MAe605 English language

Vocabulary 295 language group is, the more words the language acquires. Languages that are used by many countries and for more purposes grow faster. A much-used language grows rich in words. It develops more words for the shades of meaning of an idea and for more complicated ideas. Thus, there are synonyms, antonyms and homonyms in most languages. Also, there are phrases, idioms and such other terms consisting of a group of words grow in many languages. We have to acquire the needed words of any language that we intend to use. We gradually learn to use more words, phrases and terms as we get more exposed to the language. 13.2.1 Synonyms A synonym is a word or phrase that has the same (or nearly the same) meaning as another word or phrase. When words or phrases have the same meaning, we say that they are synonymous. Synonyms are a regular and essential part of any language that we use every day. There are synonyms in all parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and so on. Synonyms are so important that there is a whole dictionary of synonyms called Roget’s Thesaurus. Ability to use synonyms gives richness to whatever you write. You can look up thesaurus.com online to find a different word instead of repeating the same word too many times in your writing. We can improve our written and spoken (active) vocabulary by conscious effort to move words from passive to active vocabulary. But, use caution: if we try to do this too rapidly and hastily, we run the risk of writing in an artificial or pompous style with inappropriately used words. All synonyms cannot be used in the same context. Note these words for size: big, large, huge, massive, vast, enormous, humungous, great, immense, terrific, monstrous, colossal, awe-inspiring, whopping, driven through the roof Can they all be used as substitutes? We may say, ‘a massive heart attack’, but how about ‘a whopping heart attack’? ‘Whopping’ is not a word suitable for describing something so serious as a heart attack that leads to death; it does not sound serious, it sounds somewhat light-hearted. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

296 English Language and Lab Nevertheless, knowledge of many words to express an idea is valuable for writing in a rich style. Repetition of the same or similar word can be avoided provided the words are selected with care. Which of these is your favourite? Carefully change your word the next time you write. Substantial, large, major, sizeable, extensive, considerable, significant, noteworthy, remarkable. Increase, growth, rise, upsurge, gain, expansion, escalation, enlargement, augmentation, development. Vicinity, neighbourhood, surroundings, environs, locality, district, area. Potential, possible, probable, budding, impending, prospective, likely, would-be, promising, emerging. An effective way to improve your vocabulary is to use five new words every day. Writing sentences relevant to your environment and work with newly learnt words helps to make the words a part of your active vocabulary. But mere knowledge of words is not enough. We need the ability to use the words correctly, grammatically and idiomatically, and appropriately in the right context. Writing involves knowing the correct spelling, the correct meaning and the proper usage of a word. English is a double language with two sets of words. Words in one set are short, simple, more commonly used every day, and therefore, easily understood. Words in the second set are longer, less commonly used and may not be so easily understood. But they give style and flair to writing. For business writing, it is common to use short, simple words from the first set. Words from the second set are used for fine, subtle effects. As you increase your vocabulary, you learn more words of the second set. Short Long Begin Commence Bitter Acrimonious CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 297 Friendly Amicable Height Altitude Quicken Accelerate Send Dispatch Shorten Abbreviate Think Consider Find another word or phrase for each of the following words: adjacent escalate proactive aggressively huge proportions allocated impact remote appreciation increasingly replace bogus initial requisite comprise milestone saturated contention observe significantly create operations slated earmarked predominant surrounding 13.2.2 Antonyms An antonym is a word that expresses a meaning opposite of the meaning of another word, in which case the two words are antonyms of each other; for example, tall is the antonym of short. Antonyms exist mostly for adjectives and for adverbs, but less often for nouns, i.e., you can find a quality opposite of almost any quality such as good/bad, rich/poor, fast/slow, rapidly/ slowly, begin/end, arrive/depart, etc. But there is no such thing as an opposite or antonym of sandwich, submarine, pencil, etc. Hence, there are fewer antonyms than synonyms. There are several types of antonyms. Gradable antonyms are word pairs that have a ‘more-less’ relationship. They are at the opposite ends of ONE continuum, and could merge at the centre. For example, beautiful – ugly fat – thin CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

298 English Language and Lab big – small fast – slow hot – cold healthy – sick shallow – deep These word pairs do not have an either-or relationship, but a more-less relation. Converse (Relational) Antonyms cannot exist without the other. Each word is the natural and absolute opposite of the other in the pair. dead – alive hello – goodbye true – false male – female parent – child on – off open – shut Antonyms can also be created by adding a prefix to the same word root: mis dis dys mal in un CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 299 The following are all prefixes one can affix to words to create antonyms: philanthropist – misanthropist trust – mistrust interest – disinterest adapted – maladapted sufficient – insufficient decisive – indecisive But note that there are different negative prefixes and, for some words, they can create different meanings; for example, misuse, disuse and abuse mean different things. The study of Antonyms is a useful way to learn new words. Learning a new word can be made easier and more interesting if you also learn its opposite. 13.2.3 Homonyms A homonym is a word that is pronounced and/or spelled the same way as another word but has a different meaning. “Write” and “right,” “Peace” and “piece”, etc. are common examples of pairs of homonyms. Pairs of words spelled differently but pronounced the same (or very similar) are called homophones (sound the same). Pairs of words spelled the same but pronounced differently are called homographs (look the same). The following are homonyms that sound the same (or very similar) but are spelled differently. They are homophones (same sound). accede, exceed incidence, incidents accept; except later; latter access, excess lose; loose adapt; adept, personal; personnel affect, effect principal; principle ascent; assent sell; sale career; carrier sight; site; cite CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

300 English Language and Lab check; cheque special; spatial complement; compliment stationary; stationery councillor; counsellor weather; whether formally; formerly The following are homonyms that look the same (have same spelling) but are pronounced differently; they are homographs (same appearance). Lead (verb meaning to conduct); lead [pronounced like led] = a heavy metal Minute (1/60th of an hour); minute [pronounced like mine-yoot] = very tiny Present = opposite of absent; present [with stress on -sent] = to gift Tear = shred; tear [pronounced like fear] = drop of water from the eyes Wind= draft of air; wind [pronounced like kind] = move in a curving path Words Often Confused The following are the pairs of words often confused because of their similarity. They are neither pronounced nor spelt the same, but are different words that arise from a common root, and may have related meaning. alternately; alternatively instalment; installation beside; besides momentary; momentous committee; commission personal; personnel considerable; considerate practical; practicable continual; continuous precede; proceed credible; creditable prior; primary defective; deficient prosecute; persecute depreciate; deprecate respectable; respectful; respective eligible; illegible runway; runaway eminent; imminent systematic; systemic honourable; honorary technique; technology industrial; industrious verbal; verbatim; verbose CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 301 Some words have the same spelling as well as the same pronunciation (i.e., they are both homophones and homographs), but have multiple meanings which may be completely unrelated to one another. Examples of such words are: Charge Crown Ring Spring Stall These can be very confusing; you have to depend on contextual meaning to understand what the word means. See the following link for a very interesting article on homonyms. https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/homonyms.htm 13.2.4 Collocations Collocation refers to a group of two or more words that usually go together. A good way to think of collocation is to look at the word collocation. Co means together and location means place. Collocations are words that are located together. So, what is collocation? Collocation is a group of two or more words that like to ‘hang out together’. Here are some examples of common collocations: Commit a crime, make a mistake, distant memory, break a record, bunch of flowers, fast food a surge of sympathy. It would not sound all right to say ‘make a crime’, ‘do a mistake’, ‘remote memory’, ‘knock a record’, ‘pack of flowers’ or ‘quick food’. These words do not sound right together, i.e., they do not collocate with each other. Collocations grow by custom; ‘fast food’ has developed only in the last few years. Collocations may be made by combining words in several ways such as adjective with noun, adverb with verb, adverb with adjective, verb with noun, etc. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

302 English Language and Lab You will find a large number of examples by making a Google search and referring to the websites listed at the end of this unit. 13.2.5 Contextual Usage https://affairscloud.com/contextual-usage-words-new-pattern-set-1/ Contextual means ‘depending on the context of information, or surrounding words, phrases, and paragraphs, of the writing.’ Words that are both homophones as well as homographs (same sound, same spelling), but have multiple meanings that are completely unrelated to one another can only be understood from the context. Recall the words Charge, Ring, Spring, Stall, etc. In such cases, we can depend on the context to figure out the meaning. We consider the situation and circumstances in which the word is used and make an educated guess as to the meaning of the word. If you come across a word that you do not know, in an examination paper or while doing some work-related reading, and you are not able to get a dictionary, you can determine the meaning of the word by using context. There are several ways of using the context to figure out what a word means. One way is to see if the definition of the word is in the text itself; there may be a restatement of the same thing in different words, for example, ‘While planning the programme, Kavita was prudent with the expenses; she planned the menu and décor with great caution and care so that she did not have to buy expensive things.’ Obviously, ‘prudent’ means acting with care and caution. Sometimes, you may find example or illustration that indicates the meaning of a word. Read the sentence: ‘Nishant had an important assignment to submit on Monday, but he procrastinated all week, doing other unimportant work and attending needless meetings.’ We can see that doing something else of less importance, and avoiding doing what is urgent is described as procrastinating. If Nishant should have been doing his assignment but he was doing other things instead, then ‘procrastinate’ must mean delaying or putting off. The context helps us to figure out the meaning. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 303 Here are some examples of questions to test your ability to figure out meaning of a word from contextual usage. 1. Detention: The fifteen persons arrested were still in police detention; they were not allowed to go home. (a) desolation (b) destitution (c) restraint (d) computation 2. Obsolete: This remarkable aircraft will render all other fighters obsolete. (a) privileged (b) outdated (c) scattered (d) separated 3. Overhaul: The steering box was recently overhauled. (a) serviced (b) started (c) objurgated (d) censured 13.3 Parts of Speech There are eight traditional parts of speech. 1. Noun Nouns are words used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas or events. Nouns are the simplest of the eight parts of speech. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

304 English Language and Lab Examples: Preity Zinta is very versatile. Cats are very cute. When is your birthday? India is a democracy. There are several kinds of nouns: Proper noun refers to a specific name of a person, place or thing and always begins with a capital letter. (Examples: Vishnu, Rameshwar, Himalayas, Sutlej, Volkswagen, Domino’s Pizza, etc.) Common nouns are generic names of things, places, persons, animals, etc. (Examples: Car, pizza parlour, rose, cat, child, town, river, etc.) Concrete nouns which you can perceive through your five senses. (Examples: Folder, sand, board, etc.) Abstract nouns name qualities that are not felt through the senses. (Examples: Happiness, bravery, anger, beauty, democracy, etc.) Collective noun refers to a group of persons, animals or things. (Examples: Faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), flock (group of birds), etc.) Countable nouns refer to anything that is countable, and have singular and plural form. (Examples: Crow, chair, coin, bottle, etc.) Material nouns are words for basic material, not an article. These nouns are always in the singular as material is not countable. (Examples: Iron, plastic, steel, gold, wood, flour, cash, etc.) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

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306 English Language and Lab They are always prepared in emergencies. Verbs of action are run, talk, stand, write, clean, eat and so on. 5. Adverb Adverbs are used to describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. The different types of adverbs are: Adverb of Manner: This describes how something happens or how an action is done. (Example: Annie danced gracefully.) Adverb of Time: This “when” something happens or “when” it is done. (Example: She came yesterday.) Adverb of Place: Tells us “where” something happens or “where” something is done. (Example: Of course, I looked everywhere.) Adverb of Degree: This states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing happens or is done. (Example: The child is very talented.) 6. Preposition A preposition is a word that specifies location in place or location in time. Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near and since Sample Sentences: Examples: Mira is hiding under the bed. During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team. The books are on the table. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

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308 English Language and Lab Examples:
I am fond of mangoes.
You are tall.
He/she/it is young. The verb to be also has two past tense forms, singular and plural (was, were). Examples:
I/he/she/it/was fond of walking in the forest.
We/you/they were hungry. For all other verbs, just add ‘s’ for third person singular, e.g., likes, writes, runs, reads, etc. However, there can be a problem of subject-verb agreement when the subject of a sentence is complicated, and it is not easy to see whether it is singular or plural. The following are singular: (i) Two nouns joined by ‘and’ refer to the same person: Examples: The producer and director of this film is dead. (ii) Two nouns that commonly make a pair and are joined by ‘and’: Examples: Bread and eggs makes a good breakfast. (iii) Two or more singular subjects joined by ‘or, nor’: Examples:
Neither Jatin nor Beena was there.
Either Abhay or Neesha comes in the morning. (iv) When a quantity is expressed in units, but is considered as one quantity: Examples:
Ninety kilometres is a long distance to cycle.
Forty litres is a large quantity. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 309 (v) Plural nouns joined to a singular subject by phrases ‘with, together with, as well as, in addition to, along with’: Examples:
The driver, together with all the passengers, was injured.
Akshay, as well as Neela and Rahul, likes hot food. (vi) The subject beginning with the phrase ‘each of ---, one of ---, every ---’ is singular: Examples:
Each of these fruits is ripe.
One of the boys is sick.
Every man, woman and child is entitled to health care. (vii) Names of some study subjects, some diseases and some nouns ending in –s are singular: Examples:
Economics is my favourite subject.
This news is bad.
Mumps is a serious disease for adults. (viii) Collective and Class nouns are singular; note that these types of nouns are never plural. Examples:
The furniture is all teak wood.
The flock privilege of flamingos has flown away.
The machinery in this factory is getting old.
Good office stationery makes a good impression.
Formal etiquette is important at the workplace. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

310 English Language and Lab The following are plural: (i) Two or more nouns joined by and take plural verb. Examples:
Rustum and Sohrab were Persian heroes.
Lightning and thunder accompany a storm. (ii) Some collective nouns such as committee, jury, etc. takes a plural verb when the reference is to its individual members: Example:
The jury are divided on this issue. (iii) When two nouns joined by or, nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the one nearest to it. Examples:
Neither you nor he is at fault.
Either you or I am mistaken. (iii) The phrases: a lot of, a great deal of, most of, some of, plenty of, are plural when they refer to number but singular when they refer to quantity or amount. Examples:
A lot of food is left. (quantity)
Most of the guests like cold coffee. (number) (iv) A ‘double’ article like scissors, trousers, socks, takes a plural verb; but if the phrase ‘a pair of’ is used before the noun, it takes a singular verb. Examples:
These glasses (binoculars) are mine.
(but) This pair of glasses (binoculars) is mine. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 311 (v) A number of (people) is plural, but the number of (people) is singular. Examples:
A number of patients are waiting outside.
The number of patients waiting outside is large. (vi) If several words, including other nouns, separate the verb from the subject, be careful to identify which is the subject. Examples:
The camera which you gave my children is working perfectly.
All the old toys kept on the table near the window are to be given away. When the subject of a sentence is a complex noun phrase, it can be hard to ensure that the verb is in the correct form. The verb has to agree in number and gender with the head noun in the noun phrase. The toys are to be given away, not the window or the table. 13.5 Summary Vocabulary is the stock of words a person knows. One’s passive vocabulary is always larger than one’s active vocabulary. Vocabulary grows as you read and learn more. You can also make conscious effort to learn words by carefully using new words in your daily work. Synonyms are different words for the same meaning; antonyms are words opposite in meaning to the given words. Homonyms are same- or similar-sounding words with different meaning. Homophones are same sound, homographs are same spelling. Although all languages have a stock of such confusing words that sound and/or look similar, we have to carefully learn the differences with words that we have to use in our daily work and activities. Improvement of one’s vocabulary is also helped by knowledge of customary word combinations called collocations, and by skill in figuring out the meaning of a word from the context in which it is used. In learning and using new words, it is important to know spelling and some rules related to word formation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

312 English Language and Lab Words are also classified into eight parts of speech. Knowledge of the classification helps in learning grammar and sentence formation. One class of words used together with other classes of words have to follow some rules of agreement. Subject-verb agreement rules form a good introduction to such agreement rules. 13.6 Keywords/Abbreviations
Synonym: A word meaning the same as a given word; it may have different tone, connotation and suggestion.
Antonym: A word opposite in meaning to the given word.
Homonym: A word that sounds the same or (almost the same) as a given word.
Homophones: Two or more words with the same sound but different spelling.
Homographs: Two or more words with the same spelling that may or may not have the same pronunciation but have different meanings.
Collocation: A customary combination of words.
Contextual: Depending, for meaning, on the words, and content around the word.
Conjunction: One of the eight parts of speech; its function is to join words, phrases, clauses and/or sentences. 13.7 Learning Activity 1. Working in pairs, say, spell out, and explain the meaning of a word that has a homophone [similar sounding word]; your partner must give the other word, spell it and explain its meaning; for example: if you say poll, your partner may say pole. Work out at least three pairs of words. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 313 2. One person in a group gives a word: each of the other members will write down as many synonyms as possible. The one who has the largest number of [correct] synonyms gives the next word. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Working at a pace that suits you best, pick out every day, any five words [or at least three words] from this unit, with which you are not familiar. Learn each word thoroughly, finding synonyms, antonyms, homophones, homographs and whatever other features it has. Try to use your three [or five] new words in speaking or writing as soon as you can. This activity can be done in a group. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. What effort would you make to enlarge your vocabulary? Answer with reference to each of the groupings of vocabulary you have read about. 2. Write a note on Nouns as a part of speech. Include all information that you have gathered so far. 3. Write a paragraph of about 100 words on “Advantages of Having a Rich Vocabulary.” 4. Write a short paragraph on “The Vagaries of English Spelling.” 5. Write a detailed note on Homonyms. B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Homophones are words that ___________. (a) are spelt the same (b) have the same meaning (c) are opposite to each other in meaning (d) have the same sound CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

314 English Language and Lab 2. Collocation is ___________. (a) a compound word (b) a customary, natural-sounding combination of words (c) a phrase in a foreign language (d) an old-fashioned, outdated term 3. Of the following, the correctly spelt word is ___________. (a) recommendation (b) privilege (c) convineince (d) proprietory 4. The function of a conjunction in a sentence is to ___________. (a) tell what action occurred (b) indicate the size of something (c) join two phrases (d) qualify the adjective 5. Read the sentence: “The tournament had to be stopped as one of the ___________ seriously injured. The correct phrase to fill in the blank is___________. (a) player was (b) players were (c) players was (d) player were 6. All the following are synonyms for brilliant, except ___________. (a) charismatic (b) scintillating (c) radiant (d) luminous Answers 1. (d), 2. (b), 3. (a), 4. (c), 5. (c), 6. (a). 13.9 References Book: 1. Norman Lewis, “Word Power Made Easy”, Mass Market Paperback. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Vocabulary 315 Websites: 1. https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-correspondence-and-reporting/vocabulary/ collocations/ 2. https://digitalielts.com/blog/expand-your-vocabulary-with-collocations 3. http://howtospell-letterpatterns.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Spelling-Rules- Workbook.pdf 4. www.english-grammar-revolution.com/pacrts-of-speech.html 5. https://www.grammarbook.com/grammar/subjectVerbAgree.asp CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

316 English Language and Lab UNIT 14 SENTENCES Structure: 14.0 Learning Objectives 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Verbs and Tenses 14.3 Transformation of Sentences 14.3.1 Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-complex Sentences 14.3.2 Active and Passive Voice 14.3.3 Assertive, Affirmative, Negative and Interrogative 14.4 Common Errors and Correction of Sentences 14.5 Summary 14.6 Keywords/Abbreviations 14.7 Learning Activity 14.8 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 14.9 References 14.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: z Understand the uses of tenses z Develop ability to write different types of sentences CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 317 z Learn how to transform sentences from one type to another z Understand how tone and impact are varied by using different sentence types 14.1 Introduction There are several types of sentences in English. The types of sentences vary in structure and length, and help to vary the tone and style of a piece of writing. Each type also has a different impact on the reader. Once you know the different types of sentence structures, you can choose the most suitable type of sentences for the expression of your idea. The four basic types of sentences are: statement ending in a full-stop, question ending with a question mark, command ending with a full-stop and exclamation ending with an exclamation mark. There are also four sentence structures. Short sentences can be combined into longer sentences in different ways so that the writing is more fluid. The verb is the most important part of a sentence. Before attempting to transform sentences into a different structure, it is necessary to be able to handle the verbs and their tenses and different forms. 14.2 Verbs and Tenses In English, there are grammatical forms for the past and the present tenses. There is no grammatical form for the future tense. The future can be indicated in several ways. Present Tense He/she/it lives She/he/it is living Simple: You/they/we are living z I/you/we/they live Progressive: z I am living CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

318 English Language and Lab Simple Present Tense The simple present tense is used to express: (a) What is always true. Example: The sun rises in the east. (b) Planned activities as on schedule or timetables. Examples: z My uncle arrives tomorrow. z The film starts at 6 oʹclock. (c) What happens regularly as a habit or custom. Examples: z I go to my office by bus. z The shop closes at 9.00 p.m. When the simple present describes a habitual or frequent action, the following adverbs are used with it. usually, occasionally, generally, sometimes, often, frequently, always, rarely, hardly. Progressive Present Tense The progressive present tense is used to speak of a specific activity which is going on at the time of speaking. Example: The Manager is looking over the report. Verbs which describe condition or state are never used in the progressive. know, understand, believe, realise, think (hold an opinion), have (be in possession). These verbs do not represent a progress; you either know something/someone or you don’t; there is no process. We do not say: ‘I am not knowing…’ [Note that to think can be used in the progressive form when it represents the process of thinking or means to plan and to have can be used in the progressive when it means to eat.] CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 319 Examples: z I am thinking of going for a European tour this summer. z They were having dinner when I arrived at their house. Past Tense You/we/they were living Simple: Example: I/you/he/we/they lived Progressive: Example: I/he was living Simple Past Tense The simple past tense is used to speak of: (a) An action completed in the past (with a past time phrase). Example: I got up at 7 oʹclock this morning. (b) Something that was habitual, customary in the past (with a past time phrase). Examples: z In those days, I got up at 4.00 a.m. z The accounts manager looked over the statements every evening. Progressive Past Tense The progressive past tense is used. Examples: (a) To speak of an action that was going on in the past. z We were playing tennis when he came. z I was writing my accounts last evening (may or may not have completed it). CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

320 English Language and Lab Future Tense There is no grammatical form of the verb for the future tense in English. The future is formed with the modal verbs shall and will. Simple Future: Example: Shall/will write Progressive Future: Example: Shall/will be writing Simple Future Tense In using the future tense, it is important to understand the difference between shall and will. I/we shall and you/he/they will represent the future in time. Examples: z I shall be twenty-five next October. z We shall be old by the time this bridge is completed. z My father will be sixty next month. z You will reach home at 8 oʹclock if you leave now. I/we will and you/he/they shall represent the speaker’s authoritative will and intention. Examples: z I will see to it that the report is completed this week. z You shall report at 8.00 a.m. tomorrow. z He shall be kept in custody for a week. z Each party shall give one month’s notice. The future can also be indicated by the simple present and the progressive present tenses, with a future time phrase. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 321 Examples: z The manager leaves for New York tomorrow. z The manager is leaving for New York tomorrow. The future can also be expressed by using going to with the simple form of the verb. Example: The Manager is going to leave for New York tomorrow. The progressive future tense is used to speak of an action that will be in progress in the future. Examples: z I will be attending a music programme this evening. z He will be travelling in Europe during the next two weeks. Perfect Tense The perfect tenses are formed by putting the auxiliary has, have (present) and had (past) before the past participle of the verb. Present Perfect: He/she/it has taken Example: I/you/we/they have taken Past Perfect: Example: I/you/he/we/they had taken The perfect tenses are used to speak of an action that took place in the past and is connected with the present. Present Perfect Tense The present perfect tense is used when: (a) The situation described still exists. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

322 English Language and Lab Examples: z I have known him for the last five years (still know him). z They have lived here since 1998 (still live here). z You have always worked well. (b) An activity was completed within a period from a point of time in the past up to the present. Examples: z He has been a teacher, a journalist, a writer, and now he is a publisher. z There have been several setbacks in this project (since the project started; it is still going on). (c) The result of an action completed in the past still remains in the present. Examples: z You have broken your shoe (so you can’t use it now). z I have read that book (and still remember it). (d) The action is past, but its evidence is in the present. Examples: z Someone has been here in my absence (I can see the evidence of it). z Someone has dropped some glasses (I heard a crash). z It has rained at night (the ground is still wet). Note that in a present perfect sentence, we do not use any adverb of time related to the past. If a definite time in the past is mentioned, it is cut off from the present, and we use the simple past. Examples: z I have seen that film (no time phrase). z I saw that film last week (definite time in the past). The present perfect can be used with the adverbs: just, already and yet. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 323 Examples: z I have just finished writing out my presentation script. z They have already arrived. z You have not given me the book yet. z Have they arrived yet? Past Perfect Tense This tense is generally used in: (a) A sentence which speaks of two sequential actions in the past. The action that was completed earlier is in the past perfect tense. Examples: z She had left when I arrived (had left earlier). z I tried to catch up with him, but he had gone long before. (b) A series of sentences where the most recent action has been mentioned in the past, and further sentences describe earlier actions: Example: z The house was quite dirty. They had not cleaned it for many weeks. It had been used by a group of tourists earlier. Future Perfect Tense Form: ‘will have done’ Future perfect tense is used for speaking of something that will already be complete in the future. Examples: z My paper will have finished by 3 oʹclock; I can go with you at 3.30. z She will not be at home at 9.30; she will have gone to college. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

324 English Language and Lab Perfect Progressive Tense (i) Perfect tenses are formed with a form of ‘to have’ before the past participle of a verb. (ii) Progressive tenses are made with a form of ‘to be’ before the present participle of a verb. (iii) The perfect progressive is formed with the perfect form of ‘to be’ before the present participle of the verb. z Has/have been reading (present) z Had been reading (past) Present Perfect Progressive Tense Present perfect progressive is used for describing an action going on (in progress) from a point of time in the past till the present time. Examples: z What have you been doing? z He has been learning English z It has been raining heavily. Past Perfect Progressive Tense This is the past of the present perfect progressive. In reported speech, present perfect progressive of the actual words becomes past perfect progressive: Example: It has been raining all week. is reported later as: Example: He told us that it had been raining all week. The past perfect progressive tense is used to speak of something that had been in progress for a period of time before something else happened. Example: We had been playing for half an hour when it began to rain. Compare ‘had been doing’ with ‘was doing’: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 325 Examples: z Anya was sitting in an armchair watching TV. She was tired because she had been working hard. z The sun was shining when we went out; but the ground was wet because it had been raining. Future Perfect Progressive Tense Form: ‘will have been doing’ The future perfect progressive tense is used to speak of an action that will have completed a progress at a future time. Examples: z By tomorrow, it will have been raining for 6 days. z By next year, I will have been teaching here for 20 years. Note the time phrases at the beginning and at the end of the sentence. Conditional Sentences Tenses in Conditional Sentences There are three types of condition: 1. Possible and very likely. 2. Possible but unlikely. 3. Impossible now because it refers to the past. Conditional sentences always have an if-clause to indicate the condition. The if-clause is followed by a comma when it is at the beginning of the sentence. The if-clauses can also be put at the end of the sentence instead of at the beginning. No comma is required when it is at the end. 1. Possible and likely Structure: If-clause in the present tense, + Subject + will/shall/can/may + Verb CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

326 English Language and Lab Examples: z If it rains, the match will be cancelled. z If you study hard, you can pass the examination. z If we get the information, we shall let you know. z If he works well, they may give him a permanent job. 2. Possible but very unlikely Structure: If-clause in past tense, + Subject + would/should/could/might + Verb Examples: z If you stayed at home, you would meet him. z If you studied hard, you could pass the examination. 3. Impossible now, as it refers to the past Structure: If-clause in past perfect tense, + Subject + would/should/could/might + have + Verb Examples: z If he had gone for the interview, he might have been selected for the job. z If he had prepared for the examination, he could have passed. z If it had rained, the match would have been cancelled. For imaginary conditions, we use the verb were for all persons. Structure: If clause with were, + Subject + would/should/could + Verb Examples: z If I were a millionaire, I would give generous donations to orphanages. z If she were you, she would be so happy. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 327 14.3 Transformation of Sentences There are four basic structures of sentences: Simple, Compound, Complex and Complex- compound. Most sentences can be transformed to a different form of sentence without changing the meaning, although there would be a change in the tone, emphasis and impact on the reader. Most types can also be combined to make a longer sentence, and to change the emphasis. Besides, the verb in the sentence may be in active voice form or in passive voice form; transformation will change the emphasis. Then, there are sentences with the verb in the negative and sentences that ask a question (interrogative). Skill in changing the structure of a sentence enables the writer to convey finer nuances of meaning, and also shift the emphasis from one idea to another. 14.3.1 Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-complex Sentences Simple Sentence: Simple sentence has one independent clause. It expresses a complete thought, which includes a subject and only one finite verb. Examples: z The committee held three meetings. z The bridge has collapsed! z Did you follow the instruction manual? z Take a right turn at the traffic signal Compound Sentence: Compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses. Independent clauses are joined by linking words, called conjunctions and the appropriate punctuation. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction which shows the relation between the joined clauses. The seven coordinating conjunctions are: and, but, for, or, nor, yet and so. Examples: z At least a thousand customers visit the coffee shop daily and stay for about an hour. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

328 English Language and Lab z Skilled manpower is easily available but is not cheap. z Go to the site for a personal inspection or ask for a detailed report. Compound sentences can convey coordinate ideas that imply progression, balance, comparison or contrast. The sentences can be joined only if there is coordination. There is obvious coordination in the sentences given above, but the following sentence has none, and therefore does not make sense. A hundred customers visit the coffee shop daily and two buses collided. Complex Sentence: Complex sentence contains one main or independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. One or more ideas are subordinated to one main idea contained in the principal, independent clause. The subordinate clauses are joined to the independent clause by subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, in order that, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, where, while, however and whereas. Note that some of the subordinating conjunctions are phrases. Example: Labour is not cheap, although skilled manpower is easily available. Complex sentences allow scope for expression of fine, subtle and complicated ideas but are difficult to handle. For reports and technical writing, it is better to use mostly simple and compound sentences. Compound-complex Sentence: Compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Ability to handle these sentences gives a great deal of variety to your writing. Examples: z I want to watch television, but first, I have to clean up the dishes after we finish eating. z We won the game, but my uniform got muddy because it rained all the time. z The sun is shining through the clouds, so I think that we can go swimming. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 329 14.3.2 Active and Passive Voice English sentences have three basic elements: a subject, a verb and an object. In an active voice sentence, the subject is the “doer” of the action, the verb is the action and the object is the recipient of the action. In an active sentence, the order of the three elements is: subject + verb + object. In a passive voice sentence, the subject is the receiver of the action. For example, consider the following sentences: Tom Jose established this company in 1910. (active) subject verb object This company was established by Tom Jose, in 1910. (passive) Subject verb We use the active verb to express the action of the subject, i.e., what the subject does. Examples: z Mr. Smith established this business in 1994. z It employs three thousand people. We use passive verb to express what happens to the subject. Examples: z This business was established in 1994. z Three thousand people are employed by the business. When we do not know, or do not want to say and who or what does the action, we use passive voice. Examples: z Many of the machines were damaged during the riots. (We do not know who damaged them.) z Are the cash books closed every day? (It5 does not matter who closes them.) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

330 English Language and Lab If we want to identify the doer of the action, we have to use a “by …” phrase. z Many of machines were damaged by the rioters. z Are the cash books closed by the accountant every day? 14.3.2.1 Formation of Passive Voice The passive is formed by using a form of to be + past participle. For example, is/was/are/were/will be/have been + taken/established/parked/seen Here are the passive forms of the present simple: Examples: z Credit terms are given only to large and regular buyers. z Orders can be placed by email. Here are the passive forms of the past simple. Examples: z He was given all the equipment he would need. z New customers were asked to place orders on cash terms. Here is a table showing how to form the passive depending on the tense. Tense Active Passive Simple Present Girish feeds the dog. The dog is fed by Girish. Simple Past Girish fed the dog. The dog was fed by Girish. Present Perfect Girish has fed the dog. The dog has been fed by Girish. Past Perfect Girish had fed the dog. The dog had been fed by Girish. Future (will) Girish will feed the dog. The dog will be fed by Girish. Future (going to) Girish is going to feed the dog later. The dog is going to be fed later by Girish. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 331 14.3.2.2 Transformation from Active to Passive Voice To change an active-voice sentence to passive voice: (i) Consider who or what is performing the action expressed by the verb. (ii) Make that performer of the action the object of a “by ...” phrase. (iii) Consider who or what is acted upon. (iv) Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence. (v) Change the verb to a form of be + past participle (include a “by ...” phrase if needed). If the agent (the performer of the action) is important, the “by …” phrase must be used. Examples: z A cooperative society of doctors runs this hospital. (active) z This hospital is run by a cooperative society of doctors. (passive) Verbs without Passive Voice All verbs cannot be used in passive voice. Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive. Verbs which do not take an object cannot be put into passive voice. These verbs do not have an object. The action was not done to anyone or anything. Examples: z Sneha works hard. z Rohan writes well. z The CEO left yesterday. 14.3.2.3 Transformation Passive Voice to Active Voice To change a passive-voice sentence to active voice: (i) Find the doer of the action in a “by the...” phrase (who/what is performing the action?). (ii) Make that agent the subject of the sentence. (iii) Change the verb as required. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

332 English Language and Lab Transform these sentences into active form. Examples: z We were told by the office assistant to wait here. z These vans are manufactured in India by Maruti Udyog Ltd. z This printer is used by the office everyday. Verbs with Two Objects The verbs in the following sentences have two objects: one answers what? (a holiday, a demonstration, a gift); the other answers whom? (the staff, the Board, the retiring manager). Examples: z The Manager gave the staff a holiday. z The Sales Engineer gave the prospective customer a demonstration of the new machine. z The staff gave the retiring Accountant an expensive gift. z They sent the insurance company all the required documents. Other such verbs are: ask, offer, pay, show, teach, tell. These sentences can be put into passive voice in two ways. Usually, the passive voice sentence begins with the person as the subject. Examples: z The prospective customer was given a demonstration of the new machine by the Sales Engineer. z A demonstration of the new machine was given to the prospective customer by the Sales Engineer. Passive Voice in Progressive Tenses Present continuous: Active: am/is/are (watching) Passive: am/is/are being (watched) CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 333 Past continuous: Active: was/were (watching) Passive: was/were/being (watched) Examples: z The accountants are writing up the accounts. (active) z The accountants were writing up the accounts when I came in. (active) z The account books are being written up. (passive) z The account books were being written up when I came in. (passive) Passive in Perfect Tenses Present perfect: Active: have/has (done/seen/received) Passive: have/has been (done/seen/received) Past perfect: Active: had (done) Passive: had been (done) Examples: z Sheila has/had left the machines running for too long. z The machines have/had been left running for too long Impersonal Passive The impersonal passive voice is used only with certain kinds of verbs which do not involve physical action, such as: believe; think; know; consider; expect; understand; report CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

334 English Language and Lab Example: People believe that XYZ & Sons are deeply in debt. Passive form would be: Example: It is believed that XYZ & Co. are deeply in debt. Or Example: XYZ & Co. are believed to be deeply in debt. This type of sentence structures are used for giving general information or opinion about someone’s business or credit standing without committing yourself and without revealing the source of the information. It protects the source of information and is non-committal. Uses of Active and Passive Voice Active voice is more forceful than passive voice. It draws attention to the doer of the action. Use active voice to talk about pleasant actions that the customer will like. z We give discounts on these items if the order exceeds ` 5,000/-. Use active voice to show that you will take responsibility for something. z We shall dispatch the goods within 24 hours. Passive voice emphasises the action and keeps the doer of the action in the background. Use passive voice for talking about of errors, pointing out or mentioning improper actions, conveying inability or other actions that may be less pleasant to the reader or listener, or anything that is negative and unpleasant. Examples: z The accounts have not been written carefully. z Information about a customer’s credit status cannot be disclosed. z Discount is not given on orders of less than ` 5,000/-. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 335 14.3.3 Assertive, Affirmative, Negative and Interrogative An assertive sentence states a plain fact; it may be a positive or a negative fact. Examples: z It rained this morning. z It did not rain this morning. An affirmative sentence is a plain fact; it is always positive. Example: Ramesh attended the meetings of the committee. A negative sentence negates the statement. Example: Ramesh did not attend the meetings of the committee. An interrogative sentence is a question and ends with a question mark. Example: Did Ramesh attend the meetings of the committee? A negative-interrogative sentence asks a question in a negative way. Example: Didn’t Ramesh attend the meetings of the committee? Interchange of affirmative and negative structures can be done in several ways. In most cases, an antonym of the concerned word needs to be used; in some cases, you can use two negatives to make a positive. Affirmative: I was doubtful whether I could afford the trip. Negative: I was not sure that I could afford the trip. Affirmative: Everybody was present. Negative: Nobody was absent. Affirmative: Everyone cheered. Negative: There was no one who did not cheer. Affirmative: God will heed the prayer of the humble. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

336 English Language and Lab Negative: God will not ignore the prayer of the humble. Negative: No one denies that the PM is an excellent orator. Affirmative: Everyone concedes that the PM is an excellent orator. Interrogative and Assertive Structures Questions may be real (answers are expected) or rhetorical (answers are not expected). When converting real questions to assertive form, use a phrase such as: ‘I want to know’, ‘I would like to know’ or ‘I wonder’. Examples: z Was the meeting well attended? z I wonder if the meeting was well attended. z At what time do the shops close here? z I would like to know at what time the shops close here. z How do you fasten this? z I want to know how to fasten this/Please tell me how to fasten this. When converting rhetorical questions to assertive form, change the affirmative to negative, and the negative to affirmative: Examples: z Do you expect to pass without studying? z You cannot expect to pass without studying. z Is this the way to behave? z This is not the way to behave. z Isn’t Switzerland known for its scenic beauty? z Switzerland is known for its scenic beauty. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 337 z Isn’t virtue its own reward? z Virtue is its own reward. Assertive to Interrogative Statements can be converted to questions either by using a Wh- question word or by using an auxiliary verb. Examples: z It was a great sight. z Wasn’t it a great sight z No one can tolerate this. z Can anyone tolerate this/Who can tolerate this? z There is nothing particularly impressive about this picture. z Is there anything particularly impressive about this picture? z What is particularly impressive about this picture? z No one worships the setting sun. z Who worships the setting sun? z Does anyone worship the setting sun? 14.4 Common Errors and Correction of Sentences There are several kinds of errors that occur when we use a language even if we are quite familiar with it. Some of the common ones are discussed here. Confusion of Similar Phrases/Words Lose/loose and your/you’re Read the sentence carefully: Take care not to loose you’re keys. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

338 English Language and Lab Lose is a verb needed here; it is the present tense of lost. Loose is an adjective meaning the opposite of tight. Your is the possessive pronoun like our. You’re is an abbreviation of you are. Correction: Take care not to lose your keys. Note the sentence: You’re walking slowly. Are your shoes loose? It’s/its and their/there Read these sentences carefully: ‘The dog has lost it’s collar.’ ‘Their is another one in the drawer.’ It’s is an abbreviation of it is. Its is the possessive form of it. Their is the possessive form of they, like your and our; there is used as reference to place like here. Correction: ‘The dog has lost its collar.’ ‘There is another one in the drawer.’ Say and tell You often hear this kind of sentence: Ramesh said me that he was not well. The verb said is followed by the word that and the reported words. Ramesh said that he was not well. (reported) Or it is followed by the actually spoken words in quotation maks Ramesh said, “I’m not feeling well.” (spoken) The verb tell is followed by reference to the person (name or pronoun) to whom the words were spoken. In reported speech, the verb tell is used only when the person spoken to is mentioned. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 339 Correction: Ramesh told me that he was not well. Very/much and little/few You often hear the sentence: There are very less people on the beach today. The phrase very less has two errors: (i) very can be used only with an adjective or adverb in the positive degree; less is the comparative degree of little; hence very is not used before it. (ii) less is used for a quantity, not for countable nouns; the word few is used for countable nouns. Correction: There are very few people on the beach today. Note these sentences; they are correct: There are fewer people on the beach today than yesterday. We spent less time on the beach today than yesterday. No sooner than and Hardly The phrase no sooner is comparative and must be followed by the word than. Read the following sentences carefully: No sooner she arrived home, when the maid rang the doorbell. My father no sooner left when a client called Hardly she got her B.Pharma result than she was offered a job by a top pharmaceutical company. The sentences have three errors: (i) The word sooner in the expression No sooner is a comparative adverb like better in no better. The expression should be followed by than, and not by when. The word Hardly in the third sentence is not a comparative and therefore not followed by than; it is followed by when. (ii) When there are two verbs representing two actions in sequence of time in the past, the earlier action is in past perfect. She arrived home, and my father left, and she got her CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

340 English Language and Lab B.Pharma result are actions which had happened before the other one in the sentences. Hence, they must be in the past perfect, that is, she had arrived home, and my father had left, and she had got. (iii) In this construction with No sooner than, and Hardly coming at the beginning of the sentence, subject and verb are inverted as in a question. Hence, we need to say: had she arrived instead of she had arrived, and had she got instead of she had got. Corrections: No sooner had she arrived home than the maid rang the doorbell. My father had no sooner left than a client called. Hardly had she got her B.Pharma degree when she was offered a job by a top Pharmaceutical company. Confusion of until and as long as Read this carefully: I’ll stay here until you don’t leave. Until is followed by a time phrase that refers to a point of time; as long as requires a time phrase that refers to a period of time. Corrections: I’ll stay here until you leave. I’ll stay here as long as you stay. Misused Terms Using today/yesterday for this/last. When referring to parts or sections of the current day, we use this, not today. When referring to parts of the previous day, we use last, not yesterday. It sounds clumsy to say: CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 341 I completed my project report today morning. He arrived yesterday night. Corrections: I completed my project report this morning. He arrived last night. The phrase one of --- This phrase is misused in three ways as seen in the following sentences: One of my notebook is missing. My one notebook is missing. One of my notebooks are missing. Correction (of all three sentences): One of my notebooks is missing. The expression one of --- requires a plural noun, but a singular verb. It refers to only one among many of the same kind. Examples: z India is one of the fastest developing countries. z Pharmaceuticals is one of the rapidly developing industries. I and My Family You may hear, or you may even be saying, something like the following sentence: I and my friends went to a movie last night This sentence is not correct because in English, the pronoun I comes last, after all others are mentioned (my friends and I, my family and I, Ramesh, Seeta, Pallavi and I). Examples: z My father and I went out to buy new furniture. z My friends and I are planning a picnic this weekend. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

342 English Language and Lab z Milan, Mohit, Leela, my brother and I went to see the cricket match. Words Followed by Preposition Search and search for Search for means look for in the sense of trying to find what you have lost; for example, I am searching for my notes which I have misplaced It is not correct to say, I am searching my notes which I have misplaced. Search something or search someone means looking for suspicious material in the mentioned place or on the mentioned person, or checking something in order to find a specific thing in it; for example, Search the house means, look for suspicious material in the house, such as look for something hidden in the house. Search the passengers means, check if the passengers are hiding some gold or pistols in their pockets or inside their clothes. Search my notes means go through the notes carefully to see if I can find a specific thing in the notes Thus, it is correct to say, z I am searching my notes for an explanation of this theory. z The customs officials searched the suspected passengers and their bags. z The police searched the house of the arrested person. (this means they expected to find some evidence of crime, in the house.) There are many words which have a different meaning when followed by a preposition, for example, agree with and agree to. You can look in the dictionary for meanings of expressions with look + preposition. Also, look up words like come, go, take, set, put, keep, followed by different prepositions CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

Sentences 343 Use of the word avail: The word avail is not used by itself; it is used as a phrase ‘avail oneself of’. It is not correct to say: You can avail all the facilities if you become a member of the club. Correction: You can avail yourself of all the facilities if you become a member of the club. or You can use all the facilities if you become a member of the club. Using Non-progressive Verbs in Continuous Tense Verbs that represent action that cannot be in progress are not used in the progressive tenses. Some of the common non-progressive verbs that are wrongly used in the progressive form are: know, remember, forget, have, possess, like, love, understand, believe, need, think Usually, these do not describe any process that goes on for a duration of time. Hence, it is not correct to say: I was not knowing that you were in Hyderabad. He is not having a single relative in this city. Correction: Examples: z I did not know (I was not aware) that you were in Hyderabad. z He does not have a single relative in this city. Note, however, that the verb think in the sense of applying your mind to form a plan or to consider, can be in progress. Also, the verb have in the sense of eating a meal can be in a process taking some time. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)

344 English Language and Lab Examples: z I’m thinking of going to Europe for a vacation. z We are having a great time in Canada. z They were having dinner when the phone rang. Confusion of since, for, from, ago Examples: We are waiting for him from two hours. They have been here since one hour. He left since two hours. Corrections: Examples: z We have been waiting for him for two hours. z They have been here for one hour (since 10 oʹclock). z He left two hours ago. The adverb since: (i) must be followed by a time phrase that refers to a point of time in the past and (ii) the verb in the sentence must be in a perfect tense (have/has/had been). Note that a point of time can be indicated in several ways: last Monday last month last week last year a week ago a month ago a year ago three days ago an hour ago 8 oʹclock noon midnight Monday November 1998 yesterday Sheila was born he left grandfather expired she arrived CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)