CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY

36 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Rodgers,P.B. and Knowles,C.J. 1978. Cyanide Production and Degradation During Growth of Chromobacterium violaceum.Journal of General Microbiology., 108: 261-267. Ryan, M.P., Pembroke, J.T. and Adley, C.C. 2007. Ralstonia pickettii in environmental biotechnology: potential and applications.J Appl Microbiol.,103(4):754-64. Singh, T. and Singh, S.N. 1995. Impact of river Varuna on Ganga river water quality at Varanasi. Indian.J.Environ.Health., 37(4): 272-277. Tiwari,S. and Beriha, S.S 2015.Pantoea species causing early onset neonatal sepsis: a case report.Journal of Medical Case Reports., 9:188. Van Nostrand, J.D, Khijniak, T.J, Neely, B., Sattar, M.A, Sowder, A.G, Mills, G., Bertsch, P.M. and Morris, P.J. 2007. Reduction of nickel and uranium toxicity and enhanced trichloroethylene degradation to Burkholderia vietnamiensis PR1301 with hydroxyapatite amendment.Environ Sci Technol.41(6):1877- 82. Walterson, A.M. and John, S. 2015. Pantoea: insights into a highly versatile and diverse genus within the Enterobacteriaceae.FEMS Microbiology Reviews., 39: 968–984 Wang,F., Wu,Y., Gao, Y and Chen, Z. 2014. Biodegradation of microcystin-LR by Burkholderiavietnamiensis. Chinese Journal of Environmental Engineering., 8(9):3837- 3842. Zhao, J., Chi, Y., Xu, Y., Jia, D. and Yao, K. 2016. Co-Metabolic Degradation of β- Cypermethrin and 3-Phenoxybenzoic Acid by Co-Culture of Bacilluslicheniformis B-1 and Aspergillus oryzae M-4. PLoS ONE., 11(11):e0166796. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166796 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Texture and Geochemistry of the tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river basins, Central Kerala 37 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 5 TEXTURE AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE TILE AND BRICK CLAY SEDIMENTS OF CHALAKUDY AND PERIYAR RIVER BASINS, CENTRAL KERALA Santhosh V*and Padmalal D** *Department of Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani University of Calicut, Malappuram– 679586 **Environmental Sciences Division, National Centre for Earth Science Studies Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram – 695031 *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The unavoidable necessity of tiles and bricks for construction purposes has led to indiscriminate exploitation of clay-rich top soil from the wetlands and paddy fields of the coastal lands of Kerala. This results in the deterioration of the quality of affected areas in many ways. Loss of top soil, shrinkage of agricultural land and consequent food security issues, erosion of nutrients, lowering of water table level in wells adjacent to mining sites etc., are the major impacts due to mining activities. Although the process brings some short-term economic gains to the people living near the area, the process in the long run creates severe socio-environmental issues. This paper highlights the geological aspects like texture and geochemical characteristics of the tile and brick clays especially in the coastal lands of Periyar and Chalakudy river basins of Central Kerala. Key words: Sediment, Texture, Geochemical characteristics, Mining Introduction degree of degradation caused by clay mining and the immediate need for strengthening the The extraction of clay rich top soil from the scientific knowledge, an attempt has been paddy lands or wetlands has imposed ever made in this paper to assess the increasing pressure on the precious natural environmental effects of clay mining from resources of the Kerala State. Loss of fertile the paddy lands of Chalakudy and Periyar top soil, shrinkage of agricultural lands and rivers draining the Ernakulam and Thrissur consequent food security issues, human districts in Central Kerala. A special attention imposed erosion of nutrients, lowering of is given on the quantitative and qualitative water table level in wells adjacent to mining aspects of the clays scooped out from the sites etc. are some of the major adverse area. effects of clay mining. Although the process brings some short-term economic gains in the Materials and Methods form of employment generation to the local people, the negative effects are numerous and The area selected for the present study is irreversible. The mining activities are located in the coastal lands of Kerala, alarming in areas close to the development covering the lowland regions of Thrissur and centers like Kochi City. Considering the Ernakulam districts. The area lies between 90 31’-100 32’N latitudes and 760 8’-770 7’ E Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

38 Current status and challenges or conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity longitudes (Fig.1) and comprises all the three total of 20 clay samples from the major major geologic formations of Kerala such as mining locations were collected for Archaean crystallines, Tertiary sedimentaries geochemical analysis (Fig.1). The sediments and Quaternary deposits (Fig. 2). Laterites were dried at 55+30C in an air oven. The cap over the crystalline and the sedimentaries sand, silt and clay contents in the samples at many places. Recent to sub recent were determined by pipette analysis sediments cover the low-lying areas and river following Folk (1970). A portion of the dried valleys. The Archaean crystallines cover sample was powdered and homogenized about 90% of the total area. The Sub-Recent thoroughly. The organic carbon and nitrogen sediments (Quaternaries) consisting of sand contents in the sample were estimated with shell fragments, black clays, peat beds following Elwakeel and Riley (1957) and etc, are confined to the low lying areas close APHA, (1985) respectively. The powdered to the coast samples were then subjected to total digestion using HF–HClO4 – HNO3 acid A detailed field work has been carried out in mixture and were used for the estimation of the area for primary and secondary data P, Fe, Na, and K following standard methods collection related to the clay mining activities (APHA, 1985). of the Chalakudy and Periyar river basins. A Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Texture and Geochemistry of the tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river basins, Central Kerala 39 Result and Discussion category, the mud content is greater than 70%. The granulometric analysis indicates Sand–silt-clay contents predominance of clay rich sediments in Periyar river basin compared to Chalakudy The sand, silt and clay contents in the clay river basin. The mud dominated sediments deposits along with the geochemical results are used exclusively for making tiles and also are given in Table 1. In Chalakudy river for making decorative roofing and floor tiles. basin, majority of the samples fall in silty clay, sandy mud, silty mud, clayey sand and Geochemistry silty sand categories. Among these, the silty clay category dominates in the Chalakudy Organic Carbon (C- org): Organic carbon river basin and in this type; the percentage of is an integral component of soils and clay content is greater than sand and silt. In sediments. The content of C-org in the tile Periyar river basin the sediments fall mainly and brick clays extracted from the Chalakudy in two categories namely clayey silt and silty river basin shows variation from 0.19% to mud. In clayey silt category, the mud content 4.08% with an average of 1.56%. The Periyar is more than 90% and in the silty mud river basin accounts for a variation of 1.2 - Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

40 Current status and challenges or conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity 2.76% (av.1.81%). The comparatively high contributions from the fertilizer industry percentage of average C-org in Periyar river working in the area. basin may be attributed to high input of organic matter from the hinterland forests in Potassium: Potassium is a chief nutrient in the Periyar river basin during middle soil which plays a vital role in the Holocene times. The C14 dates of the organic productivity. Potassium values in the surface carbon rich sediments in the Periyar river samples of the mining locations vary from basin at a depth of4.7m bgl yield an age of 1.0% to 2.38 % (av. 1.64%) in the Chalakudy 7050 ± 140 ybp, reiterating this view. In river basin and from 1.66 - 2.85% (av. Chalakudy river basin the highest C-org 2.15%) in the Periyar river basin. No marked content is noticed in the Mambrakadavu variation is observed in the concentration of (4.08%). Potassium in both the river basins. The high content of Potassium is due to the presence of Total Nitrogen: Nitrogen is the most high percentage of Potassium bearing abundant element in the atmosphere. minerals which has a peculiar ability to fix Nitrogen fixed by microorganisms in soil and Potassium over other cations in its inter layer water is one of the major sources. The total space. (Deer et al., 1962). nitrogen content in tile and brick clay samples collected from the mining locations Sodium: Sodium is one of the chief in Chalakudy river basin varies from 0.06 - inorganic components of soil. In Chalakudy 0.16% with an average of 0.112% and that in river basin, the variation of sodium in the the mining locations of Periyar river basin surface samples from the mining location varies from 0.01 - 0.02% (av. 0.014%). The ranges between 1.11% and 1.95 % (av. concentration of nitrogen in Periyar river 1.517%). In Periyar river basin, the content basin is comparatively lower than that of the of sodium varies from 0.75% to 1.25% (av. Chalakudy river basin. The reason for this is 0.95%). By comparing the values of the the increased use of nitrogen fertilizers in surface sediments of the mining locations in surrounding agricultural fields of Chalakudy both the river basins, it is revealed that river basins. Chalakudy river basin samples have relatively higher values of sodium than that Phosphorus: Phosphorus is an important of the Periyar river basin samples. This nutrient in soils and sediments. In Chalakudy increase in sodium content may be due to the river basin, the Total Phosphorus in the presence of large amount of colloidal size surface samples of the mining locations particles which would enhance the overall varies from 0.02% to 0.12% with an average adsorption of sodium. of 0.054% and that in the Periyar river basin ranges between 0.001% and 0.01% (av. Iron: Iron is the most redox-sensitive and 0.005%). Phosphorus content in Periyar river common heavy metal. The concentration of basin is low recorded compared to the iron in the surface sediments from the mining Chalakudy river basin. The maximum value locations in Chalakudy river basin varies of Phosphorus (0.12%) recorded in the from 2.38 - 7.42% (av. 5.1%) and in Periyar Chalakudy river basin is from where the basin, Fe content varies between 2.36% and organic carbon percentage was very low. 5.8% (av. 4.76%). There is not much This may be due to the Phosphorous wastes variation is observed in the concentration of iron in both the river basins. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Texture and Geochemistry of the tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river basins, Central Kerala 41 Table 1. Geochemical and textural parameters in the tile and brick clay samples of Periyar and Chalakudy river basins. PERIYAR RIVER BASIN Sample location C- TN TP Fe K% Na Sand Silt Clay Sediment type (after org %% % % % % % Picard, 1971) % Marampalli 1.2 0.01 0 2.36 2.40 0.92 2.09 64.41 33.5 Clayey silt Puthiyadam 2.52 0.02 0.01 5.52 2.02 1.02 23.54 39.46 37 Silty mud Ezhipuram 1.45 0.01 0 4.54 2.24 0.75 15 45.5 39.5 Silty mud Parappuram 1.57 0.01 0 5.14 2.14 1.1 26.44 36.56 37 Silty mud Koovapadam 2.76 0.02 0.01 5.84 1.88 0.8 5.42 54.58 40 Clayey silt Vazhakulam 1.56 0.01 0 4.54 2.38 0.95 5.11 51.88 43.01 Clayey silt Mudickal 2.12 0.02 0.01 5.63 2.01 0.91 6.19 72.31 21.5 Clayey silt Sreemulanagaram 1.82 0.02 0.01 5.38 2.85 1.26 24.5 38.8 36.7 Silty mud Mattoore 1.51 0.01 0 3.54 1.66 0.85 24.53 38.45 37.02 Silty mud Ockal 1.62 0.01 0.01 5.14 1.95 1.98 18.63 42.5 38.87 Silty mud CHALAKUDY RIVER BASIN Annallur I 1.14 0.1 0.07 4.78 2.13 1.93 46.88 24.25 28.71 Sandy mud Annallur II 0.43 0.06 0.12 7.42 1.63 1.58 33.97 33.97 32.17 Silty mud Vynthala 1.25 0.13 0.02 2.38 2.38 1.95 70.93 12.13 17.06 Clayey sand Unjakadavu 1.51 0.13 0.04 5.99 1.63 1.38 19.67 24.94 55.38 Silty clay Kochukadavu 2.53 0.15 0.05 5.31 1.50 1.34 10.82 27.03 62.21 Silty clay Kumbidi 0.19 0.07 0.04 5.18 2.00 1.72 56.79 23.37 20.48 Silty sand Melamthuruthu 1.74 0.16 0.04 3.96 1.13 1.29 19.67 23.13 56.87 Silty clay Erayankudi 0.98 0.08 0.08 4.98 1.88 1.58 34.49 41.64 23.44 Silty mud Mambrakadavu 4.08 0.09 0.02 5.03 1.00 1.18 56.26 12.11 31.6 Clayey sand VAlupadam 1.78 0.15 0.06 6.04 1.13 1.11 41.49 17.34 41.16 Sandy mud Conclusion mud and silty clay category. The admixture of mud and sand dominated clays are best used The study clearly indicates the quantitative for brick making. The mud rich sediments are and qualitative aspects and environmental used mainly for making tile and wire cut effects of clay mining from the low bricks. Geochemical studies reveal that the lands/paddy lands of Chalakudy and Periyar variation of C-org reflects the textural control river basins. Textural studies have been and contribution of organic matter from worked out for the in-depth analysis of the allochthonous and autochthonous sources. geochemical attributes of the sediments. This The concentration of Fe and Na shows similar study points out the predominance of silty values in surface samples in both the river Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

42 Current status and challenges or conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity basins. Nine local bodies in Chalakudy river basin and eleven local bodies in periyar river basin are actively engaged in clay mining and processing units. The clay based industrial units together use about 135975 tonnes of raw clay per year. Acknowledgements The first author is very much grateful to Dr. D. Padmalal, Senior Scientist, National Centre for Earth Science Studies for encouraging and helping for completing the work. References APHA. 1985. Standard method for the examination of water and waste water. American Public Health Association, Washington 1268p. Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A. and Zussman,J. 1962. Rock forming minerals, Longmans green and Co; London. 539pp. Elwakeel, S.K. and Riley, J.P. 1957. The determination of Organic Carbon in marine sediments. Jour. Cons. Prem. Int. Expl. Mar., 22: 180-83 Folk, R.L. 1974. Petrology of sedimentary Rocks.Hamphill, Texas, 182 pp Folk, R.L. and Ward, W.1957. Brazos river bar: A study in the significance of grain size parameters. Jour. Sed. Petrol., 27:pp.3-26 Murphy, J. and Riley, J.P. 1962. A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal.Chim.Acta., 27: 31-36 Ngusaru, A.S. 1995. Grain size analysis and facies interpretation of backshore sediments along the beach area, North of Dares- Salam, Tanzania. Ind. Jour. Mar. Sci.,24: 87-90. Picard, M.D. 1971. Classification of fine- grained sedimentary rocks. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 41:179 -195 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.37-42 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemistry of surface water sources in chalakudy and periyar river basins…. 43 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 6 HYDROCHEMISTRY OF SURFACE WATER SOURCES IN CHALAKUDY AND PERIYAR RIVER BASINS, CENTRAL KERALA Santhosh V Department of Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani University of Calicut, Malappuram – 679586 Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Anthropogenic effects and hydrologic cycles control regional and seasonal variations of physico- chemical parameters in the Periyar and Chalakudy river basin samples. pH, DO, BOD, TC and FC shows relatively high values in surface samples especially in non-monsoon season in both the river basins. The DO and BOD decrease markedly in the monsoon season, due to the influence of acidic rainwater and the presence of oxygen demanding organic substances. Bacteriological quality of majority of samples was very poor. This strongly indicates proper treatment of water sources in the study area prior to human consumption. Key words: Physico-chemical parameters, Bacteria, Surface water, River basins Introduction Materials and Method The Kerala State is blessed with many rivers, The Chalakudy and Periyar river basins of lakes and productive ground water regimes. central Kerala are selected for the present Lack of adequate scientific information and study (Fig.1). Geologically, the study area awareness on the quality of surface water records all the three major geologic resources is a major lacuna in taking wise formations such as, Archaean crystallines, decisions on protection of these fresh water Tertiary sedimentaries and Quaternary resources of the State. Here, we examine the deposits. Recent to Sub-Recent sediments quality of surface water sources in the two cover the low lying areas and the river river basins of Central Kerala. So an attempt valleys. Sedimentary formations ranging in has been made in this paper to study the age from Miocene to Recent overlie the surface water geochemistry in and around crystallines along the coastal tract (Fig.2). Cochin metropolitan city and assessing the The Chalakudy and Periyar river basins cover processes controlling the water quality and its more than 30% of the total wetlands/paddy suitability. lands of Kerala. These wetlands are extensively used for paddy cultivation. A total of 40 water samples from surface areas (10 surface samples each from both Chalakudy and from Periyar basin) were Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

44 Current status and challenges or conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity collected during monsoon and non-monsoon parameters was determined following the seasons separately (Fig.1). All the physico- standard methods described in APHA (1995). chemical as well as bacteriological Fig.1 study area showing sample site Fig.2 Geology map of chalakudy and Periar river basin Result and Discussion basins the conductivity values ranges from 51.8-57.2 ms/cm and 40.5-42.5 ms/cm in The water samples for the two river basins both monsoon and non-monsoon seasons. show slightly acidic to neutral pH during Relative a increase in conductivity obtained both the seasons. The pH value in Chalakudy in samples near from the mining locations river basin during monsoon season ranges indicates high concentrations of total from 5.9-6.8 with an average of 6.4 (Table 1) dissolved solids. The high conductivity and that in the non-monsoon season varies values in the non-monsoon samples from from 6.1-6.5. The pH value in Periyar basin both the river basins may be due to reduced during monsoon is having an average of 6.4 flow and addition of more liquid (Table 2) and that in the non-monsoon is contaminants from nearby urban centers. The having an average of 6.1. Even though the dissolved oxygen values in chalakudy basin pH values in the study area are acidic, the show an average of 6.4mg/l and 6.9mg/l values are well within the prescribed correspondingly during monsoon and non- standards of BIS (1991) for drinking water monsoon seasons. The DO values in Periyar purpose. The conductivity values in ranges from 5.6mg/l -6.9mg/l and 5.8mg/l - Chalakudy river basin varies from 42.8-49.5 6.3mg/l in both monsoon and non-monsoon ms/cm with an average of 45.4ms/cm and seasons respectively (Table 4). Among the 67.1-68.3 ms/cm with an average of67.8 two basins, samples collected from the ms/cm during both monsoon and non- monsoon seasons (Table 3). In Periyar river Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemistry of surface water sources in chalakudy and periyar river basins…. 45 Chalakudy river basin show comparatively river basins. Among which more than 50% of high dissolved oxygen values than that of the samples are exceeding the permissible Periyar. According to Robert et al. (1982), a limit in surface water samples. The maximum minimum 4 mg/l of DO should be maintained value (148 CFU/ml) is recorded in the in water for healthy growth of aquatic surface samples of Chalakudy river basin. organisms. The BOD values show wide The severely contaminated pathogenic Fecal variation in both the seasons. High BOD Coliforms (FC) is also detected in majority of values were recorded in Chalakudy region in the samples in both the river basins. The surface (4.1mg/l-9.16 mg/l) samples during concentration of FC is more prevalent in non-monsoon seasons. This may be due to surface water samples (detected in > 80% of industrial and urban contamination from the samples) in non-monsoon season which is different sources and indicate its poor water mainly derived from the mining regions. The quality in the region. Chloride in both the FC in surface water is a clear indication of surface and ground water shows slight high anthropogenic contamination. The presence values during non-monsoon season. The high of FC in surface water is always a threat to rate of evaporation during non-monsoon ground water sources in the nearby region as season may be the reason for this hike. In well. mining area both the river basin samples shows high concentration of NH3-N in monsoon season. The concentration of Na, K, Mg etc. are showing not much variation in surface water samples in both the river basins but seasonal variations are very prominent. Hardness shows not much wide variation irrespective of seasons in both the river basin samples. Unnikrishnan (2004) opined that the seasonal variation of hardness might be due to the effect of temperature and dilution factors. The Fe values in Chalakudy river basin samples vary from 151.2µg/lto165.5 and 82.5µg/l to 89.3 µg/l in both monsoon and non-monsoon seasons respectively. In Periyar river basins, it varies from 89.7µg/l to 98.5 µg/l and 62 µg/l to 72 µg/l in both the seasons respectively. That is in the present study, Fe shows comparatively higher values in Chalakudy basin. But in Periyar river basin, non-monsoon period accounts for higher concentrations of Fe. Higher concentration of Feis because under reducing conditions, the solubility of Fe bearing minerals increases leading to enrichment of dissolved iron in water (Applin and Zhao, 1989). The Total Coliforms (TC) is detected in about 80% of the surface samples in both the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemistry of surface wat Table 1. Physico - chemical parameters of surface water sam Sample pH Cond. DO BOD Chloride NO3 Sio2 Na No. (ms/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) 1 6.4 49.5 5.2 2.51 8.3 0.35 3.21 2.5 2 6.5 45.2 6.5 2.87 8.5 0.36 3.15 2.3 3 6.6 45.8 6.3 2.79 8.6 0.34 3.15 2.9 4 6.8 44.2 6.4 1.74 8.2 0.35 3.20 2.8 5 5.9 43.3 6.6 2.73 8.6 0.38 3.18 2.7 6 6.4 45.5 6.3 1.69 8.2 0.32 3.16 2.8 7 6.6 45.8 6.6 1.91 6.9 0.31 3.21 2.7 8 6.8 42.8 6.4 1.82 8.1 0.39 3.18 2.6 9 6.3 42.9 6.2 2.85 8.7 0.40 3.19 2.8 10 6.1 49.5 6.7 2.23 7.9 0.30 3.17 2.7 Average 6.44 45.45 6.44 2.98 8.2 0.35 3.18 2.7 Table 2. Physico - chemical parameters of surface water s Sample pH Cond. DO BOD Chloride NO3 Sio2 Na No. (ms/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/ 1 6.48 52.5 6.2 2.82 9.58 0.35 2.85 2.3 2 6.54 55.3 6.3 2.75 9.85 0.32 2.85 2.2 3 6.28 54.8 5.8 2.95 9.62 0.35 2.91 2.1 4 6.35 56.3 5.9 3.25 9.65 0.34 3.01 2.5 5 6.58 57.2 5.6 3.12 9.84 0.29 3.02 2.6 6 6.71 51.8 6.3 3.61 9.58 0.28 3.02 2.4 7 6.52 56.2 6.5 2.95 9.84 0.41 3.51 2.1 8 6.38 52.9 6.1 2.96 9.82 0.38 3.25 1.9 9 6.29 53.2 6.8 2.36 9.35 0.32 3.4 1.8 10 6.21 53.8 6.9 3.5 9.87 0.31 3.85 1.9 Average 6.43 54.5 6.2 3.02 9.7 0.33 3.95 2.2 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

ter sources in chalakudy and periyar river basins…. 45 mples of Chalakudy river basin during monsoon season K Ca Mg Fe TDS HCO3 SO4 TC FC (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (µg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) 1.6 4.65 0.58 165.5 27.35 35 2.56 38.5 4.5 1.5 4.60 0.68 151.5 26.85 36 2.38 39.4 4.8 1.9 4.55 0.75 165.2 27.42 29 2.65 36.8 5.2 1.7 4.70 0.65 154.1 25.98 25 2.47 37.9 4.7 1.6 4.60 0.68 154.3 29.12 22 1.59 39.6 5.1 1.9 4.50 0.64 151.2 27.25 21 2.31 39.8 5.6 1.6 4.85 0.67 158.8 26.85 20 1.98 37.5 4.3 1.4 4.7 0.59 154.5 25.36 21 2.74 38.9 4.8 1.6 4.6 0.61 155.5 28.54 20 2.31 38.4 5.1 1.5 4.75 0.65 154.8 26.54 25 1.85 36.5 4.7 1.6 4.65 0.65 156.5 27.14 25.4 2.28 38.3 4.8 samples of Periyar river basin during monsoon season /l) K Ca Mg Fe TDS HCO3 SO4 TC FC (mg/l) (mg/ (mg/l) (µg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/ l) l) 0.9 5.2 1.2 95.2 28.9 38 3.25 25 4.2 1.1 5.3 1.1 98.5 28.5 45 2.95 24 4.2 1.2 4.9 1.3 90.5 28.7 41 2.94 21 3.5 2.1 4.6 1.5 96.1 29.6 42 3.51 23 3.5 1.9 5.4 1.4 94.2 27.9 47 2.54 19 4.2 1.2 5.5 0.9 98.4 27.8 45 2.65 18 4.8 1.5 4.9 0.7 92.5 27.4 42 2.54 19 3.9 1.4 4.7 1.1 95.8 28.1 48 2.38 16 5.5 1.6 4.9 0.9 94.1 27.5 47 3.54 21 5.9 1.7 5.3 1.6 89.7 29.3 49 3.45 24 5.2 1.5 5.1 1.20 94.5 28.4 44.4 2.97 21 4.5 8

Hydrochemistry of surface water sources in chalakudy and periyar river basins Table 3. Physico - chemical parameters of surface water samp Sample pH Cond. DO BOD Chlorid NO3 Sio2 N No. (ms/cm) (mg/l) (mg/l) e (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (m 1 6.2 68.2 6.85 4.5 17.2 0.5 1.2 3 2 6.1 67.8 6.92 4.4 17.8 0.2 1.3 3 3 6.4 68.2 6.85 4.3 17.3 0.4 0.9 2 4 6.3 67.5 6.49 9.1 17.5 0.3 1.1 2 5 6.2 68.1 6.8 4.9 17.2 0.4 1.1 3 6 6.5 67.5 7.2 4.8 17.4 0.2 1.2 3 7 6.4 68.3 7.1 4.5 17.5 0.2 1.2 3 8 6.2 68.2 6.9 4.4 17.3 0.3 0.8 2 9 6.3 67.1 6.7 4.5 17.5 0.2 1.1 2 10 6.5 67.2 7.3 4.1 17.3 0.3 0.9 3 Average 6.3 67.8 6.9 4.5 17.4 0.3 1.1 3 Table 4. Physico - chemical parameters of surface water sam Sample pH Cond. D BOD Chlorid NO3 Sio2 N No. (ms/c) (mg/l) (mg/l) e (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg 1 6.2 42.5 6.2 2.9 15.4 1.1 1.5 3. 2 6.1 41.8 6.3 2.7 16.3 1.0 2.1 3. 3 6.2 40.8 6.0 2.6 14.9 0.95 2.2 3. 4 6.1 41.2 5.9 2.9 15.5 0.98 1.95 3. 5 5.9 40.9 5.8 3.2 16.4 1.2 1.98 3. 6 6.3 45.2 6.0 3.1 17.2 1.1 2.0 2. 7 6.2 41.3 6.2 2.9 14.2 1.0 1.97 2. 8 6.3 41.7 6.1 3.2 13.6 0.95 2.2 3. 9 6.1 41.5 6.2 3.0 14.1 0.97 2.3 3. 10 6.3 40.5 5.8 2.9 15.2 1.4 1.98 2. Average 6.2 41.7 6.05 2.94 15.3 1.07 2.02 3. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

s…. 47 ples of Chalakudy river basin during non-monsoon season Na K Ca Mg Fe TDS HCO3 TC FC mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (µg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) 23.5 12.6 3.1 2.1 3.2 1.8 86.5 42.5 38 25.2 13.2 3.0 2.2 3.6 1.9 86.4 41.8 39 26.1 14.5 2.9 2.2 3.5 1.8 86.2 38.5 41 24.3 15.2 2.8 1.9 3.2 1.7 89.3 38.9 42 22.8 12.3 3.2 1.8 3.1 2.0 89.3 39.5 45 21.5 11.5 3.2 1.6 3.0 1.9 89.1 39.2 44 22.3 12.3 3.3 1.7 3.4 1.8 89.2 41.2 42 23.5 12.2 2.9 1.8 3.3 1.9 82.5 44.1 47 23.1 11.3 2.8 1.6 3.2 2.0 84.2 43.2 48 23.0 13.6 3.2 2.1 3.5 1.9 84.5 40.5 40 23.5 12.9 3.04 1.9 3.3 1.87 86.7 41.1 42.6 FC mples of Periyar river basin during non-monsoon season 14.2 Na K Ca Mg Fe TDS HCO3 TC 13.2 g/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (µg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) 13.9 .2 2.6 3.5 1.2 36.5 45 13.5 .1 2.8 4.1 1.3 65 38.1 48 47 14.2 .0 2.5 4.2 1.2 64 38.0 52 42 14.3 .2 2.6 3.8 1.1 63 34.9 51 41 11.2 .3 2.3 3.7 1.5 72 35.3 47 47 15.1 .9 2.5 3.9 0.9 71 41.2 44 41 14.5 .9 2.4 4.0 0.9 72 42.2 42 40 15.4 .1 2.2 4.1 1.0 69 42.3 43 39 13.9 .4 2.0 3.9 1.2 68 45.1 41 45 .8 2.3 3.8 1.1 64 36.8 53 47 .1 2.4 3.9 1.1 62 39.1 55 43.7 67 47.6 8

4H8ydrochemistry oCf suurrrfeancte swtaattuerssaonudrccehs ailnlecnhgaelaskourdycoanndseprevraiytiaornriavnerdbsaussintas…ina. ble use of biodive4r5sity Conclusion BIS, 1991 Indian Drinking Water standard– Specification: IS 10550 (The Bureau of Anthropogenic effects and hydrologic cycles Indian Standards, New Delhi). control regional and seasonal variations of water quality in the Periyar and Chalakudy CWRDM, 1995 Water Atlas of Kerala. river basin samples. The parameters like pH, Centre for Water Resource Development and DO, BOD, TC and FC shows relatively high Management, Kozhikode, pp.75-78. values in surface samples especially in non- monsoon season in both the river basins. Robert, D.J., T. Lindell, and Kvarnas, H. High flow of water in the monsoon season 1982. Environmental factors governing induces marked changes in the overall quality regional lake water quality differences. Natl. of water in the two river basins. The DO and Swed. Environ. Prot. Board, SNVPM 1621, BOD decrease markedly in the monsoon Uppsala32. season, due to the influence of acidic rainwater and the presence of oxygen Unnikrishnan, P. 2004. Water quality and demanding organic substances. Since the part pollution status of surface and ground water of the river basins especially the sources of an urban environment–A case wetlands/paddy lands are used for study from Kerala, India. Ph.D Thesis, agricultural purposes, the heavy monsoon University of Kerala. flows carry residual nutrients from the soil in to the rivers and adjoining water sources lead to high values during the season. The parameters like hardness and ammonia are showing fluctuating values in both the river basins irrespective of seasons. The presence of coliforms is detected in majority of the samples. But the incidences are more in surface water especially in non- monsoon seasons near the settlement areas of active clay mining sectors. This clearly indicates the result of tile and brick clay mining and related anthropogenic activities taking place in the nearby region as part of urbanization. Bacteriological quality of majority of samples was very poor. This strongly indicates proper treatment of water sources in the study area prior to human consumption. References APHA, 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water.20th edn., American Public Health Association, Washington D.C., 1268p. Applin, K.R. and Zhao, N. 1989. The kinetics of Fe (II) oxidation and well screen encrustation. Ground water, 27(2):168-174. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.43-48 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Assessment of water quality variations in Kunnamangalam Block, Kozhikode, Northern Kerala 49 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 7 ASSESSMENT OF WATER QUALITY VARIATIONS IN KUNNAMANGALAM BLOCK, KOZHIKODE, NORTHERN KERALA Pramod A K and Santhosh V* Department of PG Studies and Research in Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani, Malappuram, Kerala-679586, India *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Water is most essential for the survival of any forms of life. The existence of life on the planet earth is controlled directly by quantity as well as quality of water available on it. Rivers are the most visible source of fresh surface water whereas ground water forms one of the important sources of drinking water. Ground water has a number of essential advantages when compared with surface water. Water quality is the condition of the water including chemical, physical and biological characteristics with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking, irrigation etc. The present study is an attempt to assess the water quality in a semi critical block of Kunnamangalam in Kozhikode district of northern Kerala. A total of 42 water samples, 30 ground water samples and remaining 12surface water samples, were collected from various water sources. The important physico-chemical parameters like pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen and biological oxygen demand were analysed. The majority of the samples fall within the prescribed water quality limits of BIS. Key words: Water quality, Ground water, Kunnamangalam, BIS Introduction crystallines, laterites and the alluvial formations form the major phreatic aquifers Water is a vital resource for the existence of whereas the deep fractures in the crystallines life on the planet earth and is controlled by and the granular zones in the tertiary quantity as well as quality of water available sedimentary formations form potential on it. Developments of our society are confined to semi confined aquifers (Joseph et dependent on the availability and use of al., 2011). The crystalline rocks of Archean adequate water (Sivadas et al., 2016). There age comprising of hornblende biotite gneiss are good number of natural and manmade and Charnockite are occurring in most part of water bodies which are used for drinking and the area. The highly fractured potential irrigation purposes (Subburaj et al., 2015). aquifer among the crystalline rocks is Rivers are the most visible source of fresh hornblende-biotite gneiss(Ravi, 2013). The surface water, whereas ground water forms quality of water is mainly influenced by one of the important sources of drinking contamination due to physical, chemical and water. Ground water occurs under phreatic, biological pollutants from inorganic semi-confined and confined conditions in the agricultural wastes and industrial effluents geologic formations. The weathered and also by rapid urbanization. Poor quality Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

50 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity of water adversely affects the plant growth district of northern Kerala. Out of which 30 and human health. Geometric increase in samples were ground water (water sample population coupled with rapid urbanization, collected from open wells as well as bore industrialization and agricultural wells) and remaining 12 were surface development has resulted in high impact on samples from Chaliyar, Iruvazhanjipuzha, quality and quantity of water in India Cherupuzha and Punoorpuzharivers during (Manjula and Warrier, 2019). Due to pressure November 2019. The water quality of human activity, urbanization and parameters like pH, conductivity, and TDS industrialization, the water sources are which are measured by using a water proof degraded gradually and therefore pure, safe, probe (cyber scan series 600 PCD 650) at the healthy and odourless drinking water is a field itself. The water samples collected in matter in deep concern (Gandhi, 2008).Water glass bottles for DO and BOD analysis which scarcity is a severe problem during the was carried out by Wrinklers method. drought period in the Kunnamangalam block. The present study is an attempt to analyse the Results and Discussion major water quality parameters like pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved pH is a measure of hydrogen ion oxygen and biological oxygen demand to concentration and is a measure of the acidity understand the status of the water resources or alkalinity of water. It ranges from 0 to 14. and its suitability for different purposes. The desirable limit of pH of water for drinking purpose prescribed by Bureau of Materials and Methods Indian Standards (BIS 2012) is 6.5–8.5. In the study area pH value vary from 5.48- The study area is a semi-critical block in 6.86in surface samples (Table1). Only 33% Kozhikode district ofnorthern Kerala, of the water samples falls within the namely Kunnamangalam with an areal prescribed limit, the remaining 67% of the extend of 337.93km². The area lies between water samples have the pH lesser than the 11°.18’16.52”N latitude and 75°.52’39.79”E prescribed limit. The pH of ground water longitude. Kunnamangalam block is bounded samples ranges from 4.23 – 6.27. The pH by Koduvally and Balusseri block towards value of most of the ground water samples in north and Chelannur and Kozhikode block the study area are lesser than the prescribed towards west. The ground water samples limit which clearly shows that the ground were collected from wells located in the water of the study area is acidic. The results study area. The surface water were collected of the various physico-chemical parameters from Chaliyar and its tributaries like of the surface water samples are given in Iruvazhanjipuzha, Cherupuzha and Table 1 and that of the ground water samples Punoorpuzha. The study area comprises all are given in table 2. the three major geologic formations of Kerala such as Archaeancrystallines, Tertiary Electrical conductivity (EC) is the measure of sedimentaries and Quaternary deposits. concentration of electrolyte in water in the Laterites cap over the crystalline and the form of ions. The electrical conductivity sedimentaries at many places. Recent to sub provides a proxy for the hydrochemistry of recent sediments cover the low-lying areas the study area. The conductivity value ranges and river valleys. from 33.75 -70.38µs/cm in surface samples. Water samples from the Cheruvadi region, The 42 water samples were collected from the catchment area of Chaliyar river shows Kunnamangalam block (Fig.1) in Kozhikode high conductivity when compared to the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Assessment of water quality variations in Kunnamangalam Block, Kozhikode, Northern Kerala 51 Munnur region. But the catchment area of surface water samples have DO higher than Iruvazhanji river shows the low conductivity. the permissible limit 6mg/l. The high DO The value indicates that enrichment of value is seen in the Chethukadavu region of mineral salt in the water sources. The Cherupuzha river. In ground water samples conductivity value in ground water samples DO values varies from 2.88-6.70mg/l. also varies from 27.8-327.8 µs/cm. All the Majority of the ground water samples have samples falls within the prescribed limit of DO lesser than permissible limit 6mg/l. The WHO. lowest DO value at Mukkom region shows the presence of organic matter in the water Total dissolved solids (TDS) comprise and also due to the discharge of domestic as inorganic salts and small amounts of organic well as due to the input of sewage wastes. matter that are dissolved in water. The TDS value in surface water sample ranges between Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the 20.07-41.51ppm. The high TDS value is due amount of dissolved oxygen needed by to the presence of high conductivity of that aerobic biological organisms to break down area and may be due to anthropogenic causes organic material present in a given water as well as due to the influence of coastal sample at certain temperature over a specific region. The low TDS value shows time period. The BOD value is most corresponding to the area having low commonly expressed in milligrams of conductivity. The ground water samples oxygen consumed per litre of sample during shows the TDS value ranges from 16.49- 5 days of incubation at 20 °C and is often 195.1ppm. The total dissolved solid values used as a surrogate of the degree of organic falls within the prescribed limits of WHO. pollution of water. The BOD values for river water ranges from 0.22 -1.51 mg/l. Majority The dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of of the surface water samples have BOD how much oxygen is dissolved in the water – lesser than permissible limit 6mg/l. The the amount of oxygen available to living lowest value indicates the presence of the aquatic organisms. The DO for surface water good quality water. ranges from 6.34 –10.09mg/l. Majority of the Table 1. The Physico-Chemical parameters of surface water samples in the study area Sample pH Conductivity TDS (ppm) DO (mg/l) BOD No. (µs/cm) (mg/l) 1 5.67 55.68 33.15 9.01 0.71 2 5.81 53.79 31.86 9.05 1.50 3 6.08 55.03 33.26 8.01 0.41 4 6.86 57.21 33.99 10.09 0.74 5 6.55 67.71 40.31 9.54 1.21 6 6.62 69.41 41.33 9.11 0.61 7 6.59 69.57 41.39 9.23 0.36 8 6.29 70.38 41.51 6.34 0.29 9 5.48 33.75 20.07 6.48 0.34 10 5.94 35.37 21.02 6.40 0.29 11 6.47 35.48 21.14 8.92 1.51 12 6.11 34.26 20.45 6.49 0.22 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

52 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 2. The physico-chemical parameters of ground water samples in the study area Sample No. pH Conductivity (µs/cm) TDS (ppm) DO (mg/l) 1. 5.81 143.1 85.37 4.75 2. 5.29 169.9 101.1 6.70 3. 5.19 105.1 62.33 5.12 4. 5.12 77.21 45.71 5.65 5. 4.43 90.11 53.57 6.40 6. 5.92 149.5 87.95 4.63 7. 4.66 53.46 31.64 2.88 8. 4.57 115.5 66.36 5.63 9. 4.75 143.3 85.34 6.4 10. 4.87 27.78 16.49 4.25 11. 5.46 89.98 53.57 4.67 12. 4.23 51.67 30.80 36.5 13. 5.61 112.8 67.1 5.77 14. 4.65 31.19 18.47 5.79 15. 5.06 51.05 30.37 6.27 16. 5.07 73.61 43.81 4.01 17. 4.85 41.7 24.61 6.36 18. 5.29 79.31 46.72 5.42 19. 4.63 67.63 40.27 4.07 20. 5.38 78.75 47.03 3.66 21. 4.42 87.12 52.1 6.01 22. 4.49 63.36 37.97 4.29 23. 5.21 130.4 77.78 5.52 24. 4.48 46.25 27.48 5.51 25. 4.26 63.2 37.72 5.30 26. 4.70 327.8 195.1 2.81 27. 6.27 27.8 161.5 5.55 28. 6.12 204.8 121.9 5.10 29. 5.90 114.7 68.52 6.28 30. 4.37 42.43 25.19 6.2 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Assessment of water quality variations in Kunnamangalam Block, Kozhikode, Northern Kerala 53 Fig. 1 Study areas howing the water sample locations Conclusion prevent the water bodies from getting polluted since it is the vital resource for the Ground water is critical to the present and sustanance of life forms on the earth surface. future needs. The pH values of most of the ground water samples in the study area are References lesser than the prescribed limit, which clearly shows that the ground water of study area is APHA, 1995. Standard methods for the acidic. The electrical conductivity and total examination of water and waste water. 20th dissolved solids of all samples falls within edn., American Public Health Association, the prescribed limit of WHOM. The DO Washington D.C., 1268p values in the majority of the water samples of the study area fall well within the prescribed Gandhi, K.P. 2008. Analysis of water quality limits of WHO. Some of the ground water parameters in selected areas of palakkad samples in the study area show lower values district.Curr.World. Environ., 3(2):283-287. of DO may be due to manmade activities like the discharge of wastes and the influence of Manjula, P. and Warrier, C. U. 2019. other of domestic sewages. The lowest BOD Evaluation of water quality of Thuthapuzha value of surface water samples indicates the Sub-basin of Bharathapuzha, Kerala, India. presence of the good quality water. The Applied Water Sciences, 9:70. study clearly indicates that the water sources in the study area are getting polluted due to Rajesh, R., Murthy, T. R. S. and Raghavan, various anthropogenic activities especially in B. R. 2001. Spatial distribution of pH, EC the urban areas. So stringent measures should and total dissolved solids of Nethravathi river be taken in local self government level to basin, Karnataka state, India. Pollut. Res., 20(3):413-418 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

54 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Ravi, A. 2013. Ground water Information Booklet of Kozhikode District, Kerala State. Thiruvananthapuram. Technical Reports: Series D. Ministry of Water Resources, Central Ground Water Board, Government of India. Sivadas, A.P., Jesiya, N.P. and Gopinath, G. 2016. Groundwater Prospects Mapping in Korapuzha River basin, Kerala, India - An Integrated Approach using Multicriteria Decision Making and GIS Techniques. International Journal of Earth sciences and Engineering, 9(3):366-372. Subburaj, M., Thambi, M. and Mahesh, G. 2015. Physico-Chemical Analysis of Korapuzha River and Estuaries. Journal of Shipping and Ocean Engineering, 5:131-135. Trivedi, R.K. and Goel, P.K. 1986. Chemical and biological methods for water pollution studies. Environmental publication, India, p- 215. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.49-54 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Appraisal of bacterial communities in the cradle of Sasthamkotta Lake In Southern Kerala, India 55 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 8 APPRAISALOF BACTERIAL COMMUNITIES IN THE CRADLE OF SASTHAMKOTTA LAKE IN SOUTHERN KERALA, INDIA Munisha Murali S* and Sheeba S PG and Research Department of Zoology Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Benthic fauna alter the microbial communities in the lake bed by locomotion, burrow creation and feeding. Bacteria play a significant part in biogeochemical cycling and many ecological processes. Spatial and divers microbial communities in sediments are influenced by temporal factors. The present study was focused on the temporal distribution of bacterial distribution in sediments of SasthamkottaLake. Sediment samples were collected bimonthly during the period from February 2016 to December 2016. The total bacterial count in sediment was maximum during premonsoon and minimum during monsoon. Total coliforms were recorded maximum level during premonsoon and absent during monsoon and postmonsoon. E.coli was not observed throughout the study time. Bacterial distribution revealed during premonsoon was Actinetobacter baumanii, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus thuringiensis, Brevibacillus choshinensis, Pantoea spp. and Staphylococcus lentus. During monsoon Bacillus pumilus, Burkholderia vietnamiensis and Kocuria varians were noted. Bacillus cereus, Brevundimonas diminuta and Sphingomonas paucimobilis were obtained during postmonsoon. Bacillus cereus was detected during both premonsoon and postmonsoon. Bacillus pumilus was documented during both premonsoon and monsoon. These bacterial communities in lake sediment of Sasthamkotta Lake suggest a constant checking of lake water since the water is utilized for drinking and domestic purposes by the Kollam city and suburban people Keywords: Sediment, Bacteria, Sasthamkotta Lake, VITEK 2 System Introduction respect to pollution in bottom environment. The contamination in sediment environment Microbes are a ubiquitous factor in will lead to aquatic epidemics. So the present biogeochemical cycling as well as nutrient study was based on the temporal distribution transformation. Determination of pollution of bacteria in sediment of Sasthamkotta status in a freshwater system exists in the Lake, the largest enclosed fresh water complex viable microorganisms in the drinking source in Kerala. aquatic ecosystem. Lake sediment is the site where organic carbon degradation occur and Materials and Methods also place of alteration and deposition of various chemicals take place. So the The study was conducted at Sasthamkotta freshwater environment is important in the Lake at Kunnathur Taluk at Kollam district illustration of prokaryotic communities with in Kerala (Map.1). Bimonthly sediment samples were collected during the period Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

56 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity from January 2016 to December 2016. Six The identification of bacterial isolate was stations were selected for microbiological done by morphological, biochemical and analysis such as Total Bacterial Count VITEK Identification System. Bacterial (TBC), Total Coliforms (TC) and E.coli strains isolated were initially analyzed for count. Of the six stations three stations such characteristic colony and bacterial as Station I, IV and VI were selected for morphology as per colony growth and gram seasonal bacterial species identification. staining. To confirm the bacterial species Total bacterial count were done as per total identity based on phenotypic traits laboratory plate count method of IS 5402:2002. Total use VITEK Cards through VITEK 2 coliforms count was done as per pour plate Compact System. VITEK 2 System provides method of IS 5401 (part 1):2012/ISO an automated computer based method of 4832:1991. E.coli count was done as per species identification as per the measurement spread plate method of IS 5887 (part 1)1976. of light attenuation associated with each biochemical reaction. Map.1 Study Area – Sasthamkotta Lake Results and Discussion premonsoon. The number of TC ranged between <10 cfu/g and 390 cfu/g. Maximum Bimonthly range of microbial load in total coliforms was noted during premonsoon sediment is depicted in Table 1. Minimum at station VI. Total coliforms was not TBC was recorded between 24x102cfu/g observed during monsoon and postmonsoon during June and 22x104cfu/g during at all stations and found in some stations February. In the monsoon the lowest TBC during premonsoon. High microbial count was observed and maximum recorded during during premonsoon may be due to high Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Appraisal of bacterial communities in the cradle of Sasthamkotta Lake In Southern Kerala, India 57 organic matter available which in turn favour application for polycyclic aromatic proliferation of bacterial population. hydrocarbons (PAHs) degradation (Khanna Coliform bacteria may be more in clayey et al., 2011). B.pumilus showed efficient nature environment which is enriched with activity in leather industry, keratin high organic load. The runoff waste and degradation, bio-film removal, and antifungal human defecation from nearby residential agent (More et al., 2017). Bacillus areas may be responsible for the pollution thuringiensis is a Gram-positive insect and increased faecal coliform in freshwater. pathogen isolated from soil. This bacteria is E.coli was absent throughout the period of involved in bioremediation of non-steroidal study. In the dry season mixing of water anti-inflammatory drugs contaminated column may be less that could enhance the environment (Marchlewicz et al., 2016) and growth of bacteria and coliforms in insecticide. Brevibacillus choshinensis is sediments. used in the bioremediation of numerous textile effluents (Durve et al., 2012). Pantoea Bacteria identified in sediment during spp. is found in both water and soil and premonsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon is dominant in hospital environment. Used for illustrated in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Gram- degradation of herbicides, toxic materials and positive forms were dominant in sediment biocontrol of plant disease and possesses accounting to 60% (included Gram positive bioremediation abilities (Walterson and cocci -10% and Gram positive large rods Stavrinides, 2015; Tiwari and Beriha, 2015) (BCL) – 50%) and Gram-negative bacteria Staphylococcus lentus is used as a protective was 40%. Microbial distribution indicated probiotic strain in aquaculture practices during premonsoon was Actinetobacter (Hamzaa et al., 2018) and act as a potential baumanii, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus tool in biodegradation of aromatic coagulans, Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus hydrocarbons from textile industries thuringiensis, Brevibacillus choshinensis, (Machnicka and Suschka, 2001) also Pantoea spp. and Staphylococcus lentus. degrades low density polyethylene and also a During monsoon Bacillus pumilus, bio-control agent (Panda et al., 2014). Burkholderia vietnamiensis and Kocuria Burkholderia vietnamiensis is isolated from varians were reported. Bacillus cereus, soil, and aquatic niche and dominant in Brevundimonas diminuta and Sphingomona nosocomial situation. It removes herbicide spaucimobilis were recorded during (Manogaran et al., 2018). This indicates postmonsoon. agricultural pollution in lake. Biodegrades of organic pollutants, microcystin-LR (MC-LR) Actinetobacter baumaniiis a clinically (Wang et al., 2014), also reduces nickel and significant microbe (Ramı´rez et al., 2015). uranium toxicity (Van Nostrand et al., 2007) Bacillus cereus has negative impact in food and biocontrol of root disease (O’Sullivan industry and appropriate for aquaculture and Mahenthiralingam, 2005). Kocuria (Barman et al., 2016). Bacillus coagulansis a variansis isolated from clinical waste and soil bacterium and also isolated from milk food industries. This bacteria is useful in the industry. It is a promising candidate in degradation of putrescine (Raghupathi et al., aromatic degradation and heterotrophic 2016). Brevundimonas diminuta is useful in nitrification(Uma and Sandhya, 1997). It is the degradation of organophosphorus used as a probiotic ingredient in food insecticide (Zhaoet al., 2011) and crude oil industry (Majeed et al., 2016). Bacillus contaminants (Deng et al., 2016). pumiluscan survive under extreme Sphingomona spaucimobilisis widespread environmental conditions. B.pumilusis Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

58 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity medical pathogen (I-Ching Kuo et al., 2009). Conclusion The presence of these bacteria indicated of extreme anthropogenic influence on the lake. The shrinkage of lake storage and overlying The existence of these microorganisms water influence the growth of bacteria during indicated the inflow of untreated domestic premonsoon. This bacterial diversity waste, drainage from various industrial and encountered in sediment was largely agricultural sources of nearby areas. Disease influenced by the top water. Water gets pathogens in the sediment showed the discharges from agricultural, industrial and contamination in lake is increasing. human activities. The sediment gets deposition of these removals which favored the production of bacteria. It is evident that Sasthamkotta Lake is progressively polluting. Table 1. Range of microbial count in sediment samples of Sasthamkotta Lake Parameters Sediment Minimum(Month; Station) Maximum (Month; Station) TBC (cfu/g) 0.47x 103 (December; IV) 24x103 (February; III, IV) TC count(cfu/g) <10 (June, August, October, December; I, II, III, IV, V ,VI) 390 (April; IV) E.coli count (cfu/g) Absent Absent Table 2. Seasonal fluctuation of microbial count in sediment samples of Sasthamkotta Lake Parameters Sediment TBC (cfu/g) Minimum (Season; Station) Maximum (Season; Station) TC count (cfu/g) E.coli count (cfu/g) 0.5x103 (Post monsoon; IV) 22.5x103 (Premonsoon; III, IV) <10 (Premonsoon; III, IV,V,VI; Monsoon and Postmonsoon; All stations) 320 (Premonsoon; IV) Absent Absent Table 3. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lake during premonsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Reaction Station I Station IV Station VI Actinetobacterbaumannii GN + + + Actinetobacterpitii GN - - - Bacillus cereus BCL - + + Bacillus coagulans BCL + - - Bacillus pumilus BCL + - - Bacillus spp BCL + - - Brevibacilluschoshinensis BCL - + - Chryseobacteriumgleum GN - - - Kocuriakristinae GP - - - Kocuriavarians GP - - - Methylobacteriumspp GN - - - Pantoeaspp GN + + - Sphingomonaspaucimobilis GN - - - Staohylococcuslentus GP + - - Stenotrophomonasmaltophilia GN - - - GN- Gram Negative; GP- Gram Positive; BCL- Bacillus Identification Card ; ‘+’ - Presence; ‘- ’- Absent Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Appraisal of bacterial communities in the cradle of Sasthamkotta Lake In Southern Kerala, India 59 Table 4. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lakeduring monsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Station I Station IV Station VI Reaction Bacillus pumilus + + + Bacillus licheniforms BCL - - - Burkholderia vietnamiensis BCL + + + Chromobacterium GN - - - violaceum GN Chryseobacterium gleum - - - Kocuria varians GN - + - Ralstonia pickettii GP - - - Staphylococcus epidermidis GN -- - - GP Table 5. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lake during post monsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Reaction Station I Station IV Station VI Aeromonassal monicida GN - - - Aeromonasso bria GN - - - Bacillus cereus BCL - + - Brevundimonas diminuta GN - + + Cupriavidus pauculus GN - - - Granulicatella elegans GP - - - Pseudomonas luteola GN - - - Sphingomonas paucimobilis GN + - - Staphylococcus xylosus GP - - - References biosurfactant by Staphylococcus lentus SZ2: Role in protecting Artemia salina against Deng Mao-Cheng, Hong Yue-Hui, Li Jing, Vibrio harveyi.Enzyme and Microbial Zhou Qian-Zhi, Chen Wei-Xin, Yuan Jian- Technology., 114: 33-39 Ping,Peng Juan and Wang Jiang-Hai 2016. Isolation and Characterization of IS 5887 (Part 1) (1976, Reaffirmed 2005) : Hydrocarbon Degrading Brevundimonas Methods for Detection of Bacteria diminuta DB-19 from Crude Oil-Polluted Responsible for Food Poisoing , Part 1 : Seawater. Transylvanian Review., Vol Isolation, Identification and Enumeration of XXIV(10):2655- 2668. Escherichiacoli (First Revision). UDC 613.2 -099 : 664 : 576.851.31.078 Durve, A.A., Arvind, R.G. and Sayali R.N. 2012. Decolourisation of Textile Dyes and IS 5402. 2002. Microbiology-general Biological stains by Bacterial strains isolated guidance for theenumeration of micro- from Industrial effluents. Advances in organisms - colonycount technique at 30ºc Applied Science Research., 3 (5):2660-2671 IS 5401-1 2012. Microbiology of Food and Hamzaa,F. Ameeta R.K. and Smita, Z. 2018. Animal Feeding Stuffs - Horizontal Method Coculture induced improved production of for the Detection and Enumeration of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

60 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Coliforms, Part 1: Colony Count Technique [FAD 15: Food Hygiene, Safety Management and Other Systems] Machnicka, A. and Suschka, J. 2001.Activity of Selected Microorganisms and Mixture in BTX Biodegradation. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 10 (5): 341-346 Majeed,M., Shaheen, M.,Kalyanam, N., Sankaran, N.,Arumugam, S.andFurqan,A. 2016.Evaluation of the stability of Bacillus coagulans MTCC 5856 during processing and storage of functional foods. International Journal of Food Science and Technology., 51:894–901 Marchlewicz,A.,Dorota, D., Urszula, G., and Danuta,W.2016.BacillusthuringiensisB1(201 5b) is a Gram-Positive Bacteria Able to Degrade Naproxen and Ibuprofen. Water Air Soil Pollut., 227: 197. Panda,A.K., Satpal S.B., Surajit,D., Senthil Kumar,N., Gurusubramanian, G and Ashok, K.P. 2014. Brevibacillus as a biological tool: a short review. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek., 105:623–639 Uma, B. and Sandhya, S. 1997. Pyridine degradation and heterocyclic nitrification by Bacillus coagulans. Can J Microbiol., 43(6):595-8 Zhao, J., Xinyun, T., Daosheng, W., Xuhua, G. and Rimao, H. 2011. Isolation and identification of malathion-degrading strain of Brevundimonas diminuta. International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering, ICECE 2011 - Proceedings. 10.1109/ICECENG.2011.6058363. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.55-60 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of physico-chemical and biological properties of soils at Ayiravilli sacred grove, Kollam, Kerala 61 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 9 ANALYSISOF PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS AT AYIRAVILLI SACRED GROVE IN KOLLAM, KERALA Aruna Mohan and Ratheesh N* Department of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Sacred Grove persisted in Kerala are the repositories of primeval biodiversity. The present study was conducted to analyse the soil properties in Ayiravilli Sacred Grove at Kollam District. The soil physical, chemical and biological properties were analysed and their influence in the distribution of sacred Grove of that area was assessed. For the present study soil samples were collected from five sample plots randomly selected in the Grove. The soil samples were collected from the sample plots in such a way that a pit of 30cm was made using a spade. The physical properties include soil pH, Electrical Conductivity whereas chemical analysis were carried out to detect the presence of organic carbon content, available phosphorus, Potassium, Calcium, Sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, and magnesium levels of the soil. Percentage of root colonization of VAM fungi were also studied. The topsoil have high electrical Conductivity than down soil. The percentage of organic carbon content in the soil shows top layer having maximum percent than the down layer of soil. The phosphorus content is higher in top layer than down layer. It is same as in the case of available potassium, calcium. Magnesium has higher in top layer whereas Sulphur content shows variation in top layer and down layer. Iron and zinc content is higher in down layer whereas manganese content is higher in top layer. Copper content shows variations in top layer and down layer. Boron content is higher in top layer compared to down layer. The present study helps to understand the properties of soil in the Aravalli Sacred Grove, Paravoor, Kollam. Key words: Sacred grove, VAM, Micronutrients, Physical properties Introduction time immemorial conservation of natural resource has been an integral part of diverse Patches of vegetation protected on the basis cultures in different ways. Physically, it is a of religious faith are called sacred groves. piece of forest land, but culturally, it is The sacred groves or sacred forest are associated with deities, rituals and taboos. protected areas of forest because of religious Sacred groves provide the inextricable link belief and an important aspect of the cultural between present society to the past in terms life of various communities throughout the of biodiversity, culture, religious and ethnic world (Hughes, 1997; Chandrasekharan and heritage. In the present day society, there are Sankar, 1998). It is an old tradition of several endogamous populations that preserving small patches of old growth forest continue to practice many forms of nature as part of their culture and religious belief. worship. Indigenous people who respect the groves with belief in nature worship inherited from Experts believe that the total number of their ancestor (Upadyay et al., 2003). Since sacred groves in India is between 100,00 to Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

62 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity 15,000 (Malhotra, 1998). The total area worships Lord Shiva (Ayiravillan). The under sacred groves in India has been Sacred Grove forest surrounding the temple estimated to be 33,000 hectares which come has an area of 2.5 acres. There is a Sarpakavu to 0.01 percent of the total area of the country (Abode of Snake) inside the dense sacred (Gokhale et al.,1998). In India sacred groves grove rarely opens for the public. The are mainly distributed in the states of Temple has a history that dates back to 150 Andrapradhesh, Chattisgar, Haryana, years. One can find numerous small and big Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, ponds in the Kavu whose point of end is Meghalaya, Tamilnadu etc. The sacred Paravoor Kayal. Rare variety of trees are also groves of Kerala are locally known as present. The Kavu is also known for the Ayyappan kavu or Sastham kavu, abundance of Ayurvedic and Medicinal Bhaghavathi kavu, Ammen kavu, plants like Kurunthotti, Vathamkolli, Vanadhevadha kavu, etc, depending upon the Thakara, Ponthakara, etc. Water birds are deities to whom these groves are dedicated. also found in this region. There are numerous 644 sacred groves have been seen institutions like a school, technical education documented in the State. Serpent worship is institute and an auditorium that makes the an important feature of sacred grove in the spot quite popular among the public. state, as nearly all kaavus have images of snake. For the present study soil samples were collected from sample plots, which are In the floor of the Groove, the thick litter marked randomly within the Grove area. Five cover and channels created by soil macro sample plots were marked with a dimension fauna together enhances water retention, root of 2m x 2m. From each sample plots three system development, gaseous exchange, and samples were randomly collected. The soil heat conductance. The soil quality parameters samples were collected in such a way that a vary across various landscapes based on the pit of 30cm was made using a spade. Soil variation in parent material, climatic samples from the pits were collected from 0- variations, topography and type of 15 cm from the top layer and 15-30cm from vegetation. The present work is being the bottom layer. About 500g of soil from the proposed in the above contest. In the present layer was collected and labelled and bring to investigation with following objectives, the laboratory for further studies. In the proposed to understand the relationship of laboratory the soil samples were processed in soil properties and microclimate at Ayiravilli such a way that the soil was mixed well. Sacred grove region and passing the Stones, roots and other debris were separated scientific information gathered from the from the soil. The sample thus obtained was study will influence the concerned regarding further made in to working samples of 10 g the importance to conserving the existing each and utilized for soil physical and sacred groves for future ecosystem balance chemical analysis and isolation of VAM fungal spores. Standard methods are adopted Materials and Method to determine the soil pH, Electrical conductivity etc. The percentage of organic Study area: The Ayiravalli Kavu located 3 carbon in the soil sample was determined by km from Paravoor, Kollam District has been taking oven dried 10g working soil sample is hailed for its religious as well as transferred to a 500ml conical flask and add geographical significance. The total area 10 ml 1N potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) spans around 4.5 acres and includes a Temple solution and 20ml concentrated Sulphuric and its associated buildings. The Temple acid (H2SO4) and mixed it by gentle Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of physico-chemical and biological properties of soils at Ayiravilli sacred grove, Kollam, Kerala 63 stirring. Keep the flask to react the mixtures To detect the available Boron, 20 g air dried for 30 minutes. After the reaction is over processed soil in a 250 ml quartz or other dilute the content with distilled water and add boron free conical flask and add 40 ml 10 ml of phosphoric acid and followed by distilled water. Add 0.5 g activated charcoal 1ml of Diphenyl amine as indicator. Then and boil for 5 minutes on a hot plate, filter titrate the sample against 0.4 N Ferrous immediately through Whatman No. 42 filter ammonium sulphate. At the end point colour paper. Cool the content to room temperature changes to brilliant green was noted. and transfer 1ml sample solution into 10ml Percentage of Organic Carbon can be polypropylene tubes. Add 2ml buffer and calculated by the formula : mix. Add 2ml azomethine-H reagent, mix after 30 minutes. Read the absorbance at Percentage of organic matter present in the 420nm on spectrophotometer. Prepare a soil = 10(1- T/S) X 1.34 standard curve, B concentration on x-axis and absorbance on Y axis. Available phosphate was estimated by taking 3g , of soil dissolved in 200 ml of Available Ca and Mg are determined by 0.02NH2SO4 in a conical flask for half an taking 5 g of soil with 25ml neutral normal hour for dissolution of the soil. After half an ammonium acetate for 5 minutes and filter hour, filter the sample, take 10 ml of sample immediately through Whatman No. 42 filter and add 5ml of Ammonium Molybdate paper. Available K was determine by take 5 solution followed by 2-3 drops of Stannous g soil with 25 ml neutral normal ammonium Chloride solution was added. A blue colour acetate for 5 minutes and filter immediately was appeared and read it within 5 minute in through Whatman No. 42 filter paper. First 690nm on a Spectrophotometer using few ml of the filtrate may be discarded. distilled water blank. The percentage of Potassium concentration in the extract is available phospherous was calculated using determined using flame photometer after the formula: necessary setting and calibration of the instrument. Percentage of available phosphorus P = Mg p/ r soil solution 41000 Root Colonisation studies were carried out to detect the presence of VAM fungi in the 1.724 sample plots in the Grove. For that plants root samples of less than 0.2 mm thick are Determining the available Sulphur, 10 g thoroughly washed in tap water to remove dried, processed soil with 50 ml 0.15% CaCl2 soil particles. Selected and cleaned roots solution in a 250 ml conical flask for 30 were cut into 1cm in length by sterile blade. minutes. Filter the extract through Whitman The root pieces were placed in a small beaker No 42 filter paper and estimated the sulphate with 10%KOHL solution for about 60 content by turbidimetric procedure. To minutes. A more recently developed staining detect the available Fe, Mn and Cu, 10 g soil method was uses ink and acetic acid with 20 ml DTPA for 2 hours. Filter through (Vierheilig,et al.,1998). The staining solution Whatman No:42 filter paper. Collect the contains 5% diluted in 5%acetic acid. filtrate and estimate the contents of Fe, Mn, Staining with Pelikan Blue (blue ink)was Zn, and Cu using an atomic absorption adopted for the present study. Keep the root spectrophotometer. in the stain for few days. Stained root becomes clearer after destaining with Amount of micronutrient =Concentration from the instrument ×10. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

64 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity 50%glycerol. The percentage of root topsoil, 306kg/ha and least by subsoil 304% colonization was calculated with the formula: shows slight variation in the phosphorus content in plot 1.In site 2, 306kg/ha of Percentage of root colonization = phosphorus is seen in topsoil and least percent is shown in its subsoil, which is 284 Number of root bits with infection 100 kg/ha. Total number of root bits examined Pottassium is an essential plant nutrient and Results and Discussion is required for proper growth and reproduction of plant. In plot 1 highest The soil samples collected from five different potassium content is shown by top soil, plots of the Ayiravalli Sacred Grove was which is about 542 kg/ha and least by subjected to analyse soil pH. Soil pH is a subsoil, 278kg/ha. Thus the present study measure of acidity and basicity of soil. The shows highest potassium content is seen in pH of soil samples shows acidic in nature topsoil of plot 1 and lowest is seen in down (Fig.1). The average pH of top soil is 5.1 and soil of plot 3 While, Calcium is essential average pH of subsoil is 4.6.This shows that nutrient for cell division and elongation, cell subsoil in all plot is slightly more acidic than wall development and helps in starch that of topsoil. Some researchers found soil metabolism. In site one, highest calcium pH ranging from 2.87-6.40 (Khan et al, content is seen in rhizosphere top soil (985 1993). The result show soil is slightly acidic ppm) and least in non rhizosphere down soil in nature. Soil electrical conductivity is a (870ppm). The magnesium plays an measurement that correlates with soil important role in photosynthesis and building properties that affect crop productivity block of chlorophyll. In site one, highest including soil texture, carbon exchange magnesium content is seen in rhizosphere top capacity (CEC), drainage conditions, organic soil, which is about 352.5ppm. and least by matter level, salinity and sub soil non -rhizosphere down soil, 209ppm. In site characteristics. two high magnesium content is seen in non rhizosphere down soil which is about, In plot 1 top soil shows more electrical 377.5ppm and least by rhizosphere top soil conductivity (0.2mmhos) and least by subsoil which is about 252.5ppm which is about (0.16 mmhos). In plot two the top soil show more electrical conductivity Sulphure is an essential protein ingredient (0.12mmhos) and least by sub soil and helps in maintaining green colour of (0.11mmhos). The present study shows that leaves. In site one, high sulphur content is plot 1 has more electrical conductivity than shown by rhizosphere top soil, 31.59ppm and that of 2 3 4 and 5. Organic carbon is the least sulphur content is shown by non - carbon stored in soil organic matter. It is the rhizosphere down soil, 28.82 ppm. Available main source of energy for soil Boron helps in cell wall formation and microorganisms. In the present study it was stability and maintains structural and found that the organic carbon content is functional integrity of biological membrane. higher in top soil of average 2.88% and that In site one, highest boron content is seen in of subsoil is 2.24%.It is an essential nutrient rhizosphere top soil, which is about both plant structure component and as a 0.626ppm and least boron content is seen in catalyst in numerous key biological reactions non-rhizosphere down soil, 0.614ppm.In site in plants. It captures sun’s energy into useful two, high boron content is seen in plant components. In the present study, at site rhizosphere top soil, 0.5ppm and least 1 the highest phosphorus content is seen in Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of physico-chemical and biological properties of soils at Ayiravilli sacred grove, Kollam, Kerala 65 content is shown in non rhizosphere down soil, which is about 0.485ppm respectively (Fig. 1). Parameters studied 1000 800 600 400 200 0 B Cu Mn Fe Zn Soil Ec OC Avl K Ca Mg S pH P Upper Lower Fig.1. Comparative account of the soil parameters studied from upper and lower layer of soils at the sacred grove Copper is an important nutrient for plant rhizosphere down soil which is about 53ppm. metabolism and facilities respiration and Zinc is an important nutrient for the photosynthesis. In site one, highest copper formation of auxin. From the study, in site content is seen in non rhizosphere down soil, one, highest zinc content is seen in which is about 1.7ppm.And least content is rhizosphere topsoil which is about 3.3ppm shown by rhizosphere top soil, 1.3ppm and least zinc content is seen in non respectively. In plot two, high copper content rhizosphere down soil which is about 1.9ppm is shown by non rhizosphere down soil which respectively (Fig. 1). is about 1.9ppm and least content is shown by topsoil which is about 1.2ppm A correlation analysis was done on the base respectively. Manganese is an important of the values obtained from the soil physical plant mineral nutrient playing a role in and chemical properties. It is depicted in the several physiological processes, mainly Correlation matrix (table 2). It is clear that photosynthesis. In site one, high manganese among the parameters studied Copper and content is seen in rhizosphere top soil which Iron showing negative correlation. While, Zn is about 18 ppm and least manganese content showing negative correlation with B, Cu and is seen in non rhizosphere subsoil, which is Fe. All other parameters are positively about 13ppm respectively (Fig. 1). correlated. Iron is an important content for the The root samples were processed for VAM development and function of chlorophyll and fungal identification. The following are the range of enzymes and proteins. In site one , results. The presence or absence of Vesicles highest iron content is seen in non and Arbuscules in the root bits in each plot is rhizosphere subsoil which is about 92ppm represented in Table 1. and least iron contents seen in non Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

66 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 1. Root colonisation by VAM fungi producing Vesicules and Arbuscules VAM Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4 Plot 5 Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Vesicles Arbuscules +_ +_ __ _+ ++ __ __ __ _+ +_ The present study shows maximum Upadhaya,K., Pandey, H.N.,Law, P.S. and percentage of root colonization was observed Tripathi, R.S.2003. Tree diversity in sacred in plot 5 of Airavalli sacred Grove Paravoor, groves of the Hills in Meghalaya, North East where both vesicles and arbuscules are seen India.J., 12 : 583 592. in the top layer of soil. In down soil contains only vesicles. In plot 3, no root colonization Vierheilig,H., Coughlan, A.P., Wyss, U. and was observed. In plot 1 and 2, vesicles are Piche, Y. 1998. Ink and Vinegar, Staining only seen in top soil. In plot 4, vesicles and technique for Arbuscular -Mycorrhizal arbuscules are seen in down soil only. The Fungi. Applied and Environmental above study revealed that the top layer of Microbiology Bot., 64:5004-5007. rhizosphere soil shows highest percentage of root colonization Khan, H. R., Rahman,S., Hussain, M.S and References Adachi,T.1993. Morphology and Chandrakanth, M.G., Bhatt, M. and Accawa, Characterisation of an acid Sulfate Soil in the M.S. 2004. Socioeconomic changes and Sacred Groves in South India: protecting a plain area of Bangladesh. Soil phys. Soil community based resources management, Current Science., 28:102-111 biology review, 68:25 -36. Gokhale, V.,Velankar, R.,Subashchandran, M.D.and Gadgil, M. 1998. Sacred woods, grass lands and water bodies as self organized systems of conservation, conserving the sacred for biodiversity Management, Oxford and IBH Publishing CO, New Delhi, 54: 365-98. Hughes, D. 1997. Chandarsekhara, U.M. and Sankar, S.1998. Structure and function of Sacred Grove case studies in Kerala, conserving the Sacred for Biodiversity Management Oxford and IBH, publishing Co, New Delhi, 33:323-336. Malhotra, K.C. 1998. Anthropological Dimension of Sacred Groves in India, Oxford and IBH Publications, New Delhi, 34: 423 - 438. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.61-66 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemical analysis of water sources in a semi-critical block ... 67 CHAPTER 10 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 HYDROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER SOURCES IN A SEMI-CRITICAL BLOCK OF KOZHIKODE DISTRICT, NORTHERN KERALA, INDIA Santhosh V,* Aswathy E K** and IrfanaMumthas *Department of PG Studies and Research in Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani, Malappuram, Kerala-679586, India **Department of Geology, Calicut University Campus, Thenhipalam, Malappuram District, Kerala-673635, India *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Water is perhaps the most precious natural resource after air. Though the surface of earth is mostly consist of water, only a small part of it is usable, which makes this resource very limited. This precious and limited resource must be used with prudence (Ritabrata Roy, 2019). Water is depleted in many ways such as construction of buildings, discharge of waste water from factories, human settlements etc. As water is required for different purposes, its suitability must be checked before use. So the present study is an attempt to analyse the water quality of the water sources in the Balussery block of Kozhikode district in Northern Kerala. This investigation deals with the water quality analysis of 29 water samples collected from different areas of Balusseri block of Calicut district. A totalof29 water samples, 12 are ground water samples (mainly from open wells and bore wells) and 17 surface water samples(collected from rivers like Kuttyadi river, Poonoorpuzha, Raman puzha, Korapuzha etc.) were collected for the physico chemical analysis. Balusseri is semicritical area of water, lies within the latitude range 11° 27' N to 11° 45' N and longitude range 75° 49' E to 75° 83' E. This investigation discusses only with a few parameters like pH, conductivity, total dissolved solids, dissolved oxygen etc. Most of the parameters are analysed as per standard procedure (APHA, 1985). Majority of the water samples falls within the prescribed limit of WHO .But some samples showing depleted values for pH and conductivity. This may be due to some anthropogenic effects in the area due to urbanization, waste disposal, agricultural activity etc. So adequate measures should be taken in the area to prevent this water sources from contamination. Key words: Water quality, Ground water, River water, Hydrochemical analysis Introduction ground water(Jameel and Sirajudeen,2006) Ground water serve as major source for Water is considered to be one of the most drinking ,irrigation and industry. Ground important resource in our planet. It is a water is generally considered to be much transparent, tasteless, odourless chemical cleaner than surface water, however several substance. About 97.2% of water on earth factors such as discharge of industrial, is salty and only 2.8% is present as fresh agricultural and domestic wastes, land use water, from which about 20% constitutes practices, geologic formation, rainfall Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

68 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity patterns and infiltration rate affects the sedimentaries at many places. Recent to ground water quality and once sub recent sediments cover the low-lying contamination of ground water in aquifers areas and river valleys. occurs, it persists for hundreds of years because of very slow movement in them Material and Methods (Jayalakshmi Devi and Belagali, 2006). The drinking water should be pure for our The 29 water samples were collected from healthy concern. Water gets polluted due to the Balusseri block of Kozhikode district of contamination by reacting with chemicals, Northern Kerala. Out of which 17 water microorganisms, industrial etc. These samples were collected from open wells matters deteriorate the quality of the water and 12 were surface samples collected from and render it unfit for its intended uses. river stretches/tributariesduring December, Hence determination of water quality is 2019. The water samples are collected in important to observe the suitability of water clean plastic bottles for the analysis of for a particular use (Patil and Patil, 2011). various parameters like pH, conductivity, TDS, DO and BOD based on standard Here, the present study dealing with some procedures(APHA, 1995). water quality parameters such as pH, conductivity, TDS and Dissolved Result and Discussion oxygen(DO). The water samples are collected from surface and ground surface pH stands for potential of hydrogen ion in the Balussery block of Kozhikodu concentration which commonly ranges 0- district of Kerala. According to Central 14. Good water is said to be neutral ,with a Ground Water Board, the area selected for pH of 7 . Water with a pH below 7 is the present study is a semi critical area considered acid and water with pH greater considering the availability of water than 7 is considered as alkaline or basic [8]. The WHO standard for pH is 6.5 -8.5. The Study Area results of the various physico-chemical parameters are given in table 1 and 2. The Balusseri block located at the northern pH value in the study area varies from regime of Kerala State is taken for the 4.93-7.69 in surface samples. Only 33% present study, which has an aerial extent of of the water samples falls within the about 278.54 km²with latitude 11.45°N and prescribed limit, the remaining 67% of the longitude 75.83°E in Kozhikode district water samples have the pH lesser than the with a population of 2,12,592 (Fig. 1). prescribed limit. The low pH in the samples Average temperature ranges from 30-36°C may be due to the corrosive nature of the in the summer season.The study constitute water and it is acidic in behaviour (WHO, both surface water (along the river 2018). The pH value of ground water stretches) and ground water samples (both samples ranges from 4.03 – 6.59. The pH open well and bore well water samples). value of most of the ground water samples The surface samples were collected from in the study area is lesser than the the Kuttyadi river, Korappuzha, prescribed limit. This clearly shows that the Poonoorpuzha and Raman puzha. ground water present in the study area is Geologically, the study area comprises all slightly acidic in behaviour. This may be the three major formations of Kerala such due to the anthropogenic activities like as Archaean crystallines, Tertiary sewage disposal and use of fertilizers sedimentaries and Quaternary deposits. (Sarath Prasanth et al., 2012). Laterites cap over the crystalline and the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemical analysis of water sources in a semi-critical block ... 69 Electrical conductivity is a measure of shows the presence of organic matter in the ability of aqueous solution to carry an water. electric current that depends on the presence and total concentration of ion, BOD is a measure of organic material their mobility and values on the contamination in water, specified in mg/l. temperature (Amanial Haile Reda, 2015). BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen The WHO standard for EC is 1500 µs/cm. required for the biochemical decomposition The electrical conductivity values of of organic compounds and the oxidation of surface water samples vary from 27.65 - certain inorganic materials. The BOD value 18360µs/cm. Water sample falling in the for surface water samples ranges from 1.48 Cheruvadi region (sample number 10) to 1.98 mg/l. The lowest value indicates shows high conductivity value indicates the that the water is good for drinking influence of salt water intrusion and a fish purposes. processing unit is working in the nearby area.The ground water samples showing Conclusion electrical conductivity in the range of29.74- 197 µs/cm. All of the samples fall within The pH value of most of the water samples the prescribed limit of WHO. in the study area are showing lower values than neutral which clearly shows that the TDS can be taken as an indicator for the some of the water samples ofthe study area general water quality because it directly is acidic. The electrical conductivity and affects the aesthetic value of the water by total dissolved solids of all samples falls increasing turbidity (Amanial Haile Reda, within the prescribed limit of WHO except 2015). The WHO standard for TDS is few samples. The DO values in the 1500ppm. The TDS range of surface majority of the water samples of the study sample is of 16.45-10930ppm.The high area, fall well within the prescribed limits TDS is due to the presence of high but some samples are showing lower values conductivity of that area since it is very warrants the urgent needs of preservation near to a coastal region. The TDS valuesof from degradation activities. Some of the the ground water samples ranges from ground water samples in the study area 17.54-117.1ppm. The entire samples fall show lower values of DO may be due to the within the WHO standard value. discharge of wastes from different sources The study clearly indicates that the water Dissolved oxygen is the most important sources in the study area are getting indicator of the health of water bodies and polluted due to various activities like its capacity to support a balanced aquatic urbanization and human settlements. So ecosystem of plants and animals (Sagar et urgent measures should be taken to prevent al., 2015) these water sources from degradation and should be conducted awareness campaign The DO values for the surface water among the public about the importance of samples ranges from 5.94-7.58mg/l. these precious resources and should be Majority of the samples have DO lesser monitored in regular intervals. than the permissible limit 6mg/l. The high DO value is seen in the Kallittappara region of Kuttyadi river where water is good for drinking purposes. Ground water samples show a DO in the range of 3.08-6.67mg/l. The lowest DO value at Vakayad region Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

70 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Fig.1 Study area showing the sample locations Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Hydrochemical analysis of water sources in a semi-critical block ... 71 Table 1. Physico-chemical parameters of surface water samples in the study area Sl No. pH Conductivity (µs/cm) TDS (ppm) DO (Mg/l) BOD (Mg/l) 1 5.21 51.68 31.89 6.53 1.67 2 5.37 54.35 32.35 6.24 1.58 3 7.04 72.14 42.89 6.02 1.50 4 4.93 42.41 25.12 7.33 1.94 5 7.69 36.66 21.77 6.74 1.74 6 5.66 36.59 22.07 7.58 1.52 7 6.76 27.65 16.45 6.31 1.60 8 6.17 55.91 33.21 5.94 1.48 9 7.26 18360 10930 7.46 1.98 10 6.04 11460 6820 6.31 1.61 11 6.35 731.1 434.7 7.43 1.97 12 5.58 149.1 88.72 7.40 1.96 Table 2. Physico-chemical parameters of ground water samples in the study area Sl No. pH Conductivity (µs/cm) TDS (ppm) DO (Mg/l) 1 5.62 119.0 70.42 6.13 2 4.03 53.07 31.46 6.19 3 6.41 83.53 49.66 4.69 4 4.79 70.69 42.06 6.22 5 5.67 197 117.1 6.25 6 5.56 82.26 48.93 5.65 7 5.22 84.53 50.18 4.21 8 5.68 75.98 45.19 6.33 9 6.59 88.5 52.4 5.47 10 5.34 84.62 50.24 5.42 11 4.6 102.3 61.31 4.47 12 5.45 41.18 24.48 3.29 13 5.41 57.72 34.16 5.55 14 5.16 29.74 17.54 6.67 15 5.34 84.69 50.84 3.08 16 4.95 147 87.05 4.435 17 4.46 102.9 61.57 6.37 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

72 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity References JayalakshmiDevi, O. and Belagali, S.L. 2006. Nature environment and pollution Amanial Haile Reda, 2015. Assessment of technology. physicochemical quality of spring water in Arbaminch, Ethiopia. Patil, V.T. and Patil, P.R. 2011. Ground water quality of open wells and tube wells APHA, 1995. Standard methods for the around Amalner Town of Jalgaon District, examination of water and waste water.20th Maharashtra, India. edn., American Public Health Association, Washington D.C., 1268p. Ritabrata Roy. 2019. An Introduction to water quality analysis. International Bibinsolanki and Sarishkhera, 2019. research journal of engineering and Assessment of water quality variation of technology. river:a case study of river Beas river ,Punjab. International journal of recent Sagar, S.S., Chavan , R.P., Patil , C.L., technology and engineering. Shinde, D.N. and Kekane, S.S. 2015. Physico-chemical parameters for testing of Gorde, S.P. and Jadhav, M.V. 2013. water :A Review. Assessment of water Quality Parameters :A Review. Shahul Hameed, A., Narasimha Prasad., N.B . and Anitha, A.B. 2006. Integrated Sarath Prasanth, S.V. 2012. Evaluation of river basin master plan for Chaliyar. Centre ground water quality and its suitability for for water resources development and drinking and agricultural use in the coastal management. stretch of Alappuzha District, Kerala, India. WHO, 2018. A global overview of national regulations and standards for drinking water quality. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.67-72 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Impact of human intervention on the topography and ecology ….. 73 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 11 IMPACT OFHUMAN INTERVENTION ON THE TOPOGRAPHY AND ECOLOGYAT KALARIKUNNU, CHELANNUR, KOZHIKODE, KERALA, SOUTH INDIA Ratheesh N* and Lesitha K R** * Dept. of Botany, Sree Narayana College, Kollam. ** Dept. of Botany, SNG College, Chelannur, Kozhikode *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Degradation of midland hills brings about simultaneous collapse of ecosystems including hillocks, valleys and wet lands. The hill ecosystem of Kalarikunnu, Chelannur, Kozhikode is facing degradation. It will destroy the pristine ecological balance of the hillocks and valleys nearby. Hence a study was undertaken to understand the impact of human interference on the topography and ecology of Kalarikunnu, Chelannur, Kozhikode, Kerala with the aims to understand the diversity of flora and fauna associated to Kalarikunnu, Chelannur, Kozhikodu and to analyze the soil and water parameters in explored and unexplored areas of the hill and to evaluate the human intervention on the topography as well as the ecology of the area. The natural vegetation present in the area include herbs, shrubs and trees. A laterite hill plateau can be considered as an amphibious ecosystem. The alternation of very wet and dry condition creates an unusual ecological situation that supports a unique biota. In the recent times the rate of exploitation was increased and exceeded what has happened for centuries. The hill region was devastated and excavated the soil digged out and constructed a road up to top hill area. There is simultaneous collapse of three eco systems - the hillocks, valleys and the wetlands. The entire hill disappears within a few years time. The seriousness of the situation has not been formally assessed by any official agencies. Key words: Midland hillocks, Laterite soil, Flora, Ecological imbalance Introduction Report Kerala, 2007). People are often unaware of the importance of the midland In Kerala, midland hills are beautiful natural hills that are being demolished due to the gifts, giving a curvaceous shape to the entire growing commercialization of land, landscape, with plenty of vegetations and a expanding urbanization and booming rich array of animals. The laterite hills are the construction industry (The Hindu, 2004). The most imposing but extremely threatened uncontrolled deterioration of the laterite hills topographical floristic and faunistic feature causes irreparable damage to the ecosystem, of northern Kerala (State of Environmental bio diversity and nature’s water conservation Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

74 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity strategies. Degradation of hills resulting in the present investigation is carried out to loss of vegetation, destruction of the animal understand the diversity of flora and fauna fauna, land deterioration, ground water loss, associated to Kalarikunnu, Chelannur, dust pollution, change in wind pattern and its Kozhikodu, to analyse the soil and water influence in traditional faiths, rituals and parameters in explored and unexplored areas culture of localities. Only a few and brief of the hill and to evaluate the human studies are available on the socio-economic intervention on the topography as well as the aspects of the hillocks. Biodiversity of ecology of the area hillocks has been studies along with sociological and ecological importance. Materials and Methods Padmanabhan (2002) gives a comprehensive description of the historical, geological and Study area ecological aspects of the hillocks. (Mid-land Laterite Hills of North Kerala, an ecological Kozhikode District was the capital of the Approach).Jaffer (1998) made a study of erstwhile Kingdom of the mighty Zamorins species diversity of Madayipara. The studies and once a renowned commercial Center. available on wetlands (NaliniNaik, 2002) and The city of Calicut, the Anglicized form of that of sacred groves of this region Kozhikode, is the headquarters of the district. (Jayarajan, 2004) documented the relation of The district of Kozhikode is 38.25% urban these habitats with hillocks. The study of and is bordered by Kannur district to the biodiversity of Kalliassery (Sreedharan, North, Wayanad to the East, and 2001) gives an idea of the mid-land habitat. Malappuram to the South. To the West, lies the mighty Arabian Sea. The district is Rocky surfaces, grass lands and green situated between latitudes 11° 08’N and 11° patches of hills are rich and diverse habitats 50’N and longitudes 75°30’E and 76°8’E. accommodating vast varieties of flora and The division of the district into 4 Taluks fauna. The age old biological activities have came into effect in 2001. They are transformed these areas into bio-rich realms Kozhikode, Vadakara, Koyilandy and which are the nature’s gifts. Degradation of Thamarassery. The present study was midland hills brings about simultaneous undertaken at the Chelannur Panchayath. collapse of ecosystems including hillocks, Topographically the district has three distinct valleys and wet lands. The hill ecosystem of regions - the sandy coastal belt, the rocky Kalarikunnu, Chelannur is facing highlands formed by the hilly portions of the degradation. It will destroy the pristine Western Ghats and the lateritic midland. Of ecological balance of the hillocks and valleys the total area of 2344 sq.kms, the sandy nearby. Hence the present study gain its coastal belt is 362.85 sq.kms, lateritic relevance to full fill the lacuna. In this regard midlands 1343.50 sq.kms and rocky highlands 637.65 sq.kms. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Impact of human intervention on the topography and ecology ….. 75 Fig. 1. District of Kozhikode- Chelannur Panchayath The district has a humid climate with a very Methodology hot season extending from March to May. The rainy season is during the South-West First hand information on Kalarikunnu will monsoon which begins in the first week of be collected from Panchayath and Village June and extends up to September. The authorities. Preliminary survey was North-East monsoon extends from the second conducted in and around the Kalarukunnu half of October to November (Fig 1). with the help of Local Government to understand the hill areas and land use Kalarikunnu is located at the midst of methods.Field visits was organized to collect Chelannur Grama Panchayath. At the foot plant specimens during different seasons. hill area the Sree Narayana Guru College, Plants will be identified with the help of Chelannur is located. So far no relevant standard flora and field keys. Soil and water studies were carried out to explore the samples will be collected from various diversity and human interference at regions like foothill, mid area and top hill Kalarikunnu. The present investigation will soils during different seasons. try to full fill the lacuna. The analysis of soil parameters will be carried out following the methods described Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

76 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in APHA, 1995. Soil properties like soil phosphorous was calculated using the moisture content, percentage of organic formula: carbon, soil pH (Jackson, 1967), percentage of available phosphorus, etc were analysed % available phosphorous P= using standard methods. Mg p/r soilsolution× 4 ×1000 The percentage of organic carbon in the soil 1.724 sample was determined by the following procedure. Take oven dried 10g working soil To evaluate the extend of exploitation sample is transferred to a direct 500 ml conical flask and add 10 ml 1N potassium For this an extensive survey was conducted dichromate (K2Cr2O7) solution and 20ml to locate and study the cultivated area, conc. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and mixed it by constructions and similar works in the study gentle stirring. Keep the flask to react the area. mixtures for 30 minutes . After the reaction is over dilute the content with distilled water Result and Discussion and add 10 ml of phosphoric acid and followed by 1ml of Diphenyl amine as In the present study reveals the soils in the indicator. Then titrate the sample against 0.4 Kalarikunnu is one of the natural gifts and it N Ferrous ammonium sulphate. At the end is the chief source and means of production. point color changes to brilliant green was The fertility of the soil totally changes the noted. Read the blank with the same quantity economic activities of the people especially of the chemicals without soil. Percentage of increasing he yields of cultivated crops organic carbon can be calculated by the (Majoribank, 1908). The deposits of alluvium formula (Bristow 1929)and blown sands increase the agricultural products of the area. The upper % organic matter present in the soil = 10 plateau of the hill is laterite and it is very hard in texture. It provided with many (1-T/S) ×1.34 crevices which may be formed by the continuous activity of the rainfall. Grasses Where, T is the ml of ferrous ammonium and some cashew trees are present in the solution with sample titration and S is the ml area. At the area some shrubby and small to of ferrous ammonium with blank titration. medium trees are present. In the mid hill and foot hills many medium houses were built % Organic C= % of organic matter = 1.72 and peoples occupy them. Their surroundings were converted into agricultural field. Available phosphate was estimated by taking 3g soil dissolved in 200ml of 0.002N H2SO4 The prosperity of Calicut during the medieval in a conical flask for half an hour for period was largely derived from the agrarian dissolution of the soil. After half an hour, economy. Much importance was attached to filter the sample, take 10 ml of sample and land, as it was the chief source and means of add 5ml of Ammonium Molibdate solution production. The fertility of the soil totally followed by 2-3 drops of stannous chloride changes the economic activities of the people solution was added. A blue color was especially increasing the yields of cultivated appeared and read it within 5 minute in crops (Majoribank 1908). 690nm on a Spectrophotometer using distilled water blank with same amount of Floristic study reagents, The percentage of available An elaborate and extensive study on the flora was carried out in the present investigation. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Impact of human intervention on the topography and ecology ….. 77 The natural vegetation present in the area The same pattern shows all the study sites. include herbs, shrubs and trees. A laterite hill Maximum percentage soil moisture content plateau can be considered as an amphibious was noticed in the foothill area. In the top hill ecosystem. The alternation of very wet and soils exhibited almost dry powdered nature. dry condition creates an unusual ecological The water holding capacity of the surface soil situation that supports a unique biota. To particles in the top hill soils was survive in such an ecosystem a species must comparatively low. The maximum moisture be able either to tolerate a wide range of content was obtained in the foot hill region conditions, or to grow and reproduce in a (Table 1). short time. The present study accounts many angiosperms in the study area. The result of percentage organic carbon content in the soil studied was depicted in the The study area of the present study floral table2. It is clear that in the top hill area diversity is astounding with different species percentage organic carbon content is very of shrubs, herbs, trees and creepers growing less compare to other layers of soils. at the surfaces and in the slopes of the hills. The identified plant species mostly belongs Table 2. Percentage of Organic carbon herbs, shrubs and trees. The small groves of Ixoracoccinea, Ziziphusoenoplia, etc. give Top Soil Layer % % refuge to a large number of small animals hill Organic available and birds in addition to providing nectar to Upper layer Carbon phosphorus butterflies and other insects during the Mid Lower layer flowering season. Many species are rare and hill Upper layer 2.1 2.1 are facing threatening due to the over Lower layer exploitation. Foothill Upper layer 1.2 1.2 Lower layer The average soil pH and percentage of soil 5.3 5.3 moisture content studied was depicted in the Table.1. It shows that in the upper soil layer 6.0 6.0 of the top hill was almost neutral (pH 6.5) while the acidity increases with increase in 8.1 8.1 soil depth (Table 1). 8.7 8.7 Table 1. Soil pH and moisture content Maximum percentage was observed at the Soil Layer pH % foot hill area where agricultural practices Moisture were carried out. Many cash crops and Top hill Upper layer 6.5 Content vegetables are present in the area. Mid area Mid hill Lower layer 6.3 resulted comparatively medium results. In all Foothill Upper layer 5.6 1.02 study areas lower area resulted more Lower layer 5.2 percentage organic carbon than upper layer Upper layer 4.8 2.25 except top hill, where upper layer resulted Lower layer 5.1 high percentage organic carbon then lower 5.01 layer. 8.21 While analyzing the percentage of available phosphorus content per gram of samples 11.30 collected from the mono and mixed crop agricultural fields, it was found that, majority 12.60 of samples from the lower layer of mono crop field were not detectable (table 2).That Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

78 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity means their phosphorus content is very low. (alkaline upper horizon) creates an acidic The present investigation is in agreement that environment which further accelerates the the laterite is found in the region of mean laterisation process (Jayarajan, 2004). The annual temperature of 23 to 26oC and rainfall percentage of organic carbon and available 1200 to 4000 mm and with the number of phosphorus are also due the same property of rainy months 8 to 10. Laterite can occur at acidity in the study area. every altitude from sea level to about 2500 m. A considerable area of the former For analysing the significance of the cultivated land is covered by laterite. Plateus parameters like soil pH, Moisture content, formed are flat topped. Undulating and organic carbon and phosphorus content, two slopping plateau surface occur based on way ANOVA was performed. The results are parental rocks. Laterite can be formed from depicted in the table 5. It is clear that all the any type of rock. Removal of top soil parameters studied were significantly related to each other (Fig 2). 14 Middle Foothill 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Top hill Soil Layer pH % Moisture Content % Organic Carbon % available phosphorus Fig 2: The parameters studied in tophill, Middle and foothill areas The uphill dwellers are mostly daily wage partially depend on their livelihood. In the workers in the agricultural sector and hill area a huge construction- a water tank construction sector. They supplement their was made by the government authorities in marginal income by cultivating in the small connection with the water supply to the land holdings around households. The plains peoples in and around Chelannur. For the below are mostly occupied by middle level construction some area in the mid hill region farmers with their income supplemented by was devastated and excavated, the soil some earning members in different services. digged out and constructed a road up to top Most of the hill sides have got Cashew nut hill area. plantation and thick patches of Bamboos. Some of the families in the hill area are Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Impact of human intervention on the topography and ecology ….. 79 Exploitation started with the beginning of of their reckless speed to avoid authorities. settled life in the hill slopes of the mid-land. The seriousness of the situation has not been In the early periods impact of human activity formally assessed by any official agencies. on nature was limited. Initially man gathered food items and then firewood. Then he Future perspectives started collecting items for house building and utilized fodder as he required. He also The present investigation on the impact of found materials for agricultural activities on human interventions look on Kalarikunnu, these hills. Agriculture was in a limited area. Chelannur only. Majority of the laterite hill Selected items were cultivated on slopes. areas of the state are still overlooked. Many Some timber extraction and mining activities of the midland laterite hill areas were were present. As the rate of human demolished within a short period and the interference increased, transformation remaining will be protected with the help of became noticeable. Change in agricultural strong environmental laws. The government pattern cannot be neglected here. People and NGO’s could take initiatives on this. attracted by cash crops turned into cultivation Educating the peoples with the impact of of Teak, cashew nut etc. This brought about demolishing the laterite hills is necessary. further laterisation of soil. This resulted in The present investigation try its level best to intense soil erosion. As the demand for land aware people in and around a small village in increased, houses were built on the hills the state ,Chelannur, Kozhikode. especially on flat surface. In the past the rate of transformation of hillocks was gradual. Conclusions But in recent times the rate of exploitation was increased and exceeded what has The present investigation reached the happened for centuries. The mechanical and following conclusions: large scale method of laterite stone mining was followed by soil extraction. By the The uncontrolled deterioration of the laterite introduction of large machines like JCB, the hills causes irreparable damage to the hillocks began to disappear at a fast rate. ecosystem, bio diversity and nature’s water Construction of new roads and rails also conservation strategies. The geological and increased the demand for soil. Here there is ecological importance of midland laterite simultaneous collapse of three eco systems – hills are to be highlighted and conveyed to the hillocks, valleys and the wetlands. The the local people with appropriate propaganda entire hill disappears within a few years time. and orientation. Environmental organizations and NGOs should seriously take up the issue The problems of water scarcity now being by creating awareness on the ecological role experienced in most parts of the State, the of the laterite hills. Proper orientation and demolition of hillocks and the filling up of education should be given to the local low-lying lands, paddy fields and water- peoples. The interrelationship between the bodies are interconnected. Much of the low- exploitation and degradation of environment lying lands and water-bodies were filled up and natural resources and development and with earth made available from the poverty is particularly relevant in the present demolished hillocks that were excavated context. Sustainable development is the only making use of JCBs, the ubiquitous alternative to conserve nature and natural excavator that is seen in every village today. resources to enable the forthcoming Village roads are full of earth-mover vehicles generations to live here safely and which cause frequent road accidents because successfully. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

80 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity References State of environmental report, Kerala, 2007. Land environment, wet lands of Kerala and APHA (American Public Health Environmental health. Kerala State Council Association), 1995. Standard Methods for the of Science, technology and Environment. Vol Examination for Water and Wastewater (19th 1, Pp270 edition).Byrd Pre pess Springfield, Washington. The Hindu Daily, 2004. An ode to the vanishing hillocks, Kozhikode, November Bristow,R.C.1929. Cochin Harbour 17, 2004 Development -History of Proposals compiled from the Records of the Madras Government, Madras. Jackson, M.L. 1967. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, p 185. JafferPalot,M.1998.Inventorying, Monitoring and Conservation of Madayi Para Hill-A case study. Study Report, SEEK, Edat, Payyanur. Jayarajan, M. 2004. A socio-cultural and ecological study of the midland laterite hillocks along Kavvayi river basin. Status report based on a pilot study. Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development. CDS, Thiruvananthapuram. Jayarajan, M. 2004. A socio-cultural ecological study of the midland laterite hillocks along Kaveri river basin,Kerala Research Programme on Local Level Development, Centre for Development Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 43p. Majoribank, N. E., 1908, A Statistical Atlas of the Madras Presidency, Bundle, No.1, Madras, Pp.615. Nalini, N. 2002. Wetland Resources of North Kerala: a case study of Pazhayangadi and Kunhimangalam in Kannur District. Padmanabhan,T.P.2002.EdanadanChengalKu nnukal-Oruparistithikasameepanam(Ed.) (in Malayalam). SEEK. Kannur, Pp135 Sreedharan, T. P. 2001. Biodiversity of Kalliassery Panchayath. Study Report, KRPLLD, Thiruvananathapuram. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.73-80 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 12 MONITORING OF BACTERIAL POLLUTION IN PAMPA RIVER DURING THE PILGRIMAGE SEASON Rakhi R PG and Research Department of Zoology Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala Correspondence Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Microbial pollution is one of the crucial issues with regard to the water quality of Pampa River during Sabarimala pilgrimage seasons. Sabarimala is the largest annual pilgrimage centre in India with an estimated million devotes visiting every year. The Pampa River is the third longest river in the south Indian state of Kerala. Pilgrims use this water for sanitary purposes .The water quality is also disturbed by various anthropogenic activities by the population near by the river basins. The microbiological and physico chemical parameters were studied and analysed during pilgrimage seasons using standard procedures .The upper ,middle and lower reaches of the river were selected for study. Physico chemical and biological parameters were estimated. The results revealed that all selected sites show fluctuations in the microbiological and physcio chemical parmeters during pilgrimage seasons. Pollution of river water can be reduced by providing proper sanitation facility to pilgrims and by providing proper methods for dumping of sewage and wastes. Key words: Pampa River, Microbiological analysis, Physic-chemical parameters, Sabarimala pilgrimage Introduction indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture plays a crucial role Water of good drinking quality is of basic in aquatic pollution. Pollution in aquatic importance to human physiology and man’s environment leads to the deterioration of continued existence. River is being the water quality and depletion of aquatic biota dynamic system which is subjected disposal of the river ecosystem. Due to use of of sewage, industrial waste and plethora of contaminated water, human population human activities, which affects its physico- suffers from water born diseases. chemical characteristics and microbiological quality (Koshy and Nayar, 1999). The Pampa River is the third longest river in Anthropogenic activities have drastically the South Indian state of Kerala after Periyar transformed the river ecosystem all over the and Bharathappuzha and the longest river in world. Landscape transformation are the erstwhile princely state of Travancore. responsible for most wide spread damage of Sabarimala temple dedicated to Lord the river and streams (Dudgeon, 2000 and Ayyappa is located on the banks of the river Allan, 2004). Rapid industrialization and Pampa.The river is also known as 'DakshinaBhageerathi' and 'River Baris'. The Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

82 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity River Pamba enriches the lands of of sunlight, that reaches the upper surface of the river and the atmospheric temperature, Pathanamthitta District and the Kuttanand river temperature is also impacted by ground water, tributaries and discharge pipes. area of Alappuzha District.The Pampa Streams with back water pools often warmer than the main stream channel affects the originates at Pulachimalai hill in the chemical reactions and reaction rates within the water, thereby influencing its suitability Peerumeduplateau in the Western Ghats at an for use (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). altitude of 1,650 metres (5,410 ft) and flows The general distribution of turbidity in the surface water from selected stations showed through Ranni, Ayroor, Kozhenchery, variations ranging from 1.1 to 1.8NTU. Turbidity is the expression of optical Tiruvalla, Chengannur, Kuttanad, property in which the light is scattered by the suspended particles present in water. The Karthikapally, and AmbalappuzhaTaluks light penetration is limited when the turbidity increase and thus the amount of before emptying into the Vembanad Lake. photosynthesis is decreased in the aquatic system. The maximum value of turbidity was Sabarimala is the largest annual pilgrimage in recorded at station II. The highest turbidity may be due to the stirrup of the bottom India with an estimated million devotees sediments of this aquatic system. In the present study the minimum value was visiting every year. The present study is recorded in station I. The turbidity is within the permissible limit (WHO). undertaken to assess the water quality of The capacity of the water to conduct electric Pampa River during the pilgrimage seasons current because of the presence of ions is called conductivity. The conductivity in the using the physical, chemical and biological water samples of Pampa ranged from 25.9ms/cm to 63.4ms/cm. Maximum value of parameters. During Sabarimala pilgrimage conductivity was observed at station I and it may be due to the application of intensive use season pilgrims used water for various fertilizers. The minimum value of conductivity was recorded at station III. This sanitary purposes. The water quality is also station is highly polluted with human influences. The Physicochemical features of disturbed by various other anthropogenic river showed moderate to adequate levels of parameters. Trivedi and Gupta (1995) have activities by the population living near the carried exhaustive study on physicochemical characteristics of water. river (Joseph et al., 2010) Dissolved oxygen (DO) The depletion of Materials and Methods dissolved oxygen level in water adversely affects the flora and fauna of the aquatic Triveni, pampa orgin, Perunadu were the system. The maximum value of dissolved oxygen was observed at station III and it may three selected sitesfor the study. Water samples were collected from the selected three stations in Pampa River during pilgrimage season. The collections of samples were done between 6.30 am to 05.00 pm in all the stations. Samples were collected by using a well-cleaned water sampler and kept in clean plastic bottles. Standard methods (APHA, 2005) were used for collection, preservation and estimation of water samples. Physico-chemical parameters were analysed. The microbiological parameters like Total coliforms and Faecal coliform were estimated by MPN method (APHA 2005) and salmonella by MF technique (APHA 2005). Results and Discussion In the present study mean temperature of 29ºC was noted at three stations. The temperature can be seen due to high intensity Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Monitoring of bacterial pollution in pampa river during the pilgrimage season 83 be due to relatively high rate of is due to the waste and sewage phosphorous photosynthesis. A minimum value was disposal from nearby places. recorded at station I and it may be due to the organic waste disposal and also automobile Total Phosphorous is a limiting factor for wastes. The accumulation of organic wastes growth in surface waters, the increase in and stratification of water may cause oxygen phosphate level results in algal blooms, depletion (Trivedi and Goel, 1986). making the water unfit for swimming and fishing. At station II, the highest value of Biological oxygen demand (BOD)is an phosphorous was recorded. It may be due to indicator and not a pollutant. According to the use of fertilizers nearby areas by ISI (1982) the permissible limit of BOD for Chattopathyayan et al. (1984) reported a surface water is 2.00 mg/l. The maximum highest value of 0.4 to 7.0 mg/l of the total value was obtained from station II. It may be phosphorous from the River Ganges. The due to the disposal of huge load of solid and lowest value of phosphorous was recorded at liquid sewage. The biological oxygen Station I. demand value above permissible limit was due to the degradation of organic matter Chlorides, in the form of chloride (Cl-) ion (Yamuna and Balasubramanian, 2002). The are one of the major inorganic anions in minimum value was obtained from station I. water. Along the sea coast, chloride may be present in high concentrations. It is not The pH water samples from the three sites considered toxic except at very high ranged from 7.9 to 8.3. The high pH is concentrations. In the present study, highest recorded in two stations(station I, and station chloride value was observed at station II. The II), May be due to the mixing of water with high chloride content may indicate pollution wastes containing bicarbonates and chloride, by sewage wastes and heavy chlorination shifting the equilibrium towards alkaline side treatment. A lowest chloride value was .When pH of fresh water become alkaline observed at station I. (9.6) the effects on fish may include death damage to the outer surface like gills, eyes, Similar physico chemical parameters works skin and inability to dispose of metabolic were carried out by Kenya, Joseph et al., waste high pH also increases the toxicity of 2010 in Periyar River in Kerala, India, Yadav other substances from waste disposal sites et al. (2011) in Kosi River of Rampur and sanitary landfills are the manmade District, Uttar Pradesh, Sharma Shraddha et source. al.(2001) in Narmada River. Nitrogen is found in small amounts in water Microbiological analysis has an important because of low solubility of molecular role in the drinking water quality assessment nitrogen in water. Plant and animal debris, of particular water body in the present study land drainage and igneous rocks are the water samples were collected from three natural sources of nitrate to surface water. stations of Pampa. The bacteriological Municipal and waste waters, including analysis of water determines the quality of leaching nitrate &nitrite concentrations in water. The maximum limit of coli form in river water stimulate algal growth and water is 0 MPN / 100ml (ISI). According to indicate eutrophication (Panday and Ghosh et al.(1991) at relatively higher Mukherjee, 1994). A maximum value of temperature microbial activity increases and nitrate was observed at station II. And these results in increasing microbial maximum value of nitrite is in station II. This population. Present investigation shows that totalcoli forms thermotolerant coliforms and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.81-86 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India