CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY

84 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Escherichia coli is present in all three sites. Pampa River. Large quantities of faecal But salmonella is absent in three sites. The coliform bacteria in water are not harmful contamination total coliforms in both station according to some authorities, but may may contribute the open defecation In the indicate a higher risk of pathogens being present study the MPN value of T.coliforms present in the water. Some waterborne were observed same at all sites. The high pathogenic diseases that may coincide with concentration of total coliforms at stations faecal coliform contamination include ear may be due to the contamination of faecal infections, dysentery typhoid fever viral and matter in the area. Coliforms usually found in bacterial gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. the environment in associated with faeces World Health Organization Guidelines for and sludge, but are also found in the absence drinking water quality state that as indicator of faecal contamination. E.coli is usually organism provides conclusive evidence of present in faeces. So the faecal coliform is recent fecal pollution and should not be important to know whether the water body is present in water meant for human contaminated with faecal matters. This was in consumption. agreement with the findings of Aji (2006) at Table 1. Physico-chemical parameters of water in Pampa River Sl no Parameters Physical parameters Station2 Station3 1 Temperature 29 29 2 Turbidity Unit Station1 1.8 1.6 3 Conductivity ◦c 29 56.5 25.9 Chemical parameters 1 Do Ntu 1.1 6.91 7.31 2 Bod 2.11 1.62 3 Ph µs 63.4 7.9 4 Nitrates 8 5 Nitrites Mg/l 6.5 2.3 2 6 Phosphates Mg/l 1.22 0.0028 0.004 8 Chlorides 8.3 0.0125 0.0066 Biological parameter Mg/l 1.16 12.7 11.3 1 Total coliform Mg/l 0.0047 2 Thermotolerant coliform Mg/l 0.0056 1600 1600 3 Escherichia coliforms Mg/l 9.93 170 14 4 Salmonella 170 14 Mpn/100ml 1600 Absent Conclusion Mpn/100ml 39 Absent Mpn/100ml 27 Present/absent Absent The study reveals that the quality of water in domestic purposes. The deterioration and Pampa River is going to be deteriorated water pollution is directly related with human drastically by various human activities intervention and other effluent which are as a .Water samples subjected to study was not direct result of improper management of acceptable from majority of physicochemical Ecosystem. So this is the right time to put up and biological parameters particularly the proper management and action plan to save bacteriological standards. Hence the water our precious water resources. Environment- needs to be treated before using it for any friendly measures are needed for the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Monitoring of bacterial pollution in pampa river during the pilgrimage season 85 conservation and management of the river in Bodek., Shear, H. and Moore J. 1984. environment. Since Pampa River has much Zooplankton and potential fish production in religious importance it is essential to lake Ontario. Can. J. Fish.Aquat. Sci., 41: maintain the water quality. This study may 1303-1309. serve as an eye opener to the public and government officials and also will lead to Dudgeon, D. 2000. Riverine wetlands and future research which may prevent the biodiversity conservation in tropical asia depletion of water quality. assessment function and conservation leidenNeitherlandsbackhays publishers, 1:35- Recommendations 60. Full-fledged treatment plant is to be set Ghosh, S.K., Choudhary , A., and Jana, up for the treatment of waste water and T.K.1991. Oxygen deficiency in Hooghly garbage at Sannidhanam and Pampa. estuary, east coast of India. Indian J. Mar. Sci., 20: 216-217. A scientifically designed drainage system is to be developed with an Joseph, P.V. and Claramma, J. 2010. updated sewage disposal facility at the Physicochemical characteristics of Pennar Sannidhanam, and Pampa. River, a fresh water wetland in Kerala, India. Biological monitoring is urgently needed E-Journal of Chemistry, http://www.e- to assess the environmental health of the journals.net. 7(4): 1266-1273. aquatic ecosystem. Improving the quality of water alone is not enough to Koshy, M. And Nayar, T.V.,1999. Water raise the quality of aquatic ecosystem, quality aspects of river Pampa.Pollut. Res., but the banks and substratum also have 8(1): 501-510. to be handled with care as well. Metcalf and Eddy. 2003. Wastewater To avoid open defecation and hanging Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Forth latrines on the banks of the river. Edition., New York, USA: McGraw Hill. To conduct proper awareness Pandy, D.S. and Mukherjee, S. 1994. Nitrate programmes and training to people to concentration in ground water in Varanasi understand the need of protecting water City and its environs, UP. India. Regional resources in order to maintain the Workshop on Envt. Aspects of Groundwater environmental stability. Development, Kurukshetra, India: 17-19. References Santhosh, S. 2002. Hydro-geochemistry of ParavurKappil backwater with special Aji, A.T. 2006. Environmental degradation reference to plankton. Ph.DTheis, Univ. of studies on Pampa River. Ph.D. Thesis, Kerala, Trivandrum. University of Kerala, Trivandrum. Sharma, S., Vishwakarma, R., Dixit, S. and Allan, D. J. 1995. Ecology, structure and Jain,P. 2011. Evaluation of water quality of function of running water champan andhall Narmada River with reference to madaras: 338. physcochemical parameters at Hoshangabad city, MP, India.Research Journal of APHA, 2005. Standard methods for the Chemical Sciences.1(3):121-125 examination of water and waste water (21st ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Trivedi, R.K. and Goel, P.K. 1986. Chemical Health Association. and biological methods for water pollution Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

86 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity studies, Environmental Publications, Karad. District, Uttar Pradesh, India.Advances in (India) 248pp. Applied Science Research., 2 (2): 19749- 19755 WHO. 1996. Guide lines for Drinking water Quality – 2nded. 2: Health criteria and other Yamuna, S.M. and Balasubramanian, A. supporting information. 2002. Physico - chemical characteristics of water in the lakes of Mysore district, Yadav, S.S. and Kumar, R. 2011. Monitoring Karnataka. J. Applied Hydrology, 15 (2 Water quality of Kosi River in Rampur &13):135-139 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Physico-chemical characterization of water samples collected …. 87 CHAPTER 13 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF WATER SAMPLES COLLECTED FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES OF KOLLAM DISTRICT, KERALA, INDIA *Latha Sadanandan and Reemraj PG and Research Department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Kollam- 691001 *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The physicochemical parameters of Ashtaudi Lake, well water and tap water indicate that the lake water is more polluted than other water sources. Cadmium, mercury and lead in water are below detectable limit and within desirable standards. The well water is least polluted followed by tap water and lake water. Anthropogenic pollution in Ashtamudi Lake is increasing at an alarming rate. Key words: Water pollution, Well water, Tap water, Ashtamudi lake Introduction site was Ashtamudi (Lake Water). Water samples were collected and brought to the Availability of fresh water is dwindling in laboratory in sterile polythene bottles of 5 many parts of the world, a problem that is Litre capacity. These samples were kept in cool expected to grow with population. One in darkness until the analyses were completed. promising source of potable water is the Physico-chemical characterization of water world’s virtually limited supply of sea water, samples were conducted using standard but so far desalination technology has been procedures (Trivedi and Goel, 1986). The too expensive for wide spread use. Wastage five physical parameters studied were of water can be prevented through proper temperature, odour, colour, turbidity and total usage according to the needs. Through proper solids. The fourteen chemical parameters sewage treatment waste disposal into the were pH, Phenolphthalein alkalinity, total water bodies can be prevented. By using alkalinity, free CO2, Dissolved oxygen, BOD, different kinds of filtration methods water COD, Inorganic phosphorous, Chloride, can be reused as in constructed wetlands. The Total hardness, Calcium and heavy metals study aims to check the quality of freshwater viz., cadmium, mercury and lead. They were samples collected from different sources of estimated in triplicate and their average value Kollam district through their physico- tabulated and compared between the samples. chemical characterization. Results and Discussion Materials and Methods Among the physicochemical parameters Samples of water were collected during studied, water samples collected from March 2018 from Site I Prakkulam (Well Ashtamudi lake showed the maximum values Water), the second site was Sree Narayana of temperature, colour, and total solids while College, Kollam (Tap Water) and the third odour and turbidity were nil. Among well Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.87-90 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

88 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity water and tap water, total solids were characters were more in tap water except for comparatively more in tap water. All the dissolved oxygen. This indicates the relation other physicochemical parameters were between the Ashtamudi lake and the tap almost the same between them. Among the water supply in Site II. Water from both sites physicochemical parameters studied, (I and II) showed similarity in the parameters Ashtamudi lake showed highest values of studied when compared to well water from BOD, COD, Inorganic phosphorous, Prakkulum. The chemical parameters in well chloride, calcium, total hardness and two water indicated least pollution. This is heavy metals viz cadmium and lead leading supported by its high DO and least BOD and to the conclusion of their high rate of COD. The study shows the well water to be pollution. The least amount of dissolved the best by being least polluted, followed by oxygen also supports this fact. This may be tap water. Ashtamudi lake is highly polluted because of anthropogenic activities such as (Table 1) and proper treatment is needed industrial waste disposal, sewage etc. Among before utilizing it for domestic purposes. well water and tap water, all the chemical Table 1. Average Physico-chemical characteristics of water samples collected from various sources of Kollam district Sl. Parameters studied Well water Tap water (SN Lake water No. (Prakkulum) College) (Ashtamudi) 1 Temperature(0C) 30 29 32 2 Color Nil Nil Pale yellow 3 Odour Nil Nil Nil 4 Turbidity BDL BDL BDL 5 Total solids (g/l) 7.26 44.6 64.6 6 pH 5.9 6 7.27 7 Phenolphthalein alkalinity (mg/l) 0 00 8 Total alkalinity (mg/l) 25 20 15 9 Free CO2 (mg/l) 5.06 17.6 15.4 10 Dissolved O2 (mg/l) 8.52 7.3 1.76 11 BOD (mg/l) 12.5 24 240 12 COD (mg/l) 58.8 98 921 13 Inorganic phosphorus (mg/l) 0.004 0.008 .024 14 Chloride (mg/l) 14.2 46.15 60.35 15 Total hardness (mg/l) 25 35 225 16 Calcium (mg/l) 20.04 25.73 46.09 17 Cadmium (mg/l) BDL BDL .06 18 Mercury (mg/l) BDL BDL BDL 19 Lead (mg/l) BDL BDL .01 BDL – Below detectable level waste etc. The odours may be of natural origin, caused by living and decaying aquatic The parameter of temperature is basically organism and accumulation of gases like important for its effects on the chemistry, and ammonia and hydrogen sulphide etc. Many biological reaction in the organism in water. algae also impart taste and odour to water. Colour in natural water may occur due to the Odour of any artificial origin is due to the presence of humic acids, fulvic acid, metallic discharge of industrial waste. Turbidity in ions such as iron and manganese, suspended matter, phytoplankton, weeds and industrial Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.87-90 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Physico-chemical characterization of water samples collected …. 89 water caused by the substance not present in and biochemical reaction. Dissolved oxygen the form of true solution. True solutions have is one of the most important parameter in a particle size of less than 10-9 m. Any water quality assessment and reflex the substance having more than this size will physical and biological process prevailing in produce turbidity. Turbidity of water is the water. The present study showed that actually the expression of optical property Ashtamudi lake water has least DO. BOD is (Tyndall effect) in which the light is scattered the amount of oxygen utilized by the by the particles present in the water. microorganisms in stabilizing the organic Turbidity in natural water is caused by clay, matter. On an average basis, the demand for silt, organic matter, phytoplankton and oxygen is proportional to the amount of microscopic organisms. Dissolved solids are organic waste to be degraded aerobically. also referred to as total dissolved solids BOD value can be used as a measure of denote mainly the various kinds of minerals waste strength. Ashtamudi lake water showed present in the water. However, if some more BOD. COD is the oxygen required by organic substances are also present, as more the organic substance in water to oxidize often in polluted water, they may also them by a strong chemical oxidant. In contribute to the dissolved solids. In natural general, COD is more than the BOD values water, dissolved solids are composed mainly for most of the industrial waste. COD value of carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, are taken as basis for calculation of the sulphates, phosphates and nitrates of calcium, efficiency of the treatment plants and also iron and manganese etc. figure in the standards for discharging industrial or domestic effluents in various pH is the measure of the intensity of acidity kinds of water. COD is useful as an indicator or alkalinity and measures the concentration of organic pollution in surface water (ICMR, of hydrogen ions in water. Most natural 1975). Here, Ashtamudi lake water showed waters are generally alkaline due to the high COD. Phosphorus in the natural fresh presence of sufficient quantities of water is present mostly in inorganic forms carbonates. The lake water in the study also such as H2PO4-, HPO4-2, and PO4-3. showed alkaline pH. Alkalinity in natural According to US Environmental Protection water is due to the free hydroxyl ion and Agency (1976), the concentration of hydrolysis of salts formed by weak acids and phosphorus should not exceed 50 µg/l in any strong bases. The number of milliequivalents tributary to river or a lake and 25µg/l within of acid used in the titration to combine all the these main resources. The present study hydroxyl ions, is called as total alkalinity. showed that Ashtamudi lake had 24 µg/l of Most of the alkalinity in natural water is phosphorous indicating high level of formed due to the dissolution of CO2 in anthropogenic activity and chances of water. Carbonates and bicarbonates thus eutrophication. The important source of formed, are dissociated to yield hydroxyl chloride in the water is the discharge of ions. Carbonates salts produce double the domestic sewage. Therefore the chloride hydroxyl ions than the bicarbonates. concentration serves as the indicator of Alkalinity in itself is not harmful to human pollution by sewage. It is harmless up to beings, still the water supplies with less than 1500mg/L concentrations but produce a salty 100mg/L are desirable for domestic use. taste at 250-500mg/L level. It can also Therefore the water from the selected sources corrode concrete by extracting calcium in the can be used for domestic purpose. form of calcide. In the present study Determination of acidity is significant as it chlorides in Ashtamudi lake is high. causes corrosion and influences the chemical Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.87-90 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

90 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Chlorides are troublesome in irrigation water lake as 27.5 which was under ‘Bad’ water and also harmful to aquatic life. Public class (WQI 25 – 50). drinking water standards require chloride level not to exceed 250 mg/l (BIS, 1994). Conclusion Hardness is the property of water which prevents the lather formation with soap and Among the physical parameters studied, increases the boiling point of water. Principal water samples collected from Ashtamudi lake cations imparting hardness are calcium and showed the maximum values of temperature, magnesium. Present study showed the water colour, and total solids while odour and in Ashtamudi lake to be many times harder turbidity were nil. Among the chemical than the other water samples. This may be parameters studied, Ashtamudi lake showed due to the disposal of sewage and industrial highest values of BOD, COD, Inorganic waste into it. Disposal of sewage and phosphorous, chloride, calcium, total industrial waste are also important source of hardness and two heavy metals such calcium. Calcium, as such, has no hazardous cadmium and lead leading to the conclusion effects on human health. In fact, it is one of of their high rate of pollution. The least the most important nutrients required by the amount of dissolved oxygen also supports organism. Small concentration of calcium is this fact. This may be because of beneficial in reducing the corrosion in the anthropogenic activities such as industrial pipes due to the formation of a thin layer of waste disposal, sewage etc. Among well scale. The study showed more amount of water and tap water, all the chemical Calcium in the lake. Cadmium is present in characters were more in tap water except for the waste water from electroplating, chemical dissolved oxygen. The chemical parameters industries and milling and mining waste from in well water indicated least pollution. This is lead- zinc mines. It accumulates in various supported by its high DO and least BOD and part of the body and is known to cause COD. The study shows the well water to be painful bone disease called” itai-itai”. The the best by being least polluted, followed by lake water showed 0.06 mg/l Cd. Mercury is tap water. Ashtamudi lake, recognized as a highly poisonous substance and increases in Ramsar wetland site is highly polluted and natural water by the industrial waste. It proper treatment is needed before utilizing it accumulates mainly in the form of methyl for domestic purposes. mercury. It affects central nervous system and at higher dose may be fatal. It was the References main culprit in Minamata incident. In this study Hg was below detectable level in all BIS 1994. Indian Standard Specification for the samples. Lead is also a toxic element and drinking water. BS: 105 it increases in water due to the discharge of industrial waste water. In lake water Pb was ICMR 1975. Manual of standard of quality found (0.01mg/l). According to India for drinking water supplies. ICMR. New Standard drinking water specification, 1991, Delhi. highest desirable limit of lead in drinking water is 0.05 ppm. The presence of heavy Surya Lekshmiprasad and Kani, Mophin metals in the lake water may be due to the Kani 2017. Water quality assessment of disposal of industrial wastes into them. A Ashtamudi Lake using Nsfwqi. International study in 2017 by Surya and Kani revealed Journal of Emerging Technology and overall water quality index of Ashtamudi Advanced Engineering. 7 (1): 130 - 135 Trivedi, R K and Goel P K. 1986. Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies. Environmental publications, Karad. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.87-90 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Pollution of tropical estuarine systems: heavy metal contamination .. 91 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 14 POLLUTIONOF TROPICAL ESTUARINE SYSTEMS: HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION IN THE SEDIMENTS OF ESTUARINE SYSTEMS AROUND THIRUVANANTHAPURAM, SOUTHERN KERALA Arunkumar K S Department of PG Studies and Research in Geology, MES Ponnani College, South Ponnani, Malappuram-679 586, Kerala, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Heavy metal pollution in sediments of estuaries may pose serious threat to ecosystem and human health through food web. A better understanding of the heavy metal pollution in estuarine environments is needed for a better management of the systems. Levels of heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe and Mn) in the surficial sediments of the two estuaries viz. Poovar and Poonthura of Thiruvananthapuram are presented in this study. Further the statistical tools like contamination factor (CF), index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) and pollution load index (PLI) are used to assess the heavy metal pollution. Among the estuaries, Poonthura estuarine system is polluted by the heavy metals, as very high values are observed by the heavy metals lead (Pb) and Copper (Cu) indicating high buildup of these metals in the sediments. The highest value of CF can be attributed to their incorporation by anthropogenic inputs mainly from urban domestic sewage and land run-off. Based on the value of CF, PLI and Igeo, the Poonthura estuary is identified as one of the potential „hot spots‟ in the district. Key words: Estuaries, Heavy metals, Contamination factor, Pollution load index Introduction for its estuaries. The degradation of the estuaries of Kerala is not an isolated event. Knowledge on the distribution of heavy Worldwide, estuaries are in peril. metals in the estuarine environment is important in studying the aquatic pollution These estuaries provided livelihood to the since such elements can be toxic even in residents in the area in the forms of traces and cause harmful effects. Heavy agricultural produce, fish, fuel, fiber, fodder, metals are biologically non-degradable and and a host of other day-to-day necessities. As through food chain, it may finally pass on to long as human intervention remained man. Estuaries/Wetlands are defined minimal, the ecosystem, through its all (Cowardin et al., 1979) as “the lands encompassing balancing nature, was self- transitional between terrestrial and aquatic cleansing. But the developments not only systems where the water table is usually at or upset the entire complex ecology and the near the surface, or the land is covered by natural harmony but also prevented any shallow water”. Kerala State is well known Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

92 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity regeneration possibilities. Thus, the estuaries natural enrichment by geological weathering. are now the most threatened ecosystems of The distribution of heavy metals in the our planet, mainly by pollution, coastal sediments provides a record of the eutrophication, encroachment, reclamation, spatial and temporal history of pollution in a mining and biodiversity loss (Arunkumar, particular region or ecosystem (Davies, 2008). 1991). Heavy metals have been shown to be The present study aims to assess the heavy significantly hazardous pollutants in aquatic metals (Cu, Cr, Pb, Zn, Fe and Mn) environments, even at very low concentration in the estuaries around concentrations (Salmons and Forstner 1984; Thiruvananthapuram viz., Poovar and Nriagu and Pacyna, 1988; Salmons and Poonthura. Further, an attempt has been Stigliani, 1995; Balachandran et al., 2005). made to use the statistical tools, like contamination factor (CF), index of In this sense, study of the occurrences, fate geoaccumulation (Igeo) and pollution load and distribution of trace metals in wetlands index (PLI) to assess the heavy metal has received a major attention, mainly pollution in the sediments of the estuaries of because of the persistent toxic effects of the study area. heavy metals (Lacerda,1988) as well as their ability to be accumulated within Study Area compartments of these environments (Lacerda and Abrao, 1984) Information on The Poovar (PVR) estuary (N. Lat. 80 18‟ the level of heavy metal pollution in the 32‟‟ to 80 18‟ 6‟‟and E. Long. 770 4‟ 32‟‟ to wetlands environment is important as they 770 5‟ 14‟‟) is the southernmost estuary of cause serious health hazards. These elements Thiruvananthapuram district (Figure. 1) and are magnified in the food chain and reach is the confluence of the Neyyar with the human beings causing of deleterious effects Arabian Sea and the Poonthura (PNT) (Nitta,1992). estuary (N. Lat. 80 28‟ 00” to 80 30‟ 00” and E. Long. 760 55‟ 00” to 770 00‟ 00”), the Trace metals are naturals constituents of confluence of Karamana river and located aquatic body, and the evaluation /analysis near to Thiruvananthapuram city were may help in assessing the inputs resulting selected for the study. from human activities, erosion of ore-bearing rocks, volcanic activity, forest fire and vegetation (Deepak and Sahu,1999). The occurrence of elevated levels of trace metals especially in the sediments can be attributed to anthropogenic influences, rather than Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Pollution of tropical estuarine systems: heavy metal contamination .. 93 Figure 1. Study area and sampling locations These estuaries are receiving enormous load 2048.86mm, relative humidity of 77.2% and of untreated domestic wastes emanating from temperature of 27.40 oC (Arunkumar, 2008). the faster growing city over the years (Arunkumar and Sabu Joseph, 2006). Methodology Whereas in the case of Poonthura estuary, a huge quantity of untreated sewage from the In order to study the spatial and temporal sewage farm, located at Muttathara on the variations, if any, in the heavy metals bank of Parvathy Puthenar (canal), joins the concentration surficial sediments were estuary about 2.4 km southeast of Muttathara. collected by Vanveen Grab from the WL of the Thiruvananthapuram coastal zone. Geologically, recent to sub recent deposits Surficial sediment samples were collected comprising of alluvium, beach/dune sands from the estuaries viz., Poovar (PVR) and and sandy clays occur along the coastal land Poonthura (PNT). Thus, 9 sites in estuaries to zone. Sedimentary formations of coastal land, cover PVR (n = 4) and PNT (= 5), systems which belongs essentially to Neogene and were selected for the study (Figure.1). A total quaternary periods unconformably overlies of 18sediment samples were collected during Precambrian rocks. Sediments of the three seasons, viz., PRM-premonsoon and Quaternary period unconformably overlie the MON-monsoon seasons Neogene sediments. Vast stretches of laterite cappings are a characteristic feature of the For heavy metal analysis, a known quantity coastal plain. The coastal zone enjoys a of the well-powdered, bulk sample was humid tropical climate with an digested with HF-HNO3-HClO4 acid mixture average(period:2000-2005) annual rainfall of using standard procedures for the preparation of solution „B (APHA, 1985)‟. From this, the content of heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu and Cr) were determined (Rantala and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

94 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Loring, 1975). Atomic Absorption In Poovar, Cu levels ranges from 4.24 to Spectrophotometer (AAS) GBC 932 AA 11.46 ppm (annual avg.= 6.62 ppm). Zn model was used for metal determination. spans between 20.14 and 94.2 ppm (annual Analytical grade reagents were utilized for avg. = 62.24 ppm), Whereas Pb ranges sediment mineralization as well as for blanks between 4.44 and 6.68 ppm (annual avg. = and calibration curve standards build ups. 5.84ppm). The annual average concentration of Cr in the system is 5.22 ppm. Fe Results and Discussion concentration varies between 2.06 and 3.78% (annual avg.= 2.92%), whereas Mn ranges The range and average of heavy metals (Fe, between 75.24 and 214.64ppm (annual avg. = Mn, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cr) in the surficial 131.84 ppm). The order of abundance of sediments in the wetlands of the study area is metals are Mn>Zn>Pb>Cu>Cr. given in Table 1 Table 1. Range and average of heavy metals (Fe in %) and (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Mn in ppm) in the estuaries of Thiruvananthapuram coastal zone Cu Pb Zn Cr Fe Mn 4.44– 6.68 2.08–3.78 PVR 4.24-11.46 20.14-94.20 4.63-6.67 75.24-132.40 (6.62)* (5.85)* (62.24)* (5.22)* (2.92)* (98.73)* PNT 10.21-18.28 10.82-44.86 62.34-140.26 5.14-10.26 3.02-8.04 75.24-214.64 (13.03) (22.39)* (93.66)* (7.19)* (4.75)* (131.84)* *Average in brackets In Poonthura, the Cu ranges between 10.21 precipitation. The degree of contamination and 18.28 ppm (annual avg. = 13.03 ppm). of aquatic sediments was quantified earlier The annual average for Cu is 7.19 ppm. The by comparing the elemental concentration Zn varies between 62.34 and 140.26 ppm with uncontaminated background levels (annual avg. = 93.66ppm).The Pbranges (Forstner and Muller, 1873; Nikoforova and between 10.82 and 44.86, whereas the annual Smirnova, 1975). average is 22.39 ppm. Fe ranges between 3.02 and 8.04% (annual avg. = 4.75%) and In the present study, this method (Nikoforova the annual average content of Mn is 131.84 and Smirnova, 1975) was used for the ppm. The order of abundance of the metals calculation of contamination factor (CF) are Mn>Zn>Pb>Cu>Cr. using the following equation. To assess the extent of metal concentration in CF  Metal concentrat ion in polluted sediments the study region, various statistical methods Background value of the metal or average shale are used, and are discussed below. Contamination Factor(CF) If the CF value of the sediments >1, it indicates contamination. The mechanism of accumulation of pollutants in the sediments is controlled strongly by the The CF for the metals in Poovar and nature of the substrate as well as the physico- Poonthura estuaries is given in Table 2 and chemical conditions causing dissolution and Table 3. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Pollution of tropical estuarine systems: heavy metal contamination .. 95 Table 2. CF values range of various metals in the sediments of PVR estuary Stations Fe Cu Pb Zn Cr Mn 0.0138-0.094 0.31-0.33 0.21-0.51 0.05-0.07 0.11-0.16 1 0.45-0.55 0.176-0.100 0.22-0.30 0.66-0.99 0.06-0.05 0.10-0.14 0.112-0.200 0.27-0.30 0.53-0.91 0.04-0.06 0.09-0.12 2 0.54-0.82 0.102-0.255 0.29-0.31 0.66-0.78 0.06-0.07 0.10-0.12 3 0.66-0.67 4 0.65-0.75 Table 3. CF values range of various metals in the sediments of PNT estuary Stations Fe Cu Pb Zn Cr Mn 1 1.53-1.75 0.30-0.41 1.61-2.24 1.16-1.48 0.10-0.11 0.20-0.25 2 1.06-1.10 0.23-0.33 0.96-1.22 0.96-1.10 0.08-0.09 0.15-0.21 3 0.66-0.74 0.28-0.27 0.54-0.91 0.75-1.02 0.06-0.08 0.12-0.13 4 0.90-0.99 0.26-0.27 0.85-1.04 0.66-0.96 0.06-0.07 0.10-0.14 5 0.75-0.85 0.27-0.28 0.84-0.96 0.75-1.04 0.06-0.09 0.09-0.16 Concentration of Fe, Pb, Zn in the sediments Suess, 1979) (Igeo) was used for of Poonthura estuary are higher (>1) than quantification of metal accumulation in those in average Shale (Turekian and polluted sediments by following equation, Wedephol, 1961) indicating contamination. Igeo=log2 (Cn/1.5Bn) However, in Poovar estuary they fall below one indicating non contamination. While Where, Cn is the measured concentration of comparing the CF factor of the estuaries, it is heavy metal „n‟ of the sediments and Bn is can be noted that the metals in Poonthura the geochemical background concentration of estuary which were studied showed element (n)- either measured directly in pre- contamination and of these very high values civilization sediments or taken from the were observed for Pb and Cu, indicating high literature (Turekian and Wedephol, 1961). buildup of these metals in the sediments. This The factor 1.5 is used for possible variations highest value of CF can be attributed to their in background data due to lithogenic effect. incorporation by anthropogenic inputs, The Igeo (Arunkumar, 2008) consists of mainly from urban domestic sewage and land seven grades (0 to 6), where the highest grade run-off. (6) reflects a hundred–fold enrichment above Index of Geoaccumulation(Igeo) background values (Table 4). In order to compare present day heavy metal concentration in the sediments of rivers and estuaries with pre-civilization background values, and for a quantitative measurement of possible contamination in these sediments, an “Index of geoaccumulation” Muller and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

96 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 4. Seven Igeo-classes based on the Pollution Load Index (PLI). The range and numerical value of the index class are same as Igeo. Pollution Load Index, PLI Igeo Igeo- Designation of sediment Class quality PLI  N Product of N number of CF values >5 6 Extremely contaminated 4-5 5 Strongly/extremely contaminated The PLI of Poovar estuary of all stations fall 3-4 4 Strong contaminated in the uncontaminated category (zero class). However, in Poonthura show contamination, 2-3 3 Moderately/strong contaminated and the values ranging from 0.29 to 0.64 (avg. = 0.40) for PNT (Table. 6) 1-2 2 Moderately contaminated 0-1 1 Uncontaminated/moderately contaminated 0 0 Uncontaminated Table. 6 Range and average pollution load index in the sediments of PNT. The Igeo compares present day heavy metal concentration with those from pre- Stations Range Average civilization background values, and has been 1 0.51-0.64 0.57 used successfully to determine the intensity 2 0.37-0.46 0.41 of pollution by heavy metals in various other 3 0.29-0.36 0.32 locations (Pons et al., 1988; Ergin et al., 4 0.30-0.37 0.34 1991; Panigrahy et al., 1997). 5 0.30-0.38 0.34 The Igeo, a pollution indicator, takes into In general, the moderate PLI in Poonthura account not only the natural background but estuary can be attributed to high inflow of also its variation with rock types (lithogenic these metals through anthropogenic inputs effect). and subsequent attachment to the finer particles of the sediments. However, these The Igeo of sediments of the estuaries are PLI values are much lower than that of given in Table 5. In the two estuarine Visakhapatnam inner harbour (Satyanarayana systems, namely Poovarand Poonthura, the et al., 1994) (i.e., PLI= 3.82) and Thane Igeo class of all heavy metals remains in the creek (Sahu and Bhosale, 1991) (i.e., PLI= class zero. 2.23) - the two grossly polluted zones. Table. 5 Range of Index of geoaccumulation of the sediments of the estuaries Metal PVR PNT The iron oxide coating is one of the Fe -1.98 to -3.21 - 0.87 to -1.73 important factors responsible for the Cu -1.88 to -2.72 - 2.56 to -3.44 concentration of trace metals in the aquatic Pb - 3.74 to -5.79 - 2.28 to -2.35 environment (Padmalal, 1992). In general, Zn - 0.02 to -1.19 - 0.73 to -1.57 enrichment of PLI in the estuaries are Cr - 3.72 to -4.72 - 4.44 to -5.07 dependent on grain size, content of clay Mn -2.57 to -4.08 - 3.27 to -4.08 minerals and chemical sink (carbonate fraction, hydroxides fraction and organic Pollution Load Index(PLI) fraction) which control the mobility of elements (Panigrahy et al., 1997). The high Another tool (Tominson et al., 1980) quantity of clay and organic carbon and due employed to assess the extent of pollution by to their finer grain size, mobile chemical heavy metals in the environment is the elements are concentrated at the bottom Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Pollution of tropical estuarine systems: heavy metal contamination .. 97 sediments. Further, the variation in the Arunkumar, K.S. 2008. Integrated concentration of heavy metals in different systems indicates non-uniformity primarily geoenvironmental assessment and management due to the difference in sub-basin geology, varying degrees of human impact and the of the coastal zone of Thiruvananthapuram proportion of different size population in the sediments (Arunkumar, 2008). district, SW coast of India, Unpublished Ph.D. Conclusion Thesis, University of Kerala, Of the two estuaries studied, the Poonthura is Thiruvananthapuram. polluted by the heavy metals and very high values are observed by Pb and Cu indicating Balachandran, K. K., Lalu Raj, C. M., Nair, M., high build up of these metals in the Joseph, T., Sheeba, P. and Venugopal, P. 2005. sediments. The highest value of CF can be Heavy metal accumulation in a flow restricted, attributed to their incorporation by tropical estuary. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf anthropogenic inputs mainly from urban Science, 65:361-370. domestic sewage and land run-off. Based on the value of CF, PLI and Igeo, the Poonthura Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F. C. and La estuary is identified as one of the potential „hot spots‟ in the Thiruvananthapuram Roa, E. T. 1979. Classification of Wetlands and coastal zone. deep water habitats of the United States fish Reference and wild Life Service.FWS/OBS – 79/31, APHA,1985. Standard methods for the Washington DC. examination of water and waste water. 16th ed. American public Health Association, Davies, C. A., Tomlinson, K. and Stephenson, Washington D.C., 1268. T. 1991. Heavy metals in River tees estuary sediments. Env Tech.,12:961-972. Arunkumar, K. S. 2008. Integrated geoenvironmental assessment and Deepak, R. and Sahu, B. K. 1999. Speciation of management of the coastal zone of copper in surface waters of the Rushikulya Thiruvananthapuram district, SW coast of estuary, East coast of India. Indian J. Mar.Sci., India, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala, 28:370-374. Thiruvananthapuram. Ergin, M., Saydam, C., Basturk, E. and Yoruk, Arunkumar, K. S. and Sabu Joseph, 2006. R. 1991. Heavy metal concentration in the Environmental degradation of coastal surface sediments from the two coastal inlets ecosystems: A case study from (Golden Horne Estuary and Izmit Bay) of the Kadinamkulam estuary, southern Kerala. north-eastern Sea of Marmara. Chemical geol., Poll.Res., 25(3). 91: 269-285. Arunkumar, K. S. and Sabu Joseph, 2006. Forstner, U. and Muller, G. 1973. Heavy metal Impacts of urbanization on the coastal accumulation in river sediments a response to ecosystem of Poonthura, Thiruvananthapuram- environmental pollution. Geoforum,14:53. A geochemical approach, Eco-Chronicle, 1(2): 26-28. Lacerda, L. D., Martinelli,L..A., Rezende,C. E., Mazeto, A. A., Ovalle, A. R. C., Victoria, R. L., Silva, C.A.R. and Nogueira, A. B.1988. The fate of trace metals in suspended matter in a mangrove creek during a tidal cycle. Science of the Total Environment, 75: 169-180. Lacerda, L.D. and Abrao, J.J. 1984. Heavy metals accumulation by mangrove and saltmarsh intertidal sediments, Revista Brasileira de Botanica, 7: 49-52. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

98 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Muller, G. and Suess, S. 1979. Schwermetals in and recognition of environmental den sediments des Rheins-Veranderungenseitt. discriminates. Chemical Geology, 91:263. 1971. Umschau., 79 (24):775-783. Salmons,W. and Forstner, U.1984. Metals in Nikoforova, C.M. and Smirnova, R. S. 1975. the Hydrocycle, Heidelberg, Germany, Metaltechnophility and technogenic Springer-Verlag, 349. anomalies (Int. Conf. Heavy Metal Envi. Toronto, Canada) Abst, C94. Salmons,W. and Stigliani,W.M. 1995. Biogeodynamics of pollutants in soils and Nitta, T, 1992. Marine pollution and Sea sediments. Risk assessment of delayed and Life (ed.) M. Ruivo Fishing News (Books) non-linear responses, Heidelberg, Germany: Ltd. Farmharm. Springer-Verlag, 352. Nriagu, J. O. and Pacyna, J. M. 1988. Satyanarayana, D., Panigrahy, P. K., and Quatitative assessment of worldwide of air, Sahu, S. D., 1994. Metal pollution in harbour water and soil by trace metals, Nature, 333: and coastal sediments of Vishakapattanam 134-139. shelf sediments, east coast of India, Indian. J. Mari. Sci, 22:235. Padmalal, D. 1992. Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the sediments of Tominson, D. L., Wilson, J. G., Harris, C. R. Muvattupuzhariver and central Vembanad and Jeffney, D. W. 1980. Problems in the estuary, Kerala, India.Ph.D thesis, Cochin assessment of heavy metal levels in estuaries University of Science and Technology, and the formation of a pollution index, Kochi. Helgol, Wiss. Meeresunters,33:566. Panigrahy, P. K., Nayak, B. B., Acharya, B. Turekian, K. K. and Wedephol, K. H. 1961. C., Das, S. N., Basa, S. C. and Sahoo, R.K. Distribution of the elements in some major 1997. Evaluation of heavy metal units of the earth‟s crust, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am, accumulation in coastal sediments of northen 72:175-192. Bay of Bengal, in Advances in environmental sciences (Ed. C.S.P. Iyer), Educational Unnikrishnan, P. 2004. Water quality and publishers, NewDelhi. pollution status of surface and groundwater sources of an urban environment- A case Pons, J. C., Parra, M. and Julius, C. 1988. study from Kerala, India, Ph.D.Thesis, Teneursemmetauxlourds des sediments fins University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. de la baie de Fort-de-France, Matinique, Petites Antilles francaises, Oceanol. Act.,11: 47-54. Rantala, R. T. T. and Loring, D. H. 1975. Multi element analysis of silicate rocks and marine sediments by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry, At. Abasop. News, Lett, 14:117-120. Sahu, K. C. and Bhosale, U. 1991. Heavy metal pollution around the island city of Bombay, India, Part – 1: quantification of heavy metal pollution of aquatic sediments Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.91-98 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Solid waste management technique for sustainable environment 99 CHAPTER 15 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE FOR SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT Dhanalekshmy T G Department of Zoology All Saints’ College, Thiruvananthapuram – 695007, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT A clean, healthy and sustainable environment is an integral component of human well-being. Solid waste management is an enormous task all over the globe and is a challenge faced by man kind in the present era. Thiruvananthapuram, the prestigious capital city of Kerala State produces solid waste of 3.5 metric tonnes per day. Domestic urban waste contains up to 55 percent of biodegradable waste and the uncontrolled degradation of organic matter is causing hygienic and environmental problems in urban areas. The City Corporation expects the households to install biogas plant, pit composting, pipe- composting and vermin composting by which up to two kilograms of waste in a house of four to five members can easily be disposed off at low cost with relatively no air and water pollution. The present study aims to assess how far the pipe composting system instituted by the Corporation in residences of the city is successful in waste disposal management and to study the manurial value of the pipe compost. Interview cum observation method was used for collection of data and compost was collected for analysis. Pipe composting, a greenhouse technology helps reduce carbon dioxide emission and requires only about 10-12 sqft land to recycle domestic waste within the house. The compost obtained is a good organic fertilizer rich in NPK. 70 percent of the residents reported a daily waste generation of ½ to 1 kilograms and 30 percent generate more than 2 kilograms which could be converted to organic compost of good nutrient composition. The study thus shows that this technology was utilised and maintained well by the residents for past two to seven years. This point to the need of more initiative to be taken to promote pipe composting among the public through Residents Welfare Associations and NGOs to dispose the house hold biodegradable solid wastes at the site of generation. Thus sustainability in waste management and prevention of environmental pollution and bioremediation can be attained through a simple, easy, effective, efficient and less costly technique of pipe-compost method which employs environmental friendliness. Key words: Biodegradable, Pipe-compost, Assimilative, NPK, Sustainability Introduction maintain the natural beauty, a legacy and a right for future generations. Solid waste The increase in population and urbanization management is an enormous task which and the rise of the world of consumers has needs logistical planning and scientific largely contributed to the increase in solid knowledge to balance the impact on the waste generation. The poor disposal and environment and the cost effectiveness of the handling of waste can lead to environmental process. pollution, destruction of the ecosystem and poses great risks to public health. Effective, Kerala State having highest literacy rate in sustainable and ecologically sound waste India is facing the major social problem of management is extremely important to waste disposal especially the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.99-102 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

100 Current status and challenges For conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation Materials and Methods established in 30th October 1940. The Corporation has a land area of 214.86 sq.km The present study aims to assess how far the with a total population of 9, 57,730 with 100 pipe composting system instituted by the wards. Thiruvananthapuram population Thiruvananthapuram Corporation from 2012 produces around 3.5 tonnes of solid waste per onwards in residences of the city is day. Since the year 2000, the Corporation successful in waste disposal management and transported the collected waste to a village to study the quality parameters of the pipe called Vilappilsala which is located 12 Km compost to understand the manurial value. away from the city for treatment in a Random sampling was not possible as the centralised composting plant in Vilappilsala. implementation of the programme was purely Pipe composting is a greenhouse technology on a need basis and houses where the that helps reduce carbon dioxide emission programme is implemented is scattered. A and requires only about 10-12 sq.ft land to purposive sampling was done in the areas of recycle domestic waste within the house Poojapura, Thirumala, Peroorkada and yard. This method is ideal for a small family. Karamana, the prime areas of the city. Total It consists of two PVC pipes/ Ferro cement sample size of the study was 78 households. pipes with 1.25 m length and 8 inches The people’s preference of the technology diameter. The pipes are positioned vertically and their experience with the implementation immersed in the soil up to about ¼ m. The of the programme was obtained through the pipes have lids, and a layer of gravel is interview data which provided adequate placed at the bottom of the pipe for leachate information on the transition in waste absorption (Narain and Sambyal, 2016). management from the perspectives of Sufficient vents are provided to carry out decision maker and implementer. Matured aerobic action. Kitchen waste generated compost samples were collected and everyday by a household can be dumped analysed in the Central Soil and Plant Health inside the pipes. To enhance activation, Centre, Parottukonam, Trivandrum to assess external source like coir-pith or cow dung the manurial value. Interview data and the can be added. Effective Microorganism compost analysis report were used to derive Solution or composting inoculums can be at the conclusion. sprinkled into the unit occasionally to enhance the decomposing process easier. Results and Discussion Mixing would prevent anaerobic action completely. Pipe composting technique can be used in the urban areas where there is limited space for Sustainable waste management at the source waste disposal. 76percent of the residents of its generation is the first essential step to belonged to the APL and the rest to the BPL be implemented towards appropriate solid category. All the residents had a moderate waste management. Continuous monitoring education of Higher Secondary/SSLC. of implemented programme is crucial for 40percentfamilies had more than five ensuring sustainability of waste management members each, 50percent families had four system. Changing the habits of citizens, who members each and 10percent families with are used to throwing waste on the streets, and three members only. Thus in the survey it is training them to store in waste bins, through found that 50percent were nuclear families. effective public awareness campaigns can 93percent of the residents resided in concrete improve the present existing system. buildings and the remaining 7percent in tiled houses. This method of waste management, a cost effective and easily executable method Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.99-102 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Solid waste management technique for sustainable environment 101 was seen to be adopted more by nuclear food waste could be put into the compost unit families residing in limited area. 70percentof and the unit could be installed at a less the residents reported a daily waste capital cost and at a low running cost. generation of ½ to 1 kilograms of waste Climate change did not affect the units in the while 30percent claimed to generate waste of decomposition process. The unit was odour more than 2 kilograms. The Corporation free and compost was formed in a short authorities make arrangements for the period of three months and a good quality collection of hazardous and other solid finished compost within six months which wastes like used dry cells, paint cans, can be used as natural fertiliser. pesticide bottles, old medicines, CFL bulbs etc, which the residents could not dispose off Conclusion along with the daily generated organic wastes. Hence 90percentof the families Pipe composting is understood to be a good, installed the pipe compost unit in their reliable option for organic waste houses which was seen to be more management in an urban area. This compatible. 85percent of the families had technique, if properly handled, is a cheap and come to know about the pipe compost successful environmental friendly method method from their residential associations, appropriate for all the developing nations of nearly 10percent had come to know about the world. The sustainability in waste this from the government publicities and the management and prevention of remaining from friends and neighbours. environmental pollution and bioremediation 95percent are having the pipe compost can be attained through this simple, easy, system in their houses for more than one year effective and efficient technique. and maintaining it while 65percent of the residents are maintaining the units for last 2 References to 7 years. Analytical report of the harvested pipe compost showed a good nutrient Awomeso, J.A., Taiwo, A.M., Gbadebo, composition of total nitrogen at 2.50percent, A.M. and Arimoro, A.A. 2010. Waste phosphorous at 1.31percent, potassium at disposal and pollution management in urban 0.87percent and micronutrients iron–1565 areas: A workable remedy for the ppm, zinc-72 ppm and secondary nutrient environment in developing countries. Am. J. magnesium at 2305 ppm. which form a good Environ. Sci., 6: 26-32. bio fertilizer for vegetable/flower gardens. It is understood that the Corporation had given Barker, A.V., 1997. Composition and uses of full subsidy for installing the pipes to Compost. In: Agricultural Uses of Bye- 67percent of the surveyed houses. More Products and Wastes, Rechcigl, J.E. and H.C. publicity and full subsidy from the MacKinnon (Eds.). American Chemical Corporation may attract more residents to Society, Washington, DC.,140-162pp. install pipe composting, a process of converting waste to wealth. From the survey Chaney, R.L., Ryan,J.A.,Kukier, U., Brown, it is understood that the people were S.L., Siebielc, G., Malik, M. and Angle,J.S. contended that they could dispose the daily 2001. Heavy metals aspect of compost use. kitchen waste immediately at the source of In: Compost Utilization in Horticultural generation itself. Compared to Cropping Systems, Stofella, P.J. and B.A. vermicomposting, this method was found to Kahn (Eds.). Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, be more advantageous. All the kitchen and F.L., 323-359 pp Edward, S. and Kumar, V.V. 2009. Assessment of the solid waste management Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.99-102 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

102 Current status and challenges For conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity system in Trivandrum City. 10th National Conference on Technological Trends 6-7pp. Narain, S. and Sambyal, S. 2016. Not in My Backyard: Solid Waste Management in Indian Cities. Centre for Science and Environment. Seo, S.A., T. Aramaki, Hwang Y. and Hanaki, K. 2004. Environmental impact of solid waste treatment methods in Korea. J. Environ. Eng., 130- 81-89. WHO. 2019. Health and sustainable development. Unsafe drinking-water, sanitation and waste management.https://www.who.int/sustainable -development/cities/healthrisks/water- sanitation/en/ Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.99-102 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

103 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 16 ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY AND APPLICATION OF WATERPURIFICATION METHODS IN SELECTED WARD OF THEKKEKARA PANCHAYATH, KERALA Rugma Rajeev and Reeja Jose* Department of Zoology, Bishop Moore College,Mavelikara - 690110 *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Drinking water quality is being the biggest issue nowadays in India. Most of the rural population are not able to use water filters or buy mineral water bottles. Therefore the present study mainly focused on introducing user - friendly and affordable water purification methods. A preliminary survey was conducted in the selected ward of Thekkekara panchayath in Mavelikara Taluk to gather information about groundwater quality in this area. We analyzed various physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of water to find out the extent of the contamination. Then we treated the water samples with experimental setups such as Multi-layered Simple Water filter, Moringa Water Purification and, Glass containers with different layers. The mean variation in the studied water quality parameters before and after water purification showed a remarkable variation in their physicochemical characteristics. The bacteriological analysis of samples also proved that our method of purification is effective and can be applied to reducing the level of bacterial content. Moreover, we provided public awareness about water- borne diseases and demonstrated the usage of water purification methods. Key words: water quality, water purification Methods, physicochemical characteristics, bacteriological analysis. Introduction Panchayath to understand the present scenario of water. Moreover, this area faces a Water is one of the most precious elements of scarcity of water during the summer season. life on our planet. An adequate supply of Even though well water is having colour and fresh and clean drinking water is a basic need bad odour, wells are their principal source of for all human beings on earth. As per the water. This circumstance leads to people estimation of the World Health Organization without access to safe drinking water. To (WHO, 2013) 50 to 100 lakhs, people die overcome this problem, we make efforts to every year including one child every 15 develop low-cost water purification seconds from diseases caused by poor water techniques. quality. To overcome this problem many efforts have been done. Every household Materials and Methods should develop its own drinking water purification system. Then only cleaning Study Area water may become an affordable commodity. In this context, we conducted a survey and The area selected for the present study was analysis of water samples in Thekkekara the VIth ward of Thekkekara panchayath. This area was selected due to the reason that Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

104 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity the water in this area is highly contaminated and gas was noted for positive tubes and the and having a characteristic yellowish-orange most probable number (MPN value) was colour, a sour taste and, a foul smell. calculated according to mac Cardy’s table Moreover, the villagers faced a scarcity of APHA (2005). Positive tubes showed air water during the summer season. bubbles on the Durhams tube. Period of Study User friendly water purification methods The present study comprises of five phases: We designed three user friendly methods, they are: Phase I - Survey, Water Sample collection, and analysis. Multi-layered simple water filter Phase II - Construction of user-friendly Steps for Construction of filter: water purification methods. The bottom portion of 1L bottle is removed Phase III - Collection of water samples and with the help of axo blade. Now we get an treatment with the experimental setup. opened bottle by two sides. The bottom portion will be wider in area than the mouth Phase IV - Demonstration and installation of region which is narrow. The bottle is kept the water purification methods to villagers. inverted, the mouth portion facing downward and bottom portion facing upward. To the Phase V - Review the functioning of the inverted bottle, insert a cotton cloth towards experimental setup and disseminate the mouth region. Cotton cloth is followed by awareness. sand and after sand, charcoal is placed. Charcoal is followed by gravel which will be Water Sample Collection and Analysis the uppermost layer. So finally we get 3 layers, one after another. The impure water is To study the groundwater quality of the study allowed to flow through these layers. area, Physico-chemical parameters like Temperature, pH, Salinity, TDS, Electrical Moringa Water Purification Conductivity and Dissolved Oxygen was estimated by following the standard methods Steps to clean Water with Moringa Seeds: of APHA (2005). Multiple tube method was used for Bacteriological analysis for water Collect mature Moringa oleifera seed pods samples. Well water samples were aseptically and remove seeds from pods. Quantity of collected in polythene bags and were kernels needed is based on amount and immediately processed within two hours after turbidity of water. Crush appropriate number collection (Mark and Gordon, 1984). Three of seed kernels (using grinder, mortar & tubes of double strength lactose broth and six pestle, etc) to obtain a fine powder. Mix seed tubes of single strength lactose broth with powder with a small amount of clean water to Durhams tube were prepared for each form a paste. Mix the paste and 250 ml of sample. Three tubes of double strength clean water into a bottle and shake for 1 lactose broth were inoculated with 10 ml minute. Filter this solution through fine mesh water sample in each tube. Three tubes of screen to remove insoluble materials and into single strength lactose broth were inoculated the water to be treated. Stir treated water with 1.0ml of sample and .0.1 ml sample rapidly for at least 1 minute then slowly for were added to the remaining 3 tubes of single 5-10 minutes. Let the treated water sit strength broth. Inoculation of samples was without disturbing for at least 1-2 hours. This done on Laminar Air Flow. After incubation clean water can then be filtered or sterilized at 370 c for 48 hours, the production of acid to make it completely safe for drinking. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of water quality and application of waterpurification methods … 105 Glass containers with different layers of people rely on public tap water as their well water is not suitable to meet their day to Steps for Construction: day needs. About 50% of people are facing difficulty with the foul smell of water. The A transparent glass container is taken. The rest 50% is not having the problem of smell. bottom portion of the container is made with About 45% of people are facing a scarcity of several holes. The bottom portion of glass water during the summer season. The rest container is filled with ceramic balls. After 55% is having enough water throughout the filling this, plastic strip is placed above the year. Fig 1.showed that five factors are each layer. The second layer is filled with responsible for water pollution:- Market mineral sand; the third layer is filled with waste, Poultry waste, Domestic waste, activated charcoal. Activated charcoal layer Agricultural waste and, Drainage. Market is followed by smaller ceramic balls. A white waste holds about 12%, poultry about 15%, crystal shaped zeolites are placed next to the domestic waste contribution was found to smaller ceramic balls. The top most layers be 30%, agricultural waste about 5% and are filled with large sized activated charcoal. about 23% by drainage. There are about 15% The top most layers are sealed with plastic of houses which are not polluted by these strip having many pores. Pour water from the sources. top layer. The purified content will ooze out from the pores created at the bottom portion. About 15% of people filter their water before This can be collected in a container. usage while about 75% of people apply chlorine to their well water. Well is cleaned Results and Discussion frequently by the villagers every one or two years. No significant health issues have been Assessment of Survey reported from places where water is been collected. There are some minor problems A survey for assessing the existing situation like hair loss is seen in some areas. In almost of water crises in the VIth ward of all houses, the water source is so close to Thekkekara panchayath was conducted on 20 their washing area and to the septic tank. We houses in the study area. Analysis of the also witnessed polluted water around well. questionnaire, we found that about 80% of people depend on well water. The rest 20% Fig 1. Percentage composition of pollution factors in Ward VI of Thekekkara Panchayath 30% 5% 12% Agricultural 15% Market Poultry 23% 15% Nil Drainage Domestic waste Interpretation of Groundwater Quality Physico-chemical Analyses Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

106 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity The physicochemical analysis of water mg/l as per IS 10500 standards and therefore samples showed that water was always near water containing more than 500 mg/l of TDS to neutral pH (Table 1). The mean variation is not considered desirable for drinking water in the pH of the water before and after using supplies. In the present study, the TDS of purification methods was found to be varied well water samples were within the between 6.73±0.08 and 7.01±0.09. The permissible limit. Conductivity is a good and permissible limit of the pH value of drinking rapid method to measure the total dissolved water specified as 6.5 to 8.5 as per IS10500 ions and is directly related to total solids standards. In this study, the pH value was (Mishra and Saksena, 1993). Higher the found within the permissible limit. The mean value of dissolved solids, the greater the variation in water temperature varied from number of ions in water (Abdar, 2013). The 32.35±0.11 to 32.17±0.12. The high turbidity range of electrical conductivity varies from during the summer season might be 138.78±13.53 to 117.4±12.63 during this responsible for this higher water temperature study. The Total dissolved oxygen ranges because suspended particles absorb heat from from 4.92±1.05 and 6.18±0.05 during our the sunlight making the water warm. The study. The values obtained are within the Total Dissolved Solids was found in the permissible limit. The permissible limit of range of 92.23±11.96 to 71.48±5.99. The dissolved oxygen for drinking water is 6 permissible level of TDS is specified as 500 mg/L by WHO (WHO, 2004). Sl .no. Physico-chemical parameters ( Mean ±SE) Parameters Before treatment After treatment 1. pH 6.73±0.08 7.01±0.09 2. Temperature (oC) 32.35±0.11 32.17±0.12 3. TDS (mg/l) 92.23±11.96 71.48±5.99 4. Conductivity (µS) 138.78±13.53 117.4±12.63 5. DO (mg/l) 4.92±1.05 6.18±0.05 Table 1. Mean variation in the physico-chemical parameters of well water before and after water purification Bacteriological Analyses from house 321 reported the highest MPN value (1100/100ml). Out of ten samples, eight samples were positive for the presence of coliforms before According to the Central Pollution Control applying purification methods. Samples from Board, India the total number of coliforms houses 257 and 258 showed the least MPN shall not exceed 50 per 100 ml in untreated value (43/100ml) (Table 2). The highest or non disinfected drinking water. In the MPN value was observed in the sample from present study, the maximum MPN value of house 321 (2400/100ml). When the water well water was observed to be 2400/100ml. samples were treated with our purification When we made this sample to undergo our methods, a remarkable variation in MPN treatment methods and later it was analyzed, value was observed. The least MPN value we got a significant change. The maximum (39/100ml) was showed by samples from MPN value 2400/100ml reduced to houses 257 and 258 respectively. The sample 1100/100ml. This proves that there is a reduction in bacterial count. Thus our method Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of water quality and application of waterpurification methods … 107 of purification was effective and can be by boiling (Joyce et al., 1996) or by the use applied for reducing the level of bacterial of disinfection methods before human content. Moreover, it is necessary to take consumption, to prevent waterborne illnesses. serious attention to kill these microbes either Table 2. Result of Presumptive test of well water before and after purification House. no. MPN index/ 100ml 37 Before treatment After treatment 240 210 39 460 240 42 120 93 48 210 150 49 240 210 67 150 120 257 43 39 258 43 39 320 1100 460 321 2400 1100 Evaluation of Water Purification Methods Conclusion Among the three user-friendly methods The present study reveals the extent of designed, a Multi-layered simple water filter deterioration occurring in the groundwater is a very low-cost water filter. This resource of Thekkekara panchayath. By experimental set up can be easily created and analyzing various Physico-chemical and is widely applicable to common people. The microbiological parameters before and after present study showed that the application of the user-friendly water purification methods Moringa seed powder is a simple method of revealed that there was a pronounced filtering which not only diminishes water variation in the water quality. Before the pollution but also harmful bacteria. In the purification of water, samples showed poor third set up, Glass container with different water quality, especially in the layers; an activated carbon layer will remove bacteriological analysis. So we demonstrated chlorine, organic chemicals, and unpleasant how to use our water purification methods to odours and colours. The white zeolite the public. These methods are beneficial to crystals will remove heavy metals such as those who are facing a shortage of potable lead, mercury, aluminum, and other harmful water even on a small scale. heavy metals which cause cancer. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

108 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity References Abdar, M. R. 2013. Physico-Chemical Characteristics and Phytoplankton of Morna Lake, Shirala (M.S.) India.Biolife., 1(2): 1-7. APHA, 2005. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American Public Health Association, 21sted, Washington D C. Joyce, T.M., McGuigan, K.G, Elmore, M. and Conroy, R.M. 1996. Inactivation of fecal bacteria in drinking water by solar heating. Applied & Environmental Microbiology., 62: 399-402. Mark, W.L. and Gordon, A.M.1984. Recent advances in Coliform Methodology for water analysis. Environmental Health., 5: 3-5. Mishra, S.P. and Saksena, D.N. 1993. Planktonic fauna in relation to physico- chemical characteristics of Gauri Tank at Bhind, M.P.India, Advances in Limnology, Narendra publishing House, New Delhi.57- 61. WHO.2011. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. Fourth Edition, WHO Press, Geneva. WHO. 2013. World Health Statistics- Health- related Millennium Development Goals. WHO Press, World Health Organization, 20 Avenue Appia, 1211 Geneva. p.33. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.103-108 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

An income-wise carbon footprint of three households in Kollam District, Kerala, India 109 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 17 AN INCOME-WISE CARBON FOOTPRINT OF THREE HOUSEHOLDS IN KOLLAM DISTRICT, KERALA, INDIA Jisha S M, Sulekha B T* and Letty Titus P.G. and Research Department of Zoology Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of Carbon dioxide (CO2),which is induced by our activities in a given time frame. The term carbon footprint has become tremendously popular over the last few years and is now used widespread across the media in many countries especially in developed countries. With climate change high up on the political and corporate agenda, carbon footprint calculations are in strong demand. An individual organization carbon footprint can be broken down into primary and secondary footprints. The present study was done to determine the carbon footprint due to direct and indirect emissions. Also high and low carbon emissions goods in an household was determined. The carbon footprint of household according to their income was analysed. The method to reduce carbon footprint was also suggested. According to the present study, there is no significant variation of carbon emission between middle income and high income households. This means that a considerable proportion of low income household may still have high emissions may be due to the low quality materials and half of high income household has high emissions due to transportation and indirect emissions. Key words: Carbon Footprint, Carbon Emissions, Direct and Indirect Emissions Introduction India has traditionally been an agricultural country „Carbon footprint‟ has become a widely used term with majority of its population residing in the and concept in the public debate on responsibility villages. Even though India‟s per ca pita Green and abatement action against the threat of global climate change. The carbon footprint is a measure of House Gas (GHG) emissions of 1.3 tonnes are well the exclusive total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by an below the world average of 4.4 tonnes (Prayas, activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a Energy Group, 2009) it is the 4th largest global product. With climate change high up on the political and corporate agenda, carbon footprint GHG emitter due to its large population. Hence, calculations are in strong demand. Numerous India‟s development pathway and corresponding approaches have been proposed to provide estimates, ranging from basic online calculators to GHG trajectory would have significant implications sophisticated life-cycle-analysis or input-output methods and tools(Thomas Wiedmann, et al., 2008). for the climate change problem. About 65%of carbon dioxide emissions is from heating, domestic uses and power sector. About 9% of India‟s emissions were from transportation -cars, trains, two-wheeler, airplanes etc. A significant source of greenhouse gas emissions in India is from black carbon, methane and other air pollutants. The Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

110 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity pollutants are emitted in large quantities in India March 2019). The households were selected on the everyday from incomplete and inefficient basis of monthly income. The scale of income combustion of biomass (fuel, wood, crop waste, selected for the study were below 5000 Rupees (low cattle dung).India has poorly managed solid waste, income group) between 5000-50,000 Rupees inadequate sewage treatment plants, water pollution, (middle income group) and above 1,00,000 Rupees and agriculture forms the other sources of (high income group). greenhouse gas emissions (Ganguly, 2011). Status of Households A carbon footprint has historically been defined as “the total sets of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions House A: Was a low income household in a rural caused by an organization, event, product or a area having five members and the monthly income person”. However, calculating the total carbon was 4800. They have a rented house without footprint is impossible due to the large amount of electricity. They use kerosene for lighting and wood data required and the fact that carbon dioxide can be and little LPG was used for cooking. Although they produced by natural occurrences. An individual were non-vegetarians they use it only once in a organization carbon footprint can be broken down while. As the income was very low, Milk, Egg, into Primary and Secondary footprints. The Primary Bakery items were completely avoided and their footprint is the sum of direct emission of greenhouse source of water was an open well. gases from the burning of fossil fuel of energy consumption and transportation whereas Secondary House B: Was a middle income family having five footprint is the sum of indirect emission of members and their monthly income was Rs greenhouse gases during life cycle of product used 52,500.They were not having any vehicles. They use by an individual or organization. LPG and Wood for cooking. The present study aimed to measure and compares House C: Was a high income family in urban area the extent of CO2 contribution made by different having five members and their monthly income was classes of house holds to Global Warming and Rs. 1,02,000. They have a bike and a car. One of the Climate Change. Calculating a household carbon family member used airways for his travelling once footprint can be an effective tool for ongoing energy in four months (from Thiruvananthapuram to New- and environmental management. There are typically Delhi). There was no use of kerosene or wood. two main reason for wanting to calculate a carbon footprint, first to manage the footprint and reduce The Houses were visited, during the first week of emissions over time, second to report the footprint every month, for the collection of monthly data of accurately to a third party. If we know our carbon the consumption of resources (materials). The study footprint we can reduce our carbon dioxide provided an opportunity to measure and compares contributions to climate change. In the present study the extent of CO2 contribution of the house holds to an attempt has been made to compare the income Global Warming and Climate Change. wise calculations of carbon emission of three households -low income, middle income and high In order to assess the carbon footprint, the following income. monthly data were collected from each Households: Materials and Methods 1) Total Consumption of fuels for cooking In the present study, three Houses (House A, House 2) Total consumption of fuels used in vehicles for B, House C) were selected at Kollam District, on the travelling basis of monthly income and collected month wise details of the consumption of resources (materials) 3) The overall consumption of electricity of the family for a period of one year (April 2018- 4) The total consumption of food items 5) The total consumption of water Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

An income-wise carbon footprint of three households in Kollam District, Kerala, India 111 The method of calculating carbon footprint primarily vehicles. In House C the total CO2 emission was involved the measurement of the consumption of the about 918.38kg. Kerosene: In House -A CO2 different items, and then it was multiplied with the emission was about 124.88kg whereas in House B corresponding emission factor.All the data were and C kerosene was not used. Air Craft: In House C analyzed mainly based on the guidelines of Paphjot airways were used for travelling and its CO2 Sodhi, et al.(2010). The other methods were taken emission was 742.5 kg. Wood: In House C wood from the guidelines of Nicole Grunewald et al., 2012 was not used. In House A and B the total CO2 and Joseph Lai et al. (2012). Other literary sources emission was 1060.88kg and 1100.04kg were also used for analysis as and when required. respectively. Calculations were made on Direct and Indirect CO2 emissions. Direct Emissions are due to combustion Indirect Emissions of CO2 (The results are reported of stationary sources and combustion of mobile in Table 1 and Graph 1) sources, whereas indirect emissions are due to consumption of electricity and the food items. For Electricity: Indirect CO2 emission was resulted from the purpose of this study, the calculations were made the consumption of electricity. In House B and C on the following methods. total amount of CO2 emission was about 1247.99kg and 1338.19kg respectively. In House A there was Calculation of CO2 emission through Direct and no electricity connection. Water : In House B and C Indirect Emissions total amount of CO2 emission was about 296kg and 314kg respectively. Vegetables : In House A 47kg, Direct Emission: in House B 524kg and in House C 546 kg. Rice: In House C total amount of CO2 emission was Emission (CO2 ) =Σ of Materials consumed × 253.84kg.In House A and B the total amount of CO2 Emission factor of CO2(of the particular material) emission was about 331.2kg and 379.96kg (Table 1) respectively. Fish and sea foods: In House A total amount of CO2 emission was about 88.36 kg and in where, emission in terms of tones of CO2 – B and C it was 315.84kg and 368.48kg respectively. equivalent is summed over all types of fuel used. Fruits : The total amount of CO2 emission due to the Amount of fuel consumed in terms of volume (litre) consumption of fruits in Households A,B, and C or mass(kg) for particular fuel. were17kg,1424kg & 137 kg respectively. Milk : The total amount of CO2 emission due to the milk Emission factor of CO2 =Net Calorific Value of the consumption was 212.48 kg in House B and fuel × Carbon Factor of Fuel × Fraction of CO2 × 225.76 kg in House C. Milk consumption was not (44×12) reported in House A. Egg: In House C total amount of CO2 emission was 1320kg and from House B the Indirect Emission: total amount of CO2 emission was about 1140kg. Meat : In House A total amount of CO2 emission CO2 emission through the consumption of the was about 9.66kg and in B and C it was 125.58Nkg material (resource)= Quantity of the particular and 115.92 kg respectively. Bakery items: The total material used × Emission factor of the material amount of CO2 emission due to the consumption of (Table 1). bakery items in Household B was 64kg and in Household C was 82 kg. Results and Discussion The emission of CO2 due to electricity consumption Direct Emissions of CO2 (The results are reported was highest in House B and C where as in House A in Table 1 and Graph 1) wood consumption emitted highest levels of CO2. In House A there was no electricity connection, so the LPG: In House -A the quantity of emission of CO2 emission due to electricity consumption and water was about 95.52kg whereas in House B and C the emission was same,494.16kg. Petrol: In House A and B petrol was not used because of the lack of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

112 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity pumping was nil. The overall consumption rate of house hold consumption and are correlated with House A is very less because the family was very disposable income. In the present study also agreed poor and their monthly income was only Rs. 4800/-. with the findings of Pachuri and Spreng (2002) that On the basis of the present study, the overall carbon the growing income significantly increases the footprint of Household A was 1775.55kg.Out of emission of green house gases due to their high this,1282.33kg of CO2 was emitted through direct consumption of materials. In high income family, emission and 493.22kg due to indirect emission. In the house hold monthly income is above 1,00,000/- Household B the carbon footprint was 6042.05kg. and middle family the household monthly income is The direct emission releases 1594.20kg CO2, around 50,000/- and that of poor the income is whereas the indirect emission releases4447.85kg. around 5,000/-. However, the emission can considerably vary between household within the In Household C, electricity emitted the highest same income range. In the present study Carbon quantity of CO2and it was followed by egg. The footprint from direct emission was higher overall emission was 6856.23kg. The direct and (1282.33kg) than indirect emission (493.22kg) in indirect emissions released 2155.04 and 4701.19kg low income household due to the fuels used for of CO2respectively. Generally the emission factors cooking. While there is no significant variation of of meat is highest -9.66 followed by egg (6.0). But carbon emission noted between the middle income in the entire three households,the use of meat was and high income households. This means that the very limited due to which they could reduce the high income household has high transport and carbon footprint and thereby reduce the contribution indirect emissions due to the disposable income and to the Global Warming and Climate Change . a considerable proportion of middle income household may still have high transport and the Income is a well known determinant of CO2 indirect emissions due to the use of low quality emission and the high income household have high materials (Lenzen 1998b). Carbon footprint and the low income have the least. This is not surprising, CO2 emissions arise from Table 1. Average of the emission of CO2 due to the consumption of various resources (Kg) Item Emission Factor House A House B House C LPG 2.9 95.52 494.16 494.16 Kerosene 2.23 125.93 Wood 1.78 1060.88 - - Petrol - 1100.04 - Aircraft 2.325 - 918.38 Electricity 0.099 - - 742.50 Water 0.82 - - 1338.19 Rice 0.002 331.20 1247.99 314 Vegetable 0.92 47 296 253.84 Fish And Sea Food 88.36 379.96 546 Fruits 2 17 524 368.48 Meat 3.76 9.66 315.84 137 Bakery Items - 142 115.92 Milk 2 - 125.58 82 Egg 9.66 - 64 225.76 TOTAL 1775.55 212.48 1320 2 1140 6856.23 0.83 6042.05 6 - Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

An income-wise carbon footprint of three households in Kollam District, Kerala, India 113 Table 2. Carbon Footprint due to Direct and Indirect Emission Household Direct Emission Indirect Emission Overall A 1282.33 493.22 1775.55 B 1594.20 3095.37 6042.05 C 2155.04 4701.19 6856.23 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

114 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Conclusion Nicole Grunewald, Mirjam Harteisen, Jann Lay, Jan Minx, and Sebastian Renne, 2012. Thecarbon Three households were selected for the present footprint of Indian household. carbon footprint study in Kollam district. The following parameters were selected for the Praphjot Sodhi, Rashni Gopal, Sreenivas.S.N., calculation of carbon footprint. They are LPG, Ramesh Kumar Jalan, Kartikeya., V. Sarabhai. 2010. Petrol, Kerosene, Electricity, Rice, Vegetables, Fish, Low Carbon Life Styles. Ministry of Environment & Sea foods, Meat, Milk, Egg, Fruits and Wood. Forests (MoEF), India Carbon footprint from direct emission was higher (1282.33kg) than indirect emission (493.22kg) in Thomas, W and Minx, J. 2008. A definition of low income household. Carbon footprint was higher „carbon footprint. Ecological economics research in household B and C due to electricity consumption trends. 2: 1-11 whereas wood is the highest source of CO2 in Household A. In the present study the higher source of carbon foot print was meat and egg but vegetables, fruits and bakery items were the least. The overall carbon footprint of Household A, B and C are 1775.55 kg, 4689.57kg and 6856.23kg respectively. Income is a well known determinant of CO2 emission and the high income households have high Carbon footprint and the low income have the least. There are many ways for individuals and organization to reduce their carbon footprint, such as driving less using energy efficient appliances and buying local, organic fuel as well as product with less packaging. The purchase of carbon offset is another way to reduce a carbon footprint. References Ganguly, N. K., Medappa, N. and Srivastava,V. K. 2011. Indoor air pollution in India-A Major environmental and public health concern. Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi. 31(5): 125-129 Joseph Lai, Francis, Y. and Michael Liu. 2012. Carbon footprint Analysis of House hold in Hongkong. Department of Building Service Engineering, poly U. Lenzen, M. 1998b. Primary energy and greenhouse gases embodied in Australian final consumption: an input -output analysis. Energy policy., 26(6): 495- 506 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.109-114 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 18 COMMERCIAL VALUE OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE PLANTS WITH POTENTIAL FOR USE AS A NATURAL DYE Sonia John* and Santhosh S Dept. of Zoology N.S.S College, Pandalam, Pathanamthitt -689501, Kerala, India *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT any locally available plants are reservoirs of compounds that are of commercial and medical importance. Several phytochemicals with possible or well-known biological activity have been recognized from a variety of plants. These compounds can also have potential applications in various industrial fields. The lawn plants around us are also repositories of such industrially and medicinally important compounds. In the present work, efforts were made to extract natural dyes from the plants Clitoria ternetea and Caesalpinia pulcherrima, belonging to the family Fabaceae. Natural dyes are gaining importance in the modern world as the raw materials are cheap and readily available unlike their synthetic counterparts. Also, synthetic dyes contain a number of hazardous chemicals which can causes serious harm to human health. Exposure to large doses of these substances can be highly toxic and can have severe effects in the human body .The manufacture of synthetic dyes have also reported to cause several kinds of pollution, mainly water pollution as the untreated dye effluents are discharged directly into the nearby water bodies. In the present study, the dye extracted via aqueous extraction method were mixed with three mordants (i.e.Copper Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate and Potassium Dichromate) and applied onto the scoured cotton cloth. Both the dyes gave varying hues when mixed with different mordants. The analysis of the extracted dyes revealed the presence of anthocyanins and flavonoids in them. The phytochemical analysis of the aqueous extracts of these plants also reveals the presence of many important secondary metabolites such as phenols, tannins, terpenoids. Keywords: Natural Dyes, Fabaceae, C.ternetea, C.pulcherrima, hytochemistry Introduction there has been excessive usage of synthetic dyes worldwide in various industries. But, it Many locally available plants are been used is known to pose huge threats to human and since prehistoric times owing to their environmental health (Hunger, 2007; medicinal and commercial properties. These Zollinger, 2003). Few synthetic dyes contain plants possess various secondary heavy metals like mercury, lead and metabolites/phytochemicals that function for chromium. Exposure to large doses of these defense against insects, fungi, diseases and substances can be highly toxic and can have herbivorous mammals and also are of severe effects in the human body. Also such medicinal importance (Ahn, 2017). In indiscriminate use of synthetic dyes has a addition to the medicinal properties, several negative impact on the environment. The plants have industrial applications also. One untreated dye effluents from the textile such application is the extraction of natural industries are usually dumped directly on dyes from floral parts. In the modern times, water bodies. Hence it is better to resort to Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

116 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity natural compounds for the dyeing of clothes Scouring of cotton cloth and other materials. Natural dyes are derived from the plants, invertebrates or minerals. Cotton clothes used for dyeing were boiled in Because of their derivation from natural 10 % NaOH solution for 10 min to remove resources dyes are usually received as starch and other impurities from the cloth. harmless and safe for the environment. The The NaOH treated cotton clothes were then present works deals with the extraction of thoroughly washed with cold distilled water. natural dyes from flowers of Clitoria ternetea and Caesalpenia pulcherrima and the Dyeing and Mordanting phytochemical analysis of their leaf extracts. Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Clitoria The clean scoured cotton cloths were ternatea of the pea family are grown usually subjected to dyeing via Simultaneous as an ornamental plant. But these plants are mordanting technique. 2% solution of the also used in food and medicine in other parts selected mordants i.e. Copper sulphate, of the world. ferrous sulphate and Potassium dichromate were used for this study. In simultaneous Materials and Methods mordanting, the fabric was treated with dye- mordant mixtures having equal amounts of Collection of plant material dye and mordant. The dyeing process was kept in a water bath for about 3 hours. The The plant material of Caesalpinia dyed fabrics were then washed in cold pulcherrima and Clitoria ternetea (Fig.1) distilled water and dried at room temperature. were collected from the nearby locality. The fresh flowers were used for dye extraction. Preparation of leaf extracts and The leaves were shade dried for a week and Phytochemical Screening then ground to a fine powder. The leaf extracts were prepared using the Extraction of dye from the flowers of simple extraction method.1g each of the Clitoria ternetea and Ceasalpinia powders were dissolved in 10ml of distilled pulcherrima water and was kept for overnight incubation. After 24h the mixtures were centrifuged and The extraction of colour dye was carried out the supernatant was collected and stored as by aqueous extraction method. 10 g fresh plant extracts. The phytochemical screening petals of both plants were separately boiled in was performed on the distilled water extracts 100 ml distilled water at 1000 C for 30 of both plants according to the standard minutes. The decolorized petals were taken procedures described by Sofowora (1982) out from extraction solvent and stored. Trease and Evans (1989) and Harborne (1973). The tests for proteins, carbohydrates, Identification of the chemical constituents phenols, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, reducing sugar, glycosides and The identification of the chemical triterpenes were conducted. constituents in the extracted dye was done using the Shimadzu UV-VIS-NIR Result and Discussion Spectrophotometer. The Wavelength of the dyes was measured and the compounds Extraction of dye present were interpreted. Natural dye extracted from the flowers of Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Clitoria ternetea. A reddish dye was obtained from the flowers of C.pulcherrima, while a violet Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Commercial value of locally available plants with potential for use as a natural dye 117 coloured dye was obtained from C.ternetea (Fig.4) and the colour was retained when (Fig.2). exposed to sunlight. Identification of the Chemical Since both the natural dye and synthetic dye Constituents of the Dye have drawbacks and demand for textile is high, making a choice is challenging. But in The obtained dye extracts of C.pulcherrima the recent times, almost all of the dye and C.ternatea were analysed using UV-VIS- manufacturers are minimizing the use of NIR spectrophotometer. The peaks were harmful chemicals in their products and are observed in the range 400-500nm and 600- more focused on exploiting dyes with the use 800nm(Table.1) The peak obtained in the of environment- friendly components. Thus range of 390 -500nm represents the spectral natural dyes could find their use in the range of flavonoids while, the peak between coloration of textiles, foods, drugs and 600-800nm represents the spectral range of cosmetics. Small quantities of natural dyes anthocyanins. are now-a-days used in coloration of paper, leather, shoe polish, wood, candles etc. But Hence it was inferred that C..pulcherrima natural dyes suffer from certain intrinsic and C. ternetea dyes contained flavonoids as disadvantages of standardized application. well as anthocyanin content in them. Hence for the natural dyes to be truly Anthocyanins are generally accepted as the commercialized and used as a better dyeing largest and most important group of water agent than the synthetic dyes, the soluble pigments in nature (Harbone and standardization play a very significant and Grayer,1988). They are responsible for the vital role. blue, purple, red and orange hues of many fruits, flowers and vegetables. Anthocyanins Phytochemical Analysis also are known to have an antioxidant role in plants against reactive oxygen species The qualitative tests for phytochemical produced due to stresses such as compounds were performed on the leaf overexposure to ultraviolet light (Stapleton, extracts of both plants. The secondary 1992) and extreme temperatures. Some metabolites such as phenols, tannins, research articles refer to anthocyanins as a flavonoids and terpernoids were present in medicinally important component. Articles the aqueous extracts of both the plants. The suggest the role of anthocyanins in cancer phytochemicals Glycosides and reducing prevention. Flavonoids are the most sugar were absent in both plants, while important plant pigments for flower saponins and alkaloids were found in the coloration, producing yellow or red/blue hues aqueous extract of C.pulcherrima (Table.2) n in petals. These compounds are involved in symbiotic nitrogen fixation in higher plants. These secondary metabolites have some uses including medicinal properties. Many Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics research articles have suggested the presence of various phytochemicals like Alkaloids, The cotton fabric which was mordanted and Tannins, Glycosides, Resins, Steroids, dyed with the C.pulcherrima dye gave light Saponins, Flavonoids and Phenols when shades of colours (Fig.3). Since, the colour Clitoria ternetea and Caesalpinia faded on exposure to sunlight, the colour pulcherrima leaves were extracted using fastness to light of these dye fabrics can thus various solvents (Manjula et al., 2013). The be inferred as less. While the cotton fabric phytochemical tests performed in this current dyed with C.ternetea dye gave darker hues study were piloted only on the distilled water Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

118 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity leaf extracts. The leaf extracts exhibited of the phytochemicals in these plants, the leaf negative results for the tests of glycosides, extracts should be dissolved in various reducing sugar, alkaloids and saponins. But solvents in a polarity gradient separately. this does not indicate the absence of these phytochemicals in the selected plants. Hence, the current project undertaken Instead, it can be believed that these divulges the commercial as well as medical secondary metabolites might dissolve in other importance of the locally available plants – solvents. Therefore, for the complete analysis Clitoria ternetea and Caesalpinia pulcherrima. Table 1. Absorption peaks obtained when the extracted dyes were analyzed in Spectrophotometer Sl.No Name of the dye Absorption Peaks 1 C.pulcherrima dye 450nm-500nm 700nm-750nm. 2 C.ternatea dye 390nm-500nm 600nm-800nm Table 2. Phytochemical Analysis of the Aqueous Leaf Extracts of C.terneteaand C. pulcherrima Sl No Phytochemicals C.ternetea C.pulcherrima 1 2 Phenols and Tannins ++ 3 4 Flavonoids ++ 5 6 Saponins -+ 7 Alkaloids -+ Glycosides -- Reducing sugar -- Terpenoids ++ Figure 1. Images of the plants selected for study Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Clitoria ternetea Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Commercial value of locally available plants with potential for use as a natural dye 119 Figure 2. Natural dye obtained from C.pulcherrima and C.ternetea via aqueous extraction method Figure.3 Hues obtained when the dye-mordant mixtures of C.pulcherrima were applied on the cotton fabric Figure.4 Hues obtained when the dye-mordant mixtures of C.ternetea were applied on the cotton fabric Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

120 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Conclusion Harborne, J.B.1973. Phytochemical Methods. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London : 49-188 There are many varieties of plants around us and their uses are beyond expectation. Hunger, K. 2007. Industrial dyes: chemistry, Certain plants have more uses other than their properties, applications. John Wiley &Sons. medicinal property. Dyeing is one such property of these plants. Synthetic dyes are Manjula, P., Mohan, C., Sreekanth, D., manmade dyes and they are widely used Keerthi, B. and Prathibha Devi, B. 2013. because of their certain features like low cost Phytochemical analysis of Clitoria ternatea and easy availability. Even with these Linn, a valuable medicinal plant. The Journal advantages, synthetic dyes possess an of Indian Botanical Society, 92 :173-178 adverse effect on human life since it contains a lot of chemical contents. Modern researches Sofowora, A. 1982. Medicinal plants and proves that natural dyes are more useful as traditional medicine in Africa. John Wiley well as less harmful compared to synthetic and Sons. dyes since it is natural and these dyes are mainly obtained from plants. Two such plants Stapleton, A.E. 1992. Ultraviolet radiation from which natural dyes can be obtained are and plants: burning questions, The Plant Cell, Caesalpinia pulcherrima and Clitoria 4: 1353. ternatea. In the present study, the dyes from the selected plants were extracted via Trease, G.E. and Evans, W.C. 1989. A Text- aqueous extraction method. Further the dyes book of Pharmacognosy. BailliereTinall Ltd, were mixed with three mordants (i.e. Copper London. Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate and Potassium Dichromate) and applied onto the scoured Zollinger, H. 2003. Color chemistry: cotton cloth. Both the dyes gave varying hues syntheses, properties, and applications of when mixed with different mordants. The organic dyes and pigments. John Wiley & phytochemical analysis of the aqueous Sons. extracts of these plants also reveals the presence of many important secondary metabolites such as phenols, tannins, terpenoids,The qualitative analysis of these extracts thus validates the medicinal properties of the selected plants. Hence, the current study divulges the commercial as well as medical importance of the locally available plants, Clitoria ternetea and Caesalpinia pulcherrima. References Ahn, K. 2017. The worldwide trend of using botanical drugs and strategies for developing global drugs. BMB reports 50, no. 3: 111. Harbone, J.B. and Grayer, R.J. 1988. The anthocyanins. Chapman and Hall Ltd London: 1-20 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.115-120 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Phytochemical screening of selected mangrove plant leaf extracts… 121 CHAPTER 19 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING OF SELECTED MANGROVE PLANT LEAF EXTRACTS FROM AYIRAMTHENGU MANGROVE IN KOLLAM DIST, KERALA, INDIA Jisha S and Sreeja J Dept. of Zoology S.N. College for Women, Kollam, Kerala *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Mangrove forests are among one of the world’s most productive tropical ecosystems and are highly potential because the ecosystem is always under stress which leads to the production of certain compounds for their survival. Secondary metabolites are actually plant’s adaptational and survival mechanisms and have toxicological, pharmacological and ecological importance. Qualitative phytochemical analysis of Rhizophora apiculata, Aegiceras corniculatum and Lumnitzera recemosa using acetonic, ethanolic and aquous extracts confirm the presence of flavanoids, terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, tannins etc. The Knowledge of chemical components of a plant is essential for quality control analyses of the plant extract or any formulation containing them. Key words: Mangrove, Flavonoid, Terpenoid, Alkaloid, Steroid, Tannin Introduction have toxicological, pharmacological and ecological importance. Moreover, the detritus Every useful plant owes it utility to a number and nutrients generated in the mangrove of ingredients whether it is food, clothing or ecosystem form excellent feed for a large shelter. Similarly every medicinal herb variety of organisms which support valuable contains a number of active constituents estuarine and near shore fisheries (Praseetha facilitating its manifold curative activities. and Rajini, 2015). Mangrove forests are among one of the world’s most productive tropical ecosystems Extracts from mangrove plants and associates and are highly potential because the has been used worldwide for medicinal ecosystem is always under stress which leads purposes, and having been recorded around to the production of certain compounds for 349 metabolites it turns out to be a rich their survival. Secondary metabolites like source of steroids, diterpenes and triterpenes, alkaloids, phenolic, steroids and terpenoids saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids and have been characterized from mangroves and tannins(Saranraj and Sujitha, 2015 ). Many Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

122 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity studies have been reported that the mangrove the extract as per the method described by plant derived extract may be a rich source of Harborne (1973), Sofowora (1993) and novel compounds along with enormous Trease and Evans (1989). biological activities. In this point of view, the present investigation is to be undertaken Test for flavanoid to determine the qualitative analysis of phytochemicals from the leaf extracts of Shinoda test: The crude extracts of plant mangrove plants, Rhizophora apiculata, leaves were mixed with few fragments of Aegiceras corniculatum and Lumnitzera magnesium ribbon and added concentrated recemosa. HCl in drop wise. Pink scarlet colour is appeared after few minutes which concluded Materials and Methods and indicated the presence of flavonoids. The mangrove leaves are collected from Lead acetate test: The extract is dissolved in Ayiramthengu mangrove (lat. 9° 02’- 9° 16’ of distilled water and to this 3 ml of 10% lead N and long. 76° 20’ - 76° 32’ E) which is acetate solution is added. A bulky white situated in Kollam district of Kerala, India. precipitate indicates the presence of phenolic This mangrove forest was declared as an compounds. environmental hot spot after it was ravaged by the Tsunami in 2004 and threatened with Test for phenol extinction. The collected leaves were washed with tap water and shade dried at room Ferric Chloride Test: The crude extracts of temperature. The dried leaves were powdered R. mucronata were mixed with 2 mL of 2 % using electrical blender. One kg of powdered solution of FeCl3. A blue-green or black material of Rhizophora apiculata, Aegiceras colouration is appeared and that indicated the corniculatum and Lumnitzera recemosa was presence of phenols and tannins soaked in 4 L of solvents for 24 hrs. and extracted with three different solvents such as Test with Sodium Bicarbonate: Lack of acetone, ethanol and water at 25oC. The effervescence when sodium bicarbonate extraction was repeated thrice to obtain a added to 1 ml of sample solution indicated sizable quantity of extract, after that the the presence of phenol. extracts were pooled, filtered using Whatmann No. 1 paper and concentrated by Test for alkaloid using rotary evaporator (Buchi Rotavapor R- 124). Finally, the resultant residues of crude Dragondroff test: To a few ml of solvent 1- extracts were kept at 4◦C for further 2 ml of dragendorff’s reagent were added. A investigation. prominent reddish brown precipitate indicated the presence of alkaloid Qualitative phytochemical tests for the identification of alkaloids, flavonoids, Wagner’stest: A few drops of Wagner‟s steroids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, reagent are added to few ml of plant extract glycosides and phenols were carried out in along the sides of test tube. A reddish- Brown precipitate confirms the test as positive. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Phytochemical screening of selected mangrove plant leaf extracts… 123 Test for carbohydrate with 2 mL of Millon’s reagent, white precipitate appeared which turned red upon Fehling’s test: Equal volume of Fehling A gentle heating that confirmed the presence of and Fehling B reagents were mixed together protein. with 2 mL of plant extracts and gently boiled. A brick red precipitate appeared at the Test for terpenoids bottom of the test tube indicated the presence of reducing sugars. To the plant extract add 2ml of chlorophorm;5 ml of concentrated sulphuric Benedict’s test: The extracts were mixed acid was carefully added to form a layer and with 2 mL of Benedict’s reagent and boiled. observed for the presence of reddish brown Finally, a reddish brown precipitate was interface to showb the presence of formed, which indicated the presence of the terpenoid.A few mg of substance is dissolved carbohydrates. in chlorophorm and acetic anhydrideis added followed by sulphuricacid. Pinkcolour Test for glycosides indicates the presence of terpenoid Keller-Kilani test: The extracts were mixed Test for steroids with 2 mL of glacial acetic acid containing 1- 2 drops of 2 % solution of FeCl3. The The crude extracts were mixed with 2 mL of mixture was then poured into another test chloroform and added concentrated H2SO4 tube containing 2 mL of concentrated in sidewise. A red colour produced in the H2SO4. A brown ring presence at the lower chloroform layer indicated the interphase indicated and confirmed the presence of steroids. Another test was presence of cardiac glycosides. performed by mixing crude extracts with 2 mL of chloroform. Then 2 mL of each of Salkowski’s test: The crude extracts were concentrated H2SO4 and acetic acid were mixed with 2 mL of chloroform. Then added poured into the mixture. The development of a 2 mL of conc. H2SO4 and shaken gently. a greenish colouration indicated and Whereas, a reddish brown colour appeared confirmed the presence of steroids. indicated and confirmed the presence of steroidal ring, i.e., glycone portion of the Test for anthocyanin glycoside. Add 2 ml of 2N HCl to leaf extract the Test for proteins appearance of a pink red colour that turns purplish blue after addition of ammonia Ninhydrin test: The methanolic, ethanolic indicates the presence of anthocyanin. and chloroform extracts of R. mucronata were boiled with 2 mL of 0.2% solution of Test for saponins Ninhydrin. Whereas, the pink colour appeared confirmed the presence of amino The extracts were mixed with 5 mL of acids and proteins. distilled water in a test tube and it was shaken vigorously. The formation of stable Millon’s test: The methanolic, ethanolic and foam was taken as an indication for the chloroform extracts of R. mucronata mixed presence of saponins. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

124 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Test for and tannins secondary metabolites were carried out on The extracts were mixed with 2 mL of 2 % leaf extracts of Rhizophora apiculata, solution of FeCl3. A blue-green or black Aegiceras corniculatum and Lumnitzera colouration is appeared and that indicated the recemosa. The result of the phytochemical presence of tannins. analysis indicated in Table-1. The leaf extracts of shows the presence of Results phytochemical compounds such as alkaloids, In the present study, preliminary flavonoids, glycosides, phenols, saponins, phytochemical tests for the primary and tannins and terpenoids. Table 1. Phytochemical test for the primary and secondary metabolites Bacteria Gram STATION STATION STATION Staining I IV VI Actinetobacter baumannii Reaction Actinetobacter pitii SW BW SW BW SW BW Bacillus cereus GN ++ ++ ++ Bacillus coagulans GN -- -- +- Bacillus pumilus BCL -- -+ -- Bacillus spp BCL -- -- -- Brevibacillus choshinensis BCL -- -- -- Chryseobacterium gleum BCL -- -- -- Kocuria kristinae BCL -- -- -- Kocuria varians GN ++ ++ ++ Methylobacterium spp GP -+ -- -- Pantoea spp GP +- +- ++ Sphingomonas paucimobilis GN -+ -- -- Staohylococcus lentus GN -- -- ++ Stenotrophomonas GN -- +- -- maltophilia GP -- -- -- GN -+ -- -- Key; + trace, ++present, +++ excess, - absent Discussion naturally occurring phenols and flavonoids have been identified from various plants. The mangroves are a promising source of These are known to possess antioxidant, natural products. Mangroves have been a antibacterial, antitumor and antiviral source of several bioactive compounds. properties. Mangroves are diverse group of Phenols and flavonoids are amazing group of plants, rich with many secondary metabolites compounds virtually found in all plants. They like alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, steroids are present in edible and non-edible plant and terpenoids (Soonthornchareonnon et al., parts and are responsible for many biological 2012). Over 5000 naturally occurring phenols activities in both the plant and animal systems (Kahkonen et al., 1999). Over 5000 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Phytochemical screening of selected mangrove plant leaf extracts… 125 and flavonoids have been identified from herbivore by stopping its heart beat, can be various plants. used as cardio tonics. The selected mangroves are rich in glycosides. System Preliminary qualitative phytochemical Secondary metabolites are actually plants analysis for the leaves of Rhizophora adaptation and survival mechanisms. apiculata, Aegiceras corniculatum and Terpenoids are abundant in all the extracts. Lumnitzera recemosa revealed the presence Its physiological roles include chemical of a wide array of phytochemicals such as defenses against abiotic and biotic stresses flavonoid, phenol, alkaloid, carbohydrayte, (Berenbaum et al., 1981). Saponins present glycosides, protein, terpenoid, steroid, in these plants are considered to be antifungal saponin, tannin and anthraquinone, which are agents and tannins prevent the growth of the the compounds of medicinal values. These microorganism by precipitating nutritional secondary metabolites have great potential microbial proteins. for producing new drugs (Littleton et al., 2005). Acetonioc extract registered higher Conclusion percentage of yield. It may be due to high polarity of acetone solvent which can draw This work is an attempt to find out the high variety of plant constituents than the phytochemicals present in the various other solvents (Benedec et al., 2013 ). mangrove taxa. This research may lead to the development of a phytomedicine to act Plants contain a number of molecules which against pathogenic microbes. Further mimic our molecules as in case of research is necessary to extract the Isoflavonoids that stimulate estrogens. The antibacterial compounds from these plants concentrations of flavonoids are high in all and this will give a platform for further the three extracts. They can be employed in phytochemical and pharmaceutical our system to rectify a derailed pathway. The applications study of Asha et al. (2012) confirmed the Presence of flavanoids and phenolic Reference compounds in chemical in Rhizophora apiculata. Phenolics are the best Asha, K.K., Mathew, S. and Lakshmnan, antioxidants, protecting cellular membranes P.T. 2012. Flavanoids and Phenolic and tissues containing lipids from oxidation, Copmounds in two mangrove species and Although it is present in all extracts, its their antioxidant property. ICAR concentration is high in Lumnitzera recemosa. Alkaloids are defensive agents Benedec, D., L. Vlase, I., Oniga, A.C., Mot, deterring the herbivores due to their bitter G., Damian, D., Hanganu, M., Duma and taste; it is present all three plant leaves, Silaghi-Dumitrescu, R. 2013. Polyphenolic comparatively high in Aegiceras composition, antioxidant and antibacterial corniculatum. All sulphur containing activities for two Romanian subspecies of compounds are antimicrobial in nature. Achilleadistans Waldst. Ex wild. Molecules, Cardiac glycosides, by which a plant kills 18: 8725-8739. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

126 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Berenbaum, M. and Fenny, P. 1981. Toxicity Of Angular Furanocomarins To Swallowtail Butterflies:Science, 212:927-929 Harborne, J.B.1973. Phytochemical Methods. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, 49-188 Littleton, J., T. Rogers and Falcone, D. 2005. Novel approaches to plant drug discovery based on high throughput pharmacological screening and genetic manipulation. Life Sci., 78: 467-475. Kahkonen, M. P., Hopia, A.I., Vuorela, J.H., Rauha J.P., Philaja, K., Kujala T.S. and Heinonen, M. 1999. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts containing phenolic compounds. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 47: 3954-3962. Praseetha, T. and Rajani, V. 2015 A Preliminary Study on Ecology of Ayiramthengu Mangrove – Kollam Dist., Kerala, India., IJISET - International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering & Technology, Vol. 2 Issue 9. Saranraj and Sujitha, D. 2015. Mangrove Medicinal Plants: A Review, American- Eurasian Journal of Toxicological Sciences, 7 (3): 146-156. Sofowora, A. 1993. Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa. Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria, 191-289. Soonthornchareonnon N, Wiwat C, and Chuakul W. 2012. Biological Activities of Medicinal Plants from Mangrove and Beach Forests. Mahidol University Journal of Pharmaceutical Science, 39: 9-18. Trease, G.E. and Evans, W.C. 1989. Pharmacognosy, 11th edn., BailliereTindall, London, 45-50. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.121-126 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Ayurvedic concept of drug substitution: a sustainable option for medicinal plant conservation 127 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 20 AYURVEDIC CONCEPT OF DRUG SUBSTITUTION: A SUSTAINABLE OPTION FOR MEDICINAL PLANT CONSERVATION Shanti Vasudevan C N and I’ma Neerakkal Dept. of Botany, Sacred Heart College, Thevara – 682013, Kochi, Kerala, Correspondence E-mail: [email protected]. ABSTRACT The demand for medicinal plants have tremendously increased during the recent times due to buoyancy in herbal sector producing plant based products. This rising demand necessitated the need for encouraging conservation strategies to protect medicinal plant from facing threat of extinction. Several strategies are being reported and are in practice. The present work focuses on the concept of substitution suggested in Ayurvedic texts that may be used as a sustainable option for conservation of medicinal plants. Ayurvedic literture suggests use of readily available substitute drugs (Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya)(APD) with similar properties (rasa, guna, veerya) for genuine drugs in its scarcity or absence (Abhava Dravya)(AD). The workattempts to enlist the alternative substitute plants or plant parts suggested for rare or less available medicinal plant mentioned in ayurvedic texts - Yogaratnakara, Bhavaprakasha, BhaishajyaRatnavali and VaidyaChintamani. Some of the plants for whom substitutes are being suggested come under, Ashtavarga-Rare Medicinal Plants. Key words: Conservation, Yogaratnakara, Bhavaprakasha, Bhaishajya atnavali, Vaidya chintamani Introduction substitution is accepted in Ayurveda. Large numbers of plant species have become Ayurvedic literture suggests use of readily vulnerable to extinction due to urbanization and deforestation. The increasing demand for available substitute drugs (Abhava Pratinidhi medicinal plants by various processing industries (pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics, Dravya)(APD) with similar properties (rasa, perfumes etc) have led to overexploitation of plants (Barata and Asdal, 2011). Hence there guna, veerya) for genuine drugs in its is an urgent need to develop methods for conservation of plant (World Health scarcity or absence ( Abhava Dravya) (AD) Organization, 2015). Among the various strategies adopted for medicinal plant (Kumari and Tewari, 2002). The concept of conservation, the concept of drug substitution mentioned in ayurvedic literature can be substitute has been mentioned in texts like considered as a method of sustainable use of medicinal plant. The concept of drug Charaka Samhita (Pandeya,1997), Bhavaprakasha Nighantu (Chunekar,1999), Bhaishajya Ratnavali (Mishra,2007), Chikitsasara Sangraha (Saxena,2004) and Ayurveda Saukhyam (Dash,1997). Of the different substitutes being suggested for several plants, in ayurvedic texts, the present study focuses on enlisting alternative substitute plants or plant parts suggested for Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

128 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity rare or less available medicinal plant Ayurvedic pharmacopeia mostly of plant mentioned in Yogaratnakara, Bhavaprakasha, origin along with a concise description of Bhaishajya Ratnavali and Vaidya drugs of metal and mineral origin with Chintamani. processing techniques and therapeutic uses. The book is unique as it includes information Methodology on contemporary drugs (Panuganti, et al., 2017) Compilation of Abhava Pratinidhi Dravyas (APD) mentioned in selected Ayurvedic Vaidya Chintamani texts Vaidya Chintamani written by Botanical identities of sanskrit names of Vallabhacharya, an important treatise of APDs mentioned in Ayurvedic texts were Ayurveda from Andhra Pradesha is a verified using Ayurvedic Formulary of India bilingual work in Sanskrit and Telagu (AFI, 2003) and Madanapala Nighant language. The book contain large information (Sastry, 2009). Herbs with controversial about different ayurvedic dosage forms identity were excluded. The Sanskrit name mentioned disease wise, etiological factors, and the botanical names of ADs and APDs pathology an diagnostics features. mentioned in Yogaratnakara, Bhavaprakasha, Bhaishajya Ratnavali and Vaidya Chintamani Bhaishajya Ratnavali are tabulated. Bhaishajya Ratnavali is a classic work of Yogaratnakara Govindadas Sen compiling different categories of herbal and herbomineral Yogaratnakara is a compilation work of formulations (Jagtap et al., 2014). Indian Medical system. It is a well knowntreatieson Indian Medicine as Results discussed in several books of ancient period to later part of the 17th century A.D AD – APD pairs suggested in the selected (Saxena,1992). In the chapter on basic Ayurvedic texts are tabulated (Table 1, Table concepts of Ayurveda in Yogartnakara, the 2, Table 3, Table 4). Among the enlisted AD concept of abavavarga(substitute drugs)has -APD pairs two of the pairs are found been suggested. repeated in all the four texts while five pairs are found in three texts. Fourteen pairs are Bhavaprakasha found repeated in two texts. Seven of the ADs enlisted come under Ashtavarga- Rare Bhava Prakasha Nighantu written in 16th Medicinal Plants category. century by Bhavamishra is renowned Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Ayurvedic concept of drug substitution: a sustainable option for medicinal plant conservation 129 Table 1. List of AD and APD in Yogaratnakara Sl No Sanskrit name AD Sanskrit name APD 1 Binomial Guduchi Binomial 2 Guduchi Danti Chitraka*** Tinospora cordifolia Tinospora cordifolia Plumba gozeylanica Baliospermum montanum Achyrantes aspera 3 Tagara** Valeriana wallichi Kustha Saussre alappa Lannea grandis 4 Murva Marsedeniatena cissima Jingini Nymphaea stellata Acacia nilotica 8 Kumuda Nymphae alba Nilotpala Myrista fragrans Calotropis gigantea 9 Bakula Mimusopse lengi Babbula Riccinus communis Tagetes erecta 10 Jatipatra Myristica fragrans Jatiphala Piper chaba 11 ArkaLATEX*** Calotropis gigantea ArkaJUICE Scindapsus officinalis Cassia tora 12 Pauskara Saussurea costus Eranda Curcuma longa Solanum xanthocarpum 13 Sthauneyaka Taxus baccata Gada Woodfordia futicosa 14 Pippalimula** Piper longus Cavikka Rumex vesicarius Citrus aurantifolia 15 Somaraji** Psoralea corylifolia Gajapippali Madhuca indica Prappunata Syzygium aromaticum Jasminum grandiflorum 16 Darunisa Berberis aristata Nisa Cathamus tinctorius 17 Bhargi**** Clerdendrum serratum Kantakari Cinnamomum camphora Vetiveria zizanioides 18 Madhuyasti Glyyrrihza glabra Dhataki Aconitum heterophyllum 19 Amlavetasa** Solenaam plexicaulis Cukra Pistacia chinensis Nelumbo nucifera 20 Cukra Rumex vesicarius Jambira Asparagus racemosus 21 Draksha** Vitis vinifera Madhuka Grewia populifolia 22 Nakha** Capparis sepiari Lavanga Pueraria tuberosa Sida cordifolia 23 Kankola Picorrhiza kurroa Jatipuspa Pueraria tuberosa 24 Kumkuma*** Crocus sativus Kusumba Plumbago indica Arun dodonax 25 Srikhanda Santalum album karpura Fresh Usira 26 Raktachandana*** Pterocarpus santalinus Ativisa 27 Musta*** Cyperus rotundus 28 Haritaki Terminalia chebula Karkatasrngi 29 Nagapuspa** Mesua ferrea Padmakesara 30 Meda**(AST) Polygonatum malabarica Vari 31 VriddhiAST Habenaria intermedia Mahabala 32 JeevakaAST Malaxis acuminata Vidari 33 RiddhiAST Habenaria edgeworthii Bala 34 KakoliAST Frittilaris roylei Asvagandha 35 Bhallataka**** Semecarpus anacradium Citraka 36 Iksu** Saccharum officinarum Nala . * - indicates number repetitions in the Ayurvedic texts selected , AST – Astawarga drugs Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

130 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 2. List of AD and APD in Bhavaprakasha AD APD Sl. Binomial name Sanskrit name Binomial name no Sanskrit name Baliospermum Plumba gozeylanica Danti montanum 1 Chitraka*** Fagonia cretica Duralabha Fagonia cretica 2 Dhanvayasa** Valeriana wallichii kustham Saussurea lappa 3 Tagara** Lanniacorom Marsdenia tenacissima Jingini andelica 4 Murva** Capparis spinosa Manakanda Alocasia indica 5 Ahimsra** Actiniopteris Ipomoea marginata Mayurasikha dichotoma 6 Laksamana Syzygium Myristica fragrans Lavanga aromaticum 7 Jati Calotropis Calotropis gigantea Arka gigantea 8 Arka*** Piper chaba Pippalimula Piper longum 9 Cavika** Psoralia corylifolia Prapunnata Cassia torra 10 Somaraji** Berberis vulgaris Haridra Curcuma longa 11 Daruharidra** Solanum Clerondendrum serratum Kantakari xanthocarpum 12 Bharngi**** Woodfordia Glycyrrhiza glabra Woodfordia fruticosa 13 Yastimadhu Garcinia pedunculata cukra Tamarindus indica 14 Amlavetasa** Crataegus Vitis vinifera Bandhuka oxycantha 15 Draksha Syzygium Capparis sepiaria Lavanga aromaticum 16 Nakha** Carthamus Crocus sativus Kusumba tinctorius 17 Kumkum*** Cinnamomum Santalum album Karpura camphora 18 Candana Pterocarpus Cinnamomum camphora Raktachandana santalinus 19 Karpura Vetiveria Pterocarpu ssantalinus Fresh usira zizanioides 20 Raktachandana*** Aconitum heterophyllum Musta Cyperus rotundus 21 Ativisa*** Terminalia chebula Amalaki Emblica officinalis 22 Haritaki** Mesua ferrea Padmakesara Nelumb onucifera 23 Nagakesara** Polygonatum vertillatum Asparagus Polygonatum cirrhifolium Satavari racemosus Meda**(AST)/ Raktachandana/ Pterocarpus 24 Mahameda(AST) Semecarpus anacardium Citra mula santalinus Saccharum officinarum Nala Arun dodonax 25 Bhallataka**** 26 Sugarcane** * - indicates number repetitions in the Ayurvedic texts selected , AST – Astawarga drugs Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Ayurvedic concept of drug substitution: a sustainable option for medicinal plant conservation 131 Table 3. List of AD and APD in VaidyaChintamani AD APD Sl. Sanskrit name Binomial name Sanskrit name Binomial name No Vitis vinifera Kharjura Phoenix dactyliferax 1 Draksa** Madhuka Madhuca longifolia 2 Pippali Piper longum Marica Piper nigrum 3 Sunthi Zyngiber officinale Adraka Zyngiber officinale 4 Rasna Pluchealan ceolata Sunthi Zyngiber officinale 5 Yastimadhu Glycyrrhiza glabra Jathamamasi Nardostachys jatamansi 6 Musta Cyperus rotundus Tagara Valerian wallichi 7 Lavanga Syzygium aromaticum Dhatikipuspa Woodfordia fruticosa 8 Jiraka Cuminum cyminum Krisnajiraka Carum carvi 9 Bharangi**** Clerodendrum kantakari Solanum surattense serratum 10 Talispatra Abies webbiana Ela Elettaria cardmomum 11 Usira Vetiveria zizaniodes Candana Santalum album 12 Kumkuma Crocus sativus Kamakesara Nelumbo nucifera 13 Kalasaka Corchorus capsularis Swetapunarnava Boerhavia diffusa ( White flower) 14 Swetapunarnava Boerhavia diffusa Raktapunarnava Boerhavia diffusa (Red ( White flower) flower) 15 Bhallataka**** Semecarpus Citrakamula Plumba gozeylanica anacardium 16 Bilvamula Aegle marmelos Kapitha Feronia linonia 17 AtibalaEND Abutilon indicum Bala Sida cordifolia 18 Patha Cissampelos pareira Dhanvayasa Fagonia arabica 19 kantakari Solanum surattense Brhati Solanum indicum 20 Pippalimula Piper longum Marica Piper nigrum 21 Lamajaka Andrpogonj Candana Santalum album warancusa 22 Usira Vetiveria zizaniodes Saribha Hemidesmus indicus 23 Danti*** Baliospermum Trivrt Operculina turpethum montanum Citraka Plumba gozeylanica 24 Haritaki Terminalia chebula Vibhitaka Terminalia bellirica 25 Mudga Phaseolus radiatus Masura Lens culinaris Sariva Withania somnifera 26 KakoliAST Fritilleria roylei Satavari Asparagus racemosus Bala Sida cordifolia 27 KsirakakoliAST/END Lilium polyphyllum 28 RsabhakaAST Malaxis muscifera * - indicates number repetitions in the Ayurvedic texts selected , AST – Astawarga drugs , END- Endangered Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

132 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 4. List of AD and APD in BhaishajyaRatnavali AD APD Sl No Sanskrit name Binomial name Sanskrit name Binomial name 1 2 Draksha Vitis vinifera Gambhari Gmelina arborea 3 4 Pomegranate Punica granatum Vriskaamla Garcinia indica 5 Daruharidra** Berberis vulgaris 6 Haridra Curcuma longa 7 8 Aniseeds Pimpinella anisum Coriander Coriandrums ativum 9 Murva** Marsedeniatena cissima 10 Jinkani (manjistha) Rubia cordifolia, L. 11 12 Vasti Glycyrhiza glabra Cavya Piper retrofractum 13 14 Cavya Piper retrofractum Musali Chlorophytum tuberosum 15 16 Kutaja Holarrhena antidysentrica Musali Chlorophytum tuberosum 17 Bhallataka**** Semecarpus anacardium 18 Chitraka Plumba gozeylanica 19 20 Chitraka Plumba gozeylanica Danti baliospermum montanum 21 Dhanvayasa** Fagonia cretica 22 Ahimsra** Capparis sepiari Duralabha Fagonia cretica 23 Manakanda Alocasia macrorrhiza 24 25 Bakula Mimusopse lengi Kamala Nelumbium speciosum 26 27 Jatipuspa Myristica fragrans Clove Syzygium aromaticum 28 ArkaLATEX*** Calotropis gigantea Kumkum*** Crocus sativus ArkaJUICE Calotropis gigantea Red santal*** Pterocarpus santalinus Ativisa*** Aconitum heterophyllum Kusumba Carthamus tinctorius Haritaki** Terminalia chebula MedaAST Polygonatum vertillatum Fresh usira Vetiveria zizanoides Musta Cyperus rotundus Amalaki Emblica officinalis Asvagandha Withania somnifera Jivaka Cuminum cyminum Guduchi Tinospora cordifolia Risabhaka Microstylis mucifera Vansalocana Bambusa arundinaceae KakoliAST/ KsirakakoliAST Fritilleria roylei Satavari Asparagus racemosus MahamedaAST Lilium polyphyllum Anantamula Hemidesmus indicus Bhargi**** Polygonatum cirrhifolium Kantakari Solanum xanthocarpum Clerodendron indicum Dhataki Woodfordia fruticosa Jasmin Jasminum officinale Madhuyasti Glycurrhiza glabra Ajamoda Apium graveolens Kankola Piper cubeba Yavanika Carum carvi * - indicates number repetitions in the Ayurvedic texts selected , AST – Astawarga drugs Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Ayurvedic concept of drug substitution: a sustainable option for medicinal plant conservation 133 Discussion AFI, The Ayurvedic Formulary of India, part 1. 2003. Government of India, Ministry of Several strategies like insitu and Health and Family Welfare, Department of Indian system of medicine & Homeopathy, exsituconservation, cultivation practices, New Delhi. resource management, biotechnological approaches and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources are being suggested for Barata, A. M. and Asdal, A. 2011. 36 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants ECPGR medicinal plant conservation(Chen et al., Working Group: Objectives and Achievements. AgrobiodiversityConservation 2016). Concept of Abhava Pratinidhi Dravya Securing the Diversity of Crop Wild Relatives and Landraces, 292-297 has been scientifically validated in pairs like Ativisha-Mustaby pharmacognostic, phytochemical (Adams et al., 2013) and pharmacological studies (Nagarajan et al., Chen, S. L., Yu, H., Luo, H. M., Wu, Q., Li, C. F., and Steinmetz, A. 2016. Conservation 2015). List of drugs suggested include drugs and sustainable use of medicinal plants: problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese coming under Ashtavarga-Rare Medicinal medicine, 11(1):37. Plants (Singh, 2006). Lilium polyphyllumone of the plant enlisted Chunekar, K. C. 1999. Bhavaprakash- as AD was recommended for integrated conservation plant based on its earlier study nighantu. Varanasi:Chaukhamba Bharati on habitat, distribution, population structure and conservation status (Dhyani et al., 2018) Academy, 3:115- 117. Future perspectives and conclusion Dash, B. 1997. MateriaMedica of Ayurveda based on Ayurveda Saukhyam of Ayurvedic literature on substitution is not Todarananda, Concept Publishing Company. supported by scientific proof. Hence the New Delhi, p. 400. different substitutes suggested has to be systematically studied by further Dhyani, A., Nautiyal, B. P., and Nautiyal, M. phytochemical and pharmacological studies C. 2018. Distribution, status and conservation to confirm the legitimacy behind the concept of Liliumpolyphyllum (Liliaceae), a critically of Abhva Pratinidhi Dravya endangered medicinal plant from India. Plant Biosystems-An International Journal Dealing Acknowledgement with all Aspects of Plant Biology, 152(4): 608-611. The authors thank Government Ayurveda Jagtap, C. Y., Prajapati, P. K., Patil, R., and college, Thripunithura 682301, Ernakulam for providing library facility. Chaudhary, S. Y. 2014. Therapeutic uses of Tamra (copper) bhasma–A review through References Bhaishajyaratnavali. Ayur pharm Int J Ayur Adams, S. J., Kuruvilla, G. R., Alli Sci, 3:128-135. Krishnamurthy, K. V., Nagarajan, M., and Kumari.A. and Tewari.P. 2002. Yogaratnakara. Part- 1. A complete treatise Venkatasubramanian, P. 2013. on Ayurveda. Varanasi. Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, p. 171. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies on Ayurvedic drugs Ativisha and Musta. Revista Brasileira de Mishra,B. S. 2007. Bhaishajyaratnavali of Farmacognosia, 23(3): 398-409. ShriGovindDasji. Vol- 1. Varanasi: Chaukhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, p. 80–85. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India