation of the poor is law. Rather, these problems can be worsened if they also experience resolved only if we examine their deprivation. In reality, usually the poor psychological causes. Psychologists have also feel deprived. actively explored these issues, and have focused on the causes and consequences Both poverty and deprivation are of these phenomena. Each of these social linked to social disadvantage, i.e. a concerns is discussed below. condition because of which some sections of society are not allowed to enjoy the same Poverty and Discrimination privileges as the rest of society. Social disadvantage poses an obstacle to the Everyone agrees that poverty is a curse on growth of these sections. In our society, the society, and the more quickly we get rid of caste system has been largely the source it, the better it will be for society. Some of social disadvantage, but poverty, experts define poverty mainly in economic irrespective of caste, has also played a role terms, and measure it in terms of income, in creating social disadvantage. nutrition (the daily calorie intake per person), and the amount spent on basic Further, social disadvantage because necessities of life such as food, clothing of caste and poverty has created the and shelter. Some other indicators are also problem of discrimination. You may recall used, such as physical health and literacy. from Chapters 6 and 7 that discrimination Such measures continue to be used in is often linked to prejudice. In the context some contexts. However, from the social of poverty, discrimination refers to the and psychological points of view, economic behaviour that makes a distinction and other physical aspects tell only a small between the rich and the poor, favouring part of the story about poverty. From the the rich and the advantaged over the poor socio-psychological point of view, the most and the disadvantaged. This distinction commonly accepted definition of poverty is can be seen in matters of social interaction, that it is a condition in which there is a education, and employment. Thus, even if lack of necessities of life in the context of the poor or disadvantaged have the unequal distribution of wealth in society. capability, they are kept away from opportunities that are enjoyed by the rest Some authors add that the sense of of society. The children of the poor do not deprivation and social disadvantage are get a chance to study in good schools, or additional features of poverty. A distinction get good health facilities, and employment. between deprivation and poverty is that Social disadvantage and discrimination deprivation refers to the state in which a prevent the poor from improving their socio-economic condition through their Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 165 2019-20","own efforts, and this makes the poor even \u2022 With respect to social behaviour, the poorer. In short, poverty and poor and deprived sections exhibit an discrimination are related in such a way attitude of resentment towards the rest that discrimination becomes both a cause of society. and a consequence of poverty. Clearly, discrimination based on poverty or caste \u2022 Among the effects of prolonged is socially unjust, and has to be removed. deprivation on cognitive functioning, it has been found that intellectual Every society wishes to do away with functioning and performance on poverty. To proceed in this direction, it is tasks (such as classification, verbal important to know the psychological reasoning, time perception, and dimensions of poverty and deprivation, and pictorial depth perception) is lower their major causes. among the highly deprived compared to those who are less deprived. It has also Psychological Characteristics and Effects of been clarified that the effect of Poverty and Deprivation deprivation is because the nature of the environment in which children grow Considering that poverty and deprivation up \u2014 whether it is enriched or are among the glaring problems of our impoverished \u2014 makes a difference in society, Indian social scientists, including their cognitive development, and this is sociologists, psychologists and economists, reflected in cognitive task performance. have undertaken systematic research on the poor and deprived sections. Their \u2022 With regard to mental health, there is findings and observations show that an unquestionable relationship poverty and deprivation do have adverse between mental disorders and poverty effects on motivation, personality, social or deprivation. The poor are more likely behaviour, cognitive processes, and mental to suffer from specific mental illnesses health. compared to the rich, possibly due to \u2022 In terms of motivation, the poor have constant worriness about basic necessities, feelings of insecurity, or low aspirations and low achievement inability to get medical facilities, motivation, and high need for especially for mental illnesses. In fact, dependence. They explain their it has been suggested that depression successes in terms of luck or fate rather may be a mental disorder largely of the than ability or hard work. In general, poor. Besides, the poor experience a they believe that events in their lives sense of hopelessness and a loss of are controlled by factors outside them, identity, as though they do not belong rather than within them. to society. As a result, they also suffer \u2022 With regard to personality, the poor and from emotional and adjustment deprived have low self-esteem, are high problems. on anxiety and introversion, and dwell on the immediate present rather than Major Causes of Poverty being future-oriented. They prefer smaller immediate rewards to larger Poverty is sometimes caused by natural rewards in the long run, because in their disasters such as earthquakes, floods, and perception, the future is too uncertain. cyclones, or man-made disasters such as They live with a sense of hopelessness, poisonous gas leaks. When such events powerlessness, felt injustice, and take place, people suddenly lose all their experience a loss of identity. possessions and have to face poverty. 166 Psychology 2019-20","Similarly, one generation of the poor may However, attempts can be made to help be unable to eradicate their poverty, and people in such regions to find the next generation continues to remain in alternative means of livelihood, and to poverty. Apart from these causes, other provide special facilities for their factors responsible for poverty have been education and employment. mentioned below. However, there are some \u2022 The poverty cycle is another important differences of opinion regarding the cause of poverty that explains why importance of these factors. poverty tends to continue among the \u2022 The poor themselves are responsible for same sections of society. Poverty begets poverty. Beginning with a low income their poverty. According to this view, and lack of resources, the poor go the poor lack the ability and motivation through low health and nutrition, lack to put in effort, and make use of of education, and lack of skills. This available opportunities. In general, leads to low employment opportunities, such a view about the poor is rather which, in turn, continue their low negative, and does not help at all in income condition, and low health and making them better. nutrition status. The resulting lowered \u2022 It is not the individual, but a belief motivational level only makes the system, a way of life, and values, in situation worse; the cycle starts and which she\/he is brought up, that is the continues again. Thus, the poverty cycle cause of poverty. This belief system, involves an interaction between the called the \u2018culture of poverty\u2019, factors mentioned above, and results in convinces the person that she\/he will declining individual motivation, hope, continue to remain poor, and the belief and sense of control. is carried over from one generation of the poor to the next. The only way to tackle the problems \u2022 Economic, social and political factors associated with poverty and deprivation is together account for poverty. Because to work actively as well as earnestly of discrimination, certain sections of towards the removal or reduction of society are denied the opportunities poverty. Some measures in that direction needed for getting even the basic are described below. necessities of life. The economic system is made to grow in a disproportionate Measures for Poverty Alleviation way, through social and political exploitation, so that the poor are left out Several steps are being taken by the of the race. All these factors can be government and other groups to work summed up in the idea of social towards alleviation or reduction of poverty disadvantage, because of which the poor and its negative consequences. experience social injustice, deprivation, \u2022 Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping discrimination, and exclusion. \u2022 The geographic region in which one the poor to attain self-sufficiency \u2014 lives is said to be a significant cause of Initially, financial relief, medical and poverty. For example, people living in other facilities may have to be provided regions (such as deserts) that have a to the poor. Care should be taken to see shortage of natural resources and a that this financial and other help does harsh climate (such as extreme heat or not make the poor dependent on these cold) end up being poor. This factor sources for their livelihood. cannot be controlled by human beings. \u2022 Creating a context for making the poor take responsibility instead of blame for Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 167 2019-20","their poverty \u2014 This step will help them is provided through small loans or micro- to regain a sense of hope, control and credit facilities. This facility is similar to the identity. idea of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. \u2022 Providing educational and employment opportunities, following the principles Following the 73rd amendment of the of social justice \u2014 This step may help Constitution, the aim is to give more power the poor to discover their own abilities to people for their development through and skills, thus enabling them to come decentralised planning, and through up to the level of other sections of people\u2019s participation. ActionAid, an society. This will also help in reducing international group dedicated to the cause crime and violence by reducing of the poor, has goals of making the poor frustration, and by encouraging the more sensitive to their rights, to equality poor to earn their livelihood through and justice, and ensuring for them legal rather than illegal means. adequate nutrition, health, and facilities for \u2022 Measures for improved mental health \u2014 education and employment. The Indian Many of the poverty reduction branch of this organisation has been measures help to improve the physical working for poverty alleviation in our health of the poor, but their mental country. health still remains a problem to be tackled effectively. With greater These measures cannot be expected to awareness of this problem, it is hoped have magical effects in a short time. But, that more attention will be paid to this if these efforts towards poverty alleviation aspect of poverty. are continued in the right spirit and right \u2022 Steps for empowering the poor \u2014 direction, we may see positive results in Through the measures mentioned the very near future. above, the poor should be made more powerful, capable of living indepen- You must have heard the proverb, \u2018A Activity dently and with dignity, without bird in hand is worth two in the 8.3 depending on the help given by the bush\u2019. government or other groups. Would people experiencing The concept of \u2018Antyodaya\u2019, or the rise poverty \u2018Agree\u2019 or \u2018Disagree\u2019 with this of the \u2018last person\u2019 in society, i.e. the proverb? Why? Discuss in class with poorest or the most disadvantaged, has your teacher. helped a large section of the poor to get uplifted to a better economic condition Aggression, Violence and Peace than they have experienced earlier. Under Antyodaya programmes, there is provision Aggression and violence are among the for health facilities, nutrition, education major problems in today\u2019s society, and they and training for employment \u2014 all the cover a wide range of behaviours \u2014 from areas in which the poor need help. Many ragging of newcomers in educational of these programmes are more active in institutes, through child abuse, domestic rural than in urban regions, as the rural violence, murder and rape, to riots and poor have even fewer facilities than the terrorist attacks. urban poor. In addition, the poor are encouraged to start their own small-scale Psychologists use the term \u2018aggression\u2019 businesses. Initial capital for these ventures to refer to any behaviour by one person\/ persons that is intended to cause harm to another person\/persons. It can be demonstrated in actual action or through the use of harsh words or criticism, or even 168 Psychology 2019-20","hostile feelings against others. Forceful 2. Physiological mechanisms : Aggression destructive behaviour towards another could also be indirectly triggered by person or object is described as violence. physiological mechanisms, especially by Some psychologists distinguish aggression the activation of certain parts of the from violence by pointing out that brain that play a role in emotional aggressive behaviour involves the intention experience. A general physiological to harm or injure another person, whereas state of arousal, or feeling activated, violence may or may not involve such an might often be expressed in the form of intention. For example, burning buses or aggression. There could be several other public property during a riot is called factors that cause arousal. For violence as well as aggression. But, example, as was seen earlier in this suppose you see a person kicking a chapter, aggression can result from a motorbike violently. Her\/his intention may sense of crowding, especially in hot and be only to start the vehicle and, therefore, humid weather. this act will not be considered a case of aggression. On the other hand, the person 3. Child-rearing : The way an individual is may also perform the violent act in order brought up often influences her\/his to damage the vehicle, because it belongs aggressiveness. For example, children to a person s\/he dislikes. In this case, whose parents use physical punish- because harm was intended, the act would ment end up becoming more aggressive be called a case of aggression. than children whose parents use other disciplinary techniques. This could be A distinction is also made between because the parent has set an example instrumental aggression and hostile of aggressive behaviour, which the child aggression. In instrumental aggression, imitates. It could also be because the act of aggression is meant to obtain a physical punishment makes the child certain goal or object. For example, a bully angry and resentful; as the child grows slaps a new student in school so that up, s\/he expresses this anger through s\/he can snatch the newcomer\u2019s chocolate. aggressive behaviour. Hostile aggression is that which is shown as an expression of anger towards the 4. Frustration : Aggression is an target, with the intention of harming her\/ expression, and consequence of him, even if the aggressor does not wish frustration, i.e. an emotional state that to obtain anything from the victim. For arises when a person is prevented from example, a criminal may beat up a person reaching a goal, or attaining an object in the community for mentioning his name that s\/he wants. The person may be to the police. very close to the goal, and yet does not attain it. It has been found that people Causes of Aggression in frustrated situations show more aggression than those who are not Social psychologists have explored the frustrated. In one of the experiments issue of aggression for several years, and conducted to examine the effects of have come up with the following views frustration, children were prevented about the causes of aggression. from getting some attractive toys that 1. Inborn tendency : Aggressiveness is an were visible through a screen. As a result, these children were found to be inborn tendency among human beings more destructive in play than those (as it is in animals). Biologically, this children who were allowed access inborn tendency may be meant for self- to toys. defence. Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 169 2019-20","An American psychologist, John \u2022 Observing an aggressive model : Many Dollard along with his collaborators, research studies conducted by conducted research specifically to examine psychologists such as Albert Bandura the frustration-aggression theory. This and his collaborators show the role of theory proposes that it is frustration that modelling in learning aggression. If a leads to aggression. As expected, frustrated child observes aggression and violence persons did demonstrate more aggression on television, s\/he may start imitating than non-frustrated persons. Moreover, that behaviour. Without doubt violence such aggression was often shown towards and aggression shown on television and a weaker person who was unlikely, the film media have a powerful or unable, to react to the aggression. influence on the viewers, especially the This phenomenon has been called children. But the question is : Does displacement. Often it is observed that merely seeing violence on television members of a majority group in society make a person aggressive? Or are there may be prejudiced (Chapter 6) against other situational factors that actually members of a minority group, and may make a person show aggression? The show aggressive behaviour towards a answer is obtained through information minority group member, such as using about specific situational factors. abusive language, or even physically assaulting the minority group member. \u2022 Anger-provoking action by others : If a This may be a case of displaced aggression person watches a movie that shows arising out of frustration. violence, and is then made to feel angry (for example, through insults or threats, Later on, as more information was physical aggression, or dishonesty) by gathered about the causes of aggression, another person, s\/he may be more it became clear that frustration is not the likely to show aggression than if s\/he only, or even a major cause of aggression. is not made to feel angry. In studies Observations showed that (i) being that tested the frustration-aggression frustrated does not necessarily make a theory, provoking the person and person aggressive, and (ii) many other making her\/him angry was one way of situational factors may lead to aggression. inducing frustration. Some of these situational factors are described below. \u2022 Availability of weapons of aggression : \u2022 Learning : Among human beings, Some researchers have found that observing violence leads to a greater aggression is largely the result of likelihood of aggression on the part of learning rather than an expression of the observer only if weapons of an inborn tendency. Learning of aggression like a stick, pistol or knife aggression can take place in more than are easily available. one mode. Individuals may exhibit aggression because they have found it \u2022 Personality factors : When interacting rewarding (for example, hostile with people we notice that some of aggression allows the aggressive person them seem to be \u2018naturally\u2019 more hot- to get what s\/he wants). This would be tempered, and show more aggression a case of learning through direct than others. We may conclude that reinforcement. Individuals also learn to aggressiveness is thus a personal be aggressive by observing others quality. It has been observed that showing aggression. This is a case of people who have very low self-esteem learning through modelling. and feel insecure may behave aggressively in order to \u2018boost their ego\u2019. 170 Psychology 2019-20","Likewise, people who have very high creating the appropriate attitude towards self-esteem may also show aggression, the general problem of growing aggression. because they feel that others do not \u2022 Parents and teachers should be place them at the high \u2018level\u2019 at which they have placed themselves. specially careful not to encourage or \u2022 Cultural factors : The culture in which reward aggression in any form. The use one grows up can teach its members to of punishment to bring about discipline be aggressive or not by encouraging also needs to be changed. and praising aggressive behaviour, or \u2022 Opportunities to observe and imitate discouraging and criticising such the behaviour of aggressive models behaviour. Some tribal communities are should be reduced drastically. traditionally peace-loving, whereas Portraying aggression as heroic others see aggression as necessary for behaviour should be particularly survival. avoided, because this may set the stage for learning through observation. Reducing Aggression and Violence : Some \u2022 Poverty and social injustice may be a Strategies prominent cause of aggression, because they can cause frustration in certain Knowing that aggression can have more sections of society. Implementing social than one cause, can anything be done to justice and equality in society may help reduce aggression and violence in society? in reducing frustration levels and Some of the remedies suggested for thereby curb aggressive tendencies at curbing violence and aggression are least to some extent. described below. It may not be easy to \u2022 Apart from these strategies, at the level ensure a society or environment that is free of the community or society, it is from frustrating situations. However, the important to inculcate a positive learning of aggression can be curtailed by attitude towards peace. We should not only reduce aggression, but should also Mahatma Gandhi on Non-violence: Why Does Non-violence Work? Box 8.2 \u201cNon-violence is an active force of the highest order. It is the soul-force or the power of the Godhead within us. Imperfect man cannot grasp the whole of that Essence \u2014 he would not be able to bear its full blaze, but even an infinitesimal fraction of it, when it becomes active within us, can work wonders. I am not a visionary; I claim to be a practical idealist. The religion of non-violence is not meant for the rishis or saints. It is meant for the common people as well. Non- violence is the law of our species as violence is the law of the brute \u2026. The dignity of man requires obedience to a higher law \u2014 to the strength of the spirit. Non-violence does not require any outside or outward training. It simply requires the will not to kill even in retaliation and the courage to face death without revenge. This is no sermon on ahimsa but cold reason and the statement of a universal law. Given the unquenchable faith in the law, no provocation should prove too great for the exercise of forbearance. With satya (truth) combined with ahimsa (non-violence), you can bring the world under your feet. Satyagrah in its essence is nothing but the introduction of truth and gentleness in the political, i.e. national life \u2026. By its very nature, non-violence cannot seize power, nor can that be its goal. However, non-violence can do more; it can effectively control and guide power without capturing the machinery of government. That is its beauty.\u201d Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 171 2019-20","actively develop and maintain peace. as a result of fully functioning machine Our own cultural values have always which has no blockage. The different favoured peaceful and harmonious systems of medicine developed in different co-existence. The father of our nation, cultures are based on these models. There Mahatma Gandhi, gave the world a new is another fact that you may want to know. view on peace that was not simply the The World Health Reports by the WHO absence of aggression. This was the show that in developing countries such as idea of non-violence, which he himself in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, more practiced throughout his life (see people die due to communicable diseases Box 8.2). including HIV\/AIDS, tuberculosis (TB), malaria, respiratory infections, and Health nutritional deficiencies. In the developed countries, the leading causes are various Our understanding about health and well- cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and being has undergone a major change in psychiatric disorders. Such differences may recent times. It is now conceded that be explained in terms of how these societies various health outcomes are not only a are economically and socially structured function of disease but the way we think and their psychological underpinnings. and behave. This finds reflection in the definition of \u2018health\u2019 provided by the World At the individual level, psychologists Health Organisation (WHO), which point to various factors such as health- includes biological, psychological and related cognitions including attitudes and social aspects of health. It focuses not only beliefs, behaviours and social factors which on physical but also on mental and are associated with physical well-being or spiritual aspects of health. We will concern illness. ourselves with physical health in this (a) Cognitions : You may have observed section as you have already read about how some people are quick to seek doctor\u2019s mental health in the previous chapters. help while others do not if they are suffering from such symptoms as nausea, Health and illness are a matter of cold, diarrhoea, smallpox, etc. The degree. One may be suffering from a variations in seeking help are due to physically disabling disease but may be differences in mental representations quite healthy otherwise. You may recall the people make relating to disease, its severity names of Baba Amte or Stephen Hawkins, and the causes of disease. One may not both of whom suffer from crippling seek doctor\u2019s help for a cold if one diseases but have made great attributes it to eating curd or for leprosy contributions in their fields. We also find or smallpox if these are attributed to God\u2019s that people differ across cultures in their annoyance. thinking about when and how people fall ill and, therefore, in the models which they The level of awareness or information use in prevention of diseases and about disease; and beliefs about how it is promotion of health. There are traditional caused; and about possible ways of cultures like Chinese, Indian, and Latin relieving the distress or improving health American which hold that good health affect help seeking behaviour as well as results from the harmonious balance of sticking to a doctor\u2019s regimen. Another various elements in the body, and ill-health factor which influences our help-seeking results when such a balance is lost. On the from a doctor is the perception of pain, contrary, the Western cultures view health which is a function of personality, anxiety and social norms. 172 Psychology 2019-20","(b) Behaviour : Psychologists have found a mixed impact. Most of the research strong evidence which shows that studies have been carried out on children behaviours we engage in and our lifestyles because they are seen as being more greatly influence health. People differ vulnerable to the impact of television than greatly in terms of such behavioural risk adults. factors as smoking or tobacco use, alcohol and drug abuse, and unsafe sexual First, television provides a large amount behaviour, diet and physical exercise. It is of infotainment in an attractive form, and well accepted now that such behaviours in the visual mode, for which it became a are associated with incidence of coronary powerful medium of instruction. At the heart disease (CHD), cancer, and HIV\/AIDS same time, because the programmes are besides many other diseases. A new attractive, children spend huge amounts of discipline called Behaviour Medicine has time watching them. This reduces their emerged, which seeks to alleviate stress habit of reading and writing, and also their due to diseases through modification in outdoor activities such as playing. behaviour. (c) Social and cultural factors : There is Second, television watching may have now a growing body of research which an effect on children\u2019s ability to shows that social and cultural differences concentrate on one target, their creativity may influence our physiological responses, and ability to understand, and also their and may not be the same across all social interactions. On one hand, there are cultures. For instance, the relationship excellent programmes that emphasise between hostility and anger and CHD is positive interpersonal attitudes and provide not found to be the same in all cultures, useful factual information, teaching (e.g., in India and China). While interaction children how to design and construct between culture and physiological certain objects. On the other hand, these responses requires more evidence, social programmes may distract young viewers and cultural norms associated with roles, and interfere with their ability to and gender, etc. greatly influence our concentrate on one target. health behaviour. In Indian society, medical advice by or for a female is often Third, about forty years ago a serious delayed because of various reasons \u2014 they debate was raised in the USA and Canada are less valued, or because of the belief regarding the effect of television viewing on that they are hardy, or the shame aggressiveness and violence among the associated with the disease. viewers, especially children. As discussed earlier in the context of aggression, the Impact of Television on Behaviour results of research showed that watching violence on television was, indeed, linked There is no doubt that television has been to greater aggressiveness in the viewers. If a useful product of technological progress. the viewers were children, they tended to However, from the point of its psychological imitate what they saw; they were not impact on human beings, both positive and mature enough to think of the negative effects have been observed. Many consequences of such behaviour. However, research studies have inquired into the some other studies pointed out that merely effects of television viewing on cognitive watching violence on the television does processes and social behaviour, especially not make children more aggressive. Other in Western cultures. Their findings show factors need to be present in the situation. Other research findings show that watching violence may actually reduce the Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 173 2019-20","natural aggressive tendency of the viewers : evidence to pose a warning to unlimited what is \u2018bottled up\u2019 gets an outlet, and thus television watching. cleans the system, like a choked drainpipe being cleaned. This process is called Make a list of all those pieces of Activity catharsis. information that you obtained by 8.4 watching TV in the last one week, Fourth, in the case of adults as well as and write down the answers to the children, it is said that a consumerist following questions : attitude has developed, and this is due to television watching. Numerous products Which shows did you watch? are advertised, and it is very natural for the Which pieces of information viewer to get carried away. indicate a positive form of behaviour, and which ones indicate a negative No matter how these results are form? interpreted, there seems to be sufficient Key Terms Aggression, Air pollution, Communicable diseases, Competition tolerance, Crowding tolerance, Crowding, Disaster, Displacement, Ecology, Environment, Environmental psychology, Instrumental perspective, Modelling, Noise, Peace, Personal space, Physical environment, Post-traumatic stress disorders, Poverty alleviation, Poverty, Pro-environmental behaviour, Self-efficacy, Social Environment, Spiritual perspective, Transactional approach. \u2022 We take renewable and non-renewable resources from the physical environment to meet the needs of growing population, rapid industrialisation and human consumption. Undesirable human activities have altered the conditions in the environment that have resulted in pollution, noise, crowding and intensified the occurrence of natural disasters. \u2022 The environmental crises and their solutions can be understood through transactional and traditional Indian approach. \u2022 Pollution adversely affects our mental and physical health and psychological processes. \u2022 Noise also adversely affects our thinking, memory and learning. The elevated sound levels can cause permanent hearing loss, increase heartbeat, blood pressure and muscle tension. \u2022 Crowding is the psychological feeling of not having enough space available. Crowding negatively affects cognitive performance, interpersonal relationships, and physical and mental health. \u2022 A natural disaster disrupts the normalcy within a society and causes damage, destruction and human suffering. In the aftermath of a disaster, post-traumatic stress disorder is the most common feature. Counselling the disaster-affected people and creating scope for collective activities can reduce such stress. Also, preparedness of individuals and communities to respond rapidly and effectively to possible disasters can lessen the adverse effects. \u2022 Pro-environmental behaviour includes both actions that are meant to protect the environment from problems, and to promote a healthy environment. \u2022 Social and psychological concerns arise out of vexed problems that affect a large segment of people in a society. 174 Psychology 2019-20","\u2022 Lower economic status entails poverty. It relates to deprivation and disadvantage. It adversely affects cognitive performance, personality and social behaviour. Many programmes are being implemented for social and economic empowerment of the poor. \u2022 Aggression and violence are among the major problems in today\u2019s society. The learning of aggression can be curtailed by creating the appropriate attitude towards the general problem of growing aggression. \u2022 Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. The challenge before the nation is to reduce communicable diseases like diarrhoea, tuberculosis and HIV\/AIDS, and non-communicable diseases like anaemia, cancer, diabetes and stress-related disorders. Positive lifestyle habits can induce positive emotions, physical fitness and reduce the health problems. \u2022 Both positive and negative effects of television viewing on human behaviour have been observed. Most of the research studies have been carried out on children because they are seen as being more vulnerable to the impact of television than adults. Review Questions 1. What do you understand by the term \u2018environment\u2019? Explain the different perspectives to understand the human-environment relationship. 2. \u201cHuman beings affect and are affected by the environment\u201d. Explain this statement with the help of examples. 3. What is noise? Discuss the effects of noise on human behaviour. 4. What are the salient features of crowding? Explain the major psychological consequences of crowding. 5. Why is the concept of \u2018personal space\u2019 important for human beings? Justify your answer with the help of an example. 6. What do you understand by the term \u2018disaster\u2019? List the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. How can it be remedied? 7. What is pro-environmental behaviour? How can the environment be protected from pollution? Suggest some strategies. 8. How is \u2018poverty\u2019 related to \u2018discrimination\u2019? Explain the major psychological effects of poverty and deprivation. 9. Distinguish between \u2018instrumental aggression\u2019 and \u2018hostile aggression\u2019. Suggest some strategies to reduce aggression and violence. 10. Discuss the psychological impact of television viewing on human behaviour. How can its adverse consequences be reduced? Explain. Project 1. Conduct a survey of 10 households in your locality. Prepare an interview schedule and Ideas meet the head of each household and ask: What pollutions do you experience? What are the effects of each pollution on the health of your family members? Summarise the data, and divide the health effects into physical and mental symptoms or diseases. Prepare a report and offer suggestions on how pollution can be abetted. 2. Conduct a survey of 20 elderly people in your locality to understand their social problems and their remedies. Prepare a list of the social problems, and write them on cards (4\u201d \u00b4 4\u201d). Request each elderly person to arrange the cards in order of priority, keeping the most important social problem first and the least important social problem last. Enter the rank in your schedule against each problem and ask the causes and remedies of each problem arranged on the card. Prepare a report and discuss it with your teacher. Chapter 8 \u2022 Psychology and Life 175 2019-20","Weblinks http:\/\/library.thinkquest.org\/25009\/causes\/causes.cycle.html http:\/\/www.news.cornell.edu\/Chronicle\/99\/2.18.99\/crowding.html http:\/\/www.helpguide.org\/mental\/psychological_trauma.htm http:\/\/joannecantor.com\/montrealpap_fin.htm Pedagogical Hints 1. Students could be asked to share their views, by giving real-life examples, on psychological effects of noise, pollution, crowding and natural disasters on human behaviour. 2. Students may be encouraged to think of various initiatives taken by the government and the NGOs working in the field of environment, while discussing the topic of promoting pro-environmental behaviour. 3. Teachers could adopt strategies like questions, stories, anecdotes, games, experiments, discussion, dialogues, examples, analogies, role-playing, etc. which are helpful in promoting peace-related values while transacting the contents of the chapter. 4. In the topic of psychology and social concerns, teachers should attempt to shift from mere imparting of information to debate and discussion. This approach to learning will keep the students alive to social realities. 176 Psychology 2019-20","DEVELOPING PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand the need to develop skills among psychologists, describe the basic aspects of observational skills, know the significance of developing communication skills, understand the importance of psychological testing skills in individual assessment, and explain the nature and process of counselling. Introduction Developing as an Effective Psychologist General Skills Intellectual and Personal Skills; Sensitivity to Diversity : Individual and Cultural Differences (Box 9.1) Observational Skills Specific Skills Communication Skills Characteristics of Communication (Box 9.2) CONTENTS Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills (Box 9.3) Psychological Testing Skills Essentials of Psychological Assessment Skills (Box 9.4) Interviewing Skills Types of Interview Questions (Box 9.5) Key Terms Counselling Skills Summary Review Questions Project Ideas Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 2019-20","Introduction As you have already studied in the previous class, psychology began as an application-oriented discipline. Psychological testing stands as a prime example of psychology in action. Psychology touches on many questions related to our lives. For example, what kind of personality make-up is required to become a successful human being? Or what would be the right vocation for a student studying in Class XII ? Similarly, there are other questions and curiosities about human beings which psychologists are asked to answer. Psychology has two kinds of application-related images: first, as a service-oriented discipline and second, as a scientific method-driven research discipline. Both of these are interrelated and inseparable. It would be important to learn that there are certain factors which contribute in making psychology application-oriented. First, psychologists have found, both in the past and present, that solutions to many problems faced by the individuals, groups, organisations and societies require an understanding of psychological principles. As problems encountered by individuals as well as societies have become more evident and acute, psychologists have responded with concrete solutions. For instance, rapid increase in depressive tendencies and suicidal rates among adolescents is one such area, where psychological knowledge dedicated to the issues of adolescent development is utilised for getting a clearer understanding of the occurrence of these phenomena, and certain intervention models are developed to assist the youth experiencing such problems early in their lives. The other reason is that expertise of psychologists has been highly valued in the marketplace. Over the past few years, there is a growing acceptability and demand of psychology as a profession. Various sections of society have developed a keen interest towards integrating the knowledge of psychology within their core activities. It can be seen particularly in the army or in the field of education, where in some states it has become mandatory for the schools to have a trained counsellor, in the field of management, which seeks help of psychologists to combat problems related to recruitment and assessment, employee behaviour, workplace stress, etc., in management of health-related problems and more recently even in sports. These are not the only areas. Almost all areas of life are calling for help from psychologists. One aspect common to all the applied field is required to have interest in other areas within psychology is a universal people and exhibits a willingness to provide agreement on the basic assumptions about help by using her\/his knowledge of the human nature and the role of a discipline. One can find active involvement psychologist in different settings. It is of a psychologist in obtaining the generally assumed that psychologists have client\u2019s history, her\/his socio-cultural interest in people, their abilities and environment, assessment of her\/his temperaments. A psychologist from any personality and also on other important 178 Psychology 2019-20","dimensions. One might think that client is of how to differentiate between a pseudo- a special term, which is mostly used in a psychologist from a real psychologist. clinical or counselling set-up. In psychology, a client may refer to an An answer can be constructed by individual\/group\/organisation who on asking such questions like professional her\/his own seeks help, guidance or training, educational background, intervention from a psychologist with institutional affiliation, and her\/his respect to any problem faced by her\/him. experience in providing service. However, what is critical is training as a researcher The term \u2018skill\u2019 may be defined as and internalisation of certain professional proficiency, facility or dexterity that is values. It is now recognised that the acquired or developed through training and knowledge of tools used by psychologists, experience. The Webster dictionary defines their methods and theories are required to it as \u201cpossession of the qualities required develop psychological expertise. For to do something or get something done\u201d. example, a professional psychologist addresses the problem at the scientific American Psychological Association level. They take their problem to the (1973) in their task force constituted laboratory or study it in field settings to with the objective to identify skills answer various problems. S\/he tries to find essential for professional psychologists the answer in terms of mathematical recommended at least three sets of skills. probability. Only then does s\/he arrive at These are: assessment of individual psychological principles or laws that can differences, behaviour modification skills, be depended upon. and counselling and guidance skills. Recognition and application of these skills Here, another distinction should be and competencies have strengthened the made. Some psychologists carry out foundation and practices of applied research to propound or investigate psychology in a positive way. How can one theoretical formulations while others are develop into a professional psychologist? concerned with our daily life activities and behaviour. We need both types of DEVELOPING AS AN EFFECTIVE psychologists. We need some scientists to PSYCHOLOGIST develop theories and others to find solutions to human problems. It is Most people think that they are some kind important to know about the conditions of psychologists. We, at times, talk about and competencies that are necessary intelligence, inferiority complex, identity besides research skills for a psychologist. crisis, mental blocks, attitude, stress, There are conditions and competencies for communication barriers and so many other psychologists which have come to be terms. Generally people pick up such recognised internationally. terms from popular writings and media. There are a lot of common sense notions They cover a range of knowledge that about human behaviour that one develops a psychologist should possess when in the course of their lives. Some regularity entering the profession after completing in human behaviour is frequently observed their education and training. These apply by us to warrant generalisation. This kind to practitioners, academicians, and of everyday amateur psychology often researchers whose roles involve consulting misfires, sometimes even proves with students, business, industry, and disastrous. There still remains a question broader community. It is recognised that it is difficult to develop, implement and Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 179 2019-20","measure competencies required in a environmental settings, or are acting as subject like psychology as the criteria for consultants. These skills include personal specification, identification and evaluation as well as intellectual skills. It is expected are not yet fully agreed upon. that it will not be proper to provide any form of professional training (in clinical or The basic skills or competencies which organisational fields) to students who do psychologists have identified for becoming not possess these skills. Once a student an effective psychologist fall into three has these skills, subsequent training in broad sections, namely, (a) General Skills, her\/his area of specialisation would only (b) Observational Skills, and (c) Specific refine and further hone these skills Skills. These are discussed in detail here. required by a professional within her\/his field of specialisation. Some examples of GENERAL SKILLS such skills are given in Box 9.1. These skills are generic in nature and are OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS needed by all psychologists irrespective of their field of specialisation. These skills are A great deal of what psychologists as essential for all professional psychologists, researchers and practitioners do in the whether they are working in the field of field is to pay attention, watch and listen clinical and health psychology, industrial\/ carefully. They use all the senses, noticing organisational, social, educational, or in Box 9.1 Intellectual and Personal Skills 1. Interpersonal Skills: ability to listen and be empathic, to develop respect for\/interest in others\u2019 cultures, experiences, values, points of view, goals and desires, fears, openness to receive feedback, etc. These skills are expressed verbally and\/or non-verbally. 2. Cognitive Skills: ability to solve problems, engage in critical thinking and organised reasoning, and having intellectual curiosity and flexibility. 3. Affective Skills: emotional control and balance, tolerance\/understanding of interpersonal conflict, tolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty. 4. Personality\/Attitude: desire to help others, openness to new ideas, honesty\/integrity\/ value ethical behaviour, personal courage. 5. Expressive Skills: ability to communicate one\u2019s ideas, feelings and information in verbal, non-verbal, and written forms. 6. Reflective Skills: ability to examine and consider one\u2019s own motives, attitudes, behaviours and ability to be sensitive to one\u2019s own behaviour or others. 7. Personal Skills: personal organisation, personal hygiene, time management, and appropriate dress. Sensitivity to Diversity : Individual and Cultural Differences \u2022 Knowledge of self (one\u2019s own attitudes, values, and related strengths\/limitations) as one operates in the professional settings with diverse others. \u2022 Knowledge about the nature and impact of individual and cultural diversity in different situations. \u2022 Ability to work effectively with diverse backgrounds in assessment, treatment, and consultation. \u2022 Ability to respect and appreciate different cultural norms and beliefs. \u2022 Being sensitive to one\u2019s preferences and also to one\u2019s preference for own group. \u2022 Ability to promote diversity in cultural beliefs and respecting it to promote positive life outcomes. 180 Psychology 2019-20","what is seen, heard, smelt, tasted, or care not to disclose any information to touched. A psychologist, thus, is like an anyone. instrument that absorbs all sources of You are already familiar with two major information from the environment. You approaches to observation, viz. naturalistic have already studied about observation in observation and participant observation. Let Class XI. We will, therefore, focus more on us now consider developing skills about developing observational skills this year. them. Naturalistic Observation is one of the A psychologist engages in observing primary ways of learning about the way various facets of surroundings including people behave in a given setting. Suppose, people and varying events. To begin with, you want to learn how people behave in a psychologist may begin with carefully response to a heavy discount provided by scrutinising the physical setting in order a company while visiting a shopping mall. to capture its \u201catmosphere\u201d. S\/he might For this, you could visit the shopping mall look at the colour of the floor\/ceiling, size where the discounted items are showcased of the window\/doors, type of lighting, and systematically observe what people do artefacts\/paintings\/sculptures, etc. These and say before and after the purchases small, subtle, and irrelevant looking have been made. Making comparison of signals influence human behaviour, which this kind may provide you with useful is why a psychologist notes such signals insights into what is going on. in the surroundings. In addition to Participant Observation is the physical surroundings, a psychologist variation of the method of naturalistic actively engages in observing people and observation. Here the observer is actively their actions. This may include the involved in the process of observing by demographic features (age, gender, stature, becoming an active member of the setting race, etc.), ways of dealing and relating where the observation takes place. For with others, pattern of behaviours in the instance, for the problem mentioned above, presence of others, etc. A psychologist an observer may take a part-time job in a records such details because something of shopping mall showroom to become an significance may be revealed in the process insider in order to observe variations in the of observation. The following points are behaviour of customers. This technique is taken into consideration while making an widely used by anthropologists whose observation: objective is to gain a firsthand perspective \u2022 Observe patiently; of a system from within which otherwise \u2022 Pay close attention to your physical may not be readily available to an outsider. surroundings \u2014 who, what, when, Advantages and Disadvantages of where, and how; Observation \u2022 Be aware of people\u2019s reactions, emotions, and motivations; \u2022 Its major advantage is that it allows \u2022 Ask questions that can be answered behaviour to be seen and studied in its while observing; natural setting. \u2022 Be yourself, give information about yourself, if asked; \u2022 People from outside, or those already \u2022 Observe with an optimistic curiosity; working in a setting, can be trained to and use it. \u2022 Be ethical, you have to respect privacy, norms of people you are observing; take \u2022 One disadvantage of it is that events being observed are subject to bias due Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 181 2019-20","to the feelings of the people involved as skills in assessment, facilitation and well as of the observers. consultation, behavioural skills to bring \u2022 Generally day-to-day activities in a about individual, group, team and given setting are fairly routine, which organisational development besides can go unnoticed by the observer. research skills, etc. Though, specific skills \u2022 Another potential pitfall is that the and competencies are required for a very actual behaviour and responses of specialised professional functioning, others may get influenced by the nonetheless, all skill sets do overlap quite presence of the observer, thus, a bit. They are not exclusive to an area. defeating the very purpose of Relevant specific skills and competencies observation. can be classified as follows: (a) Communication Skills Activity Evaluating Your Interpersonal 9.1 Skills \u2022 Speaking \u2022 Active listening Write down on a piece of paper how you would describe yourself on the \u2022 Body language or non-verbal skills following aspects : (b) Psychological Testing Skills (c) Interviewing Skills (a) Friendliness (d) Counselling Skills (b) Mood (c) Sense of humour \u2022 Empathy (d) Career motivation \u2022 Positive regard (e) Ability to work in teams and \u2022 Authenticity groups Communication Skills (f) Independence (g) Desire to be accepted by others The skills we are going to discuss may (h) Discipline appear abstract. You will, however, Now form groups of three to five understand them better when you engage members. Have each member in exercises related to them. Let us evaluated by other members in the understand the basics of communication group as best as you can on the process and see what role it plays in dimensions given above. Each member fostering relationships and personal concludes by analysing the similarities effectiveness. Learning how to be an and differences between their self- effective communicator is not just an perceptions on these dimensions and academic exercise. It is one of the most how they are perceived by other important skills you will need to succeed members of the groups. in life. Your success in this class may well depend on your ability to communicate. SPECIFIC SKILLS For example, to do well you should be able to ask and answer questions, summarise These skills are core\/basic to the field of opinions, distinguish facts from opinions, psychological service. For example, and interact fruitfully with your peers and psychologists working in clinical settings teachers. For this, you will also need need to be trained in various techniques listening skills in order to comprehend the of therapeutic interventions, psychological information presented in class and what assessment, and counselling. Similarly, others say verbally or non-verbally. You organisational psychologists working in the will be required to have good presentation organisational context need to have 182 Psychology 2019-20","Characteristics of Communication Box 9.2 Communication is dynamic because the process is constantly in a state of change. As the expectations, attitudes, feelings, and emotions of the persons who are communicating change, the nature of their communication also changes. Communication is continuous because it never stops, whether we are asleep or awake we are always processing ideas or thoughts. Our brain remains active. Communication is irreversible because once we send a message we cannot take it back. Once we have made a slip of tongue, given a meaningful glance, or engaged in an emotional outburst, we cannot erase it. Our apologies or denials can make it light but cannot stamp out what was communicated. Communication is interactive because we are constantly in contact with other people and with ourselves. Others react to our speech and actions, and we react to our own speech and actions, and then react to those reactions. Thus, a cycle of action and reaction is the basis of our communication. skills to give briefings or to present reports interview and small group discussions. on projects that are part of classroom Public communication is characterised by assignments. So, what do we mean by a speaker sending a message to an communication process. It can be said that audience. It may be direct, such as communication is a conscious or face-to-face messages delivered by the unconscious, intentional or unintentional speaker to an audience, or indirect, process in which feelings and ideas are such as message relayed over radio or expressed as verbal and\/or non-verbal television. messages that are sent, received, and comprehended. The characteristics of Components of Human Communication communication are outlined in Box 9.2. When we communicate, we communicate The process of communication can be selectively. That is, from the wide range of accidental (having no intent), expressive repertory of words, actions, etc. available (resulting from the emotional state of the to us, we choose that which we believe is person), or rhetorical (resulting from the best suited for the idea we wish to express. specific goal of the communicator). Human When we communicate, we encode (i.e., communication occurs on the intra- take ideas, give them meaning and put personal, interpersonal, and public levels. them into message forms), and send the Intrapersonal communication involves idea through a channel. It is composed of communicating with yourself. It en- our primary signal system based on our compasses such activities as thought senses (i.e., seeing, hearing, tasting, processes, personal decision making, smelling, and touching). The message is and focusing on self. Interpersonal sent to someone who receives it using her communication refers to the or his primary signal system. S\/he communication that takes place between decodes (i.e., translates message into two or more persons who establish a understandable forms). For example, you communicative relationship. Forms of may say that you heard a bell or an object interpersonal communication include face- feels soft. These are examples of verbal to-face or mediated conversations, communication which express how you Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 183 2019-20","understand the signals your senses have B). Your friend received the message using received. You can also respond at a non- her sensory agent (ears) and decoded it verbal level. You touch a hot stove, your (understood that you want a pen). Your fingers pull away quickly, and your eyes friend\u2019s feedback (the word \u201cyes\u201d and well up with tears. The pulling away of appropriate behaviour of giving a pen to fingers and welling up of eyes with tears you) indicated that the message was will communicate to an onlooker the pain successfully received and decoded. The suffered by you. communication would have been still effective if she had said, \u201cSorry, I cannot, The model given in Figure 9.1 shows because I am carrying only one pen.\u201d the process of communication involving different stages. You may remember that the act of speech itself is not communication. As you can see that in any Speech is only a biological act; the communication process, the degree to utterance of sound, possibly the use of which the communication is effective language. Communication is broader; it depends on the communicators\u2019 mutual involves a relationship among two or more understanding of the signals or codes people in which they attempt to share being used in transmitting a message and meaning so that the intent of message in receiving. Suppose you are about to received is the same as the intent of the take an examination and suddenly realise message sent. that you have not brought your pen to class. You ask your friend, \u201cDo you have Speaking an extra pen that you can spare for me?\u201d She says \u201cyes\u201d and gives you the pen. One important component of communi- You have just participated in an cation is speaking with the use of effective communication transaction. You language. Language involves use of (communicator A) encoded a message (you symbols which package meaning within need a pen) and used a channel for them. To be effective, a communicator transmitting it (vocal chords producing must know how to use language sound waves) to your friend (communicator appropriately. Because language is 184 Psychology Fig.9.1 : Basic Communication Process 2019-20","symbolic, it is necessary to be as clear and posture, movement, and appearance, precise as possible when using words. which provide important cues that may not Communication takes place within a be obvious merely by listening to the verbal context. So one needs to consider the part of the message. other\u2019s frame of reference, that is, the context used by the sender to say Attention something. Also whether s\/he shares your interpretation. If not, it is important to Once the stimulus, i.e. the word or visual, adjust your vocabulary level and choice of or both, is received, it reaches the attention words to fit the level of the listener. stage of the human processing system. In Remember that slang expressions, words this phase, the other stimuli recede so that unique to a culture or region, and we can concentrate on specific words or euphemism can sometimes become visual symbols. Normally your attention is obstacles in good communication. divided between what you are attempting to listen to, and what is happening around Listening you, and what is going on in your mind. Consider, you are watching a movie. The Listening is an important skill that we use person in front of you is constantly daily. Your academic success, employment whispering to her\/his friend. There is a achievement, and personal happiness, to buzz in the sound system. You are a large extent, depend upon your ability to also worried about the forthcoming listen effectively. At first, listening may examination. So your attention is being appear to you as a passive behaviour, as pulled in different directions. Divided it involves silence. But this image of attention makes it difficult for you to passivity is far from true. Listening receive signals or messages. requires a person to be attentive. S\/he should be patient, non-judgmental and yet Paraphrasing have the capacity to analyse and respond. How would you know that someone has been listening? Ask her\/him to restate Hearing and listening are not the same. what you had said. The person in doing Hearing is a biological activity that involves this does not repeat your exact words. reception of a message through sensory S\/he makes a summary of the ideas just channels. It is only a part of listening, a received and provides you with a process that involves reception, attention, restatement of what s\/he understands. assignment of meaning, and listener\u2019s This is called \u2018paraphrasing\u2019. It allows you response to the message presented. to understand how much s\/he understood of what was communicated. If someone Reception cannot repeat or write down a summary of what was said, then s\/he probably did not The initial step in the listening process is get the whole message or did not the reception of a stimulus or message. A understand it. We can keep this in mind message could be auditory and\/or visual. when we are listening to our teacher in the The hearing process is based on a complex class or to others. Try to paraphrase what set of physical interactions that take place you heard and if you cannot do so, you involving the ear and the brain. In addition should seek immediate clarification, if to using the hearing mechanism, people possible. listen through their visual system. They observe a person\u2019s facial expressions, Chapter 9 \u2022 Developing Psychological Skills 185 2019-20","Try verbally paraphrasing the next time listening by being a silent communicator you are engaged in a demanding when receiving messages from seniors or conversation, such as when you are elders. Some cultures focus on controlling receiving directions or when you are in a attention. Buddhism, for instance, has a conflict situation with a friend. Repeat notion called \u2018mindfulness\u2019. This means to the speaker what you think she or he devoting your complete attention to had just said in order to check whether whatever you are doing. Training in you both received and understood the \u2018mindfulness\u2019 which starts in childhood same thing. You will be surprised how can help to develop longer attention spans many times conflicts result from and therefore, lead not only to better miscommunication. listening but also to sympathetic listening. However, in many cultures, such listening Assignment of Meaning enhancing concepts are not present. Box 9.3 gives some tips to improve your The process of putting the stimulus we listening skills. have received into some predetermined category develops as we acquire language. Body Language We develop mental categories for interpreting the message we receive. For Do you believe that when you commu- instance, our categorising system for the nicate with another person, your words word \u2018cheese\u2019 may include such factors as communicate the complete meaning of the a dairy product, its peculiar taste and message? If your answer is yes, then you colour, all of which help us to relate the are mistaken. We all know that it is word \u2018cheese\u2019 to the sense in which it is possible to communicate a great deal even used. without using verbal language. We are aware that non-verbal acts are symbolic Role of Culture in Listening and closely connected to any talk in progress. Such non-verbal acts are part of Like the brain, the culture in which we what is called \u2018body language\u2019. have been brought up also influences our listening and learning abilities. Asian Body language is composed of all those cultures, such as India, emphasise on messages that people exchange besides Box 9.3 Some Tips to Improve Your Listening Skills \u2022 Recognise that both the sender as well as the receiver have equal responsibility in making effective communication. \u2022 Refrain from forming an early judgment about information that is being communicated. Be open to all ideas. \u2022 Be a patient listener. Do not be in a hurry to respond. \u2022 Avoid ego speak. That is, do not talk only about what you want to talk about. Give consideration also to others and to what they say. \u2022 Be careful to the emotional responses which certain words are likely to bring about. \u2022 Be aware that your posture affects your listening. \u2022 Control distractions. \u2022 If in doubt, try to paraphrase. Also check with the sender whether s\/he has been correctly understood by you. \u2022 Visualise what is being said. That is, try to translate the message in the form of a concrete action. 186 Psychology 2019-20"]