Barriers to Effective Communication 45 Phrases can be more tricky; ‘a red and a blue carpet’ signifies two carpets: one red and one blue. ‘A red and blue carpet’ is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey entirely different meanings depending on how they are spoken. Consider the sentence, “Were you there last evening?” It means something different with every shift of emphasis from one word to another. In oral communication, the speaker can signify the meaning by emphasising particular words; but in written communication, the reader is in control and may read with different emphasis. Technical terms can be a barrier to communication. Such terms are limited to the group of persons who work together, or work in the same kind of occupation. They need to use technical terms in their work. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary language, and are differently understood by people who do not belong to that occupational group. Consider the new meanings given to ordinary words by computer technology. To people who are not familiar with computers, “mouse” is only an animal. New words such as “blog” are being coined rapidly; everyone does not understand them and many of them are not in the dictionaries yet. More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to different persons. It is said, “meaning is in people, not in words.” Age, education, cultural background and many other factors influence the meaning we give to words. Activities 1. Find out as many meanings as you can for each of the following words: “charge”, “spring”, “check”, “suit”, “ring”, “stall” and “crown” . 2. Learn all the words given in the section on Semantic Barriers. Share this task among members of your study group. 3.4 Socio-psychological Barriers Every person has a mindset that is formed by one’s social setting and environment, and also by personal experiences, inherited qualities and attitudes, education and occupation. This mindset influences the way we interpret words and symbols of communication. It influences our ways of speaking and writing, and also our ways of reading and listening. Most of us are not aware that CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
46 English Language and Lab there are limitations on our interpretations and that our encoding and decoding activities are affected by this limitation. The mindset forms a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influences the way we respond to messages that we receive and to new experiences. Factors like the time, the place and the circumstances of a particular communication also influence our understanding and response. Problems of understanding, interpretation and response to communication arise partly from our socially learnt attributes and partly from our personal attributes. These are called socio- psychological barriers. It is useful to understand how barriers develop in persons, and what problems prevent communication from being successful. This understanding helps us to watch ourselves, our thoughts and our interpretations especially when we come into conflict or feel uncomfortable because we cannot understand something. In order to understand these barriers, you must know how we deal with a received message. We receive a message at three levels: (i) Noticing is at the physical level. We notice the message with our senses. When we become aware that a message is addressed to us, we focus attention on it. It is quite possible that our eyes or ears miss it on account of other competing messages which claim our attention. Sometimes, we may not notice a message addressed to us. (ii) Understanding is at the level of intelligence. We must be able to understand the language or any other symbols used in the message. Also, the ideas and concepts in the message must be within our understanding and knowledge. (iii) Acceptance is at the emotional level. There is usually an emotional response of pleasure or dislike or indifference to every message that we receive. If the message arouses an unpleasant feeling, we may reject it, resent it or forget it. Emotional blocks may even make us fail to understand the message correctly. Most of the socio-psychological barriers discussed below operate at the emotional level. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 47 3.4.1 Self-centred Attitudes We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests, needs and desires. We pay attention to messages which are useful to us, and often do not pay enough attention to those messages which do not interest us. Self-interest may prevent us from seeing the point of view of others. If we look at everything from the point of view of our own interests and desires, we miss some useful information and develop narrow ideas. A highly self-centred person also fails to build up good relationships with other people. In order to win the goodwill of others with whom we work, we must be able to understand how other people feel and think. 3.4.2 Group Identification Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by the group to which we belong. All persons have a sense of belonging to a group, like family, the larger family of relatives, people of our locality or city, our religion or language group, age group, nationality, economic group and so on. Many of our ideas, attitudes and values are picked up from the group. We tend to reject an idea that goes against the interests of the group. Sometimes it is difficult for parents and children to agree because of the different age group ideas; there are disagreements between women and men because of different gender values and attitudes; employees and the management cannot come to an agreement because the interests are different. It is difficult for persons of one group to understand how persons of another group think and feel. This becomes a barrier to communication. 3.4.3 Self-image We have a certain idea of our self; some persons take pains to project a particular image of themselves. Self-image is our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression we make. It is usually based on some truth and some exaggeration of our good points. A self-image is built up over the years, and it is quite difficult to accept any idea which goes against it. Because of our self-image, we have difficulties in accepting and giving feedback. It is useful to make a systematic self-assessment and develop a balanced self-image. It will be easier to endure the stress of an assessment by others. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
48 English Language and Lab 3.4.4 Selective Perception Sometimes, we fail to get the complete message which is sent to us. We see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs, interests and experience. We project our expectations into the communication as we interpret the sender’s message. We may not perceive some of the aspects and information content of the message. The sender may also encode the message unsuitably owing to selective perception of the audience or the content itself. Both need to have a clear perception of each other and the issue/matter being discussed. 3.4.5 Defensiveness If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce understanding. This happens when we are faced by a person with a complaint. We become defensive and may question the motives of the complainant or become sarcastic or judgemental. This happens because we are usually unwilling to admit our fault or shortcoming. Such defensive behaviour prevents clear understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and grievances, and in resolving conflicts. 3.4.6 Status Block A “boss” who is conscious of status may find it difficult to receive any suggestions from subordinates. People in senior positions often develop the feeling that they know everything about how to run the business. They do not agree that a junior may have some good ideas. Many good ideas are wasted only because they come from junior employees who are considered to be too young and inexperienced. The ideas of subordinates may be ignored because of the social distance between them and the managers. A subordinate may be too nervous to speak to a senior manager. Social distance sometimes makes staff too shy or frightened to speak to their senior bosses. Social and official status distance can raise a difficult barrier which both may be unable to overcome. 3.4.7 Resistance to Change This is a serious psychological barrier. Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 49 because they feel insecure or afraid of changes in methods or situations. People bound by traditions have their own emotions, attitudes, standards and convictions.. They do not accept anything that goes against their cherished ideas. They resist receiving such ideas and also suppress them at once. 3.4.8 Closed Mind Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a person’s mind to be narrow. This limits a person’s ability to take in new ideas. Persons with a closed mind do not take any suggestions for change. Young employees with bright ideas and fresh approach may feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an organisation. Persons with a closed mind have limited understanding of human nature. This makes it difficult for them to receive communications with sympathy. This becomes a serious barrier to receiving grievances, complaints and appeals. Organisational procedures like grievance committees, counselling and suggestion schemes are meant to overcome this barrier. 3.4.9 Poor Communication Skills Lack of skill in writing and speaking prevents a person from framing the message properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems. Nervousness in facing an audience may affect a person’s clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement or a new idea may make a person’s speech incoherent. Written communication is handicapped by poor skills in using language. Lack of skill in reading and in listening is even more common though these are really the more important communication skills. Poor reading habits and faulty listening are both psychological shortcomings, and need very careful training to overcome. 3.4.10 State of Health Physical condition can affect communication efficiency. Pain or being feverish certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but even if the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not sufficiently alert; there may be gaps in CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
50 English Language and Lab attention while reading or listening. There is lack of energy to think clearly and to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions, which play an important part in successful communication, are also easily disturbed when a person is in poor health. Activity 1. Try to think of communication problems caused by difference in age group between you and your parents. How will you try to understand their point of view? Will understanding their point of view make it easier for you to present your point of view? 2. If you come into conflict with anyone, try to understand what is acting as a barrier to common understanding between you? 3.5 Organisational Barriers In an organisation, the gaps and barriers become more complex. The movement of papers and information gets held up by the system itself. Individual styles and habits of work cause persons to take time to process and pass on information. 3.5.1 Filtering and Editing Filtering is the process of reducing the details or aspects of a message. Each person who passes on a message reduces or colours it according to his/her understanding of the situation. There is also some editing in trying to make it suitable for the receiver’s needs. A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from senior management to lower levels. If it has to pass through many levels of authority, there is delay as well as distortion of the message. If a message passes down through many levels of authority, there may be a great deal of distortion in the message. The chances of such distortion are fewer in a flat organisation with few levels of hierarchy. Loss or distortion of information as it moves downward may also be caused by misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of messages by some of the members of the organisation. Even if there is very active downward flow of communication, it does not mean that the information is accurate, or that it is received, understood and accepted by subordinates. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 51 Studies have shown that employees at the lowest level receive only 20% of the information that they should get. Another reason for editing information is to make it appear favourable to ourselves. Some information is changed and lost in this way. A section head may modify information about problems in the section in order to appear in a good light to the higher management. Thus, important details about some issues may not reach higher levels of authority. 3.5.2 Withholding of Information Some persons may deliberately suppress information out of self-interest and jealousy. A supervisor may change good suggestions from a subordinate so as to take the credit personally. A sectional manager may prevent information about discontent in the department from reaching the senior manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills. There is also deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals. Internal power politics sometimes causes one person to prevent another from getting vital information to make a rival appear in a bad light. Power struggles often become a barrier to communication among persons of equal status. 3.5.3 Overdependence on Written Communication Too much dependence on written communication is a barrier to communication in organisations. Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are not always read carefully. Many employees do not bother to read and understand long messages. Even well-educated persons at higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written communication. Often, written messages may be missed or forgotten, especially if no immediate action is required. In many organisations, official written communication tends to be heavy and dense in style, and therefore it is not easily understood. It is better to use oral communication to supplement written communication when the message is important. Students often miss or misunderstand notices put up on the college notice board. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
52 English Language and Lab 3.5.4 Poor Communication Culture It is difficult to establish an open communication climate and culture in an organisation. Unless the persons at the top are committed to open communication, and demonstrate that it is rewarded, people will not share information openly. Unless the top management persons are committed to free and open movement of information and new learning, people do not share information easily. Whatever the reason for the failure of communication, the resulting information gap can be harmful. The upper level of management may not find out the true state of affairs until it is too late. Therefore, cutting across the official hierarchy and lines of communication is sometimes necessary for the sake of speed and efficiency. The system of routine reports and the system of sending copies of documents for information is meant to ensure that information is conveyed to the concerned persons, but some information may still not reach some persons. 3.6 Overcoming Barriers to Communication It is not possible to overcome barriers to communication completely. Barriers keep arising because of the emotional aspects of human nature. But efforts can be made to improve communication and overcome a number of barriers. Efforts have to be made by individuals to learn communication skills to improve interpersonal communication and overcome individual socio-psychological barriers. Organisations must also take steps to maintain channels of communication and frame policies to enable smooth flow of communication in the organisation. As educated persons, we need to overcome our communication barriers in order to be able to manage our work. In the first place, each one of us must become aware that our communication skills need improvement and that our skills can be improved mainly by our own conscious effort. Socio-psychological barriers can develop unexpectedly since emotions play a large part in communication. It is not easy to overcome all barriers, but awareness and effort to avoid them can help a good deal. With emphasis on good relationships in business today, most people make efforts to see others’ point of view and to become sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of others. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 53 Writing and speaking skills can be developed by training and practice. To be successful, we have to master the art of speaking to big and small audiences and on the telephone. We must also be able to write a message clearly and quickly. Training and careful practice in writing and speaking can improve our ability to create effective messages. Semantic and language barriers can be overcome only by being careful with the use of language, and by using words which have clear meaning, by using short and simple sentences, and also by using visual aid whenever possible. The most important skills needed are the receiver’s skills: listening and reading. 3.6.1 Improving Listening and Reading Skills Each one of us must find out our own special problems and barriers to listening, and our shortcoming in reading. Most of us do not have good ability to listen. Training for effective listening and reading is largely a personal responsibility and can be done only by personal effort. These skills are very important. Each of these skills is taken up in detail in the subsequent units. 3.6.2 Practicing Feedback Skills Giving and taking feedback needs all skills of communication, especially listening and a great deal of self-control. Feedback comprises three skills: getting feedback and receiving feedback are the original sender’s skills; giving feedback is the original receiver’s skill. Getting Feedback The receiver’s reaction or response to the message gives you important information about the effectiveness of your communication and enables you to correct any misunderstanding and improve your skill as sender. You have to make effort to get feedback from the receiver. You can do this in several ways. z Ask questions to find out what the receiver has understood. If your questions cover the key points, the answers will produce a good summary of what you had said. Use “open” questions beginning with what, where, when, how and why. This makes the person express the information in detail. The manner of asking questions is important; we do not like to feel that another person is testing our knowledge or understanding. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
54 English Language and Lab z Request summary of what the receiver has understood. You can do this tactfully by saying: “Will you please summarise the main points of what I have said, so that I can check whether I missed any important points?” This makes the receiver cooperate in the success of the communication; the receiver does not feel that his/her understanding is being questioned. z Invite questions from the receiver. This is not always effective because someone who has not understood properly cannot ask any question and may be shy to ask questions. These methods are useful in getting feedback on the understanding of listeners. It is much more difficult and yet important, to get feedback on the receiver’s emotional response and critical evaluation. An open question like, “How do you feel about this?” or “How will your team be affected by this?” is sometimes useful is eliciting an honest response. It is not easy for a senior to get feedback from subordinates. They usually know what the boss wants to hear, and give their response accordingly. People are not willing to let the boss know how they feel. Though the instructions may be carried out, the boss may get no feedback on the emotional response nor get any critical evaluation. An open communication climate has to be created in order to gain feedback from subordinates. Listening skill is a very important requirement for getting feedback. An impatient, inattentive person cannot get good feedback. You must be able and willing to maintain silence, and be interested while others speak. Be alert to see non-verbal feedback which is often given unconsciously by body language. Receiving Feedback This is different from getting feedback. Getting feedback means arranging for and making effort to find out how your communication has been received by the audience. You also need to be able to receive and accept feedback without feeling threatened. You may feel angry when you find that the other person has not understood what you explained. You may feel offended if the other person expresses views contrary to yours. Accepting feedback requires training as much as the art of giving feedback. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 55 (a) Seek and receive feedback with a desire to improve. (b) Be non-defensive. There is no need to defend and justify past actions; feedback is to be used for improving future actions. (c) Listen attentively. If you switch off attention because you do not like the feedback, you will not benefit from it. (d) Guard against over-reacting. Feedback usually makes us feel threatened, but if you get into a defend/attack mode, you will lose your temper and give rise to conflict. (e) Seek clarifications and ask for specific examples if the feedback is vague. (f) Think over the received feedback, gather information from other sources and use the valid points for improvement. Giving Feedback In the role of receiver of communication, you have the responsibility to give feedback. You can check your own understanding by offering to summarise, by asking for clarifications, and whenever possible, by stating your own views and feelings, and response to the communication. It requires skill to express your response honestly and non-emotionally, and without giving offence. The following guidelines will help in developing skills in giving feedback. (a) Give feedback as soon as possible after receiving the sender’s message; do not delay it. We relate more easily to present events than to past events. (b) Give feedback in a positive manner so that the person feels open to receive it; untimely and negative feedback can put the person on the defensive. (c) Be specific, not general or vague. Saying, “You never listen” is vague; it is more accurate to say, “You were not listening when I was explaining the procedure this morning.” (d) Be descriptive, not judgemental. It is judgemental if you say, “You made a serious mistake! It was not proper to scold an apprentice like that; other people who were present were also shocked.” It puts the person on the defensive. You are descriptive if you say, “The apprentice was upset by what you said; he needed your instructions and help; your words also drew the attention of other people present.” CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
56 English Language and Lab (e) Give feedback only on those aspects which the person can control and correct. If you tell a person to improve the quality of the work or to pay more attention to the details of the work, the person can do something to improve; but if you tell someone about shortcomings in his family conditions, he cannot do anything about it and cannot use such feedback. (f) Limit feedback to one important point at a time; overload confuses and depresses the person. (g) Be sure of your own motive in giving feedback. It should be given genuinely to help the person to improve, and never to make the person feel humiliated. If you give feedback to show your power or superiority over the other, it is useless as feedback. 3.6.3 Channels The channel of information, that is, “Who received what information through whom” is an important aspect of communication. People like to get information from the right person or authority. No one likes to hear important organisational information through subordinates or members of other departments. Everyone expects to be informed through the proper channel, that is, one’s immediate boss, or at a briefing. A senior expects to get the information before the juniors. Information and messages must go through proper channels and in time. Since long channels, that is, movement through several persons and layers of hierarchy, can delay and distort information, administration should see that information moves by short routes. In a rapidly changing work environment, communication must move fast to keep up the efficiency of the organisation. Communication can be lost and distorted if it passes through several levels of the hierarchy. This gives everyone an opportunity to seek clarification; loss of information is avoided. With the setting up of computer networks in organisations, the flow of information is easier. Suggestion schemes are meant to overcome the status block and loss of information that occurs in upward movement of communication. Good managers personally try to overcome it by developing friendly contact with their subordinates or by maintaining an office that does not CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 57 frighten them by its status symbols of expensive furnishing, or by following an “open door” policy. The system of internal communication has to be checked constantly to make sure that there are no undue delays in conveying information. 3.6.4 Attending to Members’ Needs The competence, motivation and state of health of the members of the organisation affect communication among them. Organisations have training and welfare centres for maintaining a healthy atmosphere. Everyone benefits by training in effective communication. Arranging for training of all staff in the skills of speaking, writing, reading and listening is an aspect of the administration’s policy on communication efficiency. Training helps to make individuals aware of the need to make efforts to improve their communication. 3.7 Cross-cultural Communication 3.7.1 Barriers Even in the best of conditions, communication can be difficult. Cross-cultural factors naturally increase the possible problems of communication. If for historical or political reasons, the relationships between two countries are not friendly, there can be even greater problems of communication. Culture is a shared set of values and attributes of a group. It is the sum total of the ways of living built up by a group and transmitted from one generation to another. It is so much a part of an individual’s manner of talking, behaving and thinking, that communication style and competence are influenced by it. In a world that is rapidly becoming global in its business, skill in communicating with people of other cultures is vital to success. Many international business training firms give courses in cross-cultural communication to company executives. Knowledge of some of the features in which cultures differ, provides a good foundation for any training you might like to take later. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
58 English Language and Lab Some of the most significant differences between cultures are: z National character/basic personality z Language z Non-verbal communication z Paralanguage z Values and norms of behaviour z Social relationships and etiquette z Concepts of time z Concepts of space z Thinking processes z Perception Each nation has a character of its own. The Chinese are not like Indians, or Pakistanis or Afghans, although they are neighbouring countries. Neighbouring European nations like the French, the Germans and the Swiss are also different from one another. The language of any group directly reflects their culture. Think of some of the common sayings or proverbs or idiomatic expressions in an Indian language and try to translate them into English; you may find it almost impossible although all the words can be translated. In some cases, the words cannot be translated exactly. Even among countries that speak the same language such as the British and the Americans, a word may not have the same meaning; the Americans use the term ‘gas station’ for what the British (and Indians) call ‘petrol pump;’ the ‘fall’ in America is ‘autumn’ in England. The pronunciation is also different in these two countries that both speak English. It has been pointed out that Russians cannot understand the concepts of ‘free market’, ‘regulation’ and ‘efficiency’ in the same way as the British or the Canadians do. Implications of words also differ in different cultures. When the Japanese say “yes”, they mean “Yes, I’m CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 59 listening”; the Americans take it to mean “Yes, I agree”. Negotiations between the two become difficult because of this. Non-verbal behaviour is another area of trouble in cross-cultural communication. Body language is a major factor that varies between cultures. Not only are gestures understood differently, but the amount of use of gesture varies. Indians use much more natural gesture than the British; the Japanese have many formal gestures for social interaction but less free body movements. Eye contact requirements during conversation vary among cultures. Eye contact is so much a part of every culture that it is something that people must think of before travelling abroad or meeting foreign guests or having any business interaction with people from other countries and cultures. In many Asian and African cultures, it is considered disrespectful to maintain eye contact with one’s elders and seniors. Extended eye contact can be taken as a challenge of authority. Generally, only brief eye contact is considered acceptable in Asian cultures; employees would not hold eye contact with employers; students would not hold eye contact with teachers; people do not hold eye contact with parents and elders. In Western cultures, failure to make eye contact may be interpreted as being guilty, unsteady, or not straight forward. Eye contact is expected in Western culture; it is a basic essential in a social interaction which shows a person’s interest and engagement with your conversation. Avoiding looking someone in the eyes is considered as rude or showing lack of interest. Eyes are considered the central point of a person’s focus. Therefore, if someone does not give any eye contact during a conversation, it is insulting. In formal situations such as meetings or interviews, lack of eye contact by the candidate may be seen as lack of confidence. Head Movements such as head shake and head nod are fairly common and do not cause much confusion. Usually, the head nod indicates “yes”, agreement, acknowledgement or greeting; its meaning is usually positive. The head shake from side to side indicates “no,” refusal, disagreement or denial; its meaning is usually negative. The head wobble, however, is essentially CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
60 English Language and Lab South Asian, and most people outside South of Asia do not understand whether it means ‘yes’ or ‘no.’ For Indians, it means, ‘yes’, ‘OK’, ‘all right’ and ‘I understand.’ This friendly, positive gesture is not understood by most other cultures. Paralanguage — Cross-cultural confusion arises from the way we use our voice. People in many countries are put off by loud Indian voices, and noisy Indian tourists. Some Western cultures speak in such low voices that we can hardly hear them, and may wonder if they intend to be secretive. Differences between cultures in speaking speed makes the faster talking people consider the slow talking cultures as slow and lax. Some cultures expect formality and formal tone at work and are embarrassed or put off by the informal tone of another culture. The amount of silence that is considered as right during a conversation can cause confusion. The Japanese believe, “Those who know do not speak—those who speak do not know”; this is quite contrary to Americans who are embarrassed by silence and hasten to fill it by speaking. Closely related are the rules of turn-taking in conversation; most Western cultures consider interrupting as very impolite; each speaker is allowed to complete speaking; in India, interrupting others in a conversation is acceptable. Also, “breaking into” a conversation between others is acceptable among Indians, but not in Western cultures. Values are our ideas of what is good and what is evil. They form the basis of our behaviour and actions. Notions of good and evil vary between cultures. Besides, norms, rules and manners of cultures differ. Behaviour expected from women in Eastern cultures is different from what is expected in Western cultures. Certain subjects which are not considered proper for talking about in polite society in one culture may be acceptable in another. Social relationships depend on the groupings in that society. All societies have groups like families, classes, castes and so on. The Indian caste system, though officially abolished, still plays a significant part in social behaviour. Significance of family relationships in India is reflected in the elaborate system of words which can describe the precise relationship of two persons indicating the descent three or even four generations back. In Western Languages, the all-covering word “cousin” describes a variety of relationships. Relationships between parents and children, between teachers and CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 61 students, and the rules of behaviour that govern these relationships differ vastly between Eastern and Western cultures. Concept of time is perhaps one of the most troublesome differences that cause barriers in cross-cultural communication, especially between Eastern and Western cultures. The Eastern concept of time is that it is circular, while the Western concept is that it is linear. Apart from this, time orientation varies; some cultures focus on the past, some on the present and some on the future. For some cultures, “time is money” and is more important than personal relationships; for others, time is subordinate to relationships. As a result of perceiving time differently, work behaviour and social behaviour styles vary greatly. Ideas about punctuality and scheduling of activities depend on concept of time. In India and other Eastern countries, lack of punctuality and not functioning to schedule is almost normal; in Western countries, arriving late for an appointment is one of the worst things you can do. The idea of keeping work time strictly separate from personal time is a Western concept and not easy for Eastern cultures to understand and follow. Attitude to time is one of the major problems in cross-cultural communication between Indians and people of Western cultures. Concept of space influences design and use of shapes and colour in design. Besides, it has an important effect on behaviour and the distance between speakers during conversation. In some cultures, speakers stand close enough to touch often, while in others, they maintain distance to denote respect. People in South Asian countries, like India and Sri Lanka, maintain less interpersonal distance. Thought processes vary between cultures; some are strictly logical and rational while others may be holistic and emotional. The frame of reference, that is, the higher perspective from which we view a situation makes a difference to the way we see it. Thinking process is affected by acceptance or rejection of superstition, belief in magic, miracles and so on; cultures where these beliefs are rejected are likely to view the world as logical, clear and law-based. Appearance tends to be an unconscious basis for evaluation. We react unconsciously to the biological appearance (colour and texture of skin and hair, shape and colour of eyes, stature and body structure) as well as to the acquired appearance (style of dress and grooming) of persons we CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
62 English Language and Lab communicate with. Appearance of people of different cultures varies significantly; besides, there are multicultural nations like Canada which can present problems to Indians. Ways of dressing and what is considered formal clothes is another problem area. The Indian saree, which seems so formal in India, is not acceptable formal clothing in most American companies. Table manners, ways of eating and drinking, which hand to use, what cutlery to use, when to begin eating, and so on, can be very confusing because of the variety of customs. Careful attention is needed to all details of how to behave at meals in other cultures. Behaviour between host and guests is another puzzling area of conduct. In India, the host will urge guests to have food and guests will shyly decline; they accept only on the third or fourth offer and urging. In Western countries, the host will offer, and guests may accept or politely say ‘no’; but the host is not expected to make repeated offers. Similarly, leave-taking is neat and clear in Western cultures; there is no urging by the host to stay a little longer, nor prolonging of conversation at the door. Perception is influenced by culture. We perceive some things and ignore others; we particularly perceive what is contrary to our own culture and what makes us uncomfortable. What smells “good” or “bad” is perceived differently. Rain means something different for Indians from what it means for the British. Differences of perception of the world can be amazing. Our world view and attitudes to life affect our meanings. Since the cultural differences affect all aspects of behaviour, conduct and social interaction, there is much scope for misunderstanding. When visiting another country or receiving and hosting guests from abroad, the host country needs to be careful to study the ways and communication styles of the other. And of course, it is very important to study the business culture, legal aspects and political views of the other culture you are dealing with. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 63 3.8 Summary Communication is not always successful. There are several types of barriers to communication. They can be classified into external, semantic, socio-psychological and organisational. External barriers are mostly outside the control of communicators as they are in the environment or in the medium used. Semantic barriers are caused by the nature of language itself; besides the ambiguous nature of language, meaning creation is a very personal and individual process which is influenced by individual background. Socio-psychological barriers are within the persons who are communicating. A large number of social and personal factors affect every individual and influence the person’s perceptions, and encoding as well as decoding processes. Organisational barriers are in the structure of the organisation, its policies and culture of communication. Communication barriers can create gaps in information and disruption in relationships between persons. Cross-cultural barriers are caused by the vast and deep differences in the cultures of different nations and groups. Culture has a very strong influence on one’s perceptions and creation of meanings. Awareness of the possible failures of communication and willingness to overcome the barriers help individuals and organisations to make communication more effective. Efforts have to be made at the individual level and at the organisation level to prevent and overcome barriers of all kinds. Individuals can take steps to train themselves, become aware of their own barriers, develop listening skills, reading skills and feedback skills. Feedback skill includes getting feedback, receiving feedback and giving feedback. For efficient organisational communication, the administration has to maintain channels and media within the organisation, and have policies that will ensure that information is received by everyone who needs it at the proper time. As the general well-being and skills of members affect their communication, the administration must arrange for suitable training, and have staff policies to ensure their well-being. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
64 English Language and Lab 3.9 Keywords/Abbreviations z Perception: Understanding by way of the senses or the mind. It is a complex process which is influenced by one’s capacities and abilities to use their mind and senses. z Semantic: Relating to, or arising from the different meanings of words or other symbols. How we understand and response to a word depends on our own experience of the world and our cultural background. It may differ greatly from one person to another. z Filtering: Selecting or removing a particular type of information from something. When we narrate or report something, we do not include all the details we know; we reduce some or add some explanation as we think the receiver needs to know. z Communication culture: Every organisation has some practices, rules, habits and customs of conduct and behaviour between members of the organisation. The culture may be established by conscious effort by the top management. Maintenance of friendliness, ways of settling conflicts, cooperation among staff, sense of individual responsibility, practices in dealing with clients, suppliers, etc. are reflected in the communication style of the company. A good company has a culture of open and respectful communication among all levels of its members. Some organisations that do not have an open communication culture become less efficient. 3.10 Learning Activity 1. Work in a group with diverse members for this activity. You have to host a delegation from another country [any country of your choice]. How will you collect information about the visitors’ culture in order to facilitate communication? Assume that English is the common language. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 65 2. Read the following passage and answer the questions given below it. The dispatch section supervisor, Arvind, aged about 45, rather talkative and thinking well of himself, put down the phone, shrugged his shoulders and made a face. He had been trying to get in a word with a customer who was obviously monopolising the talk. He went into the next room where Dinesh, his assistant was checking the day’s schedule of dispatches. Dinesh is about 27, attentive to his work and speaks very little. Arvind said, “You know Dinesh, we’ve had this Parekh account since 2014. He’s always been a problem customer — placing orders at the last minute and expecting us to get him his goods in record time. He gives me a headache; I just got off the phone with him. It took me half an hour just to get in a word edge-ways. I feel like taking early retirement and getting into one of those multi-level marketing businesses. It seems a lot easier than all this. I hope you’ll do something about this Parekh. I’ll check back with you tomorrow. Next day: Arvind: Dinesh, how did it work out? Did you straighten out the matter with Parekh? Dinesh (puzzled): Huh? What did you want me to do? Arvind (getting angry): You mean after all that I told you yesterday, you didn’t do anything? You’re getting as difficult as Parekh! Stop playing games and just get it done! Dinesh (more puzzled): Sure. And he went off to the dispatch room to see how he could expedite Parekh’s order. (a) Pick out the sentences from Arvind’s speech that are a barrier to communication. (b) If you were in Dinesh’s place, what would you have done after Arvind finished talking on the first day? (c) Was Dinesh’s action at the end the response desired by Arvind? (d) Why did Dinesh misunderstand what Arvind wanted him to do? (e) Rewrite the conversation to make it more effective ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
66 English Language and Lab 3.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Types Questions 1. What is meant by barriers to communication? How and why do they occur? 2. What socio-psychological barriers have you experienced in your communication? Why do you think they arise? 3. What are semantic barriers? Why do semantic barriers arise between people who speak the same language? 4. What personal effort will you make to ensure that your communication is effective? 5. What can an organisation do to improve communication among its members? 6. What do you understand by the term ‘cross-cultural communication’? What can be done to improve cross-cultural communication? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Semantic barriers are created by __________. (a) Difference in age between sender and receiver (b) Disturbance in the environment (c) Divergence in individual understanding of meanings of words (d) Difficulties in accepting others’ ideas 2. All the following are socio-psychological barriers except __________. (a) Problems arising from similar sounding words (b) Mismatch between words and body language (c) Judgmental, evaluative and rigid interpretation (d) Inability to deal with one’s internal conflicts 3. Barriers to communication with seniors are caused by __________. (a) Too much dependence on written communication (b) Open communication climate CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Barriers to Effective Communication 67 (c) Status block (d) Poor vocabulary 4. Socio-psychological barriers to communication are caused by __________. (a) Defects in the communication channel (b) Excessive use of technical terms by the sender (c) Difference in the meanings assigned to words by the persons involved (d) Characteristics of the personalities involved 5. External barriers exist in __________. (a) The language and symbols used for communicating (b) The environment in which the communication takes place (c) The personalities of the sender and the receiver (d) State of health of the communicators 6. Barriers to communication between officials of equal status are usually caused by __________. (a) Overdependence on written communication (b) Lack of open communication culture in the organisation (c) Status block (d) Lack of good command of language 7. Selective perception means __________. (a) Carefully deciding what factors we should notice and what factors we should ignore (b) Consciously determining what the other person intends to say (c) Deliberately choosing aspects of the message to which we should respond (d) Unconsciously selecting some parts of the received message for interpretation CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
68 English Language and Lab 8. Cross-cultural barriers occur when the two parties involved in communication are __________. (a) At a great distance from each other (b) Using video-conferencing as a medium (c) Not able to understand each other’s language (d) From different cultural backgrounds Answers 1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (b), 6. (c), 7. (d), 8. (b) 3.12 References Book: 1. Kevin Hogan and Ron Stubbs (2003), Can’t Get Through: Eight Barriers to Communication. Websites: 1. https://www.marketing91.com/barriers-to-communication/ 2. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/how-to-create-a-company-c_b_11055992 3. https://www.communicationtheory.org/cross-cultural-communication/ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 69 UNIT 4 VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION Structure: 4.0 Learning Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Uses of Non-verbal Communication Methods 4.3 Methods of Non-verbal Communication 4.4 Non-verbal Aspects of Written Communication 4.4.1 Colour 4.4.2 Pictures 4.4.3 Diagrams 4.4.4 Graphs and Charts 4.4.5 Maps 4.4.6 Signs and Signals 4.5 Body Language 4.5.1 Appearance 4.5.2 Clothes and Accessories 4.6 Paralanguage 4.6.1 Volume and Pitch 4.6.2 Rate and Speed CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
70 English Language and Lab 4.6.3 Pronunciation and Accent 4.6.4 Tone 4.6.5 Stress 4.6.6 Non-fluencies 4.6.7 Silence and Pauses 4.6.8 Enthusiasm and Energy 4.7 Other Sensory Symbols 4.7.1 Sounds 4.7.2 Touch and Feel 4.8 Summary 4.9 Keywords/Abbreviations 4.10 Learning Activity 4.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 4.12 References 4.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: z Distinguish between verbal and non-verbal communication z Understand the importance of visual appeal of a document z Use the non-verbal elements of communication effectively z Be aware of the communication that occurs without the use of words z Make efforts to enhance communication skills by using non-verbal elements of communication CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 71 4.1 Introduction We communicate by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas and experience. Language is a common symbol system which we use for sharing our experience with others. Communication through words is called verbal communication; communication through other symbols is called non-verbal communication. Informally, the word ‘verbal’ is often used to mean ‘oral,’ but in communication theory, verbal communication means communicating by using language whether oral or written. Written verbal communication includes all documents such as letters, minutes, reports, email messages, and so on. Oral verbal communication includes speeches, presentations, meetings, interviews, discussions, telephone talk and so on. Non-verbal methods of communication include all things, other than words and language, that can convey meaning. For example, graphics like pictures, maps, charts, graphs and diagrams in a written document, and body language and voice qualities in speech, are non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication can be independent of verbal communication; but verbal communication is always accompanied by non-verbal communication. Non-verbal methods can be used as a substitute for words like the red colour to mean danger, or nodding the head to mean “yes.” Or both may be used together as when we shake the head and also say “no.” Sometimes, our body language or voice, or the appearance of a document may convey something opposite of what we want to convey. This discordant, inconsistent relation between verbal and non-verbal communication may occur when the person is not comfortable or is trying to say something different from what he or she really feels. Non-verbal communication is mostly involuntary, unconscious and difficult to control. It may sometimes reveal the truth which the speaker/writer is hiding behind the words. It is said, “actions speak louder than words.” Thus, there can be unintended and unconscious non-verbal communication. On the other hand, non- verbal methods can be consciously created and used with both written and oral communication. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
72 English Language and Lab An understanding of non-verbal methods and aspects of communication helps a person to improve oral and written presentation by using the methods and by gaining control over body language. 4.2 Uses of Non-verbal Communication Methods (a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the receiver; it takes less time to see a colour or a picture and to hear a horn or a bell than to read or hear and understand words and sentences. Speed in conveyance and response makes non- verbal methods extremely useful in critical situations like traffic signs and signals. (b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; maps, charts and graphs are necessary for conveying information or plans related to geography, locations, data and most of the sciences. A large amount of complex data can be presented in a compact form; one page can convey information that would need several pages of words. It makes information available conveniently, at a glance for comparisons. (c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of agony arouses stronger response than a sad story; a film is often more effective than a written story. TV news is more interesting than on radio. (d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Containers of poisons are marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning. Illiterate drivers manage with the non- verbal traffic signals. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Non-verbal communication can overcome the barrier of language. 4.3 Methods of Non-verbal Communication Non-verbal communication occurs mainly through visual symbols and auditory symbols. Visual symbols are those which are seen and auditory symbols are those which are heard. Our other senses like smell, taste and touch also take in meanings and can be used for non-verbal communication. For example, the fragrance in a room, the feel of the plush covering on furniture, CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 73 the taste and aroma of the coffee served in the visitors’ room of an office, make significant impressions. 4.4 Non-verbal Aspects of Written Communication A document has an appearance which is the consequence of font size and style, margins, spacing, quality of the paper, and colour used for printing. Written communication can be enhanced by using various symbols and graphics. Written communication implies a document, and the paper (or synthetic plastic paper, cloth or other material as for invitation cards) on which it is printed has characteristics like size, thickness, quality and colour. The print also has characteristics like colour, font type and size, spacing, margins and general layout. The appearance and feel of a document convey impressions about the status of the sender, and also make it more readable and attractive to the receiver. A company’s letter is carefully designed with attention to its visual aspects and the impression it conveys. Besides, other visual symbols can be created and used to enhance the quality of written communication. 4.4.1 Colour Colour is an important and powerful means of communication. Matters of life and death, as in traffic signals, are conveyed by colours. It is also used for classification and identification of different products and materials in industries; the cosmetics industry uses colour to make products attractive as well as to classify and differentiate types. Copies of documents are on different coloured paper to distinguish copies meant for different departments. Teams have colour in their uniform to identify their members; countries have their colours on their flag. Colour gives an added dimension to maps, chart and graphs, and makes it possible to convey a greater amount of information within the same visual/graphic representation. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
74 English Language and Lab Colour is used in clothing, design, decoration and to enliven a dull environment. Colours are associated with different moods and feelings like, white with peace and purity, red with danger and black with death and sorrow. Colour also has psychological effect. The state of mind of employees is influenced by the colour of their surroundings. Pleasant, cool colours in the workplace have good influence on workers; black, dark, gloomy colours are known to reduce productivity; very bright, gaudy colours may be disturbing and over-exciting; softly blending colours are pleasant and soothing. 4.4.2 Pictures Pictures, from simple drawings to coloured photographs, are used in brochures, posters and advertisements. Pictures can be combined with a very few words for persons who cannot read well as in posters. Besides, pictures are universally understood, more easily remembered and make an immediate impact because they are easier to “take in”. Reading requires practised eye movement, while a picture may be tackled in any order. Pictures are used extensively in advertising because they attract the eye and convey instantly even when the reader just glances at them. 4.4.3 Diagrams A diagram is a figure consisting of simple line drawing to accompany and illustrate the parts and the operation of something. The figure shown in Chapter 1 to illustrate the process of communication is a diagram. 4.4.4 Graphs and Charts Graphs and charts of different kinds represent statistical information. Special skills are needed to prepare and understand a chart or a graph. Information presented in a chart or a graph allows the overall situation to be seen at a glance; the relationships between the figures are also seen easily. Every charts or graph must be properly titled to show what information it represents. It must have labels and a scale/key to explain the symbols used and to indicate what the different bars or parts stand for. It must show the date of the information. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 75 Charts can be made in many ways. There are bar charts and multiple bar charts like the one shown below. The use of colour can make charts more informative as well as attractive. 100 Eas t Wes t 80 Nor th 60 2nd 3rd 4th Qtr Qtr Qtr 40 20 0 1st Qtr Bar Graph A line graph compares two variables. Each variable is plotted along an axis. A line graph has a horizontal axis (x-axis) and a vertical axis (y-axis). If you want to graph the height of a ball after you have thrown it, you could put time along the horizontal x-axis, and height along the vertical y-axis. The line graph is used for showing trends in data. It enables the viewer to make predictions of possible future results. Line Graph 4.4.5 Maps Maps are representations of territory and are used for conveying the space relationships between places. They can convey geographical information like transport routes, climatic CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
76 English Language and Lab conditions, distribution of population, crops, animal life and vegetation; sociological factors like religion, literacy, health and nutrition. Maps of small areas are used to give information about routes and to locate places. A map has labels to show the four directions. It must have a key to explain the meaning of the symbols used and a scale to show how many kilometres are represented by one centimetre. 4.4.6 Signs and Signals A sign is a mark used to represent something; for example, + for “plus”, skull and cross bones for “danger.” It has a fixed meaning. A signal is a previously agreed movement which serves to warn, direct, or command; for example, the coming on of a green light is a signal to go ahead; the firing of a gun salute signals the arrival of a VIP. A signal may be visual or auditory. Signs and signals used by members of a group may be made with hands, lights, cloth, smoke, drums, whistles or anything that can be seen or heard at a distance. 4.5 Body Language Body language means the changes that occur in the facial expression, the body position and movements that show what the person is feeling or thinking. Much of it is involuntary and unconscious. Most persons are not aware of their body language, but it makes a powerful impact on others. Body language can make or spoil a presentation. Body Language always conveys meaning. It is: z Omnipresent: It always accompanies spoken communication. z Emotionally expressive: It expresses mainly the feelings of the speaker and also of the listener. z Dominates interaction: It is more communicative than words. z Seems trustable: It is usually felt to be more truthful than spoken words. Non-verbal communication can accent, complement, repeat and substitute for verbal communication. It can also contradict verbal communication. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 77 It is complex and is influenced by many factors: Biological: Certain body shapes, skin colour and features cause persons to have some kinds of gestures, expressions and postures. Besides, we constantly try to adjust and adapt our body to our environment which we may or may not find comfortable. Some gestures or postures are related to this adjustment. Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habits in the process of adapting oneself to the environment. They also arise from one’s occupation which requires constant posture or movement of certain kinds. Certain speaking styles and phrases are also occupational habits. Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking straight in the eyes of elders or superiors, are culture-specific. Customs of receiving guests, introducing and social conduct, also induce some gestures and stylistic features. Body language can be divided into conscious and unconscious: (i) Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used. Actors are specially trained for this. Skilled communicators, especially good presenters, also learn to make conscious use of body language. (ii) Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habits and cultural customs. No one can gain full control of one’s body language, but it is possible to enlarge one’s awareness of one’s body and gain a good deal of control on one’s posture, movements and voice modulation. If we develop increased sensitivity to our own body language, our ability to read others’ body language is increased. Body language consists of many aspects. It includes facial expressions, posture, gestures and other body movements. It also includes general appearance, clothing, accessories worn or carried in the hands, voice, and so on. It is an important factor in oral communication in face-to-face situations. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
78 English Language and Lab 4.5.1 Appearance A person’s general appearance depends on several things. Two of the important factors that contribute to appearance are grooming and personal hygiene. Care of skin, nails, feet and hair are expected standards. A person who neglects these aspects makes an unpleasant impression. Appearance makes the first impression. Lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness in grooming, clumsy gait or clothes make a negative impression. State of health is a very important factor in a person’s appearance. No amount of cosmetics can hide lacklustre eyes and poor skin. Poor health is easily reflected in the appearance. 4.5.2 Clothing and Accessories Clothing is a very important aspect of body language. It requires good taste/judgement to make a subtle impression by what you wear. The colour, design, cut and fitting combine to make up the dress. In India, we have several choices as it is acceptable to wear clothing of national style or of Western style. Appropriateness for the occasion is essential. The formality of the occasion, the time of the day, the season, the cultural background of the people who will be present, and the conventions of your own organisation should provide good guidance. Many organisations have a dress code for occasions in order to ensure that its representatives convey the desired impression. As a general rule, avoid wearing patterned clothing, especially on the upper half of the body, because it tends to shorten the attention span of the person with whom you are speaking. Accessories like tie, footwear and jewellery need careful selection and should be comfortable to wear. Handbag or briefcase is included in accessories; so is an umbrella if it is necessary to carry one. Whatever you carry on your person or in your hands ought to look comfortable and gracefully carried; otherwise, it will convey a poor image. 4.6 Paralanguage The non-verbal aspects of the spoken word are known as paralanguage. It is possible to control and use paralanguage effectively by becoming aware of it and paying attention to one’s voice and speech. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 79 Voice has characteristics like volume and pitch. Speech has qualities of speed, rhythm, pronunciation, accent, tone and stress. 4.6.1 Volume and Pitch Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the number of persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and the listeners. Most persons speak at appropriate volume. Speaking too loud suggests lack of self-command or a dominating nature. Loudness of voice is also influenced by one’s surroundings and by cultural customs of the speaker. The volume of voice also indicates the speaker’s confidence level:; a well-prepared speaker is clearly audible to the audience. Pitch is the high or low note on the scale. A high-pitched voice is often unpleasant and suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance; a frightened person speaks in a high pitched voice. It is better to begin softly, in a low pitch and raise the volume and pitch as required. Pitch is affected by healthy and by state of mind. 4.6.2 Rate and Speed Rate and speed is partly a cultural habit and partly influenced by emotions. Rapid speech indicates excitement such as anger, joy or fear. We also speak faster to tell an interesting story, and reduce speed to explain a difficult idea. There are variations in individual speaking speed, but at the workplace, everyone learns to make the required adjustment for the understanding of others. In each oral communication situation such as presentation or interview, speakers have to be able to adjust their rate of speech to the needs of the audience. 4.6.3 Pronunciation and Accent Pronunciation means the sound of a letter or a word. Pronunciation should be correct and clear in order to be understood by others. It indicates that the speaker is careful and has consideration for the audience. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
80 English Language and Lab Accent is the way a person makes the sounds and pronounces the words of the language. Every language has its own accent or way of forming the sounds and its own rhythm or intonation. We carry our mother tongue accent to other languages we learn. Good accent in a new language is learnt by listening to native speakers of the language. It is not necessary to try to imitate American or British accent. It is sufficient to speak with clarity so that others understand what we say. 4.6.4 Tone Tone is the way the voice sounds that shows the speaker’s feeling. The tone defines the role the speaker puts himself in. For example, one may have an authoritative tone, an aggressive tone, a hurt tone, a sarcastic tone, a sympathetic tone and so on. The tone of voice can send positive or negative signals. Like other aspects of body language, the tone cannot be disguised. Even if you choose your words carefully, your tone may sound defensive or angry. The meaning conveyed will be different from what you had intended. Mixed messages caused by mismatch between words and tone of voice cause misunderstanding. An assertive tone is suitable for a presentation. It conveys ideas clearly and maintains decorum in the room. 4.6.5 Stress Stress is the degree of force or loudness with which a word or a part of a word is pronounced. Stress laid on a particular word in a sentence can change the meaning and implication. Try reading the sentence, “Were you there last night?” by stressing a different word each time, and note the difference in the implied meaning. Words with more than one syllable need to be pronounced carefully as stressing a different syllable may change its meaning. For example, present with stress on the first syllable makes it a verb; with stress on the second syllable makes it a noun or an adjective: z They presented a Kashmir shawl to the guest. z They gave the guest a present. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 81 z We use the present tense to describe habitual activities. When learning English, it is more difficult to learn the stresses than to learn the pronunciation. 4.6.6 Non-fluencies Non-fluencies and hesitations form a part of spoken language. Sounds like Er-er, Mmmm--, etc. indicate that the speaker is hesitating or cannot find the next word to say. Sounds like Ahem!, Huh!, Ah-ha!, Ouch!, Oh-oh!, etc. can convey various ideas or emotions. Actors, elocutionists, presenters and others whose profession involves skilful speaking cultivate these skills for the best effect. They use such sounds deliberately to convey meaning. 4.6.7 Silence and Pauses Silence can be a very effective way of communication. It is not a negative absence of speech but a positive withdrawal or suspension of speech. Silence is a difficult method of communication to use as it takes a good deal of self-control and self-confidence to be able to hold one’s tongue. In a face-to-face situation, silence may indicate several things. Facial expression and posture may indicate the feeling behind the silence. It may mean that the person is not sure what to say, or is so full of feeling as to be unable to speak. Sympathy with someone who has suffered loss is often best expressed by keeping silent rather than speaking. Some feelings like anger or displeasure can also be expressed by keeping silent. The terms “dead silence”, “stony silence”, “embarrassing silence”, etc. show that silence has a quality that communicates itself. Silence can be very embarrassing if it is not possible to interpret it. It can be awkward in a group, if no one knows how to break it. Body language like eye contact, facial expression and posture can convey something of the silent person’s thoughts, but a person who can control all facial expressions can really puzzle others. On the telephone, it can cause much discomfort, as one cannot see the other and therefore has no clue from facial expressions as to the reason for the other’s silence. In a dialogue, two persons take turns to speak. If one maintains silence instead of using his turn to speak, it can puzzle the other person. We expect a response from the other person to what CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
82 English Language and Lab we have spoken. If the response does not come, it belies our expectation and we do not know what to do. When faced with such silence, we may repeat what we said. The repetition is not likely to be in the same words and manner as before. It is possible that we may give additional information, soften what we said, try to explain more or make it more acceptable to the other. In a negotiation, silence and non-response is a useful strategy. It may make the other person speak more. Pauses are short silences. They are very effective in giving emphasis to words. A pause before or after certain words makes the words stand out from the rest. A skilfully placed pause has the power to make the listener more alert. In presentations, silence can be used effectively to emphasise a point. It is often far more effective than wild gestures or table-thumping. Note that there is a great difference between “being struck dumb” and being deliberately silent. If you are at a loss for words, or do not know how to respond to a situation or get silenced by an aggressive speaker, your silence shows your weakness. On the other hand, keeping silent, holding one’s peace and not responding while having a confident and peaceful expression on the face, is a sign of strength and power. It can puzzle the other persons and often make others repeat what they said and say more than they had intended to say. Deliberate silence is used by skilful negotiators who do not reveal their ideas too quickly. 4.6.8 Enthusiasm and Energy Enthusiasm and Energy with which we talk or listen inspire respect and esteem. An energetic speaker engages the audience much more than one who seems to be merely doing his job. Energy may come from physical good health and spirit, from mental strength, intellectual power or spiritual control. Whatever its source, it is very influential and contagious. 4.7 Other Sensory Symbols Anything that is felt by any of our senses can communicate something. It may not convey ideas or information, but appeals to our senses can convey impression of quality. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 83 4.7.1 Sounds Sounds have limited use as symbols to convey meaning and information. But sounds can be powerful in creating ambience and atmosphere. The kind of sounds we hear in an office space can convey an impression of the place. A noisy place does not suggest an efficient, professional approach to work but, we expect to hear the sound of busy machines in a factory. Music, however good, is appropriate in weddings, parties and festivities but not in the office. Sounds are used for warning, like sirens to warn of fire or accident, about enemy air raids in war-time and/or by police vehicles, ambulances, fire engines and other emergency service vehicles. Whistles are used by sport directors, the police/army to call members to assemble. Trains and ships use whistles as signal for departure and warning. Bells and buzzers and beepers are used to indicate the starting and ending of work periods. They are also used by special vehicles like the fire engine and the ambulance, to warn other road users to give way. A bell with a pleasant sound is used to call the faithful to prayer in many religions. Beeps are used by most electronic gadgets. Tunes are used as an identification mark. Programs on the radio/TV have a signature tune. Advertisements on these media have their tunes. Secret organisations whistle/hum tunes to identify and recognise members. 4.7.2 Touch and Feel The hospitality industry needs to be particularly aware of the importance of appeal to the sense of feel and touch. The rich, soft touch of velvet furnishings, the comfortable touch of furniture and things around the room can convey an impression of status and good taste. The food industry has to be aware of the feel and texture as well as the appearance and the taste of food. The touch and feel of the paper can distinguish one’s letterhead as much as what is printed on it. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
84 English Language and Lab 4.8 Summary Non-verbal communication includes all things, other than words, that convey impressions and meaning. It is always present, even when we are not communicating in language. A good deal of it is unconscious, but it is possible to become conscious of it and use it deliberately to improve both written and oral communication. Its impact is instantaneous and hence it is useful in situations when instant warning is needed. It can convey a great deal of information in compact form as in graphs, charts and maps. It is very useful for conveying messages to illiterate people. Written communication can be enhanced by the use of maps, graphs and charts of different kinds, and pictures of all kinds. Colour adds an extra dimension to these symbols and also has psychological effect. Body language includes all the movements and changes that occur in the body position. It is always present, reflects feelings and cannot be fully controlled, and is believed more than the spoken message. Its origins are biological, habitual and cultural. It includes appearance, clothes, posture, facial expression, smile, eye contact, gestures, enthusiasm, and use of one’s space and time. Paralanguage is a subset of body language. It describes voice quality and use, and includes tone, volume, speed, pronunciation, stresses and sounds without words. An important aspect of paralanguage is the use of pauses and silence. It is possible to gain a good deal of control on body language and paralanguage, and use them effectively as actors and other communicators do. 4.9 Keywords/Abbreviations z Body Language: Body movements and facial expressions that change. z Paralanguage: Conscious and unconscious conveyance of meaning through quality and variation of voice. z Sensory: Related to physical senses of touch, taste, smell, hearing and sight. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 85 4.10 Learning Activity 1. Working in small groups, make a recording of a 30-second presentation by each one. Make a note of aspects of paralanguage you need to improve. Work together in your language lab to make improvements. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Working in groups of four, make a video recording of a three-minute speech by each one. Two members of the group should sit far apart to listen, and make notes of what the speaker needs to improve in body language. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Watch your favourite speaker or TV news reader [any language] for body language and write down what you like and what can be modified. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.11 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. What is non-verbal communication? Explain its role in effectiveness of communication. 2. Explain what is meant by body language? 3. How can a written presentation be enhanced by non-verbal methods of communication? 4. Write a note on the importance of the speaker’s body language during an oral presentation. 5. How will you ensure that your body language is positive and pleasant when you go for an interview? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
86 English Language and Lab 6. List the elements of paralanguage. What steps are you taking to improve your paralanguage? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. An example of pictorial representation of statistical information is __________. (a) A pie chart (b) A map (c) A photograph (d) A flow chart 2. Paralanguage means __________. (a) Making signs with hands to communicate (b) Qualities of voice and tone that convey meanings (c) Words and phrases from another language (d) Pictures and symbols used to represent ideas 3. All the following are forms of body language except __________. (a) Gestures (b) Eye contact (c) Saying, ‘aha!’ (d) Smile 4. A flow chart can represent __________. (a) Statistical data (b) Locations (c) Relative sizes (d) Procedures 5. Space is considered an element of non-verbal communication because of these reasons except __________. (a) The distance people maintain from one another is significant (b) The way people structure the space around them conveys something about them (c) Having a spacious office indicates higher status (d) Choice of medium is influenced by the distance between sender and receiver CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication 87 6. All the following describe a relationship between verbal and non-verbal communication, except __________. (a) Complementing (b) Regulation (c) Substitution (d) Conflict 7. Non-verbal communication means __________. (a) Not using verbs in active voice (b) Without using words or language (c) Using only written communication (d) Communication only by speaking Answers 1. (a), 2. (b), 3. (c), 4. (d), 5. (d), 6. (b), 7. (b) 4.12 References Books: 1. Furnham, Adrian: Body Language at Work [Hyderabad University, 2000]. 2. James, Judy: Body Talk: Skill of the Positive Image [New Delhi, 1996]. 3. Lewis, Hedwig: Body Language: A Guide for Professionals [New Delhi, Response, 1998]. 4. Pease, Allan: Body Language: How to Read Others’ Thoughts by their Gestures [New Delhi, Sudha, 1997]. Websites: 1. https://www.lucidchart.com/pages/templates/flowchart 2. https://exploringthebusinessbrain.com/a-smile-is-not-just-a-smile-nonverbal-part-four/ CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
88 English Language and Lab UNIT 5 ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION Structure: 5.0 Learning Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 What is Ethics? 5.3 Summary 5.4 Keywords/Abbreviations 5.5 Learning Activity 5.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) 5.7 References 5.0 Learning Objectives After studying this unit, you will be able to: z Understand the meaning of ethics in communication z Be aware of ethical dilemmas in personal life and at work z Understand problems of Corporate Communication ethics z Become aware of the need to develop and adhere to code of ethics in communication CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Ethics in Communication 89 5.1 Introduction Ethics is the set of norms and principles of proper behaviour. Our judgements, opinions, evaluation and decisions, besides actions and activities, are based on these norms of what is right and what is wrong. Communication is a form of behaviour that involves having goals and purposes, evaluating situations and persons, making decisions and taking action. The principles that guide our decisions and actions also guide our communication behaviour. Communication theories discuss the process of communication, analyse the elements of communication, and examine types of communication and media of communication. Goals of communication are analysed, and communicators are advised to clarify their goal to make their communication effective. We try to improve our skills of communication by gaining command over the elements of communication. But the ethical aspect of communication and its goals does not get the importance it deserves. No doubt, views on ethics vary from person to person and from culture to culture. We sometimes find that one set of guiding principles does not suffice for all situations and we have to apply our mind carefully to decide what would be the right course of action. Our decisions are influenced by what we consider to be right or wrong. To what extent is our personal and social well-being affected by the knowledge and confidence that we have taken the right decision and taken the right action? Communication is the very fabric of which social and all human interaction is made, and it is important to give a thought to the question of how ethical consideration can improve or vitiate our communication skills. Being aware of ethics in communication activity can enhance our communication skill. Communication is a highly developed human activity since human beings live in societies and communities. Living together in peace for the purpose of safety and cooperative strength is one of the foundation stones of human society. We make rules by which we interact with one another in carrying out the various activities in which we engage. The rules are meant to ensure peaceful interaction and relationships. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
90 English Language and Lab Communication is relational. When we communicate, we establish a relationship with other persons and affect them. And how we affect those with whom we live and play and work influences our own well-being as well as that of the persons around us. 5.2 What is Ethics? The word ‘Ethics,’ used with a singular verb, (Ethics is) denotes the branch of philosophy that deals with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions, and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions. But we are not about to launch into a philosophical discussion here; we shall consider the common, practical definition of Ethics namely, a system of moral principles or the rules of conduct recognised in respect to human actions or a particular group, culture, organisation, etc. The word ‘Morals’ indicates an element of an individual’s personal preference, while ethics tends to suggest aspects of universal fairness and the question of whether or not an action is responsible, that is, responsible towards one’s profession, status, role in society, etc. Ethics is a set of social standards of what is considered to be good and bad, or right and wrong by conventions of a group of people. It is concerned with the consequences of our action on others and on the members of the group, and its relations with other groups. Codes of conduct are based on ethical principles. Professions have codes of conduct that lay down rules of interaction with others in different roles. One clear example is the principle of confidentiality. Medical professionals, Bankers, Chartered Accountants, Wealth Managers and Company Secretaries, Lawyers, who have personal information of their clients, are bound by their professional code of conduct not to reveal any such information to others. Various employees are bound by the principle of confidentiality not to reveal information they have found out in the course of their work as it could be harmful to the interests and well-being of the organisation. While both, morality and ethics, have to do with a sense of what is right and what is wrong, they are not exactly the same. Ethics arises from the socio-cultural customs and conventions of the group. Morality is a sense of what is right and wrong or good and bad that is felt more subjectively. Morality arises from a personal feeling of compassion, affection, altruism, loyalty CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Ethics in Communication 91 and so on. It is related to goodness of personal disposition, and may have its origins in religious texts. A breach of morals may or may not involve consequences for others, but it is very likely to lead to a personal feeling of guilt. A breach of ethics hurts and harms others and the group, and may invite official reprimand. Morality and ethics may sometimes come into conflict with each other. For example, Leena, a psychotherapist, working in clinic is aware that it is a breach of ethical standards to interact with a client outside work hours. However, Leena may find herself in a situation where a client’s mental condition is worse than normal, and as a person, she may feel like it is ‘right’ to provide unofficial therapeutic services outside work hours, even though she has an agreement with the clinic. Although she is breaching ethical standards, Leena may feel that it is worth the risk because at a moral level she has to put the client’s mental condition first. She is then in a moral/ethical dilemma. Many corporates have an “Ethics Committee” as part of their organisation to deal with ethical dilemmas and to advice on the right action to take in such sensitive situations. Ethics and codes of conduct provide a guide for interaction, functioning and working in one’s role in the organisation or group. If the consequences of ‘improper’ behaviour are serious, the affected party has a grievance and may have recourse to a Grievance Committee or Ombudsman, both of which are formal set-ups. In case of serious dispute over harm done by violation of conduct codes, there are also legal provisions in the form of Consumer Protection Act, Copyright Act, Defamation Act and so on. We, therefore, need to be aware that there are ethical and also legal aspects to communication. 5.3 Summary Ethics is a set of rules and norms for proper behaviour; communication is a form of behaviour and needs norms for evaluating what is right and wrong or good and bad. Theories of Communication focus on the process, on standards for technical and procedural efficiency, and on the skills of communication. More attention needs to be given to ethical standards and problems of communication. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
92 English Language and Lab Ethics can be defined as a set of moral principles that guide our behaviour. However, it is a social code and depends on the culture and conventions of a group, organisation or community. Morality is more subjective and is likely to be based on religious texts. Both are concerned with norms of right and wrong. In learning about ethics in communication, we are concerned with the social norms of behaviour. Ethics can provide guidance for peaceful, mutually respectful interactions and relationships among members of a group, large or small. Ethical communication needs to be learnt, practiced and trained as it does not come easily. This is mainly because communication is a natural activity and our emotions play a strong part in our natural behaviour. When we need to act and interact peacefully together, we need to control our emotions and conduct ourselves according to the rules laid down in a code of conduct. We can also improve our communication skills and achieve our goals more effectively if we apply our personal moral rules, examine how our emotions influence our behaviour and control some of our tendencies to communicate in an unethical manner such as shouting, insulting, mocking, ridiculing or silencing others. It is useful to understand and remind ourselves of some norms such as being respectful to audiences, using information properly, not falsifying information by various language tricks, sharing information sources, not stealing other people’s ideas, considering the consequences of our communication on immediate and distant audiences and others around. The most basic principle is not to cause hurt or harm to others, and to take responsibility for the consequences of our communication. Consistent practice of ethical communication requires personal integrity which commands respect and builds up personal reputation. A code of ethical communication is a useful guide to follow and to train oneself to practice ethical communication. 5.4 Keywords/Abbreviations z Dilemma: A situation in which one has to face an unpleasant and difficult choice. z Breach: Break or violation of a rule, or established custom, or law, or agreement. z Confidentiality: Keeping the state of secrecy of a particular information. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
Ethics in Communication 93 z Integrity: The quality of being honest and having strong moral principles. z Code of conduct: A set of rules that employees, companies, or professional people agree to follow in the way they behave and do business. 5.5 Learning Activity 1. Watch your own communication for one whole day from your first words to the last till you go to bed. Did you find anything that could have been a bit more ethical? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. Write a code of ethics that could be used by the family to make its members feel more comfortable. Use three principles that would be beneficial to the family’s well-being. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Work in a group of three to five persons. Hold a discussion to arrive at five principles of healthy communication to be followed to make your group more cohesive and productive. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5.6 Unit End Questions (MCQ and Descriptive) A. Descriptive Type Questions 1. How would you explain the distinction between ethics and morality? 2. Do you agree that we need a code of communication ethics? Give reasons for your answer. 3. What do you consider as the essential characteristics of ethical communication? 4. In your opinion, what can we do to ensure that our communication is ethical? CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
94 English Language and Lab 5. Do you think that the legal provisions and acts that regulate some aspects of corporate communication are beneficial? B. Multiple Choice/Objective Type Questions 1. Ethics is __________. (a) Not related to communication (b) The same as morals (c) Set of moral principles that guide human interaction (d) A legal requirement for business 2. Ethics in Corporate Communication is important because it __________. (a) Is needed in order to remain on the right side of the law (b) Helps to make immediate profit (c) Keeps customers away from competitors (d) Influences an organisation’s long-term success 3. Personal integrity is __________. (a) Not necessary in business (b) An individual’s choice (c) Forced on employees by the management (d) Required by the law 4. A written statement of policies and principles that guides the behaviour of all employees is called __________. (a) Code of conduct (b) Word of ethics (c) Ethical dilemma (d) None of the above 5. All the following statements about the study of Ethics in Communication are false, except__________. CU IDOL SELF LEARNING MATERIAL (SLM)
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