Ethics in Communication 95 (a) Ethics in Communication only tells us to speak and write properly, which we do anyway. Therefore, we need not spend time on creating a code of ethics for communication. (b) Several aspects of a company’s communication policies and behaviour can impact the lives of even distant populations; and the general public has become aware and watchful. (c) We are not in trouble with the law. So, we do not need to be concerned with Ethics in communication. (d) We do not need to give time and attention to ethics in communication since all our employees speak and write quite well. Answers 1. (c), 2. (d), 3. (b), 4. (a), 5. (b) 5.7 References Books: 1. Richard L. Johannesen, Kathleen S. Valde and Karen E. Whedbee: Language Arts and Disciplines [Waveland Press, 09-Jan-2008]. 2. Ronald C. Arnett, Janie M. Harden Fritz and Leeanne M. Bell: Communication Ethics Literacy: Dialogue and Difference [Sage Publications Inc., 2009]. Websites: 1. http://j647commethics.weebly.com/uploads/6/4/2/2/6422481/ethics_in_communication. pdf 2. https://www.slideshare.net/Kitlaserna/communication-ethics 3. https://bizfluent.com/info-8406730-key-principles-ethical-communication.html 4. https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/ethical-communication-business-8553.html CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
96 English Language and Lab UNIT 6 LISTENING Structure: 6.0 Learning Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Distinction between Listening and Hearing 6.3 Barriers to Listening 6.4 Role of Body Language in Listening 6.5 Effective Listening 6.5.1 Cultivating Good Listening Skills 6.6 Summary 6.7 Keywords/Abbreviations 6.8 Learning Activity 6.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 6.10 References 6.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Explain how listening is different from hearing Become aware of the importance of listening in the communication process Describe at least five reasons why we fail to listen properly CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 97 Analyse out and list your personal problems with listening Make efforts to improve your listening skills Describe your efforts to improve your listening skill 6.1 Introduction Listening is the receiver’s activity in oral communication. As the speaker has the responsibility to make effort to be understood, so the listener has the responsibility to be attentive and to make effort to understand the meaning of the speaker. Listening is the most important of all the communication skills. The higher your position in an organisation, the greater is your listening responsibility. A manager has to spend more time listening to others than speaking. An executive’s communication time is spent roughly in the following proportion: Writing: 9% Reading: 16% Speaking: 30% Listening: 45% Although listening is so critical in our daily lives, the teaching and training of the skill is not given enough importance and time in school or college courses; the other three basic communication skills — reading, writing and speaking — get much more attention. Most people are not good listeners. Yet, listening skill can be improved by understanding the steps involved in the process of listening and by following some basic guidelines. Any interaction with others, whether at home, with friends, at college or at work, depends for success on your ability to listen. In working with people, skilled and sympathetic listening is the most effective tool. The importance of listening carefully to the instructions given by one’s supervisors is obvious. Unless instructions are carefully listened to, understood and remembered, one cannot carry out the assigned work. Inefficient listening affects interpersonal relations as well as decision-making and employee relations. In a company where the supervisors are poor listeners, there can be problems of human relations. A number of grievances of workers are either imaginary or CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
98 English Language and Lab only a vague expression of discontent. If the supervisors listen with empathy, some of these grievances disappear or are quickly resolved. If you want cooperation and willing response from your team, listen to their ideas, suggestions and problems. Keep aside your own pet ideas and discuss their ideas. If you want to win their respect, you must show them respect and listen with attention while they speak. This does not mean that the leader must agree with everybody’s ideas. It only means that the leader must listen respectfully and be willing to discuss and examine the ideas at the proper time. The knowledge that the leader listens when they speak, gives them confidence and motivation to work. Benefits of listening include being able to: 1. Find out more information 2. Learn about people and how their minds work 3. Improve relations with people 4. Raise morale of employees/subordinates 5. Obtain suggestions and new ideas 6. Discover why employees perform as they do (well or poorly) 7. Help with solving problems 6.2 Distinction between Listening and Hearing Hearing is not listening. We hear many sounds that come within our range of hearing; it is purely physical and depends on our physical health and the strength of our hearing apparatus. If we cannot hear well, we can get a hearing aid to help the sounds to reach our brain. Most living creatures can hear as it is a natural physical ability. Listening is a mental activity. Of course, we need to hear well before we listen, but even a person who can hear well may not listen, or may listen very poorly. We hear all kinds of sounds but we ignore most of them; we concentrate on what we want to hear. If we find that we are interested in something we hear, we focus full attention on it. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 99 Listening is a conscious activity involving the brain and many mental activities; it is a complex process. Remembering and being able to recall is also an important consequence of listening. If we have listened with full attention, and absorbed and felt concerned about what we have listened to, it is easier to recall it. Listening is a very important communication skill. Like reading, listening is the receiver’s skill and needs to be trained. 6.3 Barriers to Listening Most of us are unable to listen with full concentration for more than one minute at a time. Our attention is not steady. There are many reasons why people’s ability to listen is not as good as it should be. In order to develop good listening skills, we must be aware of the problems that prevent individuals from listening well. We can then identify which of those problems we face and practice methods to overcome the problems. The common barriers to listening are given below. External Noise and Disturbance If there is noise in the environment, it makes hearing difficult and distracts attention. If noise cannot be avoided, it may be necessary to move to a quieter place or to postpone the communication for a time when it is quiet. When you are engaged in a conversation, it is better not to allow disturbance by other people or by the telephone. It surely disturbs listening and frustrates the speaker. Distraction in Your Mind This can be a great barrier to listening; the mind is restless and keeps getting attracted by hundreds of things. If you allow your mind to go on a joy-ride, thinking of the next vacation or the last weekend’s party, there will be no listening. It takes a great deal of self-control and discipline to stay tuned to another person, particularly when your own mind is excited about something. The wandering mind is the most common barrier to listening. Hare-and-tortoise Race There is a natural difference between speaking speed and listening speed. Average speaking speed is about 150 words a minute; the listener’s mind can process about 500 words a minute. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
100 English Language and Lab While listening to a speaker, your mind has excess time. Words and ideas that you hear may start off your own line of memory and thinking, and take your attention away from what the speaker is saying. Even though you may control yourself and come back to the present situation, you may lose the thread and miss some points. This is something like the hare-and-tortoise race, especially if the speech is long. The listener’s mind goes off on various trips, returning now and then to check up on the speaker’s progress. If the hare gets quite lost or falls asleep, the tortoise will get too far ahead for the hare to catch up. Thus the listener loses track of the speaker. Lack of Interest Not being interested in the topic can cause faulty listening. It might make you reject the speaker or the subject as dull or boring. Such an attitude to the speaker arises from narrow interests and a closed mind. But often, an uninteresting speaker may have useful information and ideas, while interesting and amusing speakers may have very little useful matter. A responsible listener must make an effort to be interested in the communication. Pretending to be attentive is usually not possible as body language will show the boredom. While in a social situation, it is discourteous to look or behave bored, in an official situation, it can have very bad consequences. Impatience Lack of patience to listen is the commonest barrier to listening. We often have no patience to wait until another has finished speaking. We want to comment or add our own points to the discussion, or narrate our own experience. In a competitive culture, conversation often turns into a story-telling match, each one vying with others to narrate one’s own experiences of being cheated, of medical treatments, of bargains, and what-have-you. This competitive desire to talk indicates lack of maturity and an inability to listen to others. In social situations, such behaviour is impolite; in an official situation, it can be damaging to one’s image and can cause reducing of respect from others. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 101 Poor Health Poor state of health reduces listening efficiency. No doubt, any physical pain demands all your attention in coping with it, and you cannot be expected to pay attention to work. It is better not to attend a meeting or a conference if you have a headache or some other physical pain. But besides pain, poor state of general health makes a person impatient, inattentive and unable to concentrate. It seriously impairs listening ability. The better your health, the better you can be as a listener. Avoiding What is Difficult If you are mentally lazy, you may switch off attention if you find the subject difficult to follow; if this becomes a habit, it makes the mind more and more lazy. This is a particular problem for students in the classroom if they find a subject requires mental effort beyond their comfort zone. A little daily effort to follow a serious discussion on the TV is useful for improving listening ability. Excessive Note-taking Trying to take down detailed and extensive notes during a speech or lecture is a sure way to disturb your listening and to miss some points. No matter how fast you write, you cannot write as fast as the words are spoken. It is necessary to learn the art of taking notes and limit it to writing down the general ideas. Lecture notes or meeting notes can never be in final form. They have to be expanded and filled out as soon as possible after the session. Tendency to Criticise Criticising the speaker’s appearance, manner, voice and so on is another cause of poor listening. No doubt, style adds to the effectiveness of speech, but the content is always more important than the appearance or the style of the speaker. There are many worthy persons who do not cultivate style but have good matter to convey. Paying too much attention to the speaker’s style causes the listener to lose the matter. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
102 English Language and Lab In a responsible position, it is our job to listen and understand what the other person has to say and to respond in a suitable manner. It is not our task to criticise every speaker that we have to engage with. 6.4 Role of Body Language in Listening Body language plays a very important role in oral communication. As a listener, it is important for you to be aware of your own and of the speaker’s body language. As a speaker too, you need to be aware of your listener’s (audience’s) body language. In other words, the speaker is affected by the listener’s body language and the listener is affected by the speaker’s body language. A skilled and experienced communicator gathers meaning from the body language of the other. Use your eyes as well as your ears to listen. A spoken message does not come only through words. Research has shown that body language, including the tone of voice, counts for over 90% of the message. In order to get the whole message, you have to pay attention to the body language which carries about 55% of the meaning and the tone of voice which carries about 38% of the meaning. Words carry less than 10%. The speaker’s body language and voice can tell about the speaker’s state of mind and feelings. How many times have you been influenced by the way a person looks at you? And by someone’s tone of voice? The non-verbal part of a person’s communication is largely unconscious and cannot be completely controlled or hidden by the speaker. (a) Eye contact and eye movements, facial expression, gestures and posture are important carriers of meaning. Lack of eye contact, looking away and shifting eyes easily show distraction and lack of attention, or fear, sense of guilt, anxiety, and so on. Over- enthusiasm or excitement can be seen in a person’s face and gestures. Posture shows the level of interest a person takes in the speaker’s words. Frowning and sharp steady eye contact can be disturbing to the listener. We can affect others by our body language consciously and unconsciously, without saying a word. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 103 Activity Sharpen your awareness of a listener’s body language. Write down your answers to these questions. 1. From what physical signs do you know when someone is not listening to you? 2. What signs make you feel that the listener wants to stop the conversation? 3. How do you know when the listener is not interested in what you are saying? 4. What body language shows that a person is daydreaming? 5. Have you ever noticed that your listener is upset by some words you said? How? 6. How do you know when someone has a problem? Do any of your answers describe your own listening behaviour? What do you need to change in order to make yourself a better listener? (b) Tone, pitch of voice and speed of speaking can show excitement, anger or fear. Speaking fast and jerkily may come from nervousness or impatience. How do you respond to these? Are you impatient if the speaker is hesitant and slow? Do you try to complete the speaker’s sentence if he hesitates or cannot find the words? Do you look impatient or bored? Can you reflect the speaker’s feeling, and show empathy with a simple, non-critical statement saying, “I can see that — has been a disturbing experience.” Activity Try saying “Hmm…” in different ways and with different emphasis. Working in pairs, try to interpret each other’s feeling from the way it is said. This is a fun exercise, but it can throw light on the power of the tone of voice. (c) Omission of facts, failure to explain or to illustrate, or failure to give proof and evidence shows gaps in the speaker’s knowledge or ability. It may also indicate an emotional problem of not being able to face something. Sometimes, individuals say things in an indirect way if they feel embarrassed about saying it directly. If you as the listener can just summarise, without any comment, what the speaker has said, and look expectantly for more information, the chances are that the person may add CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
104 English Language and Lab some more information. If your attitude and body language appear interested and empathetic, the person is likely to speak up. A skilful listener can elicit more information from the speaker just by interested, empathetic behaviour and body language, without saying anything. Silence is a very powerful tool of listening. Activity Try this with four different role-play partners, using a different response for each. You have a class picnic next Sunday. The class representative managed to persuade everyone to join the picnic and this is the first time that the entire class will be going. This person (your practising partner), who often collects a lot of work to do on a Sunday, says to you on Friday, “It looks like I won’t be able to join the class picnic this Sunday.” (a) What would your response be? (b) Why? Have you collected work to do on Sunday? (c) You always seem to drop out of things at the last minute. Didn’t you agree to join and even pay the contribution? (d) You feel that you won’t be able to join the class picnic, and you’re feeling sorry about it? (e) This is not the first time you have backed out of a class activity! Why do you do this? Write down your role-play partner’s response to each of these responses. Which responses from the listener bring out the best from the speaker? 6.5 Effective Listening For a leader or a senior, the aim of good listening is not only to follow what the speaker is saying but also to get at the problems of customer relations, employee relations and motivation. The following behaviour indicates that you are a good listener and can tune in to the speaker’s line of thought: Making and maintaining good and comfortable eye contact Reflecting appropriate feelings in facial expressions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 105 Sitting/standing in an attentive posture Using nouns and verbs in the same constructions and in the same tenses as the speaker Reflecting the speaker’s vocabulary Showing empathy, that is, understanding of speaker’s feelings and point of view Asking open-ended questions, seeking information and clarification Summarising what the speaker has said. 6.5.1 Cultivating Good Listening Skills The following guidelines for good listening require practice. Begin it immediately, in your very next conversation and see the difference. 1. Stop talking. Be attentive. Make the speaker feel important. 2. Put the speaker at ease. Create a positive atmosphere through body language. Your non- verbal behaviour must show that you are interested. The speaker must see and feel that you are listening. Make eye contact and keep still. Tapping with the foot or a pencil, shuffling papers and attending to other work, makes the speaker feel that you are not listening. 3. Be patient. The speaker may need time to say what s/he wants to say. Some people are shy or nervous or cannot easily find words. If you interrupt or hurry, they get more nervous. 4. Show that you are listening. This can be done by: (a) Using encouraging, non-committal expressions like “Hum”, “Uh-huh”, “I see”, “Oh” and so on. (b) Nodding the head, appropriate facial expression, eye contact. (c) Invitation to say more such as, “Tell me about it,” “Would you like to talk about it?” “Sounds like you have some ideas or feelings about this.” Try to match the speaker’s mood by appropriate response. 5. If the speaker has many things to say, such as explaining a problem or stating a complaint and expects help to find solution, write down the main points and get them checked for correctness. This makes the speaker more responsible and clear in what s/he says because s/he realises that s/he is receiving serious attention. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
106 English Language and Lab 6. Do not create or allow distractions. Some important ground rules are: (a) Do not interrupt (b) Do not give advice (c) Do not question the speaker’s feelings (d) Do not take the conversation in a different direction (e) Do not criticise. 7. Keep your temper no matter how angrily the speaker speaks. Allow the speaker to let off steam even if the person is completely unreasonable. Ask respectful, open-ended questions. This often helps to get information about a speaker’s emotional state of mind and helps to find solutions to conflict, grievances and other unpleasant situations. It also wins respect as it shows the listener is an understanding and supportive person. 8. Listen “between the lines.” Think of what is not being said as well as what is being said. Remember that many clues to the speaker’s meaning come from body language. 9. Ask questions only after the speaker begins to feel more comfortable and only to get a clear understanding. If you are not sure what the speaker is saying, check your understanding by saying, “What I understand is that ---. Am I right?” State what you understood and get confirmation or correction from the speaker. If the speaker has spoken at length, it is a good idea to repeat, in your own words, what the speaker has said in order to confirm that you have understood. You can begin by saying, “Let me summarise what I have understood,” and briefly state what you have gathered. 10. Keep an open mind. Do not jump to conclusions. Avoid making any judgement until the speaker has completed speaking. A hasty judgement is a prejudice, and it closes the mind. A proper evaluation can be made only after getting full information and understanding it. 6.6 Summary Listening is an important communication skill and is most needed in interactions with those around us at work, at play and at home. There are many benefits in being a good listener; efficient listening is necessary at work and it can prevent misunderstandings and reduce conflicts. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 107 Most individuals are not efficient listeners as there are many barriers to listening. But everyone can identify one’s own problems and barriers, and can train oneself to be a good listener. Body language is an important aspect of spoken communication. The listener must watch the speaker’s body language to understand the full meaning of the speaker. The listener must also mind one’s own body language to demonstrate that he/she is listening attentively. The listener must also learn how to respond to a speaker so that the speaker is encouraged to speak honestly, openly, and also responsibly. To be a good listener, we must learn to stop talking, make our mind stop talking, and be fully tuned to the speaker. Silence is very important; only a truly silent mind can listen fully. 6.7 Keywords/Abbreviations Empathy: The ability to truly understand another person’s perspective. It is reflected in our manner of speaking and our body language. It does not mean agreeing with the other person. The focus is on how the other person is feeling. Emotional block: Inability to listen to talk about some topics because of becoming emotionally disturbed by it. Hare-and-tortoise race: A term used to describe the difference in the speed of speech and the speed of listening. 6.8 Learning Activity 1. Examine each of the barriers to listening listed above, in relation to yourself. Which ones are yours? List all the listening problems that you have found in yourself. Then choose your worst problem and analyse it. How did you become aware that you have this problem? What goes on in your mind when someone speaks to you? Write a full description of the situation: Who was talking to you? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
108 English Language and Lab What is that person’s relationship to you? What kind of emotional, social or power relationship do you have with this person? What was the topic of conversation? What was your mind doing when this person was talking to you? Write down every thought honestly; you don’t have to show it to anyone. Do you think it is the topic or the person that caused you the problem? Think the problem through. Is it possible for you to get the cooperation of this person? What is your attitude to the person and/or to the topic? Write down your plan of action to overcome the problem. Becoming aware of one problem and trying to overcome it will help you to identify and overcome others. Remember that you cannot achieve this in one day; it takes continuous effort. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6.9 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. Why is listening the most important of the communication skills? 2. What prevents good listening? 3. What steps can be taken to improve one’s listening skills? 4. In your experience, what problems prevent you from listening efficiently in the classroom? What do you plan to do to overcome your problems? 5. Watch a good listener and describe what you noted about the non-verbal behaviour of a good listener. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 109 B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. It is correct to say __________. (a) Good employee relationships can be achieved by attentive listening rather than by talking (b) An efficient manager’s communication time is spent in the proportion: Reading – 10%, Listening – 20%, Writing – 30% and Speaking – 40%. (c) Listening is a natural skill that we are born with; it cannot be learnt or improved (d) Any of these 2. All the following are among the benefits of listening, except __________. (a) Gaining understanding of problems (b) Getting information overload (c) Learning how people’s minds work (d) Obtaining fresh ideas and suggestions 3. The term “tortoise-and-hare race” is used to describe the difference of speed between __________. (a) Speaking and listening (b) Thinking and speaking (c) Listening and thinking (d) All of these 4. It is sound advice to say __________. (a) When you do not like someone’s ideas, don’t waste time listening to him (b) When someone speaks very slowly, ask him to speak faster (c) When someone speaks, keep aside your ideas and discuss speaker’s ideas (d) None of these 5. An effective listener has to be aware of __________. (a) Everything that is going on around (b) His own prejudices and attitudes CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
110 English Language and Lab (c) The speaker’s race and religion (d) All of these 6. You are a good listener if you __________. (a) Smile at the speaker most of the time (b) Get influenced by the speaker’s emotion-charged words (c) Use verbs and nouns in the same tenses and constructions as the speaker (d) Feel eager to reply to the speaker 7. Concentration, which is necessary for listening effectively, is __________. (a) Of the same level in everyone (b) Affected by physical health (c) A natural ability and cannot be developed and improved (d) Not related to alertness 8. All of these are included among barriers to listening, except __________.. (a) Wandering mind (b) Over-reacting to certain terms used by the speaker (c) Waiting to give a reply (d) Empathy with the speaker Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (c), 5. (b), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8. (d) 6.10 References Book: 1. Madelyn Burley-Allen: Listening: The Forgotten Skill [John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995]. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Listening 111 Websites: 1. https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-hearing-and-listening.html 2. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/types-of-listening-skills-with-examples-2063759 CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
112 English Language and Lab UNIT 7 READING SKILLS Structure: 7.0 Learning Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of Reading Comprehension 7.2.1 Lexical 7.2.2 Literal 7.2.3 Interpretive 7.2.4 Applied 7.2.5 Affective 7.3 Reading Skills 7.3.1 Previewing and Skimming 7.3.2 Scanning 7.3.3 Close Reading 7.3.4 SQ3R Method of Reading 7.4 Summary 7.5 Keywords/Abbreviations 7.6 Learning Activity 7.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 7.8 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 113 7.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Analyse the different levels of reading comprehension Improve reading skills Discuss the value and methods of Argumentation 7.1 Introduction Reading is a very important skill that does not receive sufficient training in educational courses. More modern courses in schools and colleges have begun to give attention to the development of this essential skill. It is the receiver’s skill in written communication. In the world of work, a large amount of reading material demands attention everyday. Information technology, mass media and global business contribute to the increase in reading work. There is a flood of trade journals, house magazines, reports, minutes and memoranda on all kinds of topics, besides the usual newspapers, books and magazines. People at work need a technique to cope with the task of reading quickly and understanding the important part of the contents. Everything need not be read with the same attention and depth. Difficult subjects need careful study reading; lighter or familiar material can be skimmed. Skill in reading comprehension can be acquired with systematic practice. Reading skills include several ways of dealing with a piece of writing in order to get its meaning and its details. Every text does not have to be read in the same way; some can be just looked over, some need to be scanned and some need to be studied. If you are using a text as a basis for your work, you have to make constant reference to it in order to find or check a piece of information or a detail. We can develop three reading speeds depending on the material and our need of the information contained in it: (a) study reading speed of 225 to 300 words a minute with comprehension of 80% to 90%; (b) average reading speed of 275 to 500 words a minute with CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
114 English Language and Lab 70% comprehension and (c) skimming speed of 500 to 800 words a minute with 50% comprehension. For any study and development of the mind, it is essential to learn close reading, critical thinking and argumentation skills. New educational methods include courses in these skills and college level education in some places includes the skill of argumentation as a full course. 7.2 Types of Reading Comprehension Reading Comprehension means the ability to read text and understand its meaning. Understanding depends partly on knowledge of the language and partly on prior knowledge of the topic discussed in the text. Hence, there are levels of understanding. We go through the levels at different ages and stages of learning to read. There are five levels of reading comprehension that we all go through; the first two are achieved in early stages of schooling, but we may go through the stages again as we learn another language or learn a new subject. 7.2.1 Lexical Lexical means related to words and vocabulary. This is the first level of comprehension. At this stage, the reader concentrates on the meaning of each word. When learning a new subject or reading something unfamiliar, we either guess the meaning of new words or look them up in the dictionary. Since we know the grammar of the language, we can guess the meaning of most new words from the context. At this stage, we need to get the exact and correct meaning of words and technical terms and we make sure that our lexical comprehension is perfect. When learning a new language, our reading comprehension is at the lexical level. 7.2.2 Literal At this stage of comprehension, we understand the simple facts. The reader can answer questions on who, what, when and where. While this involves understanding of the information and the facts, it does not involve understanding of the finer points or implications. The reader may CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 115 not know the subject or the topic well enough, but understands the language enough to answer questions on facts as stated in the text. For example: Rakesh entered the house, slammed the front door, ran into his bedroom and threw his books on the floor. Question: What did Rakesh do on entering the house? Usually, this level of comprehension would enable the reader to make a precis of the text. Understanding includes answering such questions as: 1. What is the main idea? 2. What is the sequence of facts/events? 3. What conclusions are presented? 4. What is similar? Contrasting? 5. What things go together? Understanding is limited to grasping the facts presented in the text. 7.2.3 Interpretive Interpretive or Inferential Comprehension is the reader’s ability to draw out information and ideas that are not directly stated in the text. The reader uses prior or background knowledge to arrive at this understanding. The questions raised are beyond the stated facts. The reader may ask Why? What if …? How …? For example, the question, “What is John’s mood?” cannot be answered by reading the text. It requires prior knowledge either from another place in the text or from knowledge that such behaviour results from a particular kind of mood. There may not be one absolutely correct answer to this question. Each reader has the freedom to express it in one’s own way. It involves CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
116 English Language and Lab understanding of figurative language, drawing conclusions from any pictures or graphics. The reader should be able to answer such questions as: 1. What is the relation between the facts? 2. What conclusions can be drawn from the given facts? 3. What could have caused this result? 4. What is the theme? 5. How might this story end? 7.2.4 Applied Applied comprehension is a high level of comprehension. It involves evaluation of the text on the basis of one’s own criteria from one’s own experience. The reader might examine and evaluate the author’s reasoning and conclusions. The reader makes intellectual response to the material and could raise questions such as: 1. Could this possibly happen? 2. Is this argument logical? 3. Is this a fact or an opinion? 4. Is it possible to agree with the author? 5. What would be an alternative to what the author says? 6. What would be the best solution to this problem? Answers to these questions will vary according to each reader’s knowledge, experience and logical ability. The reader applies critical thinking, does not just accept or agree with what the author says, but uses one’s own knowledge and values to question before accepting or rejecting. 7.2.5 Affective Affective comprehension is not only comprehension and understanding but also consideration of the material from the social and emotional point of view. This kind of reading is CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 117 not required for enjoyment of fiction or for reading instructions or simple essays. It is necessary and important when reading proposals for social change or development in any field. He reader would raise questions such as: 1. How will this affect people? (various stakeholders)? 2. What might the long-term effects be? 3. What would be the social costs and benefits? 4. How will the economy be affected? 5. Is this ethical? Obviously, the reader makes a complete analysis of the text from several angles. The more strong the reader’s critical thinking, the more the reader will question what the author says. The reader is most likely to think of arguments to consider the pros and cons of any proposition that the author presents. The reader is fully engaged intellectually with the author’s views. Naturally, this happens only with the kind of text that presents a point of view on a controversial topic and tries to persuade the reader to agree or provokes the reader to disagree. If the reader has argumentation skills, he/she might write back to the author or publish a counter-argument to present the other side. Thus, we do not need the highest level of comprehension on every occasion or for every kind of text. The first level, Lexical comprehension, is taken care of in the early stages of learning to read, and occurs naturally by the time a person completes school education. The highest level, Affective comprehension, is acquired by most persons in their own field of work. A few people who apply their mind fully to a wide variety of fields and thought develop this very high level of reading comprehension. Everyone needs to develop literal, interpretive, and applied reading comprehension skills in order to be effective at one’s job and in one’s life. These skills have to be learned and developed; they do not just happen. Constant practice of reading and exposure to a variety of written material enables expansion of vocabulary and improvement of correct grammar usage. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
118 English Language and Lab 7.3 Reading Skills For our daily work and activities, we need to be able to read fast and grasp the meaning and the main points of information. Our reading material is likely to be letters, minutes of meetings, instructions and so on. Persons in responsible positions also need to read complex reports, proposals and articles in journals which require critical thinking. This reading would be slower. Students need to read text books, reference books, articles in journals, and news magazines, and also take notes for study and for writing their assignments. We can use three different kinds of reading skills for practical work requiring quick grasping of information. 7.3.1 Previewing and Skimming Previewing is preparing to get and sort information from both the text and the visuals. It helps you to organise the new information you will get from reading. While previewing, you can form a general idea about the contents on the basis of the clues. Read the title; it helps to focus and point your reading in the right direction. Glance over the introductory material that tells you what you are going to read. Read the short introductory paragraph which appears just below each section title as it eases you into the content and indicates what to expect in the section. Most compositions have headings and/or subheadings that indicate the organisation of the material. They indicate what aspects have been described in depth. Visuals such as charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, photographs and pictures reveal more information and help you form more accurate ideas. Take a look at the Exhibits to see what quantitative information is given. Review the questions or discussion topics, if there are any. They give you some clues about the main issues. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 119 After previewing, skim the text. With some practice, you will be able to preview and skim at the same time. Skimming Skimming is used to quickly identify the main ideas of a text. You skim at a speed two to three times faster than your normal reading. This is useful when you have a large amount of material to read in a limited amount of time. There are several strategies for skimming. One method is to run your eyes down the middle of the page, and zero in on the facts you need. Another method is to skim from the top left-hand corner to the bottom right-hand corner of the page. Then skim from the top right-hand corner to the bottom left-hand corner. Read the first and last paragraphs of each section, and read the first sentence and the last sentence of each paragraph. 7.3.2 Scanning Scanning is done to search for specific information in a text. Start at the beginning of the passage and move your eyes quickly over the lines, looking for keywords related to the information you want to find. As soon as you find any keywords you are looking for, begin reading. Scanning is a search technique; you search for keywords or ideas. You scan when you know what specific information you are looking for, and concentrating on finding a specific point. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource, to determine whether it will answer your questions. For this purpose, you scrutinise the contents page and the index to find your keywords. When scanning, look for the author’s use of organisers such as numbering system, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, in italics, or in a different font size, style or colour. In some books, key ideas are printed in the margin. You need to read only the relevant parts to find the information you want. If you find it important for your purpose, you will have to go ahead to close reading. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
120 English Language and Lab 7.3.3 Close Reading This is really a technique used for literary texts that have literary devices such as puns, alliteration, word play, quotations and so on in order to create hidden nuances and layers of meaning which are not easily grasped. Such texts (poetry and poetic prose, for example) reveal more meaning when they are read with great care, many times, in different ways, by different persons, etc. The work of close reading is often done in classrooms in pairs so that two persons apply their reading skills to the text. It involves reading slowly, word by word and reading aloud if necessary, to look for every possible nuance of meaning. This kind of exercise develops the very useful skills of reading with great care, examining any figures, statistical data, graphics as well as the use of ‘rhetorical’ language. This kind of reading is needed for difficult subjects and concepts, text that describes complex processes, and also for text that presents proposals, tries to persuade and presents arguments. It also requires critical thinking along with application of mind to the meaning of the text. Students studying their subjects need to do close reading of textbooks and reference books in order to grasp the content of the subject thoroughly. 7.3.4 SQ3R Method of Reading S stands for Survey which is done on skimming and scanning. Q stands for finding and raising your own Questions on the topic. This will depend on your comprehension level. Since you are aware of the comprehension level you desire to reach with the particular text, you will frame questions that will enable you to reach that level. The more probing your questions, the closer your reading will have to be. 4R stands for four activities whose names happen to begin with R. Some people use only 3 while some go up to 6 or 7 Rs. These are: Read: Find answers to your questions by reading. You may write down your answers. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 121 Recite: Say your answers aloud in your own words. This helps to fix it in your long-term memory. Relate: Link new information to what you already know; link the facts, concepts and terms to prior information. Rewrite: Put the material into your own words, paraphrase if it is difficult and rewrite again to reduce the words. Record: Make notes in your notebook. This is to be used for study later. Reflect: Think over what you have read. More questions will arise at this stage. How does it affect your thinking? Your attitudes? Values? Argument skills? Respond: Any new questions? Did the material challenge your existing ideas? Present any problems? After going through this process, you might like to write your own thoughts and make a write-up on it. That is really learning! It expands your mind, grows your thinking power and develops your intellectual abilities. This way you achieve Affective level of reading comprehension. 7.4 Summary It is important for everyone to improve reading skills. There are five levels of reading comprehension: lexical, literal, interpretive, applied and affective. Lexical is developed at a very early stage; and affective is developed by a few who are deep thinkers on a wide variety of subjects. Everyone needs to learn and practice literal, interpretive and applied reading comprehension for being effective at their job. Reading skills include scanning, skimming and close reading. Reading for study is best done by using SQ3R method of reading. Reading speed can be improved by consciously watching and controlling some bad reading habits, training the eyes to move efficiently, controlling the habit of vocalising, better focus on text, and making good use of non-verbal material in the text. Speed must be adjusted to the type of reading material. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
122 English Language and Lab Argumentation is the skill of presenting arguments properly when discussing or debating or examining a controversial topic or proposition. A practitioner of argumentation has the obligation to respect the rights of the opponent, be prepared to risk having one’s argument demolished, give fair hearing to the other side, be strictly rational, and be aware and considerate of audience’s sensitivities. Arguments must be supported by evidence that is based on facts and/or credible, expert opinions. Fallacious, illogical arguments must be rejected. Argumentation is a difficult skill that requires a strong mind and control of emotions. It is an important skill in a democracy. 7.5 Keywords/Abbreviations Lexical: Lexical related to words and their meaning. Interpretive: Interpretive also called inferential; related to drawing out information that is not stated, by grasping implication and based on prior knowledge. SQ3R: Survey, raise questions, read, rewrite, relate, record, reflect and respond. It is a method of dealing efficiently with reading material. Regression: Regression going backward instead of forward; refers to unconscious, reflexive backward eye movement and re-reading the same sentence. Vocalising: A toned-down version of loud reading; either whispering, or making movements in the throat, or fully pronouncing words mentally while reading. It slows down reading rate. Silent reading should be done only with the eyes; grasping without pronouncing. Proposition: Proposition is a statement of a viewpoint that you state and defend (or destroy if you are opposing it). It is usually a declarative sentence. It must be debatable and it should be possible to prove or disprove it conclusively. Fallacy: Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that damage the logic of your argument. They can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, that have no evidence that supports their claim. Premise: A previous statement or proposition from which another is inferred or follows as a conclusion. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 123 Stereotype: A standardised mental picture that represents a hastily-formed, prejudiced opinion, and uncritical judgement about a social group. 7.6 Learning Activity 1. In the first paragraph of the passage given below, several words and phrases are in brackets. Read the first paragraph without the words in the brackets and see if you could gather the meaning. In the rest of the passage, several words have been replaced by xs, and in the last paragraph by dots. While reading it, you will find that you can “fill in” most of the words to gather the meaning of the passage. In early ages, man got his food, shelter, clothing, weapons, and tools from wild animals and nature. When he had used up (all the) wild plants (in one place), or the animals (that he hunted) or the fish (that he caught), moved away, he left one place and (moved to another where he could) find new supplies (of what he wanted.) This meant he led a wandering existence, staying in a place only (as long as) it gave him (what he wanted), and then moving (somewhere else). Sometimes, people (of this kind would) cover (close to) 2000 miles in a year, following (the) animals they hunted northwards (in the) spring (and then back) south (in the) autumn. Later, xxxx men started xx collect xxx sow seeds, xxx this began xx keep them xx xxx place longer xxxx xxxxxx, because xxxx xxx xx wait until the seed grew into plants xxxxxx they xxxxx gather their harvest, and xxxxxxx xxxx xxx xx protect the plants xxxxxx xxxxxx while they grew. Those who began to live xxxx xxx xxxx on grain began to settle xxxx, xxx became agriculturists, while those who xxxx more and more xxx xx milk xxx xxxx became more xxx xxxx nomadic. But the life of primitive people living in one place was dangerous ..... easy for enemies to find and destroy them (if they knew where they lived). It therefore often...................long time..... group ....... finally settled down to cultivate the soil ................ ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
124 English Language and Lab 2. Make a copy of any short passage you have on your computer, and replace the obvious phrases by xs; get a friend to read it. This activity can be done by two persons for practice. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Watch your reading and find out what bad reading habits you have developed (such as moving the lips). Practice with a 100-word passage every day to get rid of a bad habit. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. Explain how you use the SQ3R method of reading and how it has benefited you? 2. In your opinion, why is it necessary for students to learn argumentation? 3. What reading faults have you discovered in your reading? What steps will you take to correct them? 4. After learning this unit and using the suggestions, what improvement did you find in your reading and studying activities? 5. Working with another student, prepare both sides of argumentation for one of the following topics: Juvenile criminals should be tried and treated as adults. Climate change is the greatest threat facing humanity today. All students should have an after-class job or internship. Colleges should be in session all year round. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 125 B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Reading mainly with attention to words and their meaning is called ___________. (a) Liberal (b) Literal (c) Lexical (d) Lateral 2. Interpretive reading means you can raise and answer questions___________. (a) On the facts stated in the text (b) That involve drawing inferences from the stated facts (c) On the soundness of the author’s logic and conclusions (d) Related to consequences of acting on the basis of the conclusions 3. Argumentation involves ___________. (a) Engaging in a verbal fight (b) Attending college debates (c) Holding on to your own side of the controversy (d) Presenting and supporting your arguments systematically 4. SQ3R method of reading is most useful for ___________. (a) Studying a difficult subject for an examination (b) Quick reading of memos and notes before attending a meeting (c) Locating information in an article (d) Reading a novel 5. All the following reading faults require attentive physical control except ___________. (a) Backward eye movement (b) Pronouncing words in the throat (c) Wandering mind (d) Limited eye span 6. You should slow down your reading speed when you come across ___________. (a) An interesting anecdote (b) Entertaining dialogue (c) A new concept (d) An illustrative example CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
126 English Language and Lab 7. Scanning a text is done when you ___________. (a) Want to find out if it should be read in detail (b) Are looking for specific information in the text (c) Need to remember all the details (d) Are reading for entertainment 8. You can speed up your reading when you encounter any of these, except ___________. (a) Graphs and charts (b) An entertaining anecdote (c) Examples to illustrate after explanation of a concept (d) Information that you already know 9. An example of acceptable factual evidence would be ___________. (a) A quotation from the speech of an MP in a newspaper report (b) Results of a ten-year long research study at a University (c) A feature article report in a weekly news magazine (d) Opinion expressed by a participant in a TV news discussion programme Answers 1. (c), 2. (b), 3. (d), 4. (a), 5. (c), 6. (c), 7. (b), 8. (a), 9. (b). 7.8 References Books: 1. Sam McCarter and Norman Whitby: Improve Your IELTS Reading. 2. Martin Cohen: Critical Thinking Skills for Dummies. 3. Deanna Kuhn: The Skills of Argument [Cambridge University Press, 1991]. (These books are available online.) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Reading Skills 127 Websites: 1. https://www.handinhandhomeschool.com/resources/reading/levels-of-comprehension. php 2. https://iedunote.com/reading-techniques 3. https://www.csun.edu/~hcpas003/argument.html 4. https://sites.austincc.edu/student-skills-workshops/critical-reading/what-makes- information-reliable/ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
128 English Language and Lab UNIT 8 PROCESS OF WRITING Structure: 8.0 Learning Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Writing Process 8.2.1 Pre-writing Phase 8.3 Paragraph Writing 8.3.1 Elements of a Paragraph 8.3.1.1 Topic Sentence 8.3.1.2 Coherence 8.3.1.3 Unity 8.4 Summary 8.5 Keywords/Abbreviations 8.6 Learning Activity 8.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 8.8 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 129 8.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Describe the mechanics of writing Explain the principles of paragraph writing Write one paragraph on a given topic Write a short composition divided into suitable paragraphs 8.1 Introduction Writing makes it possible to keep records, and make documents available at different places and different times. Various ideas, proposals, instructions, achievements, policies, rules and regulations, financial statements and other information related to an organisation and its business are recorded in reports, memos, circulars, notices, minutes, letters and other documents. An organisation’s documents are a record and proof of its working and activities. In spite of the presence of electronic media, written communication continues to be important. Although some routine, immediate and simple messages are better sent electronically, persons in senior positions need to acquire competency in writing good, readable prose. Writing tasks are every manager’s personal responsibility. Bad writing practices acquired under stress makes it difficult for most of us to approach the task of writing in a systematic way. The tendency of many young persons in their new jobs is to consider writing as a chore to be finished as quickly as possible. Official and technical writing, which is a part of almost every job description, does not need special gifts or inspiration; that is needed by the creative writers, the novelists, the playwrights and the poets. Official writing is a process that can be managed; that means it needs to be regarded as a task, to be allotted time, planned and carried out by a systematic process. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
130 English Language and Lab 8.2 The Writing Process Most people tend to take up writing straight away without going through the required stages of the writing process, and thus waste a good deal of time. Graduates often think that since they have passed the graduation examination, they can surely write. Yet, using a methodical approach brings certain rewards in production of better texts in less time. It requires change of mindset and patience to spend time on planning and preparing, without feeling pushed to start keyboarding. In fact, a large chunk of time must be allotted to the task of planning. And a still larger chunk must be kept aside for the final task of revising. It requires the persistence and tenacity of mind to edit and revise what has been written, and to make the document finally ready for despatch or presentation. The actual drafting or physical act of writing takes the shortest time. Focusing on the writing process helps to break up the writing task into small, manageable tasks. The writing process has been described in different ways by experts on writing. The traditional preparation, writing and revising stages have been divided into smaller units and analysed in detail. The process can be divided into three phases: Pre-writing, Writing and Post-writing. Each phase has several tasks which usually overlap in time. The tasks of the writing process run into one another. If you use the computer for writing, the process is non-linear, with the possibility of moving back and forth and carrying out a cluster of activities in various parts of the text. 8.2.1 Pre-writing Phase All the activities and tasks needed to be done before actually beginning to write are included in pre-writing. Planning activities contribute towards getting into the right frame of mind and adopting the right attitude. It involves getting the facts of the case together, and examining one’s own mind as well as the audience’s. Preparation is collecting material by different methods such as reading up, talking to concerned persons, referring to records, inspecting and so on. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 131 Planning Stage The genesis of a business communication document is usually a situation that needs to be described, analysed, conveyed, discussed, settled and acted upon. All the steps of Phase 1 are a part of the Planning stage. The first step therefore is to analyse the situation. Analysing a situation begins with making a clear statement of the problem or the task that needs attention. The problem must be understood in its context. It may be necessary to look into the background of the situation, to find out its causes and be aware of similar situations in the past. Secondly, the writer must clarify the purpose of the communication. The purpose of communication is to provoke a response. The writer must know what response he/she wants from the audience. This task is better done by asking and clearly answering these questions: What is my purpose in sending this message? What do I want to accomplish by sending it? What do I want the audience to do/think/feel as a result of receiving this message? Obviously, the writer must analyse the audience thoroughly. Answering some more questions can help to get a fairly good picture of the audience. Who are they? Where are they? When will they get my message? What do they need to know? How much do they already know about the issue at hand? Who else is likely to read this message? In analysing the audience, an important step is to find out the common features between the writer and the audience – the I and the You. This finding of shared interests and needs will enable the writer to get on common ground with the audience. In what ways do the writer and the reader CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
132 English Language and Lab belong together? Are they in the same or in a different country? city? profession? age group? cultural background? Once this has been understood, it is necessary to check the differences. There may be similarities and differences in knowledge about the issue to be talked about; in attitude towards the issue, and in emotions related to the issue. There are sure to be differences in the circumstances and environment of the two. After analysing the primary or target audience, the writer has to consider that there may be secondary audiences who may read the document for various purposes. There may also be ‘hidden’ audiences in the form of special interest groups, activists and professionals who are consulted by the primary audience, and so on. The secondary audience is much wider than the primary one and is not always easy to identify. The last step in planning is choosing the channel by which the message is to be conveyed. Choosing the channel implies taking into account the attributes of different channels and how they contribute towards provoking the desired response. Letter is most commonly used for information and messages that have one individual as target audience. If the audience consists of many persons, a letter can take a great deal of time to prepare and deliver. A choice has to be made between circular, memorandum, notice on the bulletin board and email. Some are displayed and seem to be more public, some reach each individual, some can be a personalised message while some may be impersonal. Speed, cost, ease of delivery confidentiality and impact are some of the factors to be considered while selecting a channel. Anticipate what the audience’s needs and responses might be. It includes anticipating how secondary audiences may react. Anticipating audience needs requires examining the audience’s characteristics and taking them into account while planning the message. For example: What kind of language is suitable? Should the tone be formal or informal? How can this audience’s attention be gained and retained? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 133 How much background information will have to be given? To what extent does the audience agree with the writer? What are the areas of disagreement? What information will be of particular interest to this audience? This step is a thorough and extended audience analysis. Adapting is also a part of planning. This involves thinking about how to create a message that suits the audience in tone and structure, and accomplishes the writer’s goal. The situation has to be viewed from the reader’s perspective and the reader’s benefits must be highlighted. In addition, the writer’s legal responsibilities may have to be taken into account. The message must also be adapted to the selected channel. Preparation Preparation involves research to collect together all the information related to the situation. This may not all be included in the message; it is only the raw material for framing the message. The content of the message will be picked out from the information collected. Some information is already with the writer, some will have to be collected. Informal sources can be very useful. This includes talking to people and idea generation by brainstorming. Collecting coherent information needs practice and skill in asking questions. Some item of information may have to be searched for later, but it can be done at the last stage of revising. Formal research by using library search and the internet is necessary for preparing to write long documents like reports. Some aspects of a subject may need surveys, investigations and experiments. 8.3 Paragraph Writing All documents are made up of paragraphs. It is the smallest unit of a composition. A paragraph is made up of a group of sentences related to one particular topic. It is a distinct portion or unit of a larger written document. There is no set length for a paragraph. In an essay, assignment, research paper or book, the paragraphs may be quite long, even up to half a page. In CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
134 English Language and Lab business messages such as letters, memos and notices, the paragraph is shorter and may be composed of 3 to 7 sentences. An important function of a paragraph is to give the text a neat and pleasant appearance. Each paragraph appears on a new line separated by double line-spacing or by indentation. A single large block of writing is unpleasant to the eye, and also takes more time to read. Smaller units of writing look attractive, and can be read and grasped faster. When you write a memo, letter or report, you can use your eyes to consider if a paragraph has become too long. If you find that it looks too long, you may have written more than 7 sentences. Try to keep within 4 to 7 sentences. Read the paragraph to see if there is a shift in the thought at some point; you can begin a new paragraph at that point. 8.3.1 Elements of a Paragraph A paragraph has five important elements: Topic sentence which is the controlling idea of the paragraph. It is usually the first sentence of the paragraph. Sentences of expansion and support with details, examples, illustrations, statistics, reasons or arguments. Closing sentence which reminds of the topic and may point to the next logical aspect, thus providing a transition or bridging to connect to the next paragraph. Coherence which means systematic logical connection and consistency among its parts. Unity which means it deals with only one topic. 8.3.1.1 Topic Sentence The topic sentence should lead the reader straight to what is being said in the paragraph. It acts like a heading. Therefore, it should be brief. A long topic sentence with many details is confusing. The details are to be given in the subsequent sentences of the paragraph. The style should be simple and direct, without word play or difficult/technical terms. Remember that a paragraph contains only one idea, and that idea should be conveyed up front in the topic sentence. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 135 A topic sentence has to be a general statement. Do not state a fact as the topic sentence because it is not general enough and you do not have to expand on it. The following is a poor opening sentence because it is just one fact and there is nothing more to be said about it. The Union Budget was presented on 5 July by Finance Minister, Nirmala Seetharaman. A better topic sentence would be: The Union Budget, presented on 5 July by Finance Minister Nirmala Seetharaman, is more of a vision statement than a budget. This is better because it makes a general statement that has to be expanded by giving reasons and arguments to support the opinion. There is scope for more sentences to give reasons in support of the opinion. A short topic sentence has the advantage of being clear and concise like the following examples: Talking to a sympathetic listener can have a great therapeutic effect. Skill in Public Speaking is not necessary for everyone. The topic sentence may be in the form of a question; for example, Does everyone need the skill of public speaking? Should we allow personal relationships to suffer because of our busy schedules? 8.3.1.2 Coherence A paragraph must have Unity and Coherence. It is not just a group of sentences. Coherence means that all the information in the paragraph is well-organised, logically ordered and easy to follow. Each sentence must be related to the previous one in some way; transition words such as, in addition, besides, moreover, however, etc. can indicate the relation. [See the following website for transitional devices] [https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/transitions_and_transitional_devices/ transitional_devices.html] CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
136 English Language and Lab Other ways to create connection between sentences and between paragraphs are: Repetition of keywords and phrases (often from the topic sentence). Parallel grammatical structure. Transition words and phrases. Coherence is the quality that makes the paragraph easy for the reader to understand. You can achieve coherence by using logical bridges and verbal bridges. Logical bridges can be built by: Carrying over the idea of a topic from a sentence to the next. Constructing successive sentences in parallel form Verbal bridges can be created by: Repeating keywords in one or two sentences Repeating synonymous words in several sentences Using pronouns to refer to nouns in previous sentences Using transition words and phrases to link ideas from different sentences 8.3.1.3 Unity Unity means that all sentences in the paragraph directly support the topic sentence. The entire paragraph should be about a single topic and have a single focus. If the topic sentence begins with a particular point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander off to different ideas. After completing a composition, check that each paragraph has internal unity and coherence. Also, check that each paragraph moves smoothly to the next one. 8.4 Summary Writing is a skill that must be cultivated by everyone who wants to make a good career. Having graduated does not ensure that a person has writing skills. The world of work needs writing skills. Career success often depends on one’s ability to produce a good document. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 137 Writing is a process consisting of three phases, involving a cluster of activities. Pre-writing is planning and preparation activities; Actual Writing includes organising, preparing an outline and physically writing/keyboarding the words and sentences to produce a good working draft. Post- writing involves many revisions, editing, rewriting, rigorous checking, evaluating and finally producing the document so that it is fit for dispatch. The phases and stages overlap, as the process is not entirely linear. Paragraph is the smallest unit of a composition. It is meant to break up a long composition into sizeable chunks and to enable a logical flow. It varies in length according to the requirements of its content and may be as short as just two sentences at the beginning or a end of a letter. A paragraph has five elements: a topic sentence, expanding sentences, a concluding sentence, coherence and unity. 8.5 Keywords/Abbreviations Adapting: Changing the text to make it suitable for the purpose and the audience. Draft: A preliminary version of a piece of writing; it is revised and edited to make the final version. RENNS: Stands for reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses; these are used for writing the expansion sentences of the paragraph. Coherence: Means systematic logical connection and consistency among its sentences and ideas. Transition words: Words and/or phrases used to link words, phrases or sentences. They help the reader to progress from one idea to the next idea. Thus, they help to build up coherent relationships within the text. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
138 English Language and Lab 8.6 Learning Activity 1. Work out the pre-writing process for the following documents and write down your notes. (a) Tristar Electronics have asked you to supply goods worth ` 1,000,000/- on credit. Enquiries show that they have a limited working capital and are probably trying to expand too rapidly. Their credit seems to be good up to ` 5,00,000/-. Draft a suitable reply, persuading them to buy in smaller lots. (b) An important regular guest of your hotel has taken his annual conference to another hotel this year. Enquiries with your staff reveal that one of your new employees had been rude to him on his last visit to your hotel. As Guest Relations Manager of the hotel, write to the customer, trying to win back his goodwill. (c) You placed an urgent order for office stationery, and the supplier promised to deliver the goods in 24 hours. They have not been delivered even two days later. Draft a letter to be faxed to the supplier. (d) There have been constant complaints from your customers about late delivery of goods and shortage in the goods supplied. As Head of the dispatch section, you have been asked to look into the matter and report with recommendation. Draft your report. (e) There has been remarkable decline in the sale of sports goods manufactured by a company. The Marketing Manager has been asked to report with recommendations for stopping the decline. Prepare the report. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Write one of the documents described in Activity 1 above, writing fast and taking the shortest time possible. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 139 3. Working in groups, revise one another’s drafts for logic and flow. Proofread one another’s drafts. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4. Evaluate and select the best draft for discussion. Edit, rewrite and revise it again, and make a printout of the final version. Submit your final version to another group for evaluation and feedback. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8.7 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of following the process of writing? 2. Complete the paragraph for each of the following topics/sentences: (a) Noise pollution is becoming a serious threat to the health of urban populations. (b) Very few of us really know how to listen. (c) There is a great deal that teachers can learn from students. (d) Should a course in ethics be a mandatory part of all college curricula? (e) Success in a career depends a great deal on personal relationships. 3. Write a short composition on each of the following topics: (a) Should all college courses be specifically related to a future occupation? (b) In spite of advances in scientific knowledge, people are still superstitious. (c) Anger is seldom beneficial. (d) Self-discipline is the most important ingredient for success. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
140 English Language and Lab (e) The traditional role of fathers is changing. (f) What motivates people to offer assistance to others through volunteer work? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Proofreading is to be done ___________. (a) Immediately after making the first draft (b) After all the revising and editing is completed (c) Only for handwritten drafts (d) As soon as the first revision is completed 2. At the revision stage, it is___________. (a) Necessary to work alone (b) Important to have an experienced person’s help (c) Useful to work fast (d) A waste of time to use a dictionary 3. The process of writing ___________. (a) Is divided clearly into separate, sequential tasks (b) Facilitates the task of writing (c) Shows that writing cannot be learnt (d) Can only be followed by creative persons 4. Asking yourself a series of questions at different stages of the writing process ___________. (a) Adds to too much work (b) Wastes a lot of time (c) Draws attention to the varied aspects of the task (d) None of the above CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Process of Writing 141 5. Analysing the task of writing involves analysing ___________. (a) Audience for whom the writing is done (b) Purpose of writing (c) Situation that creates the need to write (d) All of the above 6. A topic sentence should ___________. (a) Indicate what the paragraph is about (b) Give an example to expand the title of the composition (c) Explain the topic (d) Be underlined 7. The concluding sentence of a paragraph ___________. (a) Is a re-wording of the opening sentence (b) Raises a new aspect of the topic (c) Takes into account what is discussed in the paragraph (d) None of the above Answers 1. (b), 2. (b), 3. (b), 4. (c), 5. (d), 6. (a), 7. (c). 8.9 References Websites: 1. https://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Paragraph 2. https://www.uvu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/writing_process/basicparagraph format.pdf 3. http://writing.ku.edu/writing-process 4. https://www.grammarly.com/blog/writing-process/ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
142 English Language and Lab UNIT 9 ESSAY WRITING – PARAPHRASING AND PRÉCIS WRITING Structure: 9.0 Learning Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Essay Writing 9.2.1 Types of Essay 9.2.1.1 Descriptive Essay 9.2.1.2 Narrative Essay 9.2.1.3 Expository Essay 9.2.1.4 Argumentative Essay 9.3 Paraphrasing 9.4 Précis Writing 9.4.1 Uses of Summarising Skills 9.4.2 Guidelines for Summarising a Passage 9.5 Summary 9.6 Keywords/Abbreviations 9.7 Learning Activity 9.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 9.9 References CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Essay Writing – Paraphrasing and Précis Writing 143 9.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: Learn to write long composition like essay Simplify and explicate a piece of writing Summarise a passage of about 600 words 9.1 Introduction This unit examines the practical use of the process of writing. It is necessary to follow a routine method for the task of writing whether it is a personal essay or a short business letter or a long report. The essay which is personal writing on a given or a self-chosen topic is highly variable in length from three to four paragraphs to several pages. Paraphrasing is the exercise of simplifying, explicating and rewriting a text in your own words. It is not final piece of writing for an audience. It is an exercise that precedes the task of precis writing or studying a topic. It is often a classroom exercise in schools to ensure that students learn to read, understand and reproduce a piece of writing in their own words. It is also an examination question in schools along with comprehension. Precis writing is the skill of condensing and shortening a piece of writing without changing the meaning of the original, and without commenting on the views expressed. It has many uses in the world of work and business. 9.2 Essay Writing An essay is a long composition written from personal experience, usually for the purpose of expressing oneself or for sharing some thoughts; it might also intend to present an argument or to tell an interesting experience, or to give information about something that the writer knows very well. Besides being a school and college examination exercise, it is included in high level competitive examinations as it gives the writer full scope to express views on a topic and to CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
144 English Language and Lab demonstrate writing skills of a large variety. While an essay is also a literary product, it is also used for writing a serious composition. The final assignment of the semester course is often an argumentative essay that requires much research and organised writing of five to ten pages. 9.2.1 Types of Essays There are essays of different types such as Descriptive, Narrative, Expository, Argumentative and so on. Although there may be some overlap between the different kinds, it is easy to classify the essays from the main flow of the text and the tone of the writing. Each type requires a different kind of writing skill and it is useful to find out your own skill as early as possible so that you can focus on improving your personal style. Essay questions usually offer a choice of different type of topics. 9.2.1.1 Descriptive Essay A descriptive essay contains a description of something — object, person, place, experience, emotion, situation, etc. It is a written account of a particular experience. It may begin with a visit to a place, a journey, a travelling experience, a meeting with an unusual person, seeing a striking sight, tasting a new dish, or hearing strange unfamiliar sounds. Since it is the writer’s own experience, it may be written in first person, using “I” as the narrator. A large vocabulary, ability to use synonyms and write a variety of sentence structures is an asset in writing a descriptive essay. The style and tone should reflect the emotion and attitude of the writer. It may include memories that are called up by a sight or by the behaviour and manner of a person, or by the taste of a dish. There must be a strong appeal to at least one of the senses to recreate in the reader’s mind, the feel and sensation that the writer had felt on the experience. Here are some guidelines for writing a descriptive essay. Take time to think over the topic. If you have to describe your favourite dish, write down some ideas before you begin describing it. For example, if you have to describe a pizza, begin by writing down some related words such as sauce, melted cheese, crust, capsicum, mushroom, oregano, spices, hot, crunchy and so on. Once you have written down some words, you can begin by putting together descriptive sentences for each one. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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