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134 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Nagarajan, M., Kuruvilla, G. R., Kumar, K. Saxena, N. 1992. Yogaratnakara-An S. and Venkatasubramanian, P. 2015. Important Source Book in Medicine. Indian Pharmacology of Ativisha, Musta and their Journal of History of science. p. 15-16. substitutes. Journal of Ayurveda and integrative medicine, 6(2):121. Saxena,N.2004. VangasenaSamhita or Chikitsa Sara Sangraha, Vol- 2, Pandeya, G. 1997. CarakaSamhita of Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series office. Agnivesa withCakrapanidattaTika. Varanasi: Varanasi, p. 1194 Chaukhambhavisvabharathi. P. 191-195. Singh, A. P. 2006. Ashtavarga: Rare Panuganti, S., Ballakur, V. and Prasad, J. S. medicinal plants. Ethnobotanical Leaflets, R. A. 2017. An Analysis of Dhatu-Varga in (1):11. BhavaPrakashaNighantu.Annals Ayurvedic Med 6(1-2):40-51 World Health Organization. 2015. Connecting global priorities: biodiversity and Sastry, J. L. N. 2009. Madapamalanighantu. human health. World Health Organization Chaukhambaorientalia.A House of Oriental, and Secretariat of the Convention on Antiquarian and Ayurvedic Books. Varanasi. Biological Diversity. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.127-134 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

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A matter of survival: the necessity of environmental education 143 CHAPTER 22 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 A MATTER OF SURVIVAL: THE NECESSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION Aswathy Mohan Department of English Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala Correspondence E-mail:[email protected] ABSTRACT Despite being an integral part of the environment like every living creature is, man behaves like its arch- enemy. For centuries man has been thriving on it, its bounty and its generosity. But his greed and unending quest to make his life easier and more luxurious, make him ignore the damage caused to the environment. However, the looming environmental crisis with its unforgiving manifestations in various forms, has evoked concerns over the survival of human life on this planet. Many of the environmental problems we face now originate in the lack of adequate understanding of the relation between man and nature. Environmental education is the lone solution to this seemingly unresolvable issue. In fact, education for sustainable development incorporates the vision of education that seeks to balance human & economic well-being with the cultural tradition of respecting the earth’s natural resources. This paper aims at emphasizing the imperative of environmental education as the only tool for the prevention of environmental exploitation. Key words: Environmental education, Attitude, Sustainability, Social awareness, Participation. Environmental education The concept of Environmental education (EE) was first formalized in 1970 by the Environmental Education is a process to International Union for the Conservation of promote the awareness, understanding of Nature (IUCN, Nevada, USA), as a process environment and its relationship with man of recognizing values and classifying and his activities. Its aim is to develop concepts in order to develop skills and responsible actions necessary for attitudes necessary to understand and preservation, conservation and improvement appreciate the inter-relatedness among man, of the environment and its components. his culture and his biophysical surroundings. Awareness and understanding of Environmental Education also entails environmental issues provide the basis and practice in decision-making and self- rationale for commitment and meaningful formulating of a code of behavior about the action towards environmentally sound as issues concerning environmental quality well as sustainable development. The formal (IUCN, 1970). Subsequently, Environmental education sector plays a vital role in Education was recognized and its environmental education and awareness by development was recommended by the exposing the younger generation to the World Community as a measure for the information, issues, analyses and understanding, protection and improvement interpretations on environment and of the environment and its quality (United development. Nations, 1972; UNESCO-UNEP, 1976). Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.143-146 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

144 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity In 1991, the Honourable Supreme Court of understanding of, the environment and its India made environment education associated problems; compulsory at all levels of education- primary, secondary & tertiary. It is a  Attitudes: To acquire a set of values and composite subject called Environment at feelings of concern for the environment the primary school level; it is infused into and motivation for actively participating environment in regular school subjects at the in environmental improvement middle and secondary school level, and is a and protection; separate subject at the college level. A curriculum framework prepared by the  Skills :To acquire the skills for NCERT has been accepted by the Court as identifying and solving environmental the guideline for State Education problems; Departments to develop textbooks for schools from 2004-2005 onward.  Participation: To encourage citizens to be actively involved at all levels in Human beings are part of the environment. It working towards resolution of is the backbone of human existence. It is environmental problems (UNESCO, important to integrate the protection of 1978). natural environment with the needs and the rights of human population. India has been  Evaluation ability: To evaluate facing challenges in the form of rapid measures and education programmes in population growth, poverty, unemployment terms of social, economic, ecological and and natural disasters. It will adversely affect aesthetic factors. the quality of man’s life on earth by the depletion of natural resources like water, air, Environmental Education aims (1) to provide soil etc. Now Environmental Education has opportunities to acquire the skills, values, become a necessity due to its adverse effect attitudes and commitment which are on us. Much of the environmental problems inevitable to protect and improve the are aroused from the lack of fundamental environment (2) to enable the learners to knowledge and of the relation between man identify the real causes of environmental and nature. In this regard, Environmental problems (3) to emphasize the need to Education for public is a need to confront develop critical and problem solving skill (4) these problems and proactive approach for to enable the public to focus on current promoting environmental awareness. environmental situation (5) to promote the necessity of local, national and international Environmental pollution in different forms co -operation in preventing and solving continues to trouble us but environmental environmental issues (6) to emphasize the education makes it possible for us to complexity of environmental degradation. understand the disastrous outcome of human activity on the environment. The objectives Environmental education, a new focus for of Environmental Education are: education, is an important component of an effective policy framework for protecting and  Awareness: To acquire an awareness and managing the environment. sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems Significance of Environmental Education:  Knowledge: To gain a variety of  Essential for the self-fulfillment and experiences in and acquire a basic social development of the child. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.143-146 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

A matter of survival: the necessity of environmental education 145  Essential for understanding the different  Mass media should be used for food chains and nature’s ecological environmental awareness. balance.  People should be advised to depend  EE plays an important role in more on public transportation. understanding and appreciating how the environment is used for making a living  People should be informed about the and promoting material culture. need of protecting natural resources for life by organizing various awareness  Enables one to appreciate and enjoy programmes etc. nature and culture.  Ensure the participation of students in  Makes one conscious of the problems of Nature- Education camps conducted by population explosion, depletion of the Department of Forest and Wild Life, natural resources, global warming etc. Govt. of Kerala. We can develop environmental Teachers need to be prepared to become EE consciousness by (1) organizing awareness facilitators, who will proactively adopt the programmes (2) including topics to educate activity oriented approach to teaching and them the need of environmental protection learning process. They are expected to (3) teaching the role of trees and wildlife in discharge the following functions: preserving a balanced ecosystem (4) developing love for plants and animals (5)  Developing awareness about molding them to be sensitive to environmental problem (6) developing skills environmental issues. for solving environmental issues.  Organizing social service and Environmental Education can help to community service programmes. promote sustainable development, to protect human health, to create interest in a wide  Organizing Awareness Campaigns. variety of jobs in various environmental fields, to enhance learning in all areas of  Organizing visits to pollution control education, to reinforce the desire to protect centers. natural resources for future generation.EE* is a very important and effective tool to  Arranging lectures of experts on promote public awareness on environmental Environmental Issues. issues. Activities to EE should be done as follows:  Organizing exhibition on Environmental Pollution and control.  Students should be informed about environmental pollution and waste  Organizing Environmental Days management.  Organizing community surveys on  Instructional films, presentations, issues relating to conservation and seminars, slide shows, posters and protection of environment. conferences those stress the importance of environmental protection should be Our environment is the future of our children used. and they must be encouraged to think seriously about it. Environmental problems can only be solved if they are identified. Environmental Education is the only way to teach individuals the various sides of environmental degradation and thereby Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.143-146 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

146 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity making them aware of its harmful the environment.” Environmental Education consequences. In order to take responsible Research, 5(1):5-34. decisions, it is essential to spread awareness about and educate humankind the need of Payne, P. 2003. The technics of sustainable development and conservation of environmental education. Environmental nature. Education Research, 9(4):525–541. EE* - Environmental Education UNESCO-UNEP, 1996. Education for Sustainable Development; UNESCO-UNEP: References Paris, France. Education Increases-Awareness and Concern for the Environment. Available online: https: //gemreportunesco.wordpress.com/2015/12/0 8/education-increases-awareness-and- concern-forthe- environment/(accessed on 19 February 2019). Environmental Awareness in Youth. Available online: https://mafiadoc.com/ environmental-awareness-inyouthpdf- pdf- download-available 59984af41723dd94bda86570. html (accessed on 19 February 2019). Fien, J. 1993. Education for the Environment: Critical Curriculum Theorizing and Environmental Education. Geelong, Australia: Deakin University Press. Foundation of Environmental Education. Availableonline: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 257921015 (accessed on 19 February 2019). Hart, P. 2007. Social learning as action inquiry: Exploring education for sustainable societies. In A. Wals (Ed.), Social learning towards a sustainable world (pp. 313– 330).Wageningen, the Netherlands: Wageningen Academic. Hopkins, C., Damlamian, J., and López- Ospina, G. 1996. Evolving towards education for sustainable development: An international perspective.Nature and Resources, 32(3):2- 14 Payne, P. 1999. Postmodern challenges and modern horizons: Education “for being for Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.143-146 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

British forest policy in India 147 CHAPTER 23 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 BRITISH FOREST POLICY IN INDIA Jissa S Department of Political Science Sree Narayana College, Kollam,Kerala. Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Conservation of forest formed an integral part of the society from the Vedic period itself. Forest plays a pivotal role in sustaining the balance of country’s Ecological systems and the quality of life of its people. Traditionally forest is a dwelling place for tribes, which they judiciously used for their livelihood on the basis of some strong customary beliefs practised - in tune with the wild, the flora and fauna. The British colonial intervention is considered a watershed in the ecological history of India which interrupted the traditional forest rights and thereby restricted the economic, cultural and basic rights of the forest dwellers. The British administration understood the commercial importance of Indian forest resources and in the name of forest conservation they in fact commercially exploited our forest. The Forest Charter of 1855 was the first move towards forest conservation from the part of British rulers. The forest rights of tribes were restricted through the Forest Act of 1865. The classification of forest area was made by the Forest Act, 1878. The Forest Act, 1927 provided elaborate measures for the state control over forests. Though the British colonial interventions in the forest was solely for their commercial interest and eventually killed the forest rights of people, it opened a new vista for coining forest policies in the independent India. Key words: British, conservation, forest, tribals, customary rights Introduction period the development of rights in forest was not of the same order as the development Forests have been depending by humans for of rights in cultivated land. In traditional their livelihood from time immemorial. As period most rights were traditional customary soon as Homo sapiens appeared on the earth, rights, rather than rights which had been they started cutting down trees for timber and specifically granted or defined. The British fuel. Any instability in an ecosystem will administrators understood the commercial cause imbalance to the total ecological set up importance of Indian forest produce and in of a particular zone or region. Forest the name of forest conservation they began to ecosystem because of their varied functions exploit our forest resources. The forest policy play important role in global element cycle. in India changed over a period of time. The Until the beginning of industrial revolution in arrival of British and their perception about the 19th century, the European forest situation forest resources created enormous change in remained stable. In India the conservation of forest has a long history. In the pre -colonial Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

148 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity the forest cover, forest resources and the particular trees was practised in the religious rights of tribal people in India. shrines of Hindus and Muslims. The frequency of sacred groves is a common Forest conservation in Ancient India theme in Indian scenario.Tribal cohesion and equitable social organisation means better Conservation of forests formed an integral enforcement of norms to ensure the part of the Vedic tradition of India. Utmost ecological balance. Outside flows of material importance was given by the Maurya were largely restricted. Regarding the Kingdom for forest conservation. Kautilya’s relationship of tribals with the forest, the Arthasastra is well known treatise Committee on Forests and Tribal in India forstatecraft and administration, illustrates (1982) stated that \"they are not only forest environmental awareness. Importance was dwellers but also for centuries they have given on the protection and management of evolved a way of life which, on the one hand, forests in this book. The Arthasastra divided is woven around forest ecology and forest the country between the Himalayas and the resources, on the other hand, ensures that the ocean regions and forest is one among these. forest is protected against the degradation by Arthasastra demonstrates Kautilya’s man and nature\" by evolving their own perception and concern about the living conservative systems. These traditional creatures, domestic and wild animals, plants systems of conservation of resources were and vegetations. Penalties and punishments ensured through restrictions on using the were specified for injuring living creatures. economically useful species. This meant that Capture or killing of animals were prohibited the tribal population had a real stake in the in these sanctuaries. As a valuable resource security of the resource base of their territory utmost importance was given for the and evolved a number of cultural traditions to sustainable use of forest. Manusmruti depicts ensure its sustenance. Thus, they put various the fact that religion plays diversified role in kinds of restrictions such as seasonal saving the integrity of the natural restrictions, total protection to certain areas, environment. Charaka-Samhita and Susruta- protection to certain valuable species, which Samhita are considered as the significant have some religious importance etc. Most ancient Indian documents in medical science. tribal communities forbade the cutting or Apart from documenting the medical hunting during certain periods in the year and perspectives, they dealt with the ecological allowed it then only on the annual day of and environmental perspectives as well. The renewal. Restrictions were put also during Vedas make a distinction between what they certain stages of life of different species. call grama and aranya. Rig Veda mentioned Killing of pregnant animals were forbidden that plants had preceded animals, particularly by most tribes. man, in the process of evolution. In Ishopanishad, the concepts of sustainable Evolution of British Forest Policy development and conservation were established. The Tinnai concept of Tamil The transformation of civilization from the Sangam texts is a fascinating example of a habit of food gatherer to food grower, there detailed and early perception of the has been continuous clearance of vegetation significance of eco zones. The indigenous for these purposes. The inhabitants of forest, conservation of the forest was made in the adivasis depended the forest for their various customary ways. The continuing livelihood. Since ancient times the forests worship of trees was an integral part of the played crucial significance in the socio - traditional society. The veneration of economic life as well as ritual life of the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

British forest policy in India 149 adivasis. However, since the second half of Indian Forest Act, 1865 the 19th century they were prohibited from unrestricted use of the forest. With the rise of The Imperial Forest Department established bourgeoisie the concept of forest has in 1864 initiated various legislations with the changed. They in their profit mentality help of German Forester Dietrich Brandis. started converting forest resources into The 1865 act was legislated with the commodities and which arrested the objective of asserting state monopoly on individual forest right as a whole. Hence forest resources. Brandis argued about the forest as a source of profit and in the label of influence of forest on climate, rainfall, and enterprise subject to bourgeoisie law of irrigation sources as a strong tool to the property. When the British arrived in India imposition of state control over forests. The they carried with them this notion of the 1865 act gave undisputable power to the forest. The advent of British rule introduced government to regulate the forest and commercialisation of agriculture with new pastures . The main aim of the act was full sets of land settlements which intensified the monopoly of the British over Indian forest process that evicted the adivasis from their land. The act also provided for the protection own agricultural land and prevented their of a forest only after it was declared a easy access to forest resources. While the government forest. But for effective control a traditional agrarian system of the adivasis provision included which empowered the was disintegrating by the alien land revenue government to protect any forest area in systems, the Government introduced policies anticipation of its management and to protect the forest resources. There was demarcation. marked exploitative and imperialistic economic policy followed by the British. The As per Section 2 of the Forest Act 1865, the demand of wood for railway sleepers caused definition of forest is “land covered with cutting of forest trees tremendously and this trees, brushwood and jungle\". It was very amounted huge profit for British government much criticised as inhibiting the raising of and British companies. appropriate plantations on barren land by the state. It was advised that any land falling Forest Policy, 1855 under it may be designated as forest, thereby bracketed under the stringent provisions of By recognising the ill effects of erroneous the Act, if the government so decided. land policies of the British administrators Through this first nationwide regulation of their concern was more towards the growing Indian forests, the British policy makers threat of raw materials needed for state goals sought to reverse the process of like expansion of railway networks than the indiscriminate land clearance encouraged by environmental or social impact of their policies over the previous half century. deforestation. The first effort to initiate the The law allowed officials to manage and conservation of forest policies grew out of preserve forest resources for strategic and these concerns. In 1855, governor general development needs by regulating trade and Lord Delhousie circulated a memorandum exploitation of forest products. Section 2 of directing that teak should be declared forest the Act allowed the government to declare as property and its trade strictly prohibited. The 'Government Forest', \"such land covered with forest Charter of 1855 changed the status of trees, brushwood or jungle, as they may waste land to government property in India. define for the purpose by such notification: Provided that such notification shall not abridge or affect any existing rights of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

150 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity individuals or communities. The government having an adverse impact on agricultural also claimed the right to make rules production. According to Voelcker, \"the concerning the preservation of trees, and tendency of our system of government has, to State Governments were empowered to a considerable extent, been to break up prescribe punishments for violation as per the village communities, and now for the most provisions of the Act. In India, British rulers part they are heterogeneous bodies rather transformed the indigenous decentralized than communities’’. In his report submitted forest management systems into a centralized in 1893Voelckermentioned that Indian forest system, created a bureaucratic agency, Forest policy was having a detrimental impact on Department (FD) to meet their timber and rural social structure and should be modified revenue demands. The bureaucratic structure in order to support agricultural production. of the FD with its hierarchical working Through this policy the British practices, though non-responsive to societal Administration encouraged the Zamindars to needs, was in line with the Colonial convert the open forests into agricultural land Government’s requirements for enhancing the revenue earning of the state. In 1894 the Government of India Forest Act of 1878 issued Circular 22-F which was to become the guiding document of forest policy for the In India, by the Forest Act of 1878, the remainder of the colonial period. Among the British Administration acquired the most significant changes in the new policy sovereignty of all wastelands which by was a reorientation with increased attention definition included forests. This Act also to the inter-relationship between forestry and enabled the administration to demarcate agriculture. In particular the restrictive nature reserved and protected forests. The local of the regulations on forest access and use rights were refused in the case of protected were singled out. So far as the provision of forests while some privileges which were the forest product needs of the agricultural given to the local people by the government population was concerned, emphasis on the which can be taken away are anytime. This dependence of agricultural communities on Act classified the forests into three – reserved surrounding forests had led in 1894 to a forests, protected forests and village forests. relaxation of earlier restrictions on the access It was attempted to regulate the collection of to and use of forest. In this policy, the forests forest produce by forest dwellers and some were divided into four classes. The first class activities declared as offence and generally situated in hill slopes and essential imprisonment and fines were imposed in this to protect the cultivated plains from policy to establish the state control over landslides and they played a conservation forests. role for the benefit of cultivated plains and assured revenue to the state. The second class National Forest Policy, 1894 of forests consisted of valuable timber trees like devadharu (Cedrusdeodara), sal The Forest Policy 1894, the first formal (Shorearobusta) and teak (tectonagrandis), policy in India gave much importance to and due to commercial interest, natural commercial exploitation of forest products, regeneration of devadharu and sal are state custodianship and permanent promoted and artificial regeneration of teak cultivation. This policy is primarily based on was developed. The third class of forests as Dr. Voelcker's recommendations given in a per the classification under this policy meant report on 'Improvement of Indian for minor forests, which yields low quality Agriculture', 1893. Land use policies followed after the 1878 act were apparently Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

British forest policy in India 151 timber, fuel wood and fodder and for meeting Cutting of particular trees and killing of the demands of local people. Finally, the animals were restricted. The British Forest fourth class covered the pastures and grazing policies deprived the forest dwellers of their lands, the local people were allowed to use forest rights and inversely affected their them with restrictions. livelihood. Even though the first forest policy initiated was in connection with Indian Forest Act, 1927 supplying timber for the railway network improvement- the vein to transport resources This Act inversely affected the life of forest fastly for shipment, the subsequent forest dependent communities. The penalties and policies implemented helped the British procedures given in this Act aimed to extend administrators to procure more revenue and the state’s control over forests as well as it made them introducing more restrictive diminishing the status of people’s rights over policies. forest rights. The village communities were alienated from their age-old symbiotic References association with forests. Further amendments were also made to restrain the local use of Bhattacharya Kumar Ajoy, 2007. Public forests mainly by forest dependent People Private Partnership for Sustainable communities. There was a steady and Forest Development, Concept Publishing considerable increase in revenue obtained Company, New Delhi from the forests. The passing of Government of India Act 1935 made an important change Bhattacharya Sayan, 2014. Forest and in the British forest administration in India. A two tiered system was established and forest Biodiversity Conservation in ancient Indian was included in the provincial list. The last reformulation of Indian forest policy under Culture: A Review based on old texts and British colonial auspices was the post-war policy statement issued in 1944 by Sir Archaelogical evidences, International Herbert Howard the Inspector-General of Indian forests. India was increasingly hit by Letters of social and Humanistic anti-colonial agitation throughout the first decades of the 20th century. In this situation Sciences,ISSN:2300-2697, vol 30,Science restrictive forest laws were used by the nationalists to resist the colonial Press Ltd, Switzerland administration. Mahatma Gandhi selected forest laws as a target of his 1930 civil Blackeney and Bridger, 2015. Forestry and disobedience campaign. Climate Change, Oxford Book Company, Jaipur Conclusion Farooqui and Amar, 1997. Colonial Forest Until the Industrial Revolution forest Policy in Uttarakhand 1890-1928,kitab remained stable in Europe. The increasing Publishing House, New Delhi demand for timber in the construction field was the concern for thinking about forest Guha Ramachandra, 1983. Forestry in British conservation rather than other impact of and Post British India: A Historical Analysis, deforestation. In the ancient India Economic and Political conservation of forest was made among the Weekly,vol.18,No.45/46 ,Nov 5-12. inhabitants in a traditional customary way. Heuber Richard, 1993. Indian Forest Policy in Two Eras: Continuity or Change?, Environmental History Review, vol.17, No, 1, Oxford University Press Kulkarni Sharad, 1987. Forest Legislation and Tribals: Comments on Forest Policy Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

152 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Resolution, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.22, No 50, Kumar, H.D. 2001. Forest Resources: Conservation and Management, EWP Affiliated East-West Press Pvt Ltd,New Delhi Mukhargee, Sanyal, and Suparna, 2016. ,Indian Forest Act and Democracy: Effect on the Traditional Tribal System, Mainstream, vol Liv No.18, April 23, New Delhi Rangarajan and Mahesh. 2007. Environmental Issues in India A Reader in Romilla Thapar(ed.), Forests and Settlements, Dorling Kindersley (India ) pvt Ltd. New Delhi Rao Lokeswara, M.1998. Conservation Through Forest Conservation Act, international Book Distributors, Dehradun Taylor F George, 1981. The Forestry/ Agriculture Interface: Some Lessons From Indian Forest Policy, The Commonwealth Forestry Review, 60 (1):183. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity |2020 | pp.147-152 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental movements in Kerala-cause and course 153 CHAPTER 24 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN KERALA: CAUSE AND COURSE Suja Karappath Department of Political Science, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Environmental or ecological movements are part of social movement. An environment movement may be called as tribal movement, women’s movement, fisher folk movement etc. Social movement as a deliberate collective endeavor to promote change in any direction and by any means, not excluding violence, illegitimacy, revolution or withdrawal into ‘utopian’ community. The history of the environmental movement in Kerala started since the period of sixties. The determining factors of environmental movement are the nature of political system, resource mobilization of participants and counterparts, relative deprivation, the class elements and liberal ideology are proved again here. During the period of compensation issue against Coca Cola company, the discussion revolves around the negative image of the industrial climate and its outcome at the future of the economic development of Kerala. The concept of sustainable development should be the matter of debate here. The superficial movement against climate change, south north conflict regarding the environmental degradation are the stumbling block for the macro analysis of it. Key words: Environmental movements, Silent Valley, Chaliyar river, Anti endosulphan, Plachimada Introduction Environmental Justice Atlas (EJAtlas). India is experiencing very late environmentalism The United Nations Interagency Framework when we compare with the western Team for Preventive Action guidance in 2012 environmentalism. It’s with the chipko reported that Over the past 60 years, 40 Movement in Utharakhand region during percent of civil wars can be associated with Seventies against government allocation of natural resources; since 1990 there have been trees to business group. But at the same time at least 18 violent conflicts fuelled or when the state occupied the commanding financed by natural resources and The United heights of the economy, and India was close Nation Environment Programme in 1999 to the Soviet Union, the activists of Chipko reported that the vast majority of and other such movements were dismissed by environmentally related conflicts occur in their critics as agents of Western developing regions. There are more imperialism. They had, it was alleged, been environmental conflicts in India than any funded and promoted by foreigners who other country, and more clashes are over hoped to keep India backward. Anyhow the water (27%) than any other cause, according trickledown theories of development or to the recently released Global liberal notion are abandoned basic need Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

154 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity approach and many especially Gandhains involve recourse to non institutional forms of were concerned about the appropriateness of political participation. Unlike in the West, the technological choices. Indian environmental movement it involved the women, the poor, and disadvantaged Conceptualizing Environmental masses who have been directly affected by or Movement are victims of environmental degradation. Patrick Moore opined that in west, greenness Environmental or ecological movement are is the ultimate luxury of consumer society. part of social movement. The rigid phrase or categorization of environmental movement is Environmental Movements in Kerala never a problemitisation. An environment movement may be called as tribal movement, Crosby proposes colonization was not only a women’s movement, fisher folk movement form of cultural and political tyranny; it was etc. For example Chipko movement started also a form of environmental terrorism. The when the government policies to allow the colonial intervention in the ecology of Kerala Simon company to cut trees in Garhwal paved the way for transformation in the region. The region comprises mainly tribal tenure relationships in forest and other non- settlement and it affects tribal way of life. arable land, the introduction of plantations The tribal participation makes it as sense the construction of roads, canals and opening calling tribal movement. Moreover the of land to the money lenders, traders and movement may be called as women’s revenue farmers. Even though the history of movement. The reason is that male people the environmental movement in Kerala are migrated from the region for employment started since the period of sixties. opportunities and the remaining male people are supported the symond company and the Movement against pollution in river company makes them as ally by means of Chaliyar giving alcohol. Hence the major participants are women and it as women’s movement. Birla’s Grasim Industries(GI) unit at mavoor(20km east of the Calicut city) According to Paul Wikinson Social besides the Chaliyar river established in 1958 movement as a deliberate collective endeavor to produce rayon grade pulp and viscose to promote change in any direction and by staple fibre. Basic raw materials for pulp any means, not excluding violence, manufacture are bamboo and eucalyptus. illegitimacy, revolution or withdrawal into Government offered to provide at Rs1 per ton ‘utopian’ community. It is important to note, when bamboo stood at Rs 80 per ton in the however, that such tendencies and trends, and open market. Every year 2500- 3000 acres of the influence of the unconscious or irrational natural forests were sought to be turned into factors in human behaviors may be of crucial eucalyptus jungle. Being the discharge importance in illuminating the problems of effluents to sea through pipes, the protest in interpreting and explaining social movement. the 1960’s and 70’s against air and water Idney Tarrow defines the collective pollution aroused.GI pipeline to chungapalli challenges based on the common purposes was not working effective and itutilizes98, and social solidarities in sustained 500 cubic meters of water every day. To sum interactions with elites, opponents and up all these were lead to the depletion of authorities. According to Dough McAdam, oxygen, higher level of chemicals which in social movement are those organized efforts, turn cancer and chest related diseases, on the part of excluded groups to promote or depletion of river resources etc. resist changes in the structure of society that Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental movements in Kerala-cause and course 155 The petition of Pollution Control Board, of Bombay Natural History Society whenthe various study reports of University of cutting trees in 1974-75. In Course, National Calicut, three nearby Panchayats, Ministry of Council for Environmental Planning and Environment and Forest were occurring Conservation said about the withdrawal of along with the peoples protest made a blow. project, however Kerala government At the same period, Gwalior Rayons adversarial it. In this context, KSSP raised Organization of Workers (GROW) formed the issue (a non-governmental organization inside of the company in 1983 when the for Peoples Science Movement) which affiliated trade unions were disinterested to comprises scientists; educated lower middle solve labour issues Later it joined the class raised the issue in 1977. In the wake of forefront of the people struggle. Peoples emergencies CPI(M) members took organization like Chaliyar Water Air membership to work in the restrictive Purification Committee and Committee for political context, and it became left affiliated Prevention of Pollution, Chaliyar Samara civil society to some extent. Kerala Forest Ekopana Samithi, Kerala Sastra Sahithya Research Institute, Kerala Natural History Parishad (KSSP)and unity of all trade unions Society, International Union for the during the late nineties were characterized it Conservation of Nature and Natural as movement. The Management maintained Resources, Newspapers like The Hindu, the the pipeline only in the 1981 was the first Prakrithi Samrakshana Samithi (Association positive step of the company. The series of for the Protection of Nature), an eco-social protest related to anti labour policy with organization led by the writers of Kerala, people’s movement led the closing of the artists, poet shave been organizing seminars, company in 2001without paying debates, processions, publication of poems compensation for the damage. E.M.S etc were strong in these period against the Namboodiripad himself later admitted that he inundating the forest area, economic faced several criticism from the party due to insignificance, illusory irrigation, the the anti labour content of agreements into the indigenous peoples right etc. The writ management. The Kerala Government did petition filed in the High Court against not take effective action even in Mavoor gas cutting of trees and favorable judgment for tragedy in 1995, and in suggestions of some the movement was a successful step. Even committee. though HC lifted the ban, but then the Prime Minister requested Government of Kerala to The save Silent Valley Movement stop further works. It was actually in the wake of the MGK Menon report, PM The Silent valley is undisturbed rain forest of abandoned the Project and declared as having the age of 50 million years of National Park in 1980. evolution and arboreal fauna. The Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project (SVHEP), Anti Endosulfan Movement over the Kunthipuzha River flowing through the Palakkad and Mallapuram districts was The aerial spraying of endosulfan over the planned by Kerala State Electricity Board in cashew plantations in Kasaragod district in 1976, intended to submerge 8.3 sq km of Kerala, was started in 1978. This was done 3 forest land, when Prime Minister Indira times a year over an area covering 15 Grama Gandhi gave consent in 1978. Romulus Panchayats. There were many warning Whitaker, founder of Madras Snake Park and signals about its impact from the beginning, Crocodile Bank is the first person to draw including the mass deaths of bees, fishes, public attention through article in the Journal frogs, birds, foxes and also congenital Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

156 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity deformities in domestic animals like cows . Pesticides Manufacturers and Formulated Since 1979 there had been local outcry from Association of India (PMFA) exerted farmers and media concerning the health influence seems to delay the rehabilitation effects of the pesticide spraying. Despite process and positive reports by veracious public awareness and high lite racy levels in institutions. Government stopped aerial Kerala, no serious action was taken except in spraying in 2002 and The Supreme Court a piecemeal fashion and lip-service sympathy pulls up Kerala for denying relief to paid. Perhaps Plantation Corporation of Endosulfan victims. The struggle continues Kerala (PCK) thought that income generated in various forms of peaceful protests. The from the cashew (including export) was more shocking incident of endosulfan is kids and important than the environment. Individual animals are born with genetic disorder studies and expert committee reports have shown that several people especially those Movement against Eloor Edamalayar below 25 years of age in Padre, suffer from industrial belt various abnormalities. PCK, however, ignored these warnings and continued with The 450-acreEloor-Edayar region is the aerial spraying of pesticides although the Central Insecticides Board did not give largest industrial belt was established in 1962 permission either to the government or to a private agency for spraying of hazardous falls under the Kadungalloor panchayat. Two chemicals including endosulfan. The Insecticide Act of 1958 cannot cancel the years later, the displaced families were registration (already given by the Pesticide Registration Committee) to a substance, rehabilitated to Thandirickal colony, near the specified in the act, even if the same substance is found later to be hazardous to Edayattu Chal (canal), which had been the health and the environment by a scientific study. Several national and international most-preferred waste dumping yard of the groups conducted health and toxicological studies between 1998 and 2002; and arrived companies over the years. Greenpeace in at the conclusion that the abnormal health problems at Kasaragod were due to the 1999, later various government dept like spraying of endosulfan. A local doctor, Dr. Mohankumar revealed that there was a rising Cochin University of Science and incidence of cases of mental illness and congenital anomalies in Kasaragod and Technology , Dept. of Health, Dept of Forest published an article in Indian Medical Association in 1994 after understanding the and Environment, Supreme Court cause of genetic problem of children since he noticed in 1982. The Endosulfan Spray Monitoring Committee, Periyar Protest Action Committee formed in 2000 following the panchayat complaint on the Malineekarana Virudha Samiti(PMVS), probe of the reason of the issue. During these period only doctors understood the reason. Thanal reported on the effluent into the river, Later they acquired stay order, even though contempt of court practicing in spraying. depletion of fish, health problems like chronic diseases, air pollution related diseases, ground water contamination, lowering water level etc. some companies like CMRL and Merchem play a hide-and- seek game with the authorities, stopping effluent discharges temporarily when faced with legal troubles, but starting off again when the issues have cooled off. The trade Unions have filed cases against those who opponents of the company as maoist. With rivers coming under several departments including irrigation forest, mining, revenue, pollution control board, KSEB, and Science and Technology Council, the water bodies have no single protector and hence there is a lot of abuse of water. The Association of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental movements in Kerala-cause and course 157 Environment Protection Aluva, PMVS movement due to their participation and the continuously doing processions, meetings leadership role of Mayilamma. In 2005, etc. against river pollution. The recent order Thepanchayat, Struggle committee, and PCB of National Green tribunal (January 2019)of were strong against the company which lead seeking for zero discharge of industrial to the Company talks about compensation sludge on the river Periyar and to clean and government of Kerala decision to close Kuzhikandam Thodu, Panachithodu, the company and the compensation. But the Pallipuramchal and Unthithodu, which are Centre rejected states compensation bill even small streams meeting the river Periyar. But though the state assured the reconsidering the the continuing struggle shows inactivity issue. regarding of it. Movement for western Ghat Protection Plachimada Struggle The first phase of the movement with the Plachimada village is in Chittur Taluk of Save Western Ghat Movement in 1987 across Palakkad district is well known for paddy western ghat area due to the climate change cultivation and tribal inhabitants. They issue and chipko movement. Activists, depended on water mainly on ground water scientists, tribal people, doctors, trekkers, because of gently undulating terrain of the litterateurs were participated against anti region. In 2002, Coca Cola set up their plant forest policies and making awareness through in 32 acres for manufacturing soft drinking padyatra and bulletin. But the movement water following the government permission failed due to its lack of follow up without studying the ecological impact and programme. The second phase of the not specifying the level of water to extract movement began with the publication of per day. KBCB permitted 5 61, 000 liters of Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel soft drink per day. Their activities effects (WGEEP), also known as the Gadgil depletion of ground water, ground water Commission under the Government of India pollution, diseases, effecting crops etc as per in 2011. It is viewed as the government effort the reports of Centre for Science and to acquire the international status for the Environment, (CSE) District Officers. conservation of western Ghat. But it become public document only after the private Pullution Control Board (2004), Central request for Right to Information Act in Ground Water Board(2004), independed 2012.The report describes the area of western studies etc. The protest started in 2002 under Ghat, its relevance and recommendations to Coca Cola Vrudha Samiti for closure of the protect the area. It classified as 142 taluks company. Initially Political Parties and Trade into ecologically sensitive zones as ESZ1, unions against the movement for the sake of ESZ2, ESZ 3 and restricts the environmental empoyement creation. Agitation furiated with hazardous activities in this region and the participation of many civil rights suggested bottom to top approach. But the movements, Coca Cola Virudha. Later the huge movement against protection by the CPI(M) supported the movement and the business magnets, left political parties, popular media, Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha Christian missionaries especially in Kerala made it as the successful movement. In 2003, and false propagation to local people Panchayat cancelled the license on the issue contributed to the formation of anti- of environmental degradation even though environmental struggle in the history of they gained permission in the High Court and Kerala. Hence the govt. formulated another subsequently in Supreme Court also. The report called high-level working group movement is well known as womens Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

158 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (HLWG), headed by Kasturirangan. He According to them, the company has violated prepares report based on remote sensing for National Mineral Policy, Mines & Minerals zonal demarcation. The Kasthoorirangan (Development & Regulation) Act, The Report covers only 37 percent area as Mineral Conservation and Development Ecologically Sensitive Area(ESA). Many Rules, Coastal Regulation Zone, The environmental hazardous activities like Environment (Protection) Act, The Kerala rubber plantation are included in ESA and Conservation of Paddy Land and Wet Land many areas are opted out. Loopholes for Act, 2008. National Confedearation of mining, quarrying activities etc are major human rights Organsisation , Kerala Catholic criticism of the environmentalists across the Youth are supported the peaceful struggle nation. The struggle got struck down and Save Alappad Action Council. Kerala government is slow down to prepare the action. The participants of the movement criticized the inaction and eyelash appeasement of the Save Allapad Movement keralagovt in each meetings. As per the lithographic maps prepared in Kathikudam struggle 1955, Alappad had covered an area of 89.5 square kilometers area, but the total area has Kathikudam is a small village in chalakkudy shrunk to just 8. Km now. Over the past 63 Taluk in Thrissur district of Kerala state. It years, 80 sq.km has been eaten up by ever comes under Kadukutty Panchayath. The rising tides and now out of sea under 50 area can be described as one of high meters of water since the sand mining vegetation region. The Kerala Chemicals and activities in 1965.The major black sand Proteins Limited (KCPL) started working in mining sites are of Indian Rare Earth, a 1979 at Kathikudam which belongs to public sector endeavor and Kerala Minerals Kadukutty village which is located on the and metals Ltd. The coastal erosion, erosion banks of Chalakkudy River. The company of paddy field and coconut field, depletion of has started by the Japan based Multi-National fish stocks in backwaters due to salivation of Giant Nitta-Gelatin together with the Kerala water into ground water, displacement of State Industrial Development Corporation 5000 led to the movement ‘Save Allapad and (KSIDC). Then another Japan corporate Stop Mining’. It has gained traction on social giant, Mitsubishi Corporation has bought media with several film stars joining it. The some amount of its shares and hence the residents of Alappad, located 10 km north of Government shares has come down .In 2008. Kollam, assemble at a makeshift protest So the company is renamed as Nitta Gelatin venue near the village office every day to India Limited(NGIL). The company makes carry out a relay hunger strike started by use of 1.2 lakh litres of water from the ‘Karimanal Khananavirudha Janakeeya Chalakkudy River for its whole processing Samarasamithi’ on November 2018against and then they use to dump the waste water mining has received attention on social and waste material with highly dangerous media, with many organizations and chemical content into the same river. Solid prominent personalities extending support. waste (sludge) of the company is heaped in Various studies conducted by the Centre for the company compound, and later used for Earth Science Studies, National Institute of filling up inside the company compound. Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, T Consequently the soil, surface water, ground M Mahadevan Committee, Trivikramji water tables all got contaminated which Committee to vindicate the villagers’ stand. effects socio economic healthy life of people. The Effluents have been discharged to Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental movements in Kerala-cause and course 159 Chalakkudy River without proper treatment. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/nitta- The sporadic struggle continued due to the gelatin-india-ltd/ severe pollution on the part of company in 2008 with the formation of Action Council of http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10 slogan go back NGIL. Various civil rights 603/37068/8/chapter%203.pdf activists, women, childrens, solidarity movement in various parts of the state are the http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articlesho important course of the struggle. All the w/10776395.cms?utm_source=contentofinter institutions of state like Ministry of est&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cpp Environment & Forest, District Collector, st State Pollution Control Board, High Court(sometimes), police except Kadukutty http://www.onefivenine.com/india/villages/T grama Pachayat. They opined that they use hrissur/Chalakkudy/Kathikudam financial resource to influence some bench of Supreme Court with the support of Kerala https://english.manoramaonline.com/districts/ Pollution Control Board. kollam/2018/11/07/kerala-village-alappad- sea-erosion.html Conclusion https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1 0603/37068/8/chapter%203.pdf. The determining factors of environmental https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1 movement are the nature of political system, 0603/37068/8/chapter%203.pdf resource mobilization of participants and counterparts, relative deprivation, the class https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1 elements and liberal ideology are proved 0603/4242/6/06_chapter%201.pdf. again here. During the period of compensation issue against Coca Cola https://www.cseindia.org/endosulfan- company, the discussion revolves around the industrys-dirty-war-a-chronology-of-events-- negative image of the industrial climate and 1927 its outcome at the future of the economic development of Kerala. The concept of https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/chi sustainable development should be the matter ldren-of-endosulfan-15838 of debate here. The superficial movement against climate change, south north conflict https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/en regarding the environmental degradation are dosulfan-conspiracy-38732. the stumbling block for the macro analysis of it. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/ker ala/supreme-court-pulls-up-kerala-for- References denying-relief-to-endosulfan- victims/article28306516.ece Bijoy, C. R. 2006. Kerala's Plachimada Struggle: A Narrative on Water and https://www.thenewsminute.com/article/periy Governance Rights, Economic and Political ar-dying-how-south-keralas-lifeline-has- Weekly, 41(41): 4332-4339. (Oct. 14-20, become-industrial-sewage-drain-65169 2006). https://caravanmagazine.in/communities/coca Jananeethi Report, Kathikudam to -cola-plachimada Kalakudam, apipeline distance to disaster, Thrissur, 2010 Nirmala, V.U., 2010. Political Left and New Social Movements in Civil Society, The Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

160 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Indian Journal of Political Science, VOL Suresh, M. 2012. The State Versus LXXI No 1, Jan-Mar, 2010, pp 2244-50 Indigenous People: A Study On Plachimada Struggle, Proceedings of the Indian History Official handbook, SWG Movement, 1987- Congress, 73:1329-1335 88 The new Indian Express, 20 January, 2019. Parameswaran, M.P., 1979. Significance of Silent Valley, Economic and Political The times of India, 10 Novemeber 2014, p2 Weekly, July 7, 1979, p-1117, 18 Vinodan Navath, 2012. Politics of Rajendran, S. 2002. Pesticide Spraying in environment in a colony and after: the Kerala Kerala: Human Cost and Environmental case-proceedings of Indian Histroy Congress, Loss, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. vol73, p1315 37, No. 23, Jun. 8-14, 2002, pp. 2206-2207 Virgin, M. 2016. Historicizing Plachimada Ram Mohan, K. T. and Ravi Raman, K. Movement, Proceedings of the Indian History 1988. Kerala worker rises against Indian big Congress, Vol. 77, p1110 capital-report on Rayons workers struggle, Economic and Political Weekly, july 2, 1988, p-1359 Ramachandra Guha, 2013. The past and present of Indian environmentalism, The Hindu, March 27, 2013, P 4 Ravi Raman, K. 2005. Corporate Violence, Legal Nuances and Political Ecology: Cola War in Plachimada, Economic and Political Weekly, 40(25):2481-2483 (Jun. 18-24, 2005). Report of High Level Working Group, 2013 Report of the Fact Finding Commission on the police Action, Undermining Democracy in Kathikudam, Thrissur, 2013 Report of Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP). 2011 Seethi, K. M. 2000. Cleaning Chaliyar River: Pollution Control or Jobs?, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Jan. 15-21, 2000), pp. 97-99 Sudheesh, K. M. 2009. Resistence from Below, An Assessment of The Struggle against Coca Cola Company in Plachimada, Kerala, The Indian Journal of Political Science, 70(3):839-852 (July-September, 2009). Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.153-160 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Sustainable development: public participation in environmental decision making 161 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 25 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING Namitha K L National University of Advanced Legal Studies Ernakulam, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Openness and fairness are the watchwords of modern democratic administration. Instead of solely relying on technocratic and bureaucratic monopoly of decision making, public participation allows governments to adopt policies and enact laws that are relevant to communities and take into account their needs. As far as protection of environment is concerned international community has very well recognized public participation as a vital part of addressing environmental problems and bringing about sustainable development. EIA is an administrative tool used to foresee and reduce the impact of a development activity on the environment. It is thus a beacon for the formation of a viable environmental policy. Whereas Environmental Impact Assessment is practiced as an essential requirement in a legal system, the concept of public participation need to be an integral part of it. EIA as a pre-requisite for the projects that may affect the environment strives to ensure public participation in environmental decision making. Key words: EIA, Sustainable development, Public participation, Environment Introduction seven principles designed to provide a framework for the development of The issue of individual rights, especially the international environmental law. The second right to participate in the field of instrument, Agenda 21 set out a blueprint for environmental protection has emerged as one implementing the goal of sustainable of the most important issue in the development. The crucial importance of contemporary environmental law. United public participation in environmental Nations Conference on Environment and governance was explicitly enshrined in both Development (Rio convention) which had instruments. Environmental Impact identified sustainable development as the Assessment (EIA) is a process which fundamental goal of international identifies the environmental effects (both environmental governances specifically negative and positive) of development highlighted public participation in proposals. It aims to prevent, reduce and environmental protection as fundamental to offset any adverse impacts. EIA as a pre- the achievement of sustainability. The Rio requisite for the projects that may affect the Declaration adopted by the conference as a environment strives to ensure public non-binding instrument codified twenty Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.161-164 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

162 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity participation in environmental decision access to effective environmental dispute making. resolution, as envisaged by the Rio declaration can create the most fruitful links Relevance of public participation and between human rights and environmental EIA protection. As it is the public in whose interest Further Chapter 23 of Agenda 21 affirms that environmental protection measures are taken commitment and genuine involvement of all and the public who are expected to accept social groups is critical to the effective and comply with those measures, public implementation of the objectives, policies should be given an opportunity to participate and mechanisms agreed to by Governments in the environmental decision making in all programme areas affecting process. Public participation is expected to environment. It calls for the broadest public bridge the gap between the governments or participation in environmental decision- other institutions engaged in developmental making and stresses on the need of activities and the general public and hence individuals, groups and organizations to create a balance between development gains participate in environmental impact and environmental values. More over when assessment procedures and to know about the people directly contribute to the decision and participate in decisions which are making it will help to improve the quality of referred to as new forms of participation. An administrative process by providing an EIA provides decision makers with opportunity to consider every aspect of an information on the environmental environmental problem, and to make an consequences of proposed, requiring objective decision. It will also help in decisions to be influenced by that generating public confidence in the decision information. It is a planning tool, which making process and ensure public acceptance anticipates minimizes and even avoids the of the decision. adverse effect of a development proposal, thereby protecting the environment and Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration provides promoting sustainable development. EIA is a foundation for developing this concept. It detailed process which involves a number of reads: “Environmental issues are best stages from screening of the proposed project handled with participation of all concerned to decision making and follow-up. Public citizens, at the relevant level. At the national participation is the most significant stages in level, each individual shall have appropriate any EIA, without which an EIA will not be access to information concerning the complete. environment that is held by public authorities, including information on Public participation though impact hazardous materials and activities in their assessment in different countries communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. Many countries have accepted the principle States shall facilitate and encourage public of public participation in their environmental awareness and participation by making decision making process, although the forms information widely available. Effective and methodology may vary from country to access to judicial and administrative country. In United States of America there is proceedings, including redress and remedy, a requirement for producing an shall be provided.” Public participation in Environmental Impact Assessment (ESI) environmental decision making along with which is prepared after consultation with the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.161-164 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Sustainable development: public participation in environmental decision making 163 general public. The National Environmental notification in 1997 incorporated public Policy Act, 1969 of the USA has inquiry into the process. 1994 notification incorporated the ESI as a powerful was substituted by the EIA notification in instrument of public participation in 2006, which clearly provides for public environmental decision making. In the consultation. It is intended to be a process by United Kingdom there are European Union which the concerns of locally affected people Directives are there which very well are reflected, which is to be obtained from incorporates public participatory rights in the public hearing and receiving written context of environmental assessment. The responses from the concerned people. Instead statutory requirement for EIA was first of having a single and comprehensive public introduced in the 1985 European Council hearing, the present notification divides it Directive \"on the assessment of the effects of into two parts. The first round of public certain public and private projects on the participation, known as public hearing is environment\". This was followed by the conducted at the site of the project in order to Integrated Pollution Prevention& Control ascertain and address the concerns of local Directive, 1996 and Water Framework affected persons. Second round is the public Directive, 2001.Legislations like the Control consultation involving collecting concerns of Pollution Act, 1974 and the Environmental from other concerned persons having Protection Act, 1990 includes provisions for plausible stake. Another feature of the local inquiry and recognizes the right of the notification is that it is time -bound. Starting people to information in environmental from the date of receipt of the request from decision making. Legal provisions of other the applicant, the process of the public countries like France, Germany and hearing should be completed within a period Switzerland can also be seen where the of forty five days. However there are concept of participation is followed in impact complaints that in spite of such provisions assessment and also licensing and planning the opinions of the general public are not procedures. heard and therefore the objects behind the provisions are defeated. It is also argued that EIA and public participation in India the fixed time frame puts strain on the process, thereby reducing its effectiveness. Requirement of Environmental Impact Assessment in India has been Conclusion institutionalized by the EIA Notification 1994. Till 1994 the EIA in India was purely Openness and fairness are the watchwords of administrative decision. It began in 1976 modern democratic administration. Instead of when the Department of Science and solely relying on technocratic and Technology was entrusted by the Planning bureaucratic monopoly of decision making, Commission to examine the environment public participation allows governments to impact of river valley projects. It was a adopt policies and enact laws that are discretionary pattern which was constantly relevant to communities and take into blamed for lack of transparency and ignoring account their needs. As far as protection of environmental and human concerns. It was environment is concerned international only in 1994 the EIA notification was community has very well recognized public promulgated making EIA mandatory for participation as a vital part of addressing expansion or modernization of for any environmental problems and bringing about activity or projects listed in Schedule 1 of the sustainable development. EIA is an notification. An amendment made to the administrative tool used to foresee and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.161-164 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

164 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity reduce the impact of a development activity Sahasranaman, P.B. 2009. Handbook of on the environment. It is thus a beacon for Environmental Law (1sted) the formation of a viable environmental policy. Whereas Environmental Impact Assessment is practiced as an essential requirement in a legal system, the concept of public participation need to be an integral part of it. To ensure people’s participation the provisions for public hearing incorporated into EIA process are to be strictly followed. As it is only with respect to scheduled projects EIA is required for other projects also the primary enquiry is to be made in details. If it is found that they have significant environmental effects public hearing must be insisted upon before clearance is given. It is also important that individuals, groups and organizations should have access to information relevant to environment and development held by national authorities, including information on products and activities that have or are likely to have a significant impact on the environment, and information on environmental protection measures. It is also suggested that making the EIA requirement retrospective in application must be re- looked so that the environmental impacts of ongoing projects can also be studied and rectified. References Edith Brown Weiss, 2006 International Environmental Law & Policy (2nd ed.) Justin Thornton and Silas Beckwith, 2004 Environmental law (2nded) Leelakrishnan, P. 2008. Environmental Law in India (3rded.) Richard Macrony, 2010. Regulation, Enforcement and Governance in Environmental Law(1sted) Rio Declaration on Environment and Development www.unesco.org/education/information/nfsun esco/pdf/RIO_E.PDF Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.161-164 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Climate change, natural disasters and biodiversity: reflections on uninitiatives 165 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 26 CLIMATE CHANGE, NATURAL DISASTERS AND BIODIVERSITY: REFLECTIONS ON UNINITIATIVES Archa Arun Department of Political Science Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala Correspondence E-mail:[email protected] ABSTRACT Biodiversity and nature’s contribution to people are our common heritage and humanities most important life supporting “safety net”, but our safety net is stretched almost to breaking point. The diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems, as well as many fundamental contributions we derive from nature are declining fast, although we still have the means to ensure a sustainable future for the people and the planet. While there is a growing recognition that biological diversity is a global asset of tremendous value to future generations, the number of species is being significantly reduced by certain human activities. Given the importance of public education and awareness about this issue, the UN decided to celebrate the international day for biological diversity annually on 22nd May. Climate change, natural disasters and habitat destructions change the number of plant and animal species that live in a habitat known as declining biodiversity. In its resolution 65/161, the General assembly declared the period 2011-2020 to be “The United Nations decade on biodiversity”. UNDP is proactively addressing biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation to maintain natural capital intact, through a large portfolio of over three hundred projects in more than 140 countries. The global biodiversity strategy is a set of guidelines to save, study and utilize the earth’s biotic wealth, published by the world resources institute, IUCN-The world conservation union and the UNEP. The management of biodiversity is a complex matter that needs the involvement of many different partners ranging from governmental organizations to private companies. Key words: Biodiversity, Climate change, Natural disasters, Challenges, Ecosystem restoration Introduction and climate change are often associated with each other. Disasters are caused due to the In the 21stcentury climate change and Natural severity of a natural hazard. The Natural Disasters are the most defining challenge that Disasters are determined by the level of the world is facing. The increase in global vulnerability and exposure of population. temperature, Artic meltdown, rises in sea Natural Disasters can cause severe impact on level and excessive emissions of greenhouse societies, environment, Biodiversity and gases are the main reasons. Climate change is economic wealth of the affected area. caused generally by human beings or by Climate change can be due to natural causes countries. The temperature of the earth is like volcanic eruption earth’s orbital change, becoming warmer day by day causing Ocean currents etc. Human causes like immediate effects on coastal areas, small deforestation, Industrialisation, burning of islands, food security health etc. Disasters Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

166 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity fossil fuel etc. can also cause climate change. The effects of Global warming on the earth’s Most of the countries have formally ecosystems are expected to be profound. acknowledged in join statements and Many species of Plants and animals are International Agreements that human activity already moving their range northward or to is main reason for Global climate change. higher altitudes as a result of warming temperatures. Warmer temperatures will also Climate Change expand the range of many disease causing Pathogens that were once confined to tropical Climate change occurs when changes in and subtropical areas, killing off plants and earth’s climate system result in new weather animal species that formerly were protected patterns that remain in place for an extended from disease. Species worldwide are moving period of time. The primary cause of climate pole ward to colder areas. On land, species change is the burning of fossil fuels, such as move to higher elevations, where as marine oil and coal, which emits greenhouse gasses species find colder water at greater depths. into the atmosphere – Primarily carbon dioxide. Rising sea levels due to the melting Climate Change and Biodiversity of Polar Icecaps contribute to greater storm damage, warming ocean temperatures are Healthy ecosystems and rich biodiversity are associated with stronger and more frequent fundamental to life on our Planet. Climate storms, additional rainfall particularly during change is affecting habitats of several severe weather events leads to flooding and species, which must either adopt or migrate other damage, and increase in the incidence to areas with more favorable conditions. and severity of wildfires threatens habitats, Each small changes in average temperatures homes and lives and heat waves contribute to can have a significant effect upon human deaths and other consequences across ecosystems. The interconnected nature of the globe. ecosystems means that the loss of species can have knock on effects upon a range of Climate change has both direct and indirect ecosystem functions. According to the effects on agricultural productivity including Millennium ecosystem assessment, climate changing rainfall patterns, drought, flooding change is likely to become one of the most and the geographical redistribution of pests significant drivers of biodiversity loss by the and diseases. The vast amount of carbon end of the century. Climate change is already dioxide absorbed by the oceans causes forcing biodiversity to adopt either through acidification, influencing the health of our shifting habitat, changing life cycles or the oceans and those whose livelihoods and development of new physical traits. nutrition depend on them. Scientists project that extreme weather events such as heat Conserving natural terrestrial, freshwater and waves, droughts, blizzards and rainstorms marine ecosystems and restoring degraded will continue to occur more often and with ecosystems is essential for the overall goals greater intensity due to global warming. If of both the Convention on Biological current ocean acidification trends continue Diversity and the UNs Framework singly rare coral reefs are expected to Convention on Climate Change, because become increasingly rare in areas where they ecosystems play a key role in the global are now common. carbon cycle and in adapting to climate change, while also providing a wide range of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Climate change, natural disasters and biodiversity: reflections on uninitiatives 167 ecosystem services that are essential for species, mass species mortality and loss of human wellbeing and the achievement of the habitat. Disaster and Biodiversity (DAB Millennium Development Goals. 2013-2016) was one of the six scientific programmers directly supported by IUBS Natural Disasters ,The International Union of Biological Sciences, a non-governmental ,nonprofit Natural Disasters are Catastrophic Events organization established in 1919, consisting with Atmospheric, Geological and of more than 30 countries and 80 academic hydrological origins (eg, Droughts, societies all over the world. earthquakes, Floods, Hurricanes, and Landslides) that can cause fatalities, Property Natural Disasters that affect Ecosystems damage, and social environmental disruption. Thousands of people around the world lost Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions, landslides, their lives to Natural Disasters in 2018, a Tsunamis and natural bushfires all affect the tragic reminder of how rapidly Natural many different ecosystems on our planet. Disasters such as the wildfires in California can became deadly. Tsunami: Tsunami represents an extremely high wave of water that moves from out at Natural Disasters ad Biodiversity sea towards land. Because of the enormous volume of water that moves from out at sea In light of recent Natural Disasters including towards land. Because of the enormous the wildfires in Australia, the flooding of volume of water and energy that travels Venice and India Volcanic eruptions in inland, extended areas along the coast are Philippines and New Zealand, and the immediately devastated as these natural earthquakes rocking Puerto Rico, many disasters strike the coastal ecosystems .The scientists are worried about the effects of height of the Tsunami waves rises these events on Biodiversity. Species with dramatically, though as the Tsunami reaches wide distributions are more likely to find land and the resulting damage to ecosystems pockets of unharmed land in which to can be cataclysmic. As coral reefs, Mangrove survive, but others with limited or restricted forests and wetlands are all dependent upon ranges are at greater risk of extinction each other for nutrient supplies. The .Species with small populations that produce destruction of one will ultimately affect the few offspring will face greater challenges. overall coastal system. The destruction of The devastating floods and wildfires are a coral reef fish populations leads to the sober reminder of Climate change’s elimination of other species that dependent destructive path. Healthy ecosystems not on them as a food source, while on land the only play an important role in supporting soil that was exposed to salt sedimentation recovery and reconstruction after a disaster, becomes infertile resulting in the loss of but in reducing future disaster risk. biodiversity in the form of coastal forests and animal life that they supported. Earthquakes, Landslides, Volcanic eruptions and natural bushfires all affect the many Volcanic Activity: The eruption of different ecosystems on our planet. Initially volcanoes and subsequent lava flow has an ,these disasters negatively affect the immediate negative effect on surrounding Biodiversity of wetlands, Forests ,and coastal ecosystems, but through the process of systems by causing the spread of invasive primary succession, the forest habitat begins Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

168 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity the process of re-colonization almost trade. Protection and sustainable use of immediately. Many plants in the form of biodiversity requires the participation of seeds and spores and animal species, ministries responsible for such area as particularly insect life such as crickets and agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy, spiders arrive from adjacent areas to take up tourism, trade and finance. Conservation of residence. These life forms are specifically Biodiversity requires cooperation with many adapted to survive in the severe conditions different actors such as regional bodies and following a lava flow and spearhead the organizations. succession process. The privacy of these pioneer species changes the original sterile Population growth is creating increasing conditions to the point where a new and a demand for biological resources, because it normally more diverse forest ecosystem has increases consumption creating pressure for developed within a 150 year period. using bio-resources more and more. World is losing its tropical forests at the alarming rate Wildfires: These uncontrolled infernos, of almost 42 million acres per year. This travelling at speeds in excess of 20km/h are means that nearly 1.3 acres of Tropical forest capable of destroying everything in their disappear every second. At the current rate path. Once these fires exist, they can burn for tropical forest will be gone within 115 years. weeks and do great damage to the ecosystem that they travel through .Despite the initial Introduction of Biotic species is another destruction of habitats, Wildfires play an major challenge to biodiversity conservation integral part in rejuvenation of an ecosystem and its use in development. In Bangladesh by consuming decaying matter, destroying some Plant and animal species have been diseased trees and related vegetation, creating introduced from different countries. These conditions for new seedlings to germinate exotic species have hampered endemic and by returning nutrients to the forest floor. species both in their population dynamics and in the position of their tropic levels. At the Landslides: Large amounts of earth and same time in many cases the importation has organic materials enter streams as sediment opted for changing ecosystem. In the aquatic as a result of Landslide and erosion activity ecosystem, the major introduced species thus reducing the portability of the water and those have changed a lot the ecosystem are quality of habitat for fish and wildlife. African Magus and Red Piranha. In the Landslides can wipe out large tracts of forest, terrestrial ecosystem the species are Tectona destroy wildlife habitat, and remove Grandis, Acacia spp., Eucaliptus spp. and productive soils from slopes. Swletenia Mahagoni. Common challenges to biodiversity Another major threat to biodiversity is that result from human activity are habitat Biodiversity is the living foundation for destruction, habitat fragmentation, habitat sustainable development. Now to make degradation over exploitation of species for biodiversity sustainable is one thing and to human use, introduction of exotic species and practice sustainable use of biodiversity is increased spread of disease. another. Truly sustainable development requires entities to redefine their policies on land use, food, water, energy, employment, development, conservation, economics and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Climate change, natural disasters and biodiversity: reflections on uninitiatives 169 United Nations and Disaster Management contribute effectively to a secure future for biodiversity, there is need for measures to According to a United Nations Report, Asia enhance the representativeness of Networks, Pacific located to be the most disaster prone and to improve management effectiveness. region of the world, have been struck by 1625 disasters during the last ten years Growth in Protected areas in many countries amounting to over 40 percentage of the is helping to maintain options for the future, global total, thereby calling for a collective but sustainable use and management of political commitment from the regions territory outside protected areas remains a leaders to mitigate risks posed by disasters. A priority. new United Nation’s flagship report launched on 30th June 2015 finds that solutions to the Measures to improve environmental status challenges to people and planet must build on within conservation areas, combined with clear scientific findings in order to be landscape scale approaches, are urgently sustainable. needed if their efficiency is to be improved. Since the early 1990s, United Nations has Lack of adequate technical and financial been advocating for policies and measures to resources and capacity can limit the up reduce risks before such risks evolve into scaling of innovative solutions, disasters and impact vulnerable communities. demonstrating further the need for regional The United Nations platform for Space based and sub regional cooperation. Information for Disaster management and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER), Capacity building is a key factor in the established in 2006 under the United Nations successful avoidance and reduction of land office for outer space affairs, aims to provide degradation and informed restoration. universal access to all types of space based information and services relevant to Disaster Capacity development needs should be Management. addressed at three levels, National, Provincial and local. UNESCO’s commitment to Biodiversity: There is need for capacity building to enable Biodiversity is currently being lost up to sources outside government to inform 1000 times the natural rate .Some scientists relevant departments and policies on are now referring to the crisis as the earth’s biodiversity. sixth mass extinction, comparable to the last great extinction crisis 65 million years ago. UNESCO works on the conservation of These extinctions are irreversible and pose a biodiversity and the sustainable use of its serious threat to our health and wellbeing . components through UNESCO designated sites, including biosphere reserves, world Many protected areas are not functioning as heritage sites including biosphere reserves effectively as originally intended, due to world heritage sites and global geoparks. In limited resources to maintain these areas or 2018, UNESCO designated sites protected enforce relevant legal frameworks .In over 10 million Km2, an area equivalent to addition, current protected area networks the size of China. These conservation may need to be realigned to account for instruments have adopted policies and climate change .For protected area to strategies that aim to conserve these sites, Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

170 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity while supporting the broader objectives of CHALLENGE, which aims to restore 350 sustainable development. million hectare of degraded ecosystems by 2030 – an area almost the size of India. The mab programme and the world Currently 57 countries, sub national network of biosphere reserves connecting governments and the private organizations landscapes and reconciling conservation have committed to bring over 170 million with development hectors under restoration. This endeavor builds on regional efforts such as Initiative Biosphere reserves are designated under 20*20 in Latin America that aims to restore UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) 20 million hectares of degraded land by programme and promote solutions 2020, and the AFRI African Forest reconciling the conservation of biodiversity Landscape Restoration Initiative that aims to with its sustainable use at local and regional bring 100 million hectare of degraded land scales .As of June 2018, the world network of under restoration by 2030. Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) consisted of 686 Biosphere reserves in 122 countries, Ecosystem restoration is defined as a process including 20 transboundary sites. of reversing the degradation of ecosystems, such as landscapes, Lakes and Oceans to The dynamic and interactive network of sites regain their ecological functionality. In other works to foster the harmonious integration of words to improve the productivity and people and nature for sustainable capacity of ecosystems to meet the needs of development through participatory dialogue, society. This can be done by allowing the Knowledge sharing, poverty reduction, natural regeneration of over exploited human wellbeing improvements, respect for ecosystems, for example, or by planting trees cultural values and efforts to improve and other plants. society’s ability to cope with climate change. Ecosystem restoration is fundamental to UN decade on ecosystem restoration 2021- achieving the sustainable development goals, 2030 mainly those on climate change, poverty eradication, food security water and The United Nations General Assembly biodiversity conservation .It is also pillar of declared 2021-2030 the UN decade on international environmental conservations, ecosystem Restoration. UN Environment and such as Ramsar convention on wetlands and FAO will lead the implementation .Key the Rio conventions on biodiversity, ecosystem that deliver numerous services desertification, and climate change. essential to food and agriculture including supply of fresh water, protection against Convention on Biological Diversity, Key hazards and provision of habitat for species International Instrument for Sustainable such as fish and pollinators are declining Development (CBD) rapidly. The UN decade on ecosystem restoration will help countries face against The CBD is the International Legal the impacts of climate change and instrument for “the conservation of biodiversity loss. Ecosystems are being Biological Diversity, the sustainable use of degraded at an unprecedented rate. its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the The decade will accelerate existing global utilization of genetic resources “that has been restoration goals, for example the BONN Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Climate change, natural disasters and biodiversity: reflections on uninitiatives 171 ratified by 196 nations. Its overall objective particularly addressing issues relevant to is to encourage actions, which will lead to a indigenous people and local communities. sustainable future. The CBD covers biodiversity at all levels, ecosystems, species The 2019 global assessment Report on and genetic resources. It also covers Biodiversity and Ecosystem service called biotechnology through the Cartagena for transformative changes to restore and Protocol on Biosafety. In fact it covers all protect nature. It found that the health of possible domains that are directly or ecosystems on which we and all other species indirectly related to biodiversity and its role depend is deteriorating more rapidly than in development, ranging from science, ever, affecting the very foundations of our Politics and education to agriculture, economies, livelihoods, Food security health business, culture and much more. and quality of life worldwide. The CBD’s governing body is the conference Deforestation and desertification caused by of the parties (COP). This ultimate authority human activities and climate change pose of all governments that have ratified the major challenges to sustainable development treaty meets every two years to review and have affected the lives and livelihoods of progress, set priorities and commit to work millions of people. The health of our planet plans. The secretariat of the CBD that is plays an important role in the emergence of (SCBD) is based on Montreal Canada. Its zoonotic diseases that is diseases that are main function is to assist governments in the transmissible between animals and humans. implementation of the CBD and its As we continue to encroach on fragile programmes of work, to organize meetings, ecosystems, we bring humans into ever draft documents and coordinate with other greater contact with wildlife enabling International Organizations and collect and pathogens in wildlife to spill over to spread information. The executive secretary livestock and humans, increasing the risk of is the head of (SCBD). disease emergence and amplification. Nature is declining globally at rates, United Nations Environmental Programme unprecedented in human history –and the rate (UNEP) and World Meteorological of species extinctions is accelerating, with organization (WMO) has created the grave impacts on people around the world Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change now likely, warns a landmark new report (IPCC) in 1988 to prepare, based on available from the scientific information, assessments on all aspects of climate change and its impacts Inter governmental science–policy with a view of formulating realistic response platform on biodiversity and ecosystem strategies. In 2007 IPCC projected that global services (ipbes). The IPBES global sea level would rise 2 feet by 2100, but in assessment report on Biodiversity and 2013 it was revised to 3.2 feet and in 2016 it Ecosystem services is the most revised up to 6.6 feet. They have also comprehensive ever completed predicted that Artic sea ice is declining intergovernmental report of its kind. Based dangerously. on the systematic review of about 15000 scientific and government sources, the report In April 2002, the parties of UN CBD also draws indigenous and local knowledge, adopted the recommendations of Grand Canaria Decleration calling for a Global Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

172 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Plant Conservation strategy and adopted a 16 are supported by a range of innovative and point plan aiming to slow the rate of plant crosscutting global programmes including extinctions around the world by 2010 1. The biodiversity finance initiative The Cartagena Protocol on Biodiversity of (BIOFIN) the Convention also known as Biosafety 2. The Lion’s share initiative and the nature for development programme. Protocol was adopted in January 2000.The 3. Equator initiative Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect 4. The NBSAP forum Biological Diversity from the potential risks 5. New York declaration on forest posed by living modified organisms resulting secretariat from modern Biotechnology. The Biosafety 6. Green commodities programme (GCP) and protocol makes clear that products from new 7. BES-Net facility technologies must be based on the The GEF small grants programme (SGP) precautionary principle and allow developing supports community based actions in 125 countries. nations to balance public health against UNDPs work is directed by the (UNDP economic benefits. It will for example let Biodiversity and ecosystems global framework) and enters around six thematic countries ban imports of a genetically areas. modified organism if they feel that there is 1. Mainstreaming biodiversity into development, fiscal planning and not enough scientific evidence the product is production sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, forestry, tourism and mining safe and requires exporters to label shipments including increasing financing for nature. containing genetically modified 2. Unlocking the protection of protected commodities. areas, including indigenous and community conserved areas, including UN General Assembly declared the period strengthening wildlife and habitat 2011-2020 as UNs decade on Biodiversity to management. promote the implementation of a strategic plan on Biodiversity and its overall vision of 3. Managing and rehabilitant ecosystems living in harmony with nature. The main goal for climate risk management including is to mainstream biodiversity at different ecosystem based adaptation and levels .Throughout the decades governments mitigation. are encouraged to develop, implement and communicate the results of national strategies 4. Sustainable land management to for implementation of the strategic plan for safeguard essential ecosystem services biodiversity. The world Economic Forum (WEF) has consistently highlighted the loss of natural capital as a leading global risk with cascading impacts of drought, Famine, Conflict, involuntary migration and natural disasters UNDP is proactively addressing biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation to maintain natural capital intact ,through a large portfolio of over 300 projects in more than 140 countries. These national projects Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Climate change, natural disasters and biodiversity: reflections on uninitiatives 173 and towards achieving land Degradation References neutrality. Basu, R. 2014. The United Nations – 5. Transforming the food and agricultural Structure and functions of an International commodities systems to address Organisation. New Delhi:Sterling Publishers. multiple global challenges. Fadia, K. 2007. United Nations and other 6. Sustain resilient forest ecosystems to International Organisations. Agra: Sahithya benefit local economies, protect Bhavan Publications. biodiversity and address climate change. Frankham, R. Ballou, J.D. and Briscoe, A. 2009. Introduction to conservation Genetics. The UNDP work in partnership with Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. governments, communities and civil society groups of all levels, the CBD and UNCCD, Hans, A.1986. The United Nations A Saga the UNFCC, the GEF, Green climate fund of Forty Years. Delhi : H.S Juneja and donor partners, sister UN agencies like Publications . the world bank and development banks, research and science organizations and Lindenmayer, D.B, Burton, P. and Franklin, private sector . J.F. 2008. Salvage Logging and its Ecological Consequences. Washington, DC: The United Nations Summit on Biodiversity Island Press. will be convened by the President of the General Assembly on 30 september 2020 at Mehrish, B.N. 1976. International the level of Heads of State and Governement Organisations –Structure and Processes, under the theme of “Urgent action on Delhi: Vishal Publications. Biodiversity for Sustainable Development . Narasimhan, C.V.1988. The United Nations Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity –An Inside View. New Delhi: Vikas where each species, no matter how small, all Publishing House. have an important role to play. Plischke, E.1964. Systems Of Integrating The For example International Community. Canada: Van Nostrand Publications. A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops. Rao, P.K. 2002. International Environmental Law and Economics. Malden:Blackwell Greater species diversity ensures natural publishers . sustainability for all life forms. Saksena, K. P.1991. Reforming the United Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and Nations The Challenge of Relevance. New recover from a variety of disasters. Delhi :Sage Publications And so, while we dominate this planet, we still need to preserve the diversity in wildlife. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

174 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity www.unesco.org https://www.un.org https://news.un.org https://www.cbd.int https://www.undp.org https://www.science.org.au https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu www.globalissues.org https://birdlife.org https://www.globalchange.gov https://link.springer.com https://www.unenvironment.org https://www.undrr.org https://in.one.un.org https://www.unoosa.org www.un.spider.org https://www.unocha.org https://unisdr.org www.nzdl.org https://www.preventionweb.net Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.165-174 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 27 STATUS AND FUTURE OF MILLIPEDE TAXONOMY IN KERALA Aswathy M D, Usha Bhageerathan and Sudhikumar A V Centre for Animal Taxonomy and Ecology, Department of Zoology, Christ College, Irinjalakuda, Kerala-680125 *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Millipedes are one of the major macro arthropods of the soil ecosystem. They serve a pivotal role in calcium cycling and decomposition of plant debris. Despite their remarkable diversity and importance as detritivores in temperate and tropical forests, the millipedes were quite overlooked by the scientific community and it was very recently that they have gained some attention. This is one of the non- charismatic soil arthropods where the number of described species lags far behind diversity estimates. Due to this, there is a notable deficiency in the availability of reliable literature. Recent literature which compiles all the available data was published in 2016 (Golovatch and Wesener). According to that checklist, there are 270 nominate species was reported from India. The Western Ghats house a total of 178 species of millipedes of which 51 species are reported from Kerala. The family Paradoxosomatidae and Harpagophoridae show maximum species diversity in Kerala. This study shows the checklist of millipede species reported from Kerala. Key words: Diplopoda, Western Ghats, Kerala, Checklist Introduction importance as detritivores in temperate and tropical forests, major problems persist at all The millipede class Diplopoda is a mega taxonomic and phylogenetic levels within the diverse and ancient terrestrial group, with group, the number of described species lags more than 12,000 nominal species and an far behind diversity estimates. The estimated diversity of approximately 80,000 knowledge of Indian millipedes is species yet to be described. Currently, 16 fragmentary and scattered (Chezhian and orders of extant and 8 orders of extinct Prabakaran,2016). The present understanding millipedes are recognized (Sierwald and of myriapod phylogeny, and more precisely Bond, 2007). Millipedes are inhabitants of diplopod phylogeny, strongly support the arid and semiarid regions, despite their monophyly (Koch, 2003). The myriapods and dependence on moisture. Millipedes become the phylogenetic relationships among the abundant in calcium-rich, high rainfall areas Arthropoda or between clades in the in tropical and temperate zones. Millipedes Myriapoda were studied by Koch (2003), can be important in calcium cycling Sierwald and Bond (2007) and Brewer et al., (Coleman et al., 2004). They have a (2012). Extensive studies have been calcareous exoskeleton, and because of their conducted in order to identify and classify high densities, they can be a significant sink diplopods from various parts of the globe and for calcium. Millipedes are major consumers the taxonomic keys were prepared. In India, of fallen leaf litter and may process some 15 - the millipede taxonomy and key preparation 20% of calcium input into hardwood forest were done by Attems (1936) and Kubra floors. Despite their remarkable diversity and Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

176 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (2002). During the years of 2012 - 13 the it was very recently that they have gained diversity of millipedes were studied in Eastern Ghats, Tamil Nadu and Alagar Hills, some attention. The literature available on Tamil Nadu was of high impact as they helped to understand on the diversity deeply, Indian diplopods is scarce and too old that it which henceforth aided to evaluate the overall health of the ecosystem thus promote includes the previously Indian provinces such effective conservation of this sensitive taxon as part of a holistic strategy of macro as China, Myanmar, Pakistan, and the Sri invertebrates conservation (Alagesan and Ramanathan, 2013; Chezhian and Lankan regions. The only recent and reliable Prabakaran, 2016). literature available on Indian diplopods was Kerala is the south-western coastal state of India. The state is known for its richness of given by Golovatch and Wesener in the year traditions, culture and the superfluous biodiversity possessing 16 national parks, 14 2016. According to that checklist, there are wildlife sanctuaries and two tiger reserves and the Western Ghats mountain range 270 nominate species or subspecies in at least spanning over the eastern borders of the state. Despite being an inevitable species in the soil 90 genera, 25 families, and 11 orders are ecosystem the millipedes were quite overlooked by the scientific community and reported from India. The Western Ghats Result and Discussion harbors a total of 178 species of millipedes of which 51 species are reported from Kerala. The order wise analysis shows that family Harpagophoridae, Arthrosphaeridae, Paradoxosomatidae and Pachybolidae show maximum species diversity in Kerala. As there is an insufficiency in easily accessible data regarding millipedes of Kerala this study would project the checklist of millipede species found in the Kerala region of the Indian Peninsula. Table 1. Species checklist of millipedes reported from Kerala Sl.No Species Location Family Order 1 Prosopodesmus jacobsoni(Silvestri, 1910) Trivandrum Haplodesmidae Polydesmida Cook, 1895 Leach, 1815 2 Cryptocorypha areata(Carl, 1932) Trivandrum Pyrgodesmidae Silvestri, 1896 3 Pagodesmus biporus(Carl, 1932) Trivandrum 4 Propyrgodesmuslobulatus(Silvestri, 1920) Kochin 5 Anoplodesmus anthracinus(Pocock, 1895) Trivandrum Paradoxosomatida e Daday, 1889 6 Anoplodesmus insignis (Attems, 1936 ) Kerala 7 Anoplodesmus rufocinctus (Carl, 1932) Valparai 8 Anoplodesmus sabulosus(Attems, 1898 ) Trivandrum 9 Anoplodesmus saussurii(Humbert, 1865) Malappuram 10 Anoplodesmus splendidus(Verhoeff, 1936) Trivandrum 11 Anoplodesmus subcylindricus(Carl, 1932) Trivandrum 12 Anoplodesmus tanjoricus (Pocock, 1892) Trivandrum 13 Anoplodesmus ursula (Attems, 1936) Kannur 14 Antichirogonus hirtus(Carl, 1932) Trivandrum 15 Antichirogonus laevisulcatus(Carl, 1932) Kerala 16 Chondromorphakelaarti longipes(Verhoeff, Trivandrum 1936) 17 Chondromorphakelaarti valparaiensis(Carl, Valparai 1932) 18 Xiphidiogonus dravidus(Carl, 1932) Trivandrum Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Status and future of millipede taxonomy in Kerala 177 19 Silvestrus seminudus (Jones, 1937) Trivandrum Polyxenidae PolyxenidaVerh Lucas, 1840 oeff, 1934 20 Monoxenus padmanabhai (Jones, 1937) Trivandrum ArthrosphaeridaeJ Sphaerotheriida 21 Arthrosphaera attemsi (Jeekel, 2001) Trivandrum eekel, 1974 Brandt, 1833 22 Arthrosphaera aurocincta(Pocock, 1899) Parambikulam, Kochi. 23 Arthrosphaera craspedota(Attems, 1936) Parambikulam, Kochi. 24 Arthrosphaera dalyi(Pocock, 1895) Kannur,Wayanad 25 Arthrosphaera disticta(Pocock, 1895) Kannur 26 Arthrosphaera inermis(Humbert, 1865) Kerala 27 Arthrosphaera lutescens(Butler, 1872) Trivandrum 28 Arthrosphaera nitida(Pocock, 1895) Kannur,Wayanad 29 Arthrosphaera stridula (Verhoeff,1937) Trivandrum 30 Aulacobolusejaculansvallensis(Carl, 1941) Trivandrum Pachybolidae SpirobolidaBoll 31 Aulacobolus excellens(Silvestri, 1916) Kochin Cook, 1897 man, 1893 32 Aulacobolus gravelyi(Silvestri, 1916) Trivandrum, Kochin, Quilon 33 Cingalobolus carli(Attems, 1936) Thrissur 34 Eucentrobolus maindroni(Bouvier, 1903) Trivandrum 35 Stenobolus insularis(Carl, 1918) Trivandrum 36 Xenobolus acuticonus(Attems, 1936) Palakkad 37 Podoglyphiulus jonesii(Verhoeff, 1936) Trivandrum Cambalopsidae Spirostreptida 38 Trachyjulus modestior(Silvestri, 1923) Kochi Cook, 1895 Brandt, 1833 39 Carlogonus palmatus(Demange, 1977) Kannur Harpagophoridae 40 Carlogonus spinicaudus(Gervais, 1847) Malabar Coast Attems 1909 41 Carlogonus verhoeffi(Demange, 1981) Trivandrum 42 Fageostreptus hyatti(Demange, 1961) Trivandrum 43 Harpurostreptus jonesijonesi(Verhoeff, Trivandrum 1938) 44 Harpurostreptus prasadani(Demange, Malappuram 1989) 45 Janardananeptus cannanorensis(Demange, Kannur 1989) 46 Ktenostreptus calcaratus (Demange, 1962) Kannur, Calicut, Wayanad 47 Organognathus multidentatus (Verhoeff, Kannur 1936) 48 Phyllogonostreptu spoculifer (Demange, Kannur 1975) 49 Iulus malabaricus (Gervais, 1847) Malabar Coast The checklist provides the data of 49 species maximum number of families with 3. It is of millipedes reported from 5 orders, 8 followed by order Spirostreptida with 2 families 24 genera in Kerala. From the families and order Polyxenida, spirobolida analysis of data, it can be interpreted from and sphaerotherida with a reported data of Figure 1, that order Polydesmida shows the one family from each order. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

178 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity 4 3 Number 2 1 0 Polyxenida Sphaerotheriida Spirostreptida Spirobolida Polydesmida Order Fig.1. Histogram showing the number of families reported from each order Figure 2 shows the number of species Kerala from the southern region from reported from each family. The family Paradoxosomatidae of order Polydesmida are Kochin, Quilon, and Trivandrum. They are reported with the maximum number of species, with 14 numbers. The polydesmid commonly called as round-backed millipedes species are found very commonly in Kerala. They are identified by the number of body or red millipedes. They have a smooth and rings, they possess 19 or 20 rings. They lack eyes and are devoid of paranota. They are cylindrical body with 40 to 60 rings. They are commonly called “flat-backed millipedes”. In adult males, the anterior leg pair of the 7th characterised by a fine pale suture line along ring is modified into gonopod. They are followed by the family Harpagophoridae the dorsal midline of the body. (order Spirostreptida) with 12 species reported. They are cylindrical millipedes with Pyrgodesmidae (order Polydesmida) follows more than 32 body rings. They are dark brown coloured and roll into rings once Pachybolidae with 3 species reported from disturbed. Family Arthrosphaeridae (order Sphaerotheriida) is the next major group Kerala. They are also flat-backed millipedes reported with 10 species. They are commonly called as pill millipedes. Their body is and are widely distributed in tropics. They partially flattened and coloured as dark brown or black. The body of an adult are pale coloured millipedes with prominent contains 13 rings and once disturbed they tend to roll up into a ball. Pachybolidae is the paranota. Some species of this group are next family showing more number of species. The family has 9 species reported from reported to be seen in association with ant colonies. Cambalopsidae (order Spirostreptida) is reported with 2 species from southern Kerala. They are small millipedes and have reddish brown cylindrical body with prominent sclerites. The male gonopod is formed by both pairs of legs on the 7th body ring. Polyxenidae (order Polyxenida) are small millipedes with soft body wall and tergites bearing tufts of feathery setae. There are long setae at the hind end of the body. They are very small and do not possess more than 17 pairs of legs. Haplodesmidae (order Polydesmida) Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Status and future of millipede taxonomy in Kerala 179 shows the least number of species reported pale body and 20 segments in adult. They are from Kerala. They show only a single species distinguished by their downward bending reported Trivandrum (south Kerala). They paranota. They are the inhabitants of wet are again flat backed millipedes which have tropics. 2 Polyxenidae 14 9 Arthrosphaeridae Cambalopsidae 3 2 Harpagophoridae 1 11 Pachybolidae Haplodesmidae 7 Pyrgodesmidae Figure 2. Pie diagram showing the number of species reported from each family From the above study, it can be inferred that also reveals that there are lesser reports from there is a serious lack of studies conducted in northern Kerala when compared to southern understanding the general biology and Kerala. This implies that there are not enough systematics of millipedes in India. The studies held in the northern part of the state available literature is old and vaguely and that area needs a closer examination as it encrypted that it cannot be completely could yield more species to report. considered for understanding the diversity and biogeography of these soil dwellers. As Acknowledgements these organisms have an evolutionary history dated millions of years ago, it makes them an The authors acknowledge Dr. Mathew Paul important member of the evolutionary theory Ukken, Principal, Christ College itself. The ecological service it provides by (Autonomous), Irinjalakuda, Kerala for taking part in decomposition and calcium providing all the facilities for conducting this cycling is remarkable. All the above factors research. First author is grateful to UGC- put together make them ecological indicators Junior Research Fellowship for financial and the impeccability to study their assistance to conduct this study. This study systematics and biogeography. was partly funded by DST-SERB major research project EMR/2016/006401. Conclusion References This study shows the extent of diversity present in Kerala and also proves good that Alagesan, P. and Ramanathan, B. 2013. there are high possibilities to find many more Diversity of millipedes in Alagar hills reserve species due to favourable climatic and forest in Tamil Nadu, India. International edaphic characteristics of the land. The data Journal of Biodiversity.,3: 1-6. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

180 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Attems, C. 1936. Diplopoda of India Mem. Indian Museum., 11: 133-167. Brewer.M. S., Sierwald, P. and Bond, J. E. 2012. Millipede taxonomy after 250 years: classification and taxonomic practices in a mega-diverse yet understudied arthropod group. PLoS One., 7(5): e37240. Chezhian, Y. And Prabakaran, S. 2016. Diversity of millipedes (Myriapoda: Diplopoda) in Yelagiri hills, Eastern Ghats, Vellore district, Tamil Nadu. International Journal of Fauna and Biological Sciences., 3(2): 91-97. Coleman, D. C., Crossley Jr, D. A. and Hendrix, P. F. 2004. Secondary production: Activities of heterotrophic organisms-the soil fauna. Fundamentals of Soil Ecology. Academic Press, San Diego, California, 51- 106. Golovatch, S. I. and Wesener, T. 2016. A species checklist of the millipedes (Myriapoda, Diplopoda) of India. Zootaxa., 4129(1): 1-75. Koch, M. 2003. Monophyly of the Myriapoda? Reliability of current arguments. African Invertebrates., 44(1): 137-153. Kubra, B. 2002. A Dichotomous key for field identification of the Orders of Indian Diplopoda. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society., 99(1): 64-71. Sierwald, P. and Bond, J.E. 2007. Current status of the myriapod class Diplopoda (millipedes): taxonomic diversity and phylogeny. Annu. Rev. Entomol., 52, 401- 420. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.175-180 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Effect of rainfall fluctuations on spider mediated ecosystem process 181 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 28 EFFECT OF RAINFALL FLUCTUATIONS ON SPIDER MEDIATED ECOSYSTEM PROCESS Kashmeera N A* and Sudhikumar A V Centre for Animal Taxonomy and Ecology Department of Zoology, Christ College, Irinjalakuda, Kerala, India *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Planet Earth is facing unprecedented changes like a warmer atmosphere, a warmer and more acidic ocean, higher sea levels, and larger changes in precipitation patterns. The magnitude and stability of ecosystem functioning are likely to be significantly altered by these changes. Here, alteration in litter decomposition rate mediated by spider Pardosa sumatrana was studied in the field under manipulated rainfall conditions. Results of this study indicate that changes in rainfall patterns can alter the rate of litter decomposition mediated by spiders. Understanding how organisms provide ecosystem services to humans is essential for continued ecosystem development. Key words: Climate change, Litter decomposition, Spider, Collembola Introduction understanding how alterations happen to ecosystem functions is key to efforts to Climate change projections show that global foresee all the consequences of climate annual precipitation rate will rise change (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, significantly, due to the pronounced rainfall 2005). events in tropical and high-latitude regions (IPCC, 2013). Projected ramifications of Ecosystem processes like decomposition and climate change also show that these changes recycling of nutrients plays critical role in have the potential to aggravate the water maintaining persistence and stability of scarcity in some areas, but mitigate them in ecosystem through continuous productivity. others (Arnell, 1999). Many studies show Decomposition also plays key role in that these changes in climate is altering the pedogenesis, energy release to higher trophic structure and functioning of tropical levels and successive perpetuation of faunal ecosystems, as it is in the rest of the world and floral diversity (Swan and Kominoski, (Corlett, 2012). Ecosystem functions or 2012). The soil and leaf litter constitutes a processes are the biological, geochemical and spatially diverse habitat for soil faunal physical processes and components that take community, which plays vital role in place or occur within an ecosystem (Maynard decomposition of litter. Besides, the et al. 2010). These processes such as abundance and diversity of soil fauna productivity, decomposition, nutrient cycling, especially fungi, bacteria and invertebrates fluxes of nutrients and energy are (Swift et al., 1979; Seastedt, 1984; González, indispensable for the welfare of mankind. So G. and Seastedt, 2001) the rate of Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.181-188 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

182 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity decomposition of the leaf litter is also showed that spider removal from forest- determined by several factors including the floor resulted in increased numbers of climatic and seasonal conditions (García collembolans there by increasing the rate of Palacios et al., 2013) and the physical and litter loss whereas a long term study reported chemical composition of leaves (Aerts, 1997; opposite effect (Lawrence and Wise, 2000; Meentemeyer, 1978; Cleveland et al., 2006; 2004) Another study showed that higher Kaspari et al., 2008; Guendehou et al., 2014). rainfall decreased the strength of the trophic cascade mediated by spiders (Lensing and Regular and consistent cycling of nutrients is Wise, 2006). Liu et al. (2014) observed also necessary for maintaining sustained negative trophic cascade effects on litter productivity of natural ecosystems (DeBano decomposition mediated by spiders under et al., 1998). Through decomposition and drought conditions. These studies indicate the mineralization a vast variety of organisms chances for radical changes in ecosystem enable nutrient cycling. This process enables processes as a result of intense hydrological an adequate and balanced supply of several cycle predicted to occur with global climate key elements like Carbon, Phosphorous, change. The purpose of field experiments Nitrogen, Sulphur which are essential for life. reported here was to reveal the response of an Maintenance of these ecosystem functions important ground dwelling Asian spider are of paramount importance because it is Pardosasum atrana (Thorell, 1890) to found that the areas with better functioning of predicted changes in climate. Changes in ecosystems can also contribute the perpetual litter decomposition rate mediated by spider supply of ecosystem services, which are vital were studied under altered rainfall for the survival of human beings. Climate conditions. These experiments also yield change studies on fungi, bacteria and information about response of collembolans invertebrates like protozoans, nematodes, to altered precipitation and spider density. annelids, arthropods etc. are significant since they are the prime mediators of important Materials and Methods ecosystem processes, such as litter decomposition and nutrient cycling. A review This study was conducted in Herbal Garden on invertebrate response to climate change at Christ college, Irinjalakuda, Kerala indicates that climate change can affect (10o23’N, 76o11’E). This region has a humid ecosystem services by altering invertebrate tropical climate. Annual precipitation populations (Prather et al., 2013). averages 2469 mm. Mean annual air Invertebrates deserves more attention temperature ranges from 25.3oC to 30.8oC. because they dominate several niches and are The mean relative humidity is 86.7%. the most abundant and diverse animal group Canopy is composed mainly of Anacardium (Brusca and Brusca, 2002). occidentale, Azadirachta indica, Tectona grandis, Swietenia mahagoni and Aegle Despite their ecological importance soil marmelos. The study area was gifted with arthropods like spiders are comparatively ill- shrub jungle, open grassland and mixed type considered under climate change perspective. plantation. It is also endowed with a well Many investigations have revealed that the littered floor, which encourage the thriving of influence of spiders as predators could wandering spiders like Lycosids. Spider used cascade through detritus based food web, in this study is Pardosa sumatrana (Thorell, indirectly affecting ecological process like 1890). It is an active hunting spider common litter decomposition. For example, a short- in grasslands. They are also found abundant term study conducted in deciduous forest in damp leaf litter and are the most dominant Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.181-188 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Effect of rainfall fluctuations on spider mediated ecosystem process 183 spiders in the study site. They are ground handpicking method. Rainfall treatments runners, which mainly feed on ground layer were done for two months. The plots were of the field and rarely come to the foliage or irrigated using a handheld watering can. Low canopy of plants for prey capture. Females rainfall plots were irrigated in alternating range 8-10mm in size and males 6-8mm. weeks so that it received 30% below the Sometimes females are seen roaming in the mean rainfall of last five years and high field with cocoons attached to spinnerets rainfall plots were irrigated weekly so that it (Sebastian and Peter, 2009). Litter received rainfall 30% above the mean rainfall preparation was done by collecting fallen of last five years. Ambient rainfall plots were leaves of different plant species from the left un-irrigated. Pitfall traps were used at the floor of the study site. To make the beginning and end of rainfall treatments to experiment more realistic mixture of canopy- measure activity density of collembolans. species leaves reflecting their abundance Pitfall traps were 7 cm deep, 6cm diameter were used to make litter bags. Petioles and plastic containers. The traps were buried in any hard veins of the leaves were disposed the soil such that the upper rim was at the and the rest was broken into roughly 2cm level of ground. Following Gisin(1960), diameter pieces. Then the litter was air dried 20mlof fixing fluid (14.52ml alcohol, 4.84ml to a constant weight before use. Ten grams ether, 0.58ml glacial acetic acid and 0.058ml of leaf litter were weighed and filled in 2 mm formalin (40%)) was added to each trap to nylon mesh bags (15X10 cm). prevent the collembolans from escaping. Activity densities (number per trap) of Three 4X3 m2 experimental plots were collembolans were measured at the beginning established in the Herbal garden. They were and end of experiment using pitfall traps. assigned to three rain fall treatments: Heavy, Traps were opened for 24 hour period before Low and Ambient. Each 4X3m2 plot was and after the experiment. Then the samples divided into eight 0.5m2 subplots and half of were taken to laboratory for counting and it was assigned as High density plots and calculating activity density. other half as low density plots. Each subplot was fenced with 50cm aluminium flashing, Three months after rainfall treatment, with 10cm buried under ground. Rains out litterbags retrieved from each subplot were shelters were constructed over the High and sealed in plastic bags and immediately taken low rainfall plots and ambient rainfall plots to lab. Any mud or debris on the litterbags were left uncovered. Rainout shelters were were removed gently. After that, litterbags made of PVC frame topped by a funnel of were dried in oven at 60OC to a constant uncoated polyethylene that direct the weight. Remaining mass was noted to rainwater into a PVC pipe that diverted it calculate percentage litter loss and Trophic away from the plot. These rainout shelters are cascade index. Trophic Cascade Index was removable and were removed at the time of calculated following Lensing and Wise21. rainfall treatment. Shelters extended by 0.25m on each side beyond edge of the Trophic cascade index = subplots. Rate at natural spider density - Rate at low spider density One Litterbag was placed at the centre of each subplot and was covered with leaves. Rate at low spider density Each high density subplots were stocked with 4 spiders and low density plots with 2 Where, rate is the rate of litter disappearance spiders. Spiders were collected by calculated by averaging proportion of litter disappearance in all replicates of each spider density treatment. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.181-188 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India