Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology clear version in English

TheGALE ENCYCLOPEDIAof Psychology SECOND EDITION

The GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA of Psychology SECOND EDITION BONNIE STRICKLAND , EXECUTIVE EDIT OR

Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology Second Edition Bonnie R. Strickland, Executive editor While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the infor- mation presented in this publication, Gale Group does not guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for GALE GROUP STAFF listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, in- stitution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorse- Kristine Krapp, Coordinating senior editor ment of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the Christine Jeryan, Managing editor publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be cor- Melissa C. McDade, Assistant editor rected in future editions. Deirdre Blanchfield, Assistant editor This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable Mark Springer, Editorial Technical Trainer copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair com- petition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work Barbara J. Yarrow, Manager, Multimedia and imaging have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one content or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, Robyn V. Young, Senior editor, Imaging acquisitions expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. Robert Duncan, Senior imaging specialist All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. Kenn Zorn, Product design manager Copyright 2001 Marie Claire Krzewinski, Cover design Gale Group Marie Claire Krzewinski and Michelle DiMercurio, 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 Page design Mike Logusz, Graphic artist All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. Mary Beth Trimper, Manager, Composition and electronic prepress ISBN 0-7876-4786-1 Evi Seoud, Assistant manager, Composition and Printed in the United States of America electronic prepress 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Stacy L. Melson, Buyer Tables by Mark Berger, Standley Publishing, Ferndale, Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Michigan The Gale encyclopedia of psychology / Bonnie R. Strickland, First Edition by Eastword Publication Development, executive editor.–2nd ed. Pepper Pike, Ohio p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7876-4786-1 1. Psychology–Encyclopedias. I. Strickland, Bonnie R. BF31.G35 2000 150’.3–dc21 00-34736

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS EXECUTIVE EDITOR Susan Gall Bonnie Ruth Strickland, Ph.D Lauri R. Harding Professor of Psychology Jim Henry D. George Joseph University of Massachusetts/Amherst Jerome Kagan Kyung Lim Kalasky COORDINATING EDITOR Mary Anne Klasen Kristine M. Krapp Judson Knight Peter LaFreniere Johnna Laird CONTRIBUTORS Lara Lynn Lane Margaret Alic Patricia Martin Doreen Arcus Mary McNulty Howard Baker George A. Milite Bernard Beins Zoran Minderovic Karen L. Bierman Nancy Moore Hallie Bourne Timothy E. Moore James Calland Patricia Skinner Kenneth Chiacchia Gail B. Slap Dianne Daeg de Mott Jane Spear Jill De Villiers Laurence Steinberg Marie Doorey Judith Turner Catherine Dybiec Holm Cindy Washabaugh Lindsay Evans Janet A. Welsh Alan Feldman Rosalie Wieder Paula Ford-Martin Angela Woodward GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION V

ABOUT THE ENCYCLOPEDIA The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, Second Edi- • Bolded cross-references direct the reader to entries tion includes over 650 entries on people and subjects im- on terms mentioned in the text of other entries. portant to the study of psychology. This number repre- • See also references at the end of entries point the sents one-third more entries than the first edition. The reader to related entries. book has been designed so the reader can easily find and access the information needed. • Further Reading and Further Information sections follow entries, directing the reader to other sources • Entries are alphabetically arranged. of information on the topic. • Length of entries ranges from brief explanations of a concept in one or two paragraphs to longer, more • A new and improved glossary of over 350 essential detailed entries on more complex topics. Almost terms is included to help the reader understand key 65% of the entries are entirely new or updated concepts. from the first edition. • An updated appendix lists psychological organiza- • A brief definition of the entry term appears be- tions that the reader may contact for further in- tween the entry title and the full text of the entry. quiries. • Over 175 photos, illustrations, and tables accom- • An updated and expanded general subject index pany the text and enhance the reader’s understand- points the reader to concepts and people covered in ing of the subject covered. the encyclopedia. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION VII

CONTENTS Editors and Contributors ......................v About the Encyclopedia .....................vii Table of Contents.............................ix Introduction ..................................xi Entries ........................................1 Glossary ....................................675 Psychological Organizations ...............687 Index ......................................691 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION IX

INTRODUCTION Psychology is one of the most fascinating fields of Psychology is one of our youngest sciences. People study. Almost everyone seems interested in understand- first looked at the stars to predict and control their des- ing his or her own behavior, as well as the actions of oth- tiny and the science of astronomy was born. Mathemat- ers. Psychology is, by far, the most popular of the social ics was necessary to count and measure, and eventually and behavioral sciences and one of the most attractive to the physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry, and bi- those who are interested in knowing more about people ology, emerged. The study of human psychology, how- and their behavior. In college and universities, psycholo- ever, developed later. It has only been a bit over a centu- gy has been one of the most popular majors for over ry since scientists and philosophers turned their eyes three decades, and students are more likely to take an from the planets to people and tried to understand human elective course in psychology than one from any other behavior in a systematic, scientific way. In the late l9th field. Not surprisingly, psychology has also become a century, philosophers and physiologists began to exam- popular high school offering. ine the ways people perceive and interact with the world around them. How do individuals use their senses of Initially, psychology courses at the secondary school sight, hearing, and touch to make sense of the world? level tried to meet the needs of rapidly maturing adoles- How do people remember what has happened to them or cents who were interested in the changes they were expe- know how to plan for the future? riencing in themselves and in their relationships with oth- ers—family, friends, the world of adults. We are living in In the late second half of the 1800s, a number of times of dramatic social change. Each of us continually young North American men and a few women traveled faces new challenges about how we will make our place in to Germany to study with Wilhelm Wundt, who had es- the world. As the discipline of psychology matured, ad- tablished a laboratory and the first graduate program of justment courses gave way to substantive content courses study in psychology at the University of Leipzig in Ger- that offered not just psychology’s latest findings about de- many. They returned to teach psychology and train other velopmental and identity issues, but also featured those students in the major universities of this country with the more traditional areas of cognitive, experimental, physio- intent of quantifying individual differences and impor- logical, and social psychology. These courses were joined tant elements of human perception and memory. by newly developed offerings such as neuropsychology About the same time (1896), Lightner Witmer estab- and psycholinguistics. The advances in the scientific side lished a Psychological Clinic at the University of Penn- of psychology were paralleled by the remarkable growth sylvania to help children who were having difficulty in of counseling, clinical, and school psychology. school. To keep up with the rapidly expanding field, the Being a psychologist, he assumed that his new pro- newly revised second edition of the Gale Encyclopedia fession—dedicated to learning and memory—would of Psychology has added about a third more entries and help him assist children who were having trouble read- biographies. Coverage includes the key concepts on ing, writing, spelling, and remembering information. which the science is built, as well as major theoretical Unfortunately, Witmer could find no help from the com- advances in psychology. Clinical information is broadly plex, theoretical notions within the experimental labora- covered, noting the various psychological theories and tories, and he turned to schoolteachers and social work- techniques currently in use and the scientific evidence ers for practical advice. that supports then. Biographical profiles of major figures in the field of psychology are included, ranging from the Thus began the long struggle between the scientific earliest historical pioneers to current clinicians. study and practice of psychology, theory and action. Sci- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XI

entists want to know that the data that they gather in their mine who might be good officers (or spies). On the battle- experiments are valid and replicable (that is, others pur- field, clinicians were helping troops who were experienc- suing the same questions with appropriate methods ing “traumatic neurosis, ” originally called “shell shock” would find the same results). They sometimes feel that in the First World War and now known as post-traumatic clinicians, for example, use psychotherapy techniques stress disorder. When the soldiers returned home, they led that have not been proven to be useful and may even be therapy groups for wounded military personnel. harmful. Practitioners, on the other hand, faced with pressing and immediate problems of clients who are anx- At the end of the Second World War, the National Re- ious, depressed, or psychotic, need immediate treatments search Council urged the American Psychological Associ- to relieve suffering and may use methods that have not ation (APA) to heal the schism between scientists and have been fully proven in the laboratories. clinicians and reorganize with full membership benefits for all doctoral psychologists. The Veteran’s Hospitals, in The earliest psychologists worked primarily with chil- particular, needed well-trained personnel to provide men- dren, usually those who were delinquent or having trouble tal health services for their patients. A major 1949 confer- in school. They were particularly taken with assessing in- ence held in Boulder, Colorado established standards of telligence and translated a test developed by a Frenchman, education and training for clinical psychologists. Their Alfred Binet, to quantify “mental age.” Unfortunately, they recommendations were that clinical psychologists should moved well beyond the limitations of the test that had been be trained as generalists who were both scientists and clin- designed to identify children who were having trouble in icians. Doctoral students would complete at least a year of school. They began testing soldiers recruited for the First internship and receive the Ph. D. (doctor of philosophy) World War and immigrants who wanted to come to this degree. These standards are still in place today, although country. According to their tests, they found almost half of newer of training are available for students who want to the young, white male recruits and some 80% of Eastern place more emphasis on practice and less on doing re- European immigrants to be “morons.” This led them to re- search. In addition to university graduate programs, a think the uses of intelligence tests, especially because of large number of professional schools have been estab- opinions like that of journalist Walter Lippman, who rec- lished, often offering a Psy. D (doctor of psychology) de- ommended that the “intelligence testers and their tests gree. Currently, some 4,000 students graduate each year should be sunk without warning in the… sea.” But serious with a doctoral degree in psychology and perhaps three harm had been done. Some six million immigrants were times that many receive a master’s degree. The over- denied entrance into this country, and intelligence testing whelming majority of these graduates go into clinical or laid the base for human eugenics laws that allowed individ- applied work, although changing conditions in the health uals who were found “intellectually unfit” to be sterilized. fields, such as the growth of HMOs, have raised concerns about job opportunities for clinical psychologists. Nonetheless, psychology became something of a na- tional mania in the 1920s. With the introduction of psy- A field as broad as psychology, which stretches from choanalysis into this country, people wanted to “adjust” the study of brain cells to that of prison cells, is an active, through self-examination and the probing of the uncon- argumentative, and exciting adventure that offers oppor- scious. The scientific psychologists were dismayed at the tunities in science, practice, and social policy. Most of the excesses of pseudopsychologists, whose ranks included pressing economic and social issues of our generation, mind readers and charlatans. Psychological clinicians such as the environment, health needs, poverty, and vio- were concerned as well and took steps to develop a stan- lence, will only be alleviated if we understand the ways in dard of ethics and ways of identifying appropriately which people create or creatively solve the problems that trained psychologists. we bring upon ourselves. The student who is interested in unraveling the secrets of the human brain to see the mind With the advent of the Second World War, psycholo- at work, who is fascinated about how children grow up gists joined the military effort and were surprised them- and become competent adults, who is dedicated to bring- selves by how much they had to offer. Human factors psy- ing people together to resolve conflict, who is committed chologists designed airplane cockpits and the lighting on to helping people with physical, emotional, or behavioral runways that we still use today. Gestalt psychologists difficulties, or who is challenged by the desire to develop taught American citizens how to identify enemy planes social policy in the public interest is welcomed in psy- should they fly overhead. B.F. Skinner taught pigeons to chology. We hope this encyclopedia will provide useful guide missiles toward enemy targets. Psychologists information that will help students and others understand worked for the Office of Strategic Services (which eventu- this fascinating field and its opportunities. ally became the CIA) to develop propaganda and disinfor- mation. This group also developed assessments to deter- Bonnie R. Strickland, Ph.D. XII GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Bonnie Ruth Strickland received her Ph.D. in Clini- President of the American Psychological Association, the cal Psychology from The Ohio State University in 1962. Division of Clinical Psychology and the American Asso- She has been on the faculties of Emory University and the ciation for Applied and Preventive Psychology; she was a University of Massachusetts in Amherst as a teacher, re- Founder and on the first Board of Directors of the Ameri- searcher, administrator, clinician, and consultant. A can Psychological Society. An advocate for minority con- Diplomate in Clinical Psychology, she has also been in cerns, she has published more than a hundred scholarly practice for over 35 years. Dr. Strickland has served as works including two Citation Classics in psychology. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION XIII

A Ability Abnormal psychology Knowledge or skill, including the potential to ac- The subfield of psychology concerned with the quire knowledge or skills and those already ac- study of abnormal behavior. quired. Abnormal behavior is defined as behavior that is The capacity to learn, commonly known as aptitude, considered to be maladaptive or deviant by the social and the demonstration of skills and knowledge already culture in which it occurs. Though disagreement exists learned, called achievement, are among the factors used regarding which particular behaviors can be classified as to evaluate intelligence. When evaluating or comparing abnormal, psychologists have defined several criteria for subjects, two kinds of abilities are considered: verbal purposes of classification. One is that the behavior oc- ability, including reading comprehension, ability to con- curs infrequently and thus deviates from statistical verse, vocabulary, and the use of language; and problem- norms. Another is that the behavior deviates from social solving ability, which includes a person’s capacity to norms of acceptable behavior. A third is that the behavior make good decisions given a set of circumstances. is maladaptive, that it has adverse affects on the individ- ual or on the individual’s social group. Lastly, abnormal- Relatively straightforward tests of ability are often ity may be defined based on the subjective feelings of used by employers to determine an applicant’s skills. For misery, depression, or anxiety of an individual rather example, a person applying for a job as a word processor than any behavior he exhibits. may be given a keyboarding test, while a bus-driving ap- plicant would be given a driving test. Tests to evaluate The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental more complex abilities, such as leadership, motivation, Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV), is a classification sys- and social skills tend to be less precise. tem of abnormal behaviors which aids psychologists and Developed around the turn of the twentieth century, other mental health professionals in diagnosing and formal tests used by psychologists and educators to mea- treating mental disorders. DSM-IV includes the major cat- sure aptitude and achievement remain controversial. In- egories of abnormal behavior which are anxiety disor- telligence, or IQ, tests are faulted for ignoring cultural or ders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorders and pho- social biases, particularly with regard to schoolchildren, bias; affective disorders, which are disturbances of mood and critics contend such standardized measures cannot such as depression; schizophrenic disorders, which are adequately predict a person’s future performance. characterized by major disturbances in personality and distortion of reality; and various personality disorders. See also Achievement tests; Scholastic Assessment Test; Stanford-Binet intelligence scales; Vocational Apti- While psychologists use similar criteria to diagnose tude Test abnormal behavior, their perspectives in understanding and treating related disorders vary greatly. For instance, Further Reading a psychologist with a psychoanalytic approach would ex- Atkinson, Rita L.; Richard C. Atkinson; Edward E. Smith; and plain depression as a reaction to loss, worsened by anger Ernest R. Hilgard. Introduction to Psychology. 9th ed. San turned inward. A behavioral psychologist would assume Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. a lack of positive reinforcement to be a significant cause Zimbardo, Philip G. Psychology and Life. 12th ed. Glenview, in the disease. A cognitive theorist would focus on the IL: Scott, Foresman, 1988. negative thought patterns and attitudes of an individual GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 1

While abortion is practiced throughout society, in all Abortion in contributing to his depression. And a psychologist socioeconomic strata, poor women are three times more with a biological perspective would consider a chemical likely to have an abortion than their well-off counterparts. imbalance in the nervous system of a depressed individ- ual to be responsible for his disorder. Many studies have White women have 63% of all abortions, but the shown that a number of these factors may come into play non-white abortion rate is more than twice the white in the life of an individual suffering from a mental disor- rate—54 per 1,000 versus 20 per 1,000. About 93% of der characterized by abnormal behavior. all abortions are performed for social, not medical, rea- See also Mental illness; Psychotic disorders sons; in other words, most abortions are, from the med- ical point of view, unnecessary: the mother’s health and Further Reading life are not in jeopardy, and there are no abnormalities Oldham, John M. The New Personality Self-Portrait. New which would justify the termination of the fetus’s life. York: Bantam, 1995. Social reasons include fear of motherhood, fear of los- Personality Disorders and the Five-Factor Model of Personality. ing a partner who doesn’t want children, fear of parental Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, and social disapproval, financial difficulties, lack of sup- 1994. port, and psychological problems, among others. Abortion is a complex issue that raises a plethora of medical, ethical, political, legal, and psychological ques- Abortion tions, and is viewed by proponents and opponents as one of society’s fundamental problems. “Abortion,” Paul D. Invasive procedure resulting in pregnancy termina- Simmons has written (Butler and Walbert, 1992), “is re- tion and death of the fetus. lated to life and death, sexuality and procreation—all of which are integrally related in the human psyche.” While Abortion is the final consequence of a woman’s deci- the “pro-choice” camp defends a woman’s right to termi- sion to terminate her pregnancy. In the U.S., more than nate her pregnancy, “pro-life” forces define abortion as 50% of the pregnancies are unintended, and 50% of these murder. As commentators have noted, dialogue between end in abortion. More than half (53%) of the unplanned the two camps has been difficult, seemingly impossible, pregnancies happen among the 10% of women who prac- because opinions are often based on strong feelings and tice no contraception. Most women getting abortions are beliefs. An additional obstacle to dialogue is the fact that young: 55% are under 25, including 21% teenagers. the two opposing sides use fundamentally different dis- courses. Pro-life discourse often draws its strength from the Christian axiom about the sanctity of life, while pro- choice thinking proceeds from the belief that an individ- ual woman has the freedom to act in her best interest. Vulsellum Vagina While vulnerable to moral condemnation, and even ha- rassment, adult women have the protection of liberal legisla- Uterus tion in seeking an abortion (in Roe v. Wade, 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that abortion is a constitutional right). Teenagers, however, are subject to state laws; in 25 states, a minor cannot seek an abortion without parental consent. Tra- ditionally, any medical treatment of a minor requires Embryonic parental consent, and as the Planned Parenthood Fact Sheet tissue “Teenagers, Abortion, and Government Intrusion Laws” points out, a physician treating a minor without parental con- sent is committing the common law equivalent of battery. Speculum However, “in the area of abortion, there have never been Extraction tube criminal penalties for treating a minor on her own consent.” Cervix Zoran Minderovic Between five and seven weeks, a pregnancy can be ended Further Reading by a procedure called menstrual extraction, shown above. Butler, J. Douglas, and David F. Walbert, eds. Abortion, Medicine, (Electronic Illustrations Group. Reproduced with permission.) and the Law. 4th rev. ed. New York: Facts On File, 1992. 2 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Darroch Forrest, Jacqueline, and Jennifer J. Frost. “The Family but on a subsequent occasion, may detect it. In addition, Planning Attitudes and Experiences of Low-Income scientists cannot determine with absolute certainty how Women.” Family Planning Perspectives 28, no. 6. (No- much energy is present in a light because of limits to the Acculturation vember-December 1996): 246-55. physics of measurement. As a result, psychologists Hern, Warren M. Abortion Practice. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippin- often define the threshold as the lowest intensity that a cott, 1984. person can detect 50 percent of the time. Matthews, Stephen, David Ribar, and Mark Wilhelm. “The Ef- fects of Economic Conditions and Access to Reproductive A number of different factors can influence the ab- Health Services on State Abortion Rates and Birthrates.” solute threshold, including the observer’s motivations Family Planning Perspectives 29, no. 2. (March-April and expectations, and whether the person is adapted to 1997): 52-60. the stimulus. Scientists have discovered that cognitive “Teenagers, Abortion, and Government Intrusion Laws.” processes can influence the measurement of the thresh- (Planned Parenthood Fact Sheet). New York: Planned Par- old and that it is not as simple as once understood. Psy- enthood Federation of America, October 1992. chologists have also studied how different two stimuli Torres, Aida, and Jacqueline Darroch Forrest. “Why Do have to be in order to be noticed as not being the same. Women Have Abortions?” Family Planning Perspectives Such an approach involves what are called difference 20, no. 4. (July-August 1988). thresholds. Further Reading Galantner, E. “Contemporary Psychophysics.” In New Direc- Absolute threshold tions in Psychology, edited by R. Brown. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962. The minimal amount of energy necessary to stimu- late the sensory receptors. The method of testing for the absolute threshold is similar for different sensory systems. Thus, the tester can Acculturation briefly present a light or a sound (or any other kind of The process of adapting to or adopting the prac- stimulus) at different, low intensities until the observer is tices of a culture different from one’s own. unable to detect the presence of the stimulus. In such a task, the person may undergo thousands of trials before Acculturation is the process of learning about and the researcher can determine the threshold. adapting to a new culture. A new culture may require ad- While the absolute threshold is a useful concept, it justments in all or some of the aspects of daily living, in- does not exist in reality. That is, on one occasion, an in- cluding language, work, shopping, housing, children’s dividual might be unable to detect a certain faint light schooling, health care, recreation, and social life. Relo- EXAMPLES OF ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS Sense Example of threshold Vision The amount of light present if someone held up a single candle 30 mi (48 km) away from us, if our eyes were used to the dark. If a person in front of you held up a candle and began backing up at the rate of one foot (30 cm) per second, that person would have to back up for 44 hours before the flame became invisible. Hearing The ticking of a watch in a quiet environment at 20 ft (6 m). Taste One drop on quinine sulfate (a bitter substance) in 250 gal (946 l) of water. Quinine is one of the components of tonic water. Smell One drop of perfume in a six-room house. This value will change depending on the type of sub- stance we are smelling. Touch The force exerted by dropping the wing of a bee onto your cheek from a distance of one centimeter (0.5 in). This value will vary considerably depending on the part of the body involved. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 3

Achievement motivation cation to a society that is similar to one’s own requires Portes, Alejandro and Min Zhou. “Should Immigrants Assimi- late?” The Public Interest, (Summer 1994): 18+. less acculturation than moving to a society where cultur- Richey, Marilyn. “Global Families: Surviving an Overseas al norms are unfamiliar. For example, moving to a soci- Move.” Management Review 85, (June 1996): 57+. ety where women’s roles are different from those of Salins, Peter D. Assimilation, American Style. New York: Basic one’s home culture can cause feelings of isolation and Books, 1997. confusion for the adult women of the family. Acculturation is different in subtle ways from as- similation: assimilation involves being absorbed into the new culture. A popular metaphor for this process was in- troduced in 1908 by the playwright Israel Zangwill with Achievement motivation his work, The Melting Pot. Acculturation, on the other hand, is the process of learning the practices and cus- See Motivation toms of a new culture. People can assimilate without being acculturated. The distinctively dressed Hasidim of Brooklyn or the Mormons of Utah are not completely ac- culturated to contemporary American society, but they are assimilated. Understanding the distinction between Achievement tests acculturation and assimilation is important for public Standardized tests, administered to groups of stu- policy and for society’s ability to grow and function dents, intended to measure how well they have smoothly. learned information in various academic subjects. A homogeneous consumer culture worldwide has changed the nature of acculturation. People all over the Spelling tests, timed arithmetic tests, and map globe watch the same news reports on CNN, rent the quizzes are all examples of achievement tests. Each mea- same movies, watch the same television programs, eat sures how well students can demonstrate their knowledge the same pizzas and burgers from fast food franchises, of a particular academic subject or skill. Achievement and many of the world’s families have made at least one tests on a small scale like these are administered frequent- visit to a Disney theme park. Immigrants to a new coun- ly in schools. Less frequently, students are given more in- try may already be very familiar with the customs and clusive achievement tests that cover a broader spectrum of lifestyle of their new home. information and skills. For instance, many states now re- quire acceptable scores on “proficiency” tests at various Cultural pluralism and multiculturalism grade levels before advancement is allowed. Admission to colleges and graduate studies depends on achievement American sociologist Horace Kallen argues that it is tests such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), unrealistic and counterproductive to force new immi- which attempts to measure both aptitude and achievement, grants to abandon their familiar, lifelong cultural attrib- the Graduate Record Exam (GRE), the Law School Ad- utes when they arrive in the United States. Instead of the missions Test (LSAT), and the Medical College Admis- concept of the “melting pot,” Kallen prescribed what he sions Test (MCAT). The Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) called “cultural pluralism.” Cultural pluralism views and the California Achievement Test (CAT) are examples U.S. society as a federation rather than a union. Some- of achievement tests given to many elementary school stu- times referred to as multiculturalism, this approach sug- dents around the United States. gests that each group of ethnic Americans has rights, Useful achievement tests must be both reliable and such as representation in government according to their valid. Reliable tests are consistent and reproducible. That percentage of the total population, and the right to speak is, a student taking a similar test, or the same test at a dif- and work in their native language. However, English-lan- ferent time, must respond with a similar performance. guage culture and social influences continue to domi- Valid tests measure achievement on the subject they are nate, but African American, Hispanic, Jewish, Italian, intended to measure. For example, a test intended to mea- Asian, and other ethnic influences are certainly apparent. sure achievement in arithmetic—but filled with difficult vocabulary—may not measure arithmetic achievement at Further Reading Gordon, Milton Myron. Assimilation in American Life: The all. The students who score well on such a test may be Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins. New York: those who have good vocabularies or above-average read- Oxford University Press, 1964. ing ability in addition to appropriate arithmetic skills. Jacobson, Adam R. “Changing With the Times.” Hispanic 7, Students who fail may have achieved the same arithmetic (March 1994): 20+. skills, but did not know how to demonstrate them. Such 4 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

tests would not be considered valid. In order for reliable macist David Ackerman and Bertha (Greenberg) Acker- comparisons to be made, all standardized tests, including man. They came to the United States in 1912, and were achievement tests, must be given under similar conditions naturalized in 1920. He was married to Gwendolyn Hill and with similar time limitations and scoring procedures. on October 10, 1937. They had two daughters, Jeanne The difficulty of maintaining consistency in these admin- and Deborah. Nathan Ward Ackerman istration procedures makes the reliability of such tests Ackerman attended a public school in New York questionable, critics contend. City. In 1929 he was awarded a B.A. from Columbia Many researchers point to another problem with University, and in 1933 earned his M.D. from the same achievement tests. Because it is difficult to distinguish in university. After a short spell (1933–34) as an intern at test form the difference between aptitude—innate abili- the Montefiore Hospital in New York, he interned at the ty—and achievement—learned knowledge or skills—the Menninger Clinic and Sanitorium in Topeka, Kansas. He results of tests that purport to measure achievement joined their psychiatric staff in 1935. alone are necessarily invalid to some degree. Also, some He assumed the post of chief psychiatrist at the children attain knowledge through their experiences, Menninger Child Guidance Clinic in 1937. For the next which may assist them in tests of academic achievement. fourteen years, Ackerman was also chief psychiatrist to The presence of cultural biases in achievement tests is a the Jewish Board of Guardians in New York City. During frequent topic of discussion among educators, psycholo- this period, he had numerous positions at a variety of in- gists, and the public at large. Political pressure to pro- stitutions in New York City. Ackerman acted as psychia- duce high scores and the linking of achievement to pub- trist to the Red Cross Rehabilitation Clinic during World lic funds for schools have also become part of the War II, and also worked as a consultant to the depart- achievement-test controversy. ment of scientific research when it was first established Yet further skepticism about achievement test results by Max Horkheimer in 1944. After the war, Ackerman comes from critics who contend that teachers frequently assumed the post of clinical professor of psychiatry at plan their lessons and teaching techniques to foster suc- Columbia University, and later lectured at the New York cess on such tests. This “teaching to the test” technique School of Social Work, a part of Columbia University. used by some teachers makes comparisons with other He also lectured (1944–48) at the Visiting Nurse Service curricula difficult; thus, test scores resulting from the and the Community Service Society. different methods become questionable as well. Test In addition to his active career in New York City, anxiety may also create unreliable results. Students who Ackerman served as visiting professor of psychiatry for experience excessive anxiety when taking tests may per- a number of universities, including Tulane University form below their level of achievement. For them, and the University of North Carolina. In 1952 Ackerman achievement tests may prove little more than their aver- served as a member of the White House Conference on sion to test-taking. Children in Washington D.C. Further Reading Houts, Paul L., ed. The Myth of Measurability. New York: Hart Pioneers field of family psychology Publishing Co., 1977. Ackerman published The Unity of the Family and Wallace, Betty, and William Graves. Poisoned Apple: The Bell- Family Diagnosis: An Approach to the Preschool Child in Curve Crisis and How Schools Create Mediocrity and 1938, both of which contributed to the initial promotion Failure. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995. of the theory of family therapy. In 1950 Ackerman wrote a book on anti-Semitism in collaboration with Marie Jahoda. Sponsored by the American Jewish Com- mittee, Anti-Semitism and Emotional Disorder, a Psycho- Nathan Ward Ackerman analytic Interpretation examines and analyzes the phe- nomenon and offers possible solutions. He went on to 1908-1971 write many books during his career, including The Psy- Psychologist and educator noted for his work as a chodynamics of Family Life (1958) and Treating the Trou- family therapist, particularly for his ability to look beyond the traditional assessment of families and bled Family (1966). He coauthored several books, includ- to accurately assess the way that family members ing Exploring the Base for Family Therapy and published relate to each other. more than 100 articles in professional journals. Ackerman is widely acknowledged as a pioneer in Nathan Ward Ackerman was born in Bessarabia, his field and credited with developing the concept of Russia on November 22, 1908. His parents were phar- family psychology. In 1955 he was the first to initiate a GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 5

debate on family therapy at a meeting of the American Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Orthopsychiatric Association, with the intention of open- Acquired Immune Deficiency ing lines of communication in this new branch of psychi- Syndrome (AIDS) atry. He believed that the mental or physical disposition of one family member would affect other family mem- A progressive, degenerative disease involving sev- eral major organ systems, including the immune bers, and that often the best way to treat the individual system and central nervous system. Uniformly was to treat the family as a whole. In fact he was a very fatal, it is associated with human immunodeficien- strong advocate of treating the whole family in order to cy virus (HIV), a viral infection that progressively solve the problems of the individual. He devoted most of weakens the immune system. his career to family psychotherapy. Ackerman’s work was deeply appreciated by his Since Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome peers, as evidenced by the number of awards bestowed (AIDS) manifests itself in a number of different diseases upon him. He received the Rudolph Meyer award from and conditions, it has been difficult to arrive at a formal the Association for Improvement to Mental Health in definition. In an attempt to standardize the definition of 1959. He was also the recipient of the Wilfred Hulse AIDS, the Centers for Disease Control in 1992 included award for group psychotherapy in 1965. among its diagnostic criteria a count of 200 or fewer CD4T lymphocyte cells per cubic ml of blood (a sign of severe immune system suppression). AIDS was first rec- Founds institute to study the family ognized in 1981 as a cluster of symptoms in homosexual men in New York City and San Francisco. Eventually, In 1960, Ackerman opened the Institute for Family similar symptoms were found among intravenous drug Studies and Treatment, a nonprofit organization devoted users, hemophiliacs, and other recipients of blood trans- to promoting family mental health. The Institute’s fusions. In 1984, the human immunodeficiency virus premise was (and is) that if the family is healthy, the in- (HIV) was isolated and subsequently determined as the dividual will be healthy and ultimately produce a health- probable cause of AIDS. ier society. Ackerman developed a program for research that greatly furthered the effectiveness of the Institute. HIV is transmitted through sexual intercourse, con- He served as the director of this establishment up tact with infected blood and blood products, and the until his death, when it was renamed the Nathan W. Ack- birth process. However, casual social contact—even if erman Institute (usually known as the Ackerman Insti- close and prolonged—has not been found to spread HIV. tute) in his honor. The Institute has its own journal, Fam- The greatest number of HIV cases are sexually transmit- ily Process, which was the first ever family therapy jour- ted, through both homosexual and heterosexual inter- nal, started by Ackerman in association with Don Jack- course. Screening of donated blood and blood products son. This journal remains a principal reference for other since 1985 has drastically reduced the risk of transfu- professionals in the field. Today the Ackerman Institute sion-related HIV. Children may be infected in utero or is considered perhaps the finest facility for family psy- by exposure to blood and vaginal secretions during chology in the world. childbirth. The child of an infected mother has a 25 to 35 percent chance of acquiring the virus. In addition to being a fellow of the American Board of Psychiatry and the New York Academy of Medicine, Persons infected with HIV initially show no symp- Ackerman was also president (1957–59) of the Associa- toms. Within three to six weeks after infection they may tion of Psychoanalytic Medicine, as well as a member of exhibit flu-like symptoms that last up to three weeks and the Academy of Child Psychiatry, the American Psy- resolve spontaneously. According to long-term studies, chopathalogical Society, and the New York Council of all or almost all persons infected with HIV eventually be- Child Psychiatry. come ill with full-blown AIDS, although the incubation period varies from less than a year to as long as 15 years. Ackerman died on June 12, 1971, and was buried in AIDS is considered full-blown when the immune system Westchester Hills Cemetery, Hastings on Hudson, New is seriously suppressed. At this point, the patient becomes York. vulnerable to opportunistic infections and diseases that are able to attack because of reduced immune system de- Patricia Skinner fenses. These include candiasis, pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), herpes and other viral infections, toxo- plasmosis, and tuberculosis. AIDS also weakens the Further Reading body’s defenses against carcinomas, and conditions such Ackerman Institute www.ackerman.org. as lymphoma and Kaposi’s sarcoma are common compli- 6 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

cations of the disease. AIDS also attacks the nervous sys- lated behavior is increasing among young homosexuals tem. Neurological disorders such as encephalitis and de- under the mistaken belief that the threat of AIDS applies mentia occur in over two-thirds of AIDS patients. mostly to older gay men. Risky sexual behavior has also Adaptation HIV/AIDS patients are also prone to blood abnormalities, remained widespread among heterosexual teenagers in respiratory infections, and gastrointestinal problems, in- the 1990s, especially among African-American and His- cluding diarrhea, which is partly responsible for the panic males. weight loss that occurs in the course of the disease. Further Reading Comforting a person with AIDS or any other fatal Anonymous. It Happened to Nancy. New York: Avon Books, illness is challenging for friends, family, and others 1994. around him. Isolation is one of the most difficult aspects A Conversation With Magic. Lucky Duck Productions, 1992. of this disease, often resulting from misinformation and Videorecording. fear about how the disease is spread. There is no scien- Foster, Carol, et al., eds. AIDS. Wylie, TX: Information Plus, tific evidence that AIDS is spread through casual con- 1992. tact, and there is no reason to avoid gestures of friend- Siegel, Larry. AIDS, The Drug and Alcohol Connection. Center ship and comfort, such as a personal visit, a hug, or City, MN: Hazelden, 1989. holding the patient’s hand. According to the World Health Organization, an esti- mated five to ten million people worldwide are infected with HIV. The highest incidence of AIDS is in major cities Action potential in Asia, Africa, and the United States. In the United States A momentary electrical event occurring through alone, there are thought to be over one million infected the membrane of a nerve cell fiber in response to a with HIV, and over 250,000 cases of full-blown AIDS have stimulus, forming a nerve impulse. been reported. AIDS has become a leading cause of death in men and women under the age of 45 and children under An action potential is transmitted along a nerve fiber the age of five. Originally thought of as a “gay men’s dis- as a wave of changing electrical charge. This wave travels at ease,” in 1993 AIDS was the nation’s fourth leading cause a speed that ranges from about five feet (1.5 m) per second of death in women between the ages of 15 and 44. to about 350 feet (107 m) per second, depending on various properties of the nerve fiber involved and other factors. HIV is usually diagnosed through a test called ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), which An action potential occurs in about one millisecond. screens the blood for HIV antibodies. If the test is posi- During an action potential, there is a change in voltage tive, a more specific test, the Western blot assay, is ad- across the nerve cell membrane of about 120 millivolts, ministered. Most patients will test positive for HIV one and the negative electrical charge inside the resting nerve to three months after being infected, and 95 percent will cell is reversed to a positive electrical charge. This test positive after five months. There is no effective vac- change in voltage and reversal of electrical charge results cine against the HIV virus, and no known cure for AIDS, from the movement of sodium ions, which carry a posi- but antiviral drugs have been effective in slowing the tive charge, into the nerve cell fiber. This is followed by progression of the disease, particularly the suppression the movement of potassium ions, which also carry a pos- of the immune system. One of the earliest of these med- itive charge, out of the nerve cell fiber, allowing the ications to be effective was azidothymidine (AZT), nerve cell to return to its resting state. The temporarily which inhibits viral DNA polymerase. increased permeability of the nerve cell fiber membrane, first to sodium ions and then to potassium ions, is caused The best method of containing the AIDS epidemic is by a chemical transmitter substance. education and prevention. Much of the anti-AIDS effort both in the United States and globally has been directed Further Reading toward promoting safer sex practices, including absti- Adams, Raymond. Principles of Neurology. New York: Mc- nence (especially among young people) and the use of Graw-Hill, 1993. latex condoms, which greatly reduce the chance of infec- tion. The threat of HIV among intravenous drug users has been addressed by programs offering education, re- habilitation, and the free dispension of sterile needles. Adaptation Modification of sexual behavior among homosexuals has been successful in reducing the incidence of new HIV Behavior that enables an organism to function ef- infections among the gay population. However, risk-re- fectively in its environment. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 7

Adaptation describes the process of change in organ- Addiction/Addictive personality isms or species to accommodate to a particular environ- pulsions differ from patterns and habits in that they orig- inate for the purpose of relieving anxiety. Impulse con- trol disorders, such as overeating, constitute a specific ment, enabling their survival. Adaptation is crucial to the type of compulsive behavior that provides short-term process of natural selection. Ethologists, scientists who study the behavior of animals in their natural habitats gratification but is harmful in the long run. In contrast to these various types of potentially addictive behavior, from an evolutionary perspective, have documented two main types of adaptive behavior. Some behaviors, known physical addiction involves dependence on a habit-form- ing substance characterized by tolerance and well-de- as “closed programs,” transmit from one generation to the next relatively unchanged. “Open genetic programs” in- fined physiological withdrawal symptoms. volve greater degrees of environmental influence. In spite of the variety of activities that can be con- Adaptation occurs in individual organisms as well as in species. Sensory adaptation consists of physical sidered addictive, people who engage in them tend to have certain attitudes and types of behavior in common. changes that occur in response to the presence or cessa- An addiction is generally associated with relieving anxi- tion of stimuli. Examples include the adjustment eyes ety or blocking out other types of uncomfortable feel- make when going from broad daylight into a darkened ings. To a greater or lesser extent, people engaged in ad- room and the way bodies adjust to the temperature of dictive behavior tend to plan their lives around it; in ex- cold water after an initial plunge. Once a steady level of treme cases they will do almost anything to obtain the stimulation (such as light, sound, or odor) is established, substance or engage in the behavior. The addiction we no longer notice it. However, any abrupt changes re- makes them neglect other areas of their lives. They are quire further adaptation. commonly secretive about it, either out of shame or to The adrenalin-produced reaction to environmental protect their access to a substance. When confronted, dangers called the “fight or flight” syndrome (including they generally deny that they have a problem, although rapid breathing, increased heart rate, and sweating) can privately they regret their addictive behavior, which in also be considered a form of adaptation. The psychologi- many cases they have tried without success to discontin- cal responses involved in classical and operant condi- ue. They tend to rationalize engaging in the behavior and tioning, which involve learned behaviors motivated by tell themselves they can stop whenever they want. They either positive reinforcement or fear of punishment, may also blame others for their addiction and often expe- can also be considered adaptation. rience frequent and uncontrollable mood swings. Substance abuse and dependence (substance-related Further Reading disorders) are among the psychological disorders in the Bateson, P.P.G. Perspectives in Ethology: Behavior and Evolu- list of major clinical syndromes (Axis I) found in the tion. New York: Vintage Books, 1993. American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Lorenz, Konrad. The Foundations of Ethology. New York: Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Alcohol, which Springer-Verlag, 1981. is classified as a depressant, is probably the most fre- Weiner, Jonathan. The Beak of the Finch: A Story of Evolution in Our Time. New York: Vintage Books, 1995. quently abused psychoactive substance. Alcohol abuse and dependence affects over 20 million Americans— about 13 percent of the adult population. An alcoholic has been defined as a person whose drinking impairs his or her life adjustment, affecting health, personal relation- Addiction/Addictive ships, and/or work. Alcohol dependence, sometimes personality called alcoholism, is about five times more common in men than women, although alcohol abuse by women and A wide spectrum of complex behaviors that ranges from patterns of behavior to physical addiction. by teenagers of both sexes is growing. When blood alcohol level reaches 0.1 percent, a per- Addiction has come to refer to a wide and complex son is considered to be intoxicated. Judgment and other range of behaviors. In addition to familiar addictions, rational processes are impaired, as well as motor coordi- such as alcohol dependence, drug dependence, and nation, speech, and vision. Alcohol abuse typically pro- smoking, addictive behavior has also been associated gresses through a series of stages from social drinking to with food, exercise, work, and even relationships with chronic alcoholism. Danger signs that indicate the proba- others (codependency). Some experts describe the spec- ble onset of a drinking problem include the frequent de- trum of behaviors designated as addictive in terms of five sire to drink, increased alcohol consumption, memory interrelated concepts: patterns, habits, compulsions, im- lapses (“blanks”), and morning drinking. Among the pulse control disorders, and physical addiction. Com- most acute reactions to alcohol are four conditions re- 8 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

ferred to as alcoholic psychoses: alcohol idiosyncratic intoxication (an acute reaction in persons with an abnor- mally low tolerance for alcohol); alcohol withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens); hallucinations; and Kor- sakoff’s psychosis,an irreversible brain disorder involv- ing severe memory loss. Addiction/Addictive personality Aside from alcohol, other psychoactive substances most frequently associated with abuse and dependence are barbiturates (which, like alcohol, are depressants); narcotics (opium and its derivatives, including heroin); stimulants (amphetamines and cocaine); antianxiety drugs (tranquilizers such as Librium and Valium); and psychedelics and hallucinogens (marijuana, mescaline, psilocybin, LSD, and PCP). While drug abuse and de- pendence can occur at any age, they are most frequent in adolescence and early adulthood. The causes of substance abuse are multiple. Some people are at high risk for dependence due to genetic or physiological factors. Researchers have found the sons of alcoholics to be twice as prone to alcoholism as other people. Among pairs of identical twins, if one is an alco- holic, there is a 60 percent chance that the other will be also. In spite of an apparent inherited tendency toward alcoholism, the fact that the majority of people with al- coholic parents do not become alcoholics themselves demonstrates the influence of psychosocial factors, in- cluding personality factors and a variety of environmen- tal stressors, such as occupational or marital problems. Variations in the incidence of alcoholism among dif- ferent ethnic groups show that social learning also plays Crack users. Crack, a form of cocaine, is one of the most a role in addiction. Parental influence, especially in addictive drugs. (Photo by Roy Morsch. Stock Market. terms of modeling the use of alcohol and other drugs, Reproduced with permission.) has a strong influence on the behavior of children and adolescents, as does peer behavior. Although positive ex- periences with one drug may lead to experimentation Addictions are difficult to treat. Addictive behavior with another, the “stepping stone” theory of drug use— often involves long-term psychological problems or on- for example, using marijuana leads to the use of hard going stressors in a person’s life. Rates of initial “cure” drugs—is highly speculative as the majority of marijua- followed by relapse are very high, and many consider re- na smokers do not go on to use other drugs. Only heavy covery to be an ongoing, lifelong process. Physical ad- marijuana use has been linked to the use of other drugs. dictions alter a person’s brain chemistry in ways that make it difficult to be exposed to the addictive substance Not all addictive behavior involves the use of drugs again without lapsing back into addiction; abstinence is or alcohol. One such potentially life-threatening type of generally necessary for recovery from substance depen- behavior is compulsive overeating associated with obesi- dency. People addicted to a type of activity—such as ty. While obesity is viewed as a physiological condition compulsive spending or eating—from which it is impos- in some cases, it is commonly linked to a long-standing sible to abstain entirely must learn to understand and pattern of overeating and an addictive relationship to alter their behaviors. food that can generally be traced to personality factors in combination with learned responses. Another type of The first step in the recovery process is admitting non-drug-related addictive behavior is compulsive gam- that there is a problem and seeking help. Biological in- bling. While about half of all persons engage in some tervention may be necessary, including medication to form of gambling at some point in their lives, compul- treat withdrawal symptoms and treatment for malnutri- sive gamblers carry this activity to the extent that it dis- tion. (Many heroin addicts are given methadone, a syn- rupts their lives psychologically and financially. thetic opiate that is addictive but less harmful than hero- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 9

Adjustment disorders in). There are many kinds of psychological intervention sufferer loses interest in taking medication as prescribed or adhering to difficult diets or exercise regimens. available, offered in forms ranging from counseling to inpatient programs. Among the most effective are group Adjustment disorders can occur at any stage of life. therapy; environmental intervention (which deals with In early adolescence, individuals with adjustment disor- negative factors in an addict’s social environment); be- ders tend to be angry, aggressive, and defiant. Temper havior therapy, including aversive conditioning; and tantrums are common and are usually well out of balance 12-step programs based on the approach pioneered by Alcoholics Anonymous. adjustment disorders may, alternately, become passive See also Alcohol dependence and abuse; Codepen- with the event that caused them. Other adolescents with and withdrawn, and older teens often experience intense dence; Drugs/Drug abuse; Gambling, pathological anxiety or depression. They may experience what psy- chologists call “depersonalization,” a state in which a Further Reading person feels he or she can observe their body interacting Cohen, Irving A. Addiction: The High-Low Trap. Santa Fe, with others, but feels nothing. NM: Health Press, 1995. Engel, Joel. Addicted: In Their Own Words. Kids Talk About Many psychological theorists and researchers con- Drugs. New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 1990. sider adjustment disorders in adolescents as a stage in es- Porterfield, Kay Marie. Focus on Addictions: A Reference tablishing an identity. Adolescents may develop adjust- Handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 1992. ment disorders as part of a defense mechanism meant to break their feelings of dependence on their parents. This sort of psychological maneuver may precipitate problems in families as adolescents begin seeking individuals out- Adjustment disorders side the family as replacements for their parents. This can be particularly destructive when these feelings of depen- The development of significant emotional or be- dence are transferred to involvement with gangs or cults. havioral symptoms in response to an identifiable event that precipitated significant psychological or Further Reading social stress. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, Adjustment disorders are maladpative, or unhealthy, 1994. responses to stressful or psychologically distressing life Nicholi, Armand, ed. The New Harvard Guide to Psychiatry. events, such as the end of a romantic relationship or Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988. being terminated from a job. “The Not-So Maddening Crowd: Crowding Stress Leads to Coping Behavior in Primates.” Discover (February The American Psychiatric Association has identi- 1994): 14. fied and categorized several varieties of adjustment dis- Shanok, Rebecca. “Coping with Crisis.” Parents Magazine orders, depending on accompanying symptoms and their (October 1991): 169. duration. These subtypes include adjustment disorder with depressed mood, with anxiety, with anxiety and de- pressed mood, and with disturbances of conduct. The disorders can additionally be classified as acute or chronic. It is thought that adjustment disorders are fairly Alfred Adler common; recent figures estimate that 5 to 20 percent of 1870-1937 persons seeking outpatient psychological treatment suf- Psychiatrist known for his theory of individual psy- fer from one of these disorders. Psychiatrists rigidly de- chology and for his pioneering work with children fine the time frames in which these disorders can occur and families. to differentiate them from other types of responses to stressful events, such as post-traumatic stress disorder Alfred Adler was born in a suburb of Vienna, Aus- and acute stress disorder. Adjustment disorders must tria, in 1870. After graduating from the University of Vi- occur within three months of the stressful event and can, enna medical school in 1895, he at first practiced ophthal- by definition, last no longer than six months. mology but later switched to psychiatry. In 1902, Adler Symptoms of these various adjustment disorders in- joined the discussion group that later became the Vienna clude a decrease in performance at work or school, and Psychoanalytic Society. Sigmund Freud was also a withdrawal from social relationships. These disorders member. Adler eventually became president and editor of can lead to suicide or suicidal thinking and can compli- its journal. After 1907, however, Adler’s growing dis- cate the course of other diseases when, for instance, a agreement with Freud’s theories, especially with their 10 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

heavy emphasis on the role of sexuality in personality formation, alienated him from the ranks of Freudians. In 1911, Adler and his followers left the Psychoana- Adolescence lytic Society to form their own group, The Society of In- dividual Psychology, and developed the system of indi- vidual psychology, a holistic, humanistic, therapeutic ap- proach. Adlerian psychology views the individual as pri- marily a social rather than a sexual being and places more emphasis on choices and values than Freudian psy- chology. Adler saw the individual striving toward perfec- tion and overcoming feelings of inferiority (a concept later popularized as the “inferiority complex”). After serving in military hospitals during World War I, Adler became interested in child psychology. He established a network of public child guidance clinics in the Vienna school system, offering what was probably the very first family counseling. There were 28 of these facilities in operation until the Nazis ordered them closed in 1934. Adlerian parent study groups still meet throughout the United States and Canada. In 1926 Adler began dividing his time between Vi- enna and the United States. He was appointed visiting lecturer at Columbia University in New York in 1927. In 1932 he became a lecturer at the Long Island College of Medicine and emigrated to the United States with his Alfred Adler (Archive Photos, Inc. Reproduced with permission.) wife. Adler died suddenly in 1937 in Aberdeen, Scot- land, while on a lecture tour. There are more than 100 professional Adlerian organizations and 34 training insti- dicate that the percent of the U.S. population between the tutes in the United States, Canada, and Europe. ages of 14 and 17 will peak around the year 2005. Further Reading There is no single event or boundary line that de- notes the end of childhood or the beginning of adoles- Adler, Alfred. Co-operation Between the Sexes: Writings on Women and Men, Love and Marriage, and Sexuality. New cence. Rather, experts think of the passage from child- York: Norton, 1982. hood into and through adolescence as composed of a set ———. The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler: A Systemat- of transitions that unfold gradually and that touch upon ic Presentation in Selections From His Writings. New many aspects of the individual’s behavior, development, York: Harper & Row, 1964. and relationships. These transitions are biological, cogni- tive, social, and emotional. Puberty Adolescence The biological transition of adolescence, or puber- ty, is perhaps the most salient sign that adolescence has Sometimes referred to as teenage years, youth, or puberty, adolescence covers the period from begun. Technically, puberty refers to the period during roughly age 10 to 20 in a child’s development. which an individual becomes capable of sexual repro- duction. More broadly speaking, however, puberty is used as a collective term to refer to all the physical In the study of child development, adolescence changes that occur in the growing girl or boy as the indi- refers to the second decade of the life span, roughly from vidual passes from childhood into adulthood. ages 10 to 20. The word adolescence is Latin in origin, derived from the verb adolescere, which means “to grow The timing of physical maturation varies widely. In into adulthood.” In all societies, adolescence is a time of the United States today, menarche, the first menstrual growing up, of moving from the immaturity of childhood period, typically occurs around age 12, although some into the maturity of adulthood. Population projections in- youngsters start puberty when they are only eight or GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 11

Cognitive transition Adolescence nine, others when they are well into their teens. The du- cence is a cognitive transition. Compared to children, ration of puberty also varies greatly: eighteen months to A second element of the passage through adoles- six years in girls and two to five years in boys. The physical changes of puberty are triggered by hormones,chemical substances in the body that act on adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex. This can be seen specific organs and tissues. In boys a major change is the in five ways. increased production of testosterone, a male sex hor- First, during adolescence individuals become better mone, while girls experience increased production of the able than children to think about what is possible, in- female hormone estrogen. In both sexes, a rise in growth stead of limiting their thought to what is real. Whereas hormone produces the adolescent growth spurt, the pro- children’s thinking is oriented to the here and now—that nounced increase in height and weight that marks the is, to things and events that they can observe directly, first half of puberty. adolescents are able to consider what they observe Perhaps the most dramatic changes of puberty in- against a backdrop of what is possible—they can think volve sexuality. Internally, through the development of hypothetically. primary sexual characteristics, adolescents become capa- Second, during the passage into adolescence, indi- ble of sexual reproduction. Externally, as secondary sex- viduals become better able to think about abstract ideas. ual characteristics appear, girls and boys begin to look For example, adolescents find it easier than children to like mature women and men. In boys primary and sec- comprehend the sorts of higher-order, abstract logic in- ondary sexual characteristics usually emerge in a pre- herent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. The dictable order, with rapid growth of the testes and scro- adolescent’s greater facility with abstract thinking also tum, accompanied by the appearance of pubic hair. permits the application of advanced reasoning and logi- About a year later, when the growth spurt begins, the cal processes to social and ideological matters. This is penis also grows larger, and pubic hair becomes coarser, clearly seen in the adolescent’s increased facility and in- thicker, and darker. Later still comes the growth of facial terest in thinking about interpersonal relationships, poli- and body hair, and a gradual lowering of the voice. tics, philosophy, religion, and morality—topics that in- Around mid-adolescence internal changes begin making volve such abstract concepts as friendship,faith, a boy capable of producing and ejaculating sperm. democracy, fairness, and honesty. In girls, sexual characteristics develop in a less regu- Third, during adolescence individuals begin think- lar sequence. Usually, the first sign of puberty is a slight ing more often about the process of thinking itself, or elevation of the breasts, but sometimes this is preceded metacognition. As a result, adolescents may display in- by the appearance of pubic hair. Pubic hair changes from creased introspection and self-consciousness. Although sparse and downy to denser and coarser. Concurrent with improvements in metacognitive abilities provide impor- these changes is further breast development. In teenage tant intellectual advantages, one potentially negative by- girls, internal sexual changes include maturation of the product of these advances is the tendency for adolescents uterus, vagina, and other parts of the reproductive sys- to develop a sort of egocentrism, or intense preoccupa- tem. Menarche, the first menstrual period, happens rela- tion with the self. Acute adolescent egocentrism some- tively late, not at the start of puberty as many people be- times leads teenagers to believe that others are constantly lieve. Regular ovulation and the ability to carry a baby to watching and evaluating them, much as an audience full term usually follow menarche by several years. glues its attention to an actor on a stage. Psychologists refer to this as the imaginary audience. For many years, psychologists believed that puberty was stressful for young people. We now know that any A fourth change in cognition is that thinking tends to difficulties associated with adjusting to puberty are mini- become multidimensional, rather than limited to a single mized if adolescents know what changes to expect and issue. Whereas children tend to think about things one as- have positive attitudes toward them. Although the imme- pect at a time, adolescents can see things through more diate impact of puberty on the adolescent’s self-image complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and and mood may be very modest, the timing of physical others in more differentiated and complicated terms and maturation does affect the teen’s social and emotional find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspec- development in important ways. Early-maturing boys tives. Being able to understand that people’s personalities tend to be more popular, to have more positive self-con- are not one-sided, or that social situations can have differ- ceptions, and to be more self-assured than their later-ma- ent interpretations, depending on one’s point of view, per- turing peers, whereas early-maturing girls may feel awk- mits the adolescent to have far more sophisticated—and ward and self-conscious. complicated—relationships with other people. 12 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Finally, adolescents are more likely than children to see things as relative, rather than absolute. Children tend to see things in absolute terms—in black and white. Adolescence Adolescents, in contrast, tend to see things as relative. They are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept “facts” as absolute truths. This in- crease in relativism can be particularly exasperating to parents, who may feel that their adolescent children question everything just for the sake of argument. Diffi- culties often arise, for example, when adolescents begin seeing their parents’ values as excessively relative. Emotional transition In addition to being a time of biological and cogni- tive change, adolescence is also a period of emotional transition and, in particular, changes in the way individ- uals view themselves and in their capacity to function in- dependently. During adolescence, important shifts occur in the way individuals think about and characterize them- During adolescence, most American girls experiment with make-up. (Photo by Robert J. Huffman. Field Mark Publications. selves—that is, in their self-conceptions. As individuals Reproduced with permission.) mature intellectually and undergo the sorts of cognitive changes described earlier, they come to perceive them- selves in more sophisticated and differentiated ways. in identity development in modern society have created Compared with children, who tend to describe them- the need for a psychosocial moratorium—a time-out dur- selves in relatively simple, concrete terms, adolescents ing adolescence from the sorts of excessive responsibili- are more likely to employ complex, abstract, and psy- ties and obligations that might restrict the young person’s chological self-characterizations. As individuals’ self- pursuit of self-discovery. During the psychosocial morato- conceptions become more abstract and as they become rium, the adolescent can experiment with different roles more able to see themselves in psychological terms, they and identities, in a context that permits and encourages become more interested in understanding their own per- this sort of exploration. The experimentation involves try- sonalities and why they behave the way they do. ing on different personalities and ways of behaving. Sometimes, parents describe their teenage children as Conventional wisdom holds that adolescents have going through “phases.” Much of this behavior is actually low self-esteem —that they are more insecure and self- experimentation with roles and personalities. critical than children or adults—but most research indi- cates otherwise. Although teenagers’ feelings about For most adolescents, establishing a sense of auton- themselves may fluctuate, especially during early ado- omy, or independence, is as important a part of the emo- lescence, their self-esteem remains fairly stable from tional transition out of childhood as is establishing a about age 13 on. If anything, self-esteem increases over sense of identity. During adolescence, there is a move- the course of middle and late adolescence. Most re- ment away from the dependency typical of childhood to- searchers today believe that self-esteem is multidimen- ward the autonomy typical of adulthood. One can see sional, and that young people evaluate themselves along this in several ways. several different dimensions. As a consequence, it is pos- First, older adolescents do not generally rush to their sible for an adolescent to have high self-esteem when it parents whenever they are upset, worried, or in need of comes to his academic abilities, low self-esteem when it assistance. Second, they do not see their parents as all- comes to athletics, and moderate self-esteem when it knowing or all-powerful. Third, adolescents often have a comes to his physical appearance. great deal of emotional energy wrapped up in relation- One theorist whose work has been very influential on ships outside the family; in fact, they may feel more at- our understanding of adolescents’ self-conceptions is Erik tached to a boyfriend or a girlfriend than to their parents. Erikson,who theorized that the establishment of a coher- And finally, older adolescents are able to see and interact ent sense of identity is the chief psychosocial task of ado- with their parents as people—not just as their parents. lescence. Erikson believed that the complications inherent Many parents find, for example, that they can confide in GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 13

Adolescence their adolescent children, something that was not possi- what less oriented toward their parents and more oriented toward their peers, and peer pressure begins to escalate. ble when their children were younger, or that their ado- During early adolescence, conformity to parents contin- lescent children can easily sympathize with them when ues to decline and conformity to peers and peer pressure they have had a hard day at work. Some theorists have suggested that the development continues to rise. It is not until middle adolescence, then, that genuine behavioral independence emerges, when con- of independence be looked at in terms of the adolescent’s formity to parents as well as peers declines. developing sense of individuation. The process of indi- viduation, which begins during infancy and continues well into late adolescence, involves a gradual, progres- Social transition sive sharpening of one’s sense of self as autonomous, as Accompanying the biological, cognitive, and emo- competent, and as separate from one’s parents. Individu- tional transitions of adolescence are important changes ation, therefore, has a great deal to do with the develop- in the adolescent’s social relationships, or the social ment of a sense of identity, in that it involves changes in transition of adolescence. Developmentalists have spent how we come to see and feel about ourselves. considerable time charting the changes that take place The process of individuation does not necessarily with friends and with family members as the individual involve stress and internal turmoil. Rather, individuation moves through the adolescent years. entails relinquishing childish dependencies on parents in One of the most noteworthy aspects of the social favor of more mature, more responsible, and less depen- transition into adolescence is the increase in the amount dent relationships. Adolescents who have been success- of time individuals spend with their peers. Although rela- ful in establishing a sense of individuation can accept re- tions with agemates exist well before adolescence, dur- sponsibility for their choices and actions instead of look- ing the teenage years they change in significance and ing to their parents to do it for them. structure. Four specific developments stand out. Being independent means more than merely feeling First, there is a sharp increase during adolescence in independent, of course. It also means being able to make the sheer amount of time individuals spend with their your own decisions and to select a sensible course of ac- peers and in the relative time they spend in the company tion by yourself. This is an especially important capabili- of peers versus adults. In the United States, well over half ty in contemporary society, where many adolescents are of the typical adolescent’s waking hours are spent with forced to become independent decision makers at an peers, as opposed to only 15% with adults—including early age. In general, researchers find that decision-mak- parents. Second, during adolescence, peer groups function ing abilities improve over the course of the adolescent much more often without adult supervision than they do years, with gains continuing well into the later years of during childhood. Third, during adolescence increasingly high school. more contact with peers is with opposite-sex friends. Many parents wonder about the susceptibility of Finally, whereas children’s peer relationships are adolescents to peer pressure. In general, studies that limited mainly to pairs of friends and relatively small contrast parent and peer influences indicate that in some groups—three or four children at a time, for example— situations, peers’ opinions are more influential, while in adolescence marks the emergence of larger groups of others, parents’ are more influential. Specifically, adoles- peers, or crowds. Crowds are large collectives of similar- cents are more likely to conform to their peers’ opinions ly stereotyped individuals who may or may not spend when it comes to short-term, day-to-day, and social mat- much time together. In contemporary American high ters—styles of dress, tastes in music, and choices among schools, typical crowds are “jocks,” “brains,” “nerds,” leisure activities. This is particularly true during junior “populars,” “druggies,” and so on. In contrast to cliques, high school and the early years of high school. When it crowds are not settings for adolescents’ intimate interac- comes to long-term questions concerning educational or tions or friendships, but, instead, serve to locate the ado- occupational plans, however, or values, religious beliefs, lescent (to himself and to others) within the social struc- and ethical issues, teenagers are influenced in a major ture of the school. As well, the crowds themselves tend way by their parents. to form a sort of social hierarchy or map of the school, and different crowds are seen as having different degrees Susceptibility to the influence of parents and peers of status or importance. changes with development. In general, during childhood, boys and girls are highly oriented toward their parents and The importance of peers during early adolescence less so toward their peers; peer pressure during the early coincides with changes in individuals’ needs for intima- elementary school years is not especially strong. As they cy. As children begin to share secrets with their friends, a approach adolescence, however, children become some- new sense of loyalty and commitment grows, a belief 14 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

that friends can trust each other. During adolescence, the time of inherent and inevitable family conflict, early search for intimacy intensifies, and self-disclosure be- adolescence is a period of significant change and reorga- Adoption tween best friends becomes an important pastime. nization in family relationships. In most families, there is Teenagers, especially girls, spend hours discussing their a movement during adolescence from patterns of influ- innermost thoughts and feelings, trying to understand ence and interaction that are asymmetrical and unequal one another. The discovery that they tend to think and to ones in which parents and their adolescent children feel the same as someone else becomes another impor- are on a more equal footing. Family relationships change tant basis of friendship. most around the time of puberty, with increasing conflict between adolescents and their parents—especially be- One of the most important social transitions that tween adolescents and their mothers—and closeness be- takes place in adolescence concerns the emergence of tween adolescents and their parents diminishing some- sexual and romantic relationships. In contemporary soci- what. Changes in the ways adolescents view family rules ety, most young people begin dating sometime during and regulations, especially, may contribute to increased early adolescence. disagreement between them and their parents. Dating during adolescence can mean a variety of Although puberty seems to distance adolescents from different things, from group activities that bring males their parents, it is not associated with familial “storm and and females together (without much actual contact be- stress,” however. Family conflict during this stage is more tween the sexes); to group dates, in which a group of likely to take the form of bickering over day-to-day issues boys and girls go out jointly (and spend part of the time than outright fighting. Similarly, the diminished closeness as couples and part of the time in large groups); to casual is more likely to be manifested in increased privacy on the dating as couples; and to serious involvement with a part of the adolescent and diminished physical affection steady boyfriend or girlfriend. More adolescents have between teenagers and parents, rather than any serious experience in mixed-sex group activities like parties or loss of love or respect between parents and children. Re- dances than dating, and more have experience in dating search suggests that this distancing is temporary, though, than in having a serious boyfriend or girlfriend. and that family relationships may become less conflicted Most adolescents’ first experience with sex falls into and more intimate during late adolescence. the category of “autoerotic behavior”—sexual behavior Generally speaking, most young people are able to that is experienced alone. The most common autoerotic negotiate the biological, cognitive, emotional, and social activities reported by adolescents are erotic fantasies and transitions of adolescence successfully. Although the masturbation. By the time most adolescents have mass media bombard us with images of troubled youth, reached high school, they have had some experience systematic research indicates that the vast majority of in- with sex in the context of a relationship. About half of all dividuals move from childhood into and through adoles- American teenagers have had sexual intercourse by the cence without serious difficulty. time of high school graduation. Estimates of the prevalence of sexual intercourse Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D. among American adolescents vary considerably from study to study, depending on the nature of the sample surveyed and the year and region in which the study was undertaken. Further Reading Although regional and ethnic variations make it difficult to Feldman, S., and G. Elliott, eds. At the Threshold: The Develop- generalize about the “average” age at which American ado- ing Adolescent. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990. lescents initiate sexual intercourse, national surveys of Pipher, Mary. Reviving Ophelia. New York: Ballantine Books, young people indicate that more adolescents are sexually 1994. active at an earlier age today than in the recent past. Steinberg, L. Adolescence. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996. Steinberg, L., and A. Levine. You and Your Adolescent: A Par- For many years, researchers studied the psychologi- ent’s Guide for Ages 10 to 20. New York: HarperPerenni- cal and social characteristics of adolescents who en- al, 1991. gaged in premarital sex, assuming that sexually active teenagers were more troubled than their peers. This view has been replaced as sexual activity has become more prevalent. Indeed, several recent studies show that sexual activity during adolescence is decidedly not associated Adoption with psychological disturbance. A practice in which an adult assumes the role of Although it is incorrect to characterize adolescence parent for a child who is not his or her biological as a time when the family ceases to be important, or as a offspring. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 15

An adult assumes the role of parent for a child other Adoption than his or her own biological offspring in the process of ing in child rearing eased the concerns of childless cou- ples about potential “bad seeds.” Because of the bur- adoption. Informal adoptions occur when a relative or geoning interest in infant adoptions, many states legislat- stepparent assumes permanent parental responsibilities without court involvement. However, legally recognized ed investigations of prospective adoptive parents and court approval prior to finalization of the adoption. adoptions require a court or other government agency to Until about mid-century the balance of infant supply award permanent custody of a child (or, occasionally, an and parent demand was roughly equal. However during older individual) to adoptive parents. Specific require- the 1950s the demand for healthy white infants began to ments for adoption vary among states and countries. outweigh the supply. Agencies began to establish match- Adoptions can be privately arranged through individuals ing criteria in an attempt to provide the best fit between or agencies, or arranged through a public agency such as characteristics of the child or birth parents and the adop- a state’s child protective services. Adoptees may be in- tive parents, matching on items such as appearance, eth- fants or older children; they may be adopted singly or as nicity, education, and religious affiliation. By the 1970s sibling groups; and they may come from the local area or it was not uncommon for parents to wait 3-5 years after from other countries. Adoptive parents may be tradition- their initial application to a private adoption agency be- al married couples, but they may also be single men or fore they had a healthy infant placed with them. These women or non-traditional couples. Parents may be child- trends resulted from a decrease in the numbers of infants less or have other children. surrendered for adoption following the increased avail- Adoption is a practice that dates to ancient times, al- ability of birth control, the legalization of abortion, and though there have been fundamental changes in the the increasingly common decision of unmarried mothers process. Ancient Romans, for example, saw adoption as to keep their infants. a way of ensuring male heirs to childless couples so that family lines and religious traditions could be main- In response to this dearth of healthy, same-race in- tained. In contrast, modern American adoption laws are fants, prospective adoptive parents turned increasingly to written in support of the best interests of the child, not of international and transracial adoptions. Children from the adopter. Japan and Europe began to be placed with American fam- ilies by agencies after WWII, and since the 1950s Korea Modern American adoption laws evolved during the has been the major source of international adoptions (ex- latter half of the 19th century, prompted by changes due to cept in 1991 with the influx of Romanian children). The the Industrial Revolution, large numbers of immigrant one child policy of the Chinese government has provided children who were often in need of care, and a growing a new source of infants to American families, and recent- concern for child welfare. Because of the poor health con- ly many adoptees have come from Peru, Colombia, El ditions in the tenements of large cities, many children were Salvador, Mexico, the Philippines, and India. left on their own at early ages. These dependent children were sometimes placed in almshouses with the mentally The civil rights movement of the 1960s was accom- ill, and sometimes in foundling homes plagued by high panied by an increase in the number of transracial adop- mortality rates. In the 1850s the Children’s Aid Society of tions involving black children and white parents. These New York City began to move dependent children out of adoptions peaked in 1971, and one year later the Nation- city institutions. Between 1854 and 1904 orphan trains car- al Association of Black Social Workers issued a state- ried an estimated 100,000 children to the farms of the Mid- ment opposing transracial adoption. They argued that west where they were placed with families and generally white families were unable to foster the growth of psy- expected to help with farm work in exchange for care. chological and cultural identity in black children. Trans- racial adoptions now account for a small percentage of Massachusetts became the first state to pass legisla- all adoptions, and these most frequently involve Korean- tion mandating judicial supervision of adoptions in 1851, born children and white American families. and by 1929 all states had passed some type of adoption legislation. During the early part of the 20th century it While healthy infants have been much in demand was standard practice to conduct adoptions in secret and for adoption during the last 50 years, the number of other with records sealed, in part to protect the parties in- children waiting for adoptive homes has grown. In re- volved from the social stigma of illegitimate birth. After sponse, the U.S. Congress passed the federal Adoption WWI two factors combined to increase interest in the Assistance Child Welfare Act (Public Law 96-272) in adoption of infants. The development of formula feeding 1980, giving subsidies to families adopting children with allowed for the raising of infants without a ready supply special needs that typically make a child hard to place. of breast milk, and psychological theory and research Although individual states may define the specific para- about the relative importance of training and condition- meters, these characteristics include older age, medical 16 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

disabilities, minority group status, and certain physical, tion of parental rights or visitation, then the birth parents mental, or emotional needs. might have knowledge of the child’s placement and Adoption whereabouts even though continued contact may not be deemed in the best interests of the child. Types of adoption Children removed from families for protective issues Adoption arrangements are typically thought of as are sometimes reunited with their parents after a stay in either closed or open. Actually, they may involve many temporary foster homes and after the parents have had the varying degrees of openness about identity and contact chance to rehabilitate and are able to care adequately for between the adoptive family and the birth family. At one their children. On the other hand, it may be decided that extreme is the closed adoption in which an intermediary reunification is not a feasible objective for a particular third party is the only one who knows the identity of both family and a permanent home is then sought. The foster the birth and adoptive parents. The child may be told he family then plays a major role in the child’s transition to or she is adopted, but will have no information about his his or her “forever family.” The desire to provide children or her biological heritage. When the stigma attached to with permanent homes and the resulting sense of security births out of wedlock was greater, most adoptions were and attachment as soon as possible gives rise to another closed and records permanently sealed; however, a move type of adoption, the legal risk adoption. to open records has been promoted by groups of both Legal risk adoptions involve placement in the adoptees and by some birth mothers. Currently about half prospective adoptive home prior to the legal termination of the states allow access to sealed records with the mutu- of parental rights and subsequent freeing of the child for al consent of adoptee and birth parent, and others have adoption. In these cases, child protective services are search processes through intermediary parties available. generally involved and relatively certain that the courts Why search? Some research and clinical observation sug- will ultimately decide in favor of the adoptive placement. gests that, especially during adolescence, healthy identity The legal process can be drawn out if birth parents con- formation depends on full awareness of one’s origins test the agency’s petition for termination. Although there (Where do I get my freckles? Why do I have this musical is the risk that the adoption may not be finalized and that ability? Why did they give me up?). Other important the child will be returned to his or her birth parents, so- medical history may be critical to the adoptee’s health cial service agencies generally do not recommend such care planning. For birth mothers, sometimes they simply placements unless, in their best judgments, the potential want to know that their child turned out okay. benefits to child and family far outweigh the legal risk. The move to open records lead to an increase in Whether the child is free for adoption or a legal risk open adoptions in which information is shared from the placement, there is generally a waiting period before the beginning. Open adoptions may be completely open, as adoption is finalized or recognized by the courts. Al- is the case when the birth parents (usually the mother) though estimates vary, about 10% of adoptions disrupt, and adoptive parents meet beforehand and agree to main- that is, the child is removed from the family before final- tain contact while the child is growing up. The child then ization. This figure has risen with the increase in older has full knowledge of both sets of parents. and special needs children being placed for adoption. The Other open adoptions may include less contact, or risk of disruption increases with the age of the child at periodic letters sent to an intermediary agency, or contin- placement, a history of multiple placements prior to the ued contact with some family members but not others. It adoptive home, and acting-out behavior problems. Inter- can be a complex issue. In the case of an older child who estingly, many children who have experienced disruption is removed from the family by protective services be- go on to be successfully adopted, suggesting that disrup- cause of abuse or neglect, the child clearly knows his tion is often a bad fit between parental expectations, birth parents as well as any other siblings. If these sib- skills, or resources and the child’s needs. Many agencies lings are also removed and placed in different adoptive conduct parent support groups for adoptive families, and homes, it may be decided that periodic visits between the some states have instituted training programs to alert the children—once every few months, perhaps—should prospective adoptive parents to the challenges—as well be maintained, but that contact with the abusive parents as the rewards—of adopting special needs children, should be terminated until the child reaches adulthood thereby attempting to minimize the risk of disruption. and may choose to search. Siblings may know each other’s placements, but the birth parents may have no Who gets adopted? knowledge of the children’s whereabouts. However, if a child is ultimately adopted by the foster family with Estimating the total number of children adopted in whom he or she was initially placed prior to the termina- the United States is difficult because private and indepen- GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 17

Adoption dent adoptions are reported only voluntarily to census cen- lems such as aggression or depression emerge as the 5- 7-year-old child begins to understand the salience and ters. According to the National Committee for Adoption, implications of being adopted. Still, it should be noted there were just over 100,000 domestic adoptions in the U.S. in 1986, roughly an even split between related and adoptees is low even though it may be statistically higher unrelated adoptions. Of unrelated domestic adoptees, that the absolute incidence of adjustment problems in about 40% were placed by public agencies, 30% by pri- than the corresponding figures for non-adoptees. vate agencies, and 30% by private individuals. Almost half In the course of normal development, adolescence of these adoptees were under the age of two, and about is seen as a time of identity formation and emerging in- one-quarter had special needs. There were also just over dependence. Adopted adolescents are faced with the 10,000 international adoptions, the majority of these chil- challenge of integrating disparate sources of identity— dren under the age of two and placed by private agencies. their biological origins and their family of rearing—as The American Public Welfare Association has col- they establish themselves as individuals. For some this is lected data through the Voluntary Cooperative Informa- a difficult task and may result in rebellious or depressive tion System on children in welfare systems across the behavior, risks for all adolescents. Many adoption ex- U.S. who are somewhere in the process of being adopted. perts feel that families who do not acknowledge the Of children in the public welfare systems, about one-third child’s birth heritage from the beginning may increase had their adoptions finalized in 1988, one-third were liv- the likelihood that their child will experience an espe- ing in their adoptive home waiting for finalization, and cially difficult adolescence. one-third were awaiting adoptive placements. Key statis- tics on these adoptions appear in the accompanying table. Problems associated with adoption may not always be the result of psychological adjustment to adoption sta- Adoptions may be arranged privately through indi- tus or a reflection of less than optimal family dynamics. viduals, or a public or private agency may be involved. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was Although adopting parents may have certain expenses if found to be more prevalent in adoptees than non- the adoption is privately arranged, adoptions are assumed adoptees, both among children adopted as infants and to be a gratuitous exchange by law. No parties may profit children removed from the home at older ages. C. K. improperly from adoption arrangements and children are Deutsch suggests that ADHD in children adopted as in- not to be brokered. The objectives of public and private fants may be genetically inherited from the birth parents agencies can differ somewhat. Private agencies generally and perhaps reflected in the impulsive behavior that re- have prospective adoptive parents as their clients and the sulted in the child’s birth in the first place. In the case of agency works to find a child for them. Public agencies, children who have been removed from the home because on the other hand, have children as their clients and the of the trauma of abuse, the hypervigilance used to cope procurement of parents as their primary mission. with a threatening environment may compromise the child’s ability to achieve normal attention regulation Outcomes of adoption Many of the studies addressing the outcomes of There is general agreement that children who are adoption fail to consider important factors such as the adopted and raised in families do better than children pre-placement history of the child, the structure and dy- raised in institutions or raised with birth parents who are namic of the adopting family, or the courses of individ- neglectful or abusive. Compared to the general popula- ual children’s development. Many studies are cross-sec- tion, however, the conclusions are less robust and the in- tional rather than longitudinal by design, meaning that terpretation of the statistics is not clear. Adopted adoles- different groups of children at different ages are studied cents, for example, receive mental health services more rather than the same children being followed over a peri- often than their non-adopted peers, but this may be be- od of time. It is also difficult to establish what control or cause adoptive families are more likely to seek helping comparison groups should be used. Should adopted chil- services or because once referring physicians or coun- dren be compared to other children in the types of fami- selors know that a child is adopted they assume there are lies into which they have been adopted or should they be likely to be problems warranting professional attention. compared to children in the types of families from which they have been surrendered? These are complex issues When adjustment problems are manifested by because adoptees are a heterogeneous group, and it is as adoptees, they tend to occur around school age or during important to understand their individual differences as it adolescence. D. M. Brodzinsky and his colleagues have is their commonalities. conducted a series of studies from which they conclude that adopted infants and toddlers generally do not differ from non-adopted youngsters, but greater risks for prob- Doreen Arcus, Ph.D. 18 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Further Reading Brodzinsky, D. M., and M. D. Schechter, eds. The Psychology Affect of Adoption. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Affiliation A psychological term for an observable expression Brodzinsky, D. M. “Long-Term Outcomes in Adoption.” The of emotion. Future of Children 3, 1993, pp. 153-66. Caplan. L. An Open Adoption. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, A person’s affect is the expression of emotion or 1990. feelings displayed to others through facial expressions, Deutsch, D. K., J. M. Swanson, and J. H. Bruell. “Overrepre- hand gestures, voice tone, and other emotional signs sentation of Adoptees in Children with Attention Deficit such as laughter or tears. Individual affect fluctuates ac- Disorder.” Behavior Genetics 12, 1982, pp. 231-37. cording to emotional state. What is considered a normal Lancaster, K. Keys to Adopting a Child. Hauppauge, NY: Bar- range of affect, called the broad effect,varies from cul- ron’s Educational Series, 1994. ture to culture, and even within a culture. Certain indi- Melina, L. R. Making Sense of Adoption. New York: Harper & viduals may gesture prolifically while talking, and dis- Row, 1989. play dramatic facial expressions in reaction to social sit- National Committee for Adoption (NCFA). 1989 Adoption Factbook. Washington, DC: National Committee for uations or other stimuli. Others may show little outward Adoption, 1989. response to social environments, expressing a narrow range of emotions to the outside world. Stolley, K. S. “Statistics on Adoption in the United States.” The Future of Children 3, pp. 26-42. Persons with psychological disorders may display Tatara, T. Characteristics of Children in Substitute and Adop- variations in their affect. A restricted or constricted af- tive Care: A Statistical Summary of the VCIS National fect describes a mild restriction in the range or intensity Child Welfare Base. Washington, DC: American Public of display of feelings. As the reduction in display of Welfare Association, 1992. emotion becomes more severe, the term blunted affect Further Information may be applied. The absence of any exhibition of emo- tions is described as flat affect where the voice is mo- AASK (Adopt A Special Kid). 2201 Broadway, Suite 702, Oakland, CA 94612, (510) 451–1748. notone, the face expressionless, and the body immo- bile. Labile affect describes emotional instability or Adopted Child. P.O. Box 9362, Moscow, ID 83842, (208) 882–1794, fax: (208) 883–8035. dramatic mood swings. When the outward display of emotion is out of context for the situation, such as Adoptive Families of America. 3333 North Highway 100, Min- neapolis, MN 55422, (800) 372–3300. laughter while describing pain or sadness, the affect is termed inappropriate. American Adoption Congress. 1000 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Suite 9, Washington, DC 20036, (202) 483–3399 (Public See also Mood information center.) Child Welfare League of America. P.O. Box 7816, 300 Raritan Further Reading Center Pkwy, Edison, NJ 08818-7816, (800) 407–6273. Moore, Bert S. and Alice M. Isen, eds. Affect and Social Be- National Adoption Center. 1500 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, havior. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. PA 19102 (Provides information especially with regard to Thayer, S. The Origin of Everyday Moods. New York Oxford special needs adoption.) University Press, 1995. National Adoption Information Clearinghouse. 11426 Rockville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852, (202) 842–1919 (Resource for information and referral. Maintains copies of all state and federal adoption laws, including Public Law 96-272, The Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Affiliation Act of 1980.) The need to form attachments to other people for National Council for Single Adoptive Parents. P.O. Box 15084, support, guidance, and protection. Chevy Chase, MD 20825, (202) 966–6367. The need to form attachments with others is termed affiliation. Attachment is one of 20 psychological needs measured by the Thematic Apperception Test,a projective personality test developed at Harvard Uni- versity in 1935 by Henry Murray. Subjects look at a Affective disorders series of up to 20 pictures of people in a variety of rec- ognizable settings and construct a story about what is See Bipolar disorder; Depression; Mania happening in each one. The need for affiliation (referred GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 19

Aggression Facial expressions are an important part of a person’s affect. (Photo by Robert J. Huffman. Field Mark Publications. Reproduced with permission.) to as “n Aff”) is scored when a test-taker’s response to one of the pictures demonstrates concern over “estab- Aggression lishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective re- Any act that is intended to cause pain, suffering, or lationship with another person.” In the hierarchy of damage to another person. needs outlined by Abraham Maslow, the need for affil- iation (or “belongingness”) appears midway between Aggressive behavior is often used to claim status, the most basic physical needs and the highest-level need precedent, or access to an object or territory. While ag- for self-actualization. gression is primarily thought of as physical, verbal at- Anxiety has been observed to strengthen one’s need tacks aimed at causing psychological harm also consti- for affiliation. In addition, females generally show a tute aggression. In addition, fantasies involving hurting higher need for affiliation than males. Traditionally, affil- others can also be considered aggressive. The key com- iation has been negatively correlated with achievement. ponent in aggression is that it is deliberate—accidental While achievement centers on one’s personal self-im- injuries are not forms of aggression. provement, affiliation focuses on concern for others, even to the extent of deliberately suppressing competi- Theories about the nature and causes of aggression tive tendencies or accomplishments that may make oth- vary widely in their emphases. Those with a biological ers less comfortable. orientation are based on the idea that aggression is an in- nate human instinct or drive. Sigmund Freud explained Further Reading aggression in terms of a death wish or instinct (Thanatos) Harvey, Terri L., Ann L. Orbuch, and John H. Weber, eds. At- that is turned outward toward others in a process called tributions, Accounts, and Close Relationships. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992. displacement. Aggressive impulses that are not channeled Meinhold, Patricia. Child Psychology: Development and Be- toward a specific person or group may be expressed indi- havior Analysis. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt, 1993. rectly through safe, socially acceptable activities such as 20 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

sports, a process referred to in psychoanalytic theory as lence can elicit aggressive behavior by increasing the catharsis. Biological theories of aggression have also viewer’s arousal, desensitizing viewers to violence, re- Agression been advanced by ethologists, researchers who study the ducing restraints on aggressive behavior, and distorting behavior of animals in their natural environments. Several views about conflict resolution. have advanced views about aggression in humans based As Bandura’s research demonstrates, what is crucial on their observations of animal behavior. The view of ag- in the modeling of violence—both live and on screen—is gression as an innate instinct common to both humans seeing not only that aggressive behavior occurs, but also and animals was popularized in three widely read books that it works. If the violent parent, playmate, or super- of the 1960s—On Aggression by Konrad Lorenz, The hero is rewarded rather than punished for violent behav- Territorial Imperative by Robert Ardrey, and The Naked ior, that behavior is much more likely to serve as a posi- Ape by Desmond Morris. Like Freud’s Thanatos, the ag- tive model: a child will more readily imitate a model gressive instinct postulated by these authors builds up who is being rewarded for an act than one who is being spontaneously—with or without outside provocation— punished. In this way, the child can learn without actual- until it is likely to be discharged with minimal or no ly being rewarded or punished himself—a concept provocation from outside stimuli. known as vicarious learning. Today, instinct theories of aggression are largely The findings of social learning theory address not discredited in favor of other explanations. One is the only the acquisition, but also the instigation, of aggres- frustration-aggression hypothesis first set forth in the sion. Once one has learned aggressive behavior, what en- 1930s by John Dollard, Neal Miller, and several col- vironmental circumstances will activate it? The most ob- leagues. This theory proposes that aggression, rather vious are adverse events, including not only frustration than occurring spontaneously for no reason, is a re- of desires but also verbal and physical assaults. Model- sponse to the frustration of some goal-directed behavior ing, which is important in the learning of aggression, can by an outside source. Goals may include such basic play a role in instigating it as well. Seeing other people needs as food, water, sleep,sex,love, and recognition. act in an aggressive manner, especially if they are not Contributions to frustration-aggression research in the punished for it, can remove inhibitions against acting ag- 1960s by Leonard Berkowitz further established that an gressively oneself. If the modeled behavior is rewarded, environmental stimulus must produce not just frustration the reward can act vicariously as an incentive for aggres- but anger in order for aggression to follow, and that the sion in the observer. In addition, modeled aggression anger can be the result of stimuli other than frustrating may serve as a source of emotional arousal. situations (such as verbal abuse). Some aggression is motivated by reward: aggressive In contrast to instinct theories, social learning theo- behavior can be a means of obtaining what one wants. ry focuses on aggression as a learned behavior. This ap- Another motive for aggression is, paradoxically, obedi- proach stresses the roles that social influences, such as ence. People have committed many violent acts at the models and reinforcement, play in the acquisition of ag- bidding of another, in both military and civilian life. gressive behavior. The work of Albert Bandura,a Other possible motivating factors include stressors in prominent researcher in the area of social learning, has one’s physical environment, such as crowding, noise, demonstrated that aggressive behavior is learned through and temperature, and the delusions resulting from men- a combination of modeling and reinforcement. Children tal illness. In addition to the acquisition and instigation are influenced by observing aggressive behavior in their of aggression, various types of reinforcement, both direct parents and peers, and in cultural forms such as movies, and vicarious, help determine whether aggression is television, and comic books. While research has shown maintained or discontinued. that the behavior of live models has a more powerful ef- fect than that of characters on screen, film and television Researchers have attempted to learn whether certain are still pervasive influences on behavior. Quantitative childhood characteristics are predictors of aggression in studies have found that network television averages 10 adults. Traits found to have connections with aggressive violent acts per hour, while on-screen deaths in movies behavior in adulthood include maternal deprivation, lack such as Robocop and Die Hard range from 80 to 264. of identification with one’s father, pyromania, cruelty to Some have argued that this type of violence does not animals, and parental abuse. A 22-year longitudinal cause violence in society and may even have a beneficial study found patterns of aggression to be established by cathartic effect. However, correlations have been found the age of eight—the aggressive behavior of both boys between the viewing of violence and increased interper- and girls at this age was a strong predictor of their future sonal aggression, both in childhood and, later, in adoles- aggression as adults. Other factors cited in the same cence. In addition to its modeling function, viewing vio- study include the father’s upward social mobility, the GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 21

Aging child’s degree of identification with parents, and prefer- the brain. For instance, research conducted at the Geor- gia Institute of Technology studied typing speeds in ac- ence for violent television programs. See also Television and aggression complished typists of college age and another group in their sixties. Common sense suggests that the older typ- Further Reading ists would perform less well because of decreased hand- Aggression and Peacefulness in Humans and Other Primates. eye coordination and slower reaction time. Surprising- New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. ly, both groups typed at the same speed. Researchers ex- Aggressive Behavior: Current Perspectives. New York: Plenum plained the results by pointing out that the assumptions Press, 1994. about dexterity and response time were correct, but that Bandura, Albert. Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis. New the older typists had made clever, efficient adjustments, York: Prentice-Hall, 1973. such as making fewer finger movements and to read Of Mice and Women: Aspects of Female Aggression. New ahead in the text, to compensate for their deficiency in York: Academic Press, 1992. those areas. Fifty seems to be a crucial age in determining the brain’s pattern of aging. Once a person has passed that age, brain functioning and mental ability are thought to Aging be determined by essentially three factors: mental habits, chronic disease, and the mind’s flexibility. The process by which the human body changes and matures over time, especially the means by The elderly populations of many Western countries which dying cells are not replaced in sufficient are the fastest growing segment of the population. In the numbers to maintain current levels of function; the United States, it is estimated that by the year 2030 there process by which human behavior alters with time. will be 50 million persons over age 65. Among the elderly, the fastest growing population is people over 85. Such de- Psychological studies of aging populations began in mographic data will continue to focus attention on the earnest in the late nineteenth century when psychologists process of aging and the psychological problems faced by found that mental abilities deteriorated with age. These the elderly. Perhaps the most common psychological dis- abilities included memory and the types of mental per- order often associated with aging is depression. Accord- formance measured in IQ tests. In some individuals, ver- ing to the National Institute of Mental Health, depression bal abilities were shown to deteriorate with advanced age, among the elderly range from 10 to 65 percent. Suicide although at a slower rate than other skills; with others, rates among the elderly have been increasing at alarming verbal abilities, especially vocabulary, may increase with rates. A study conducted by the federal government found age. Such data have often been corroborated in tests with that between 1980 and 1986, suicides by persons aged 65 chimpanzees, where younger animals perform better in and older increased 23 percent among white men, 42 per- tests of memory and other such areas of mental function- cent among black men, and 17 percent among white ing. For decades, then, it was assumed that the physical women. The highest suicide rates are for white men over deterioration of the body, so evident in the elderly, was age 85. The elderly comprise about 13 percent of the na- surely matched by a similar decline in the mind. tion’s population (one in eight Americans) and account for Recent studies, however, have begun to cast doubt about 20 percent of all suicides. on these assumptions. One area where current research With the increase in the aging population, more has disproved a long-held belief about the aging of the focus is being placed on geriatric mental health issues, mind is in the death of neurons, formally thought to nec- including disabilities since more than half the population essarily lead to diminished mental functioning. It is now has at least one, chronic health problems, living alone or known that the brain has far more neurons than it could in assisted housing, depression, loss, pain, Alzheimer’s ever use, and that as they die their functions are taken and dementia, among others. The nation’s 78 million over by nearby neurons. Scientists have recently proven American baby boomers are expected to crave more vi- that while abilities like short-term memory and perform- tality and longer life, which could contribute to a healthi- ing certain specific tasks within a time constraint often er version of aging. deteriorate after mid-life, other areas of mental activity, such as wisdom and judgment, become more acute and Further Reading powerful. Still other studies have shown that brains in Cadoff, Jennifer. “Feel Your Best at Every Age.” McCall’s older subjects are capable of performing many tasks as (February 1994): 128. quickly and efficiently as brains in younger subjects, al- Kahn, Ada, and Jan Fawcett, eds. The Encyclopedia of Mental though the tasks are performed using different areas of Health. New York: Facts on File, 1993. 22 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Average annual growth rate of the elderly population. (Dana Hansen. Gale Group. Reproduced with permission.) Mary Ainsworth Schrof, Joannie M. “Brain Power.” U.S. News and World Re- Ainsworth began her career teaching at the Univer- port (28 November 1994): 88+. sity of Toronto before joining the Canadian Women’s White, Kristin. “How the Mind Ages: Aging: Getting It Right.” Army Corp in 1942 during World War II. After a brief Psychology Today (November/December 1993): 38+. period of post-war government service as the superinten- dent of Women’s Rehabilitation in the Canadian Depart- ment of Veteran’s Affairs, Ainsworth returned to Toronto to teach personality psychology and conduct research in the assessment of security. She married Leonard Mary Ainsworth Ainsworth in 1950. Since he was a graduate student in 1913- the same department in which she held a faculty appoint- American psychologist specializing in the study of ment, the couple decided to move to London where he infant attachment. could finish his degree at University College. Mary D. Satler Ainsworth graduated from the Uni- In England Mary Ainsworth began work at the Tavi- versity of Toronto in 1935 and earned her Ph.D. in psy- stock Clinic on a research project investigating the ef- chology from that same institution in 1939. She is best fects of early maternal separation on children’s person- known for her landmark work in assessing the security ality development. The project director, John Bowlby, of infant attachment and linking attachment security to had studied children’s reactions to separations during the aspects of maternal caregiving. war years in England, and brought an evolutionary and GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 23

Alcohol dependence and abuse ethological perspective to understanding the problems of tressed at her departure, only to seek simultaneously comfort and distance from the mother on her return by attachment, separation, and loss. Her work with Bowlby such behaviors as crying and reaching to be held and brought Ainsworth’s earlier interest in security into the developmental realm, and she planned to conduct a lon- then attempting to leave once picked up. gitudinal study of mother-infant interaction in a natural The development of this procedure has spawned an setting at her earliest opportunity. enormous body of literature examining the development of mother-child attachment, the role of attachments to That opportunity came when Ainsworth’s husband other caregivers, and the correlates and consequences of accepted a position in the East African Institute of Social Research in Kampala, Uganda. It was in Uganda that not been without controversy. Attempts to replicate her Mary Ainsworth studied mothers and infants in their nat- link between response to early crying and later attach- ural environment, observing and recording as much as ment have met with mixed success, and there is much possible, and analyzing and publishing the data years secure and insecure attachments. Ainsworth’s work has later after joining the faculty at Johns Hopkins Universi- debate about the origins of children’s reactions in the ty in Baltimore. Strange Situation. Still, Mary Ainsworth has made a last- ing contribution to the study of children’s affective Based on her original observations in Uganda and growth and the role of supportive relationships in many subsequent studies in Baltimore, Ainsworth concluded aspects of development. that there are qualitatively distinct patterns of attachment that evolve between infants and their mothers over the See also Bowlby, John opening years of life. Although a majority of these pat- terns are marked by comfort and security, some are tense Doreen Arcus or conflicted, and Ainsworth found evidence suggesting that these relationships were related to the level of re- sponsiveness that mothers showed toward their infants Further Reading from the earliest months. In one study she found mothers Ainsworth, M. Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Love. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, who responded more quickly to their infants’ cries at 1967. three months were more likely to have developed secure Ainsworth, M., M. C. Blehar, E. Waters, and S. Wall. Patterns attachments with their babies by one year. of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situ- How could the security of a relationship be mea- ation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978. sured? Ainsworth and her colleagues devised a system Karen, Robert. “Becoming Attached: What Experiences in In- for assessing individual differences in infants’ reactions fancy Will Allow Children to Thrive Emotionally and to to a series of separations and reunions with their moth- Come to Feel That the World of People Is a Positive Place?” Atlantic 265 (February 1990): 35+. ers. This method, the “Strange Situation,” has become one of the most widely used procedures in child devel- opment research. In this scenario, an observer takes a mother and child of about one year to an unfamiliar room containing Alcohol dependence and toys. There are a series of separations and reunions. For abuse example, mother and child are alone in the room for sev- eral minutes, the observer re-enters, remains, and after a The abuse of alcohol in any of its various forms, exhibited by repeated episodes of excessive drink- few minutes, the mother leaves and returns after a few ing often to the point of physical illness during more minutes. Both observer and mother may comfort which increasing amounts of alcohol must be con- the distressed child. sumed to achieve the desired effects. Ainsworth found that key individual differences among children are revealed by the child’s reaction to The American Psychiatric Association ranks alco- the mother’s return. She categorized these responses into hol dependence and abuse into three categories (what so- three major types: (A) Anxious/avoidant—the child may ciety normally thinks of as “alcoholics”): 1) individuals not be distressed at the mother’s departure and may who consume alcohol regularly, usually daily, in large avoid or turn away from her on return; (B) Securely at- amounts 2) those who consume alcohol regularly and tached—the child is distressed by mother’s departure heavily, but, unlike the first group, have the control to and easily soothed by her on her return; (C) Anxious/re- confine their excessive drinking to times when there are sistant—the child may stay extremely close to the moth- fewer social consequences, such as the weekend and 3) er during the first few minutes and become highly dis- drinkers defined by the APA who endure long periods of 24 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

sobriety before going on a binge of alcohol consumption. A binge can last a night, a weekend, a week, or longer. QUESTIONS TO ASK BEFORE People in the latter two categories often resist seeking ALCOHOL OR SUBSTANCE help because the control they exercise over their intake ABUSE TREATMENT usually allows them to maintain a normal daily schedule and function well at work or at school aside from binges. The following key issues should be considered in Alcohol dependence and abuse determining which option is the most appropriate for Other psychologists categorize alcohol dependence given circumstances: and abuse into “species.” There are several species cur- rently recognized by some in the medical community, in- •How severe is the substance abuse problem and is cluding alpha,a minor, controllable dependence; beta, a there any evidence (e.g., suicide attempts) to suggest dependence that has brought on physical complaints; ep- that there may be other problems (e.g., depression)? silon,a dependence that occurs in sprees or binges; • What are the credentials of the staff and what form(s) gamma,a severe biological dependence; and delta, an ad- of therapy (e.g., family, group, medications) are to be vanced form of gamma where the drinker has great diffi- used? culty going 24 to 48 hours without getting drunk. It should •How will the family be involved in the treatment and be noted, however, that many psychologists dispute these how long will it be from treatment entry to discharge? particular subdivisions on the grounds that the original Is there a follow-up phase of treatment? data behind their creation has been shown to be flawed. •How will the adolescent continue his/her education Alcohol dependence and abuse in adolescents and during the treatment? persons under 30 years of age is often accompanied by •How much of the treatment will our insurance cover abuse of other substances, including marijuana, co- and how much will we need to pay “out of pocket?” caine, amphetamines, and nicotine, the primary drug in cigarettes. These conditions may also be accompanied by depression,but current thinking is unclear as to whether depression is a symptom or a cause of alcohol dependence and abuse. Heredity appears to play a major A key physiological component of alcohol depen- role in the contraction of this disorder, with recent dis- dence is what is referred to as neurological adaptation, coveries of genes that influence vulnerability to alco- or, more commonly, tolerance, whereby the brain adapts holism. Studies of adopted children who are genetically itself to the level of alcohol contained in the body and in related to alcohol abusers but raised in families free of the bloodstream. This process occurs over time as the the condition suggest that environment plays a smaller drinker drinks more regularly while increasing intake in role in alcoholism’s onset than heredity. Recent studies order to achieve the desired effect. In some cases, how- suggest that between 10 to 12 percent of the adult popu- ever, high levels of tolerance to alcohol is an inborn lation of the United States suffers from some form of al- physical trait, independent of drinking history. cohol abuse or dependence. There is considerable debate as to the exact nature of Alcohol dependence and abuse typically appear in alcoholism (the biological disease) and alcohol depen- males and females at different ages. Males are more like- dence and abuse (the psychological disorders). The dis- ly to begin heavy drinking as teenagers, while females ease model, which has been embraced by physicians and are more likely to begin drinking in their mid-to-late Alcoholics Anonymous for more than 50 years, is under- twenties. In males, the disease is likely to progress rapid- going reexamination, particularly for its view that total ab- ly; debilitating symptoms in females can take years to stinence is the only method for recovery. Many psycholo- develop. According to the U.S. Department of Health gists now believe that some victims of alcohol dependence and Human Services, 14 percent of males aged 18 to 29 and abuse can safely return to controlled drinking without report symptoms of alcohol dependence, and 20 percent plunging back into self-destructive binges. Experiments revealed that their drinking has brought about negative have been conducted that indicate the consumption of a consequences in their lives. As age progresses, these fig- few drinks after a lengthy period of abstinence can lessen ures drop steadily. In females aged 18 to 29, similar sta- the resolve to remain totally abstinent, but that a devastat- tistics demonstrated that 5 to 6 percent admit to symp- ing return to abusive drinking is not the inevitable result. toms of dependence and that this number stays essential- In fact, some psychologists contend that the binge drink- ly the same until age 49, at which point it plummets to ing that occurs after initially “falling off the wagon” is less one percent. Females reporting negative consequences of a result of the return of alcohol to the body than to the drinking, however, begins at 12 percent but drops to sta- feelings of uselessness and self-pity that typically accom- tistical insignificance after age 60. pany such a failure to keep a promise to oneself. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 25

Alienation CHILDREN OF ALCOHOLICS tended to believe that use of alcohol led to positive out- comes, such as higher levels of acceptance and liking by peers and a good mood with positive feelings about one- A number of researchers have studied children of studied reported feeling at least some peer pressure to alcoholics (COAs) and their counterparts, children of self. Findings also indicate that 25% of fourth graders non-alcoholic parents (nonCOAs). These points summa- consume alcoholic beverages; this figure increased to rize their findings: 60% among seventh graders COAs and non-COAs are most likely to differ in Dr. John Ewing developed a four-question test, cognitive performance: scores on tests of abstract and known as the “CAGE” test, that therapists and the med- conceptual reasoning and verbal skills were lower ical community frequently use as a first step to evaluate among children of alcoholic fathers than among chil- alcohol dependence and/or abuse. The test takes its name dren of non-alcoholic fathers in one study (Ervin, Little, from a key word in each question: 1) Have you ever felt Streissguth, and Beck). you should Cut down on your drinking? 2) Have people A research team (Johnson and Rolf) found that both Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? 3) Have you COAs and mothers of COAs were found to underesti- ever felt bad or Guilty about your drinking? And 4) Have mate the child’s abilities. you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady School records indicate that COAs are more likely to your nerves or to get rid of a hangover (Eye opener)? repeat grades, fail to graduate from high school, and re- One yes suggests a possible alcohol problem. quire referral to the school psychologist than their non- Treatment modalities vary. Professionals frequently COA classmates. (Miller and Jang; Knop and Teasdale) employ a combination of modalities. Studies indicate Researchers (West and Prinz) found that COAs ex- cognitive behavioral therapies improve self-control and hibit behavior problems such as lying, stealing, fighting, social skills. Behavioral and group therapy have also truancy, and are often diagnosed as having conduct dis- proven effective. Self-help programs include Alcoholics orders. Anonymous, Smart Recovery, and Rational Recovery. In some cases medications designed to ease drug cravings or block the effects of alcohol are prescribed. To reduce cravings, even acupuncture is being tried. The managed Although it may be premature to suggest that a para- care environment has contributed to a belief that treat- digm shift has occurred in the psychological community ment should occur in the least restrictive settings that pro- regarding alcohol dependence and abuse, many re- vide safety and effectiveness. Treatment settings vary searchers do in fact believe that the disease model, re- from hospitalization to partial hospital care to outpatient quiring total, lifelong abstinence, no longer adequately treatment to self-help groups. addresses the wide variety of disorders related to exces- sive, harmful intake of alcohol. It is important to note, See also Addiction/Addictive Personality; Self-help however, that the human body has no physical require- groups ment for alcohol and that persons with a history of un- controllable drinking should be very careful in experi- Further Reading menting with alcohol after having achieved a hard-won Barlow, David H. and V. Mark Durand, eds. Abnormal Psy- abstinence. Other factors to keep in mind are problems chology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1995. alcohol can cause to the fetuses of pregnant women, a Knapp, Caroline. “My Passion for Liquor.” New Woman (Au- condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). gust 1995): 80-83. Some researchers believe that children born with FAS Noble, Ernest P. “Moderate Drinking Is Not for People in Re- are prone to learning disabilities, behavior problems, and covery.” Addiction Letter (September 1995): 1-2. cognitive deficits, although others feel the evidence is in- Sheed, Wilfrid. “Down in the Valley.” Psychology Today (No- vember 1995): 26-28. sufficient to establish a reliable link between these prob- Szpir, Michael. “Alcoholism, Personality, and Dopamine.” lems and FAS. Alcohol also has a negative effect on American Scientist (September 1995): 425-26. human organs, especially the liver, and a lifetime of drinking can cause terminal illnesses of the liver, stom- ach, and brain. Finally, drunk driving is a tremendous problem in the United States, as are violent crimes com- mitted by people who are under the influence of alcohol. Findings for alcohol expectancies among school-age Alienation children indicate increasingly positive alcohol expectan- The state of being emotionally separated from oth- cies across the grade levels. By fourth grade children ers and from one’s own feelings. 26 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Compound of the Branch Davidians in Waco,Texas. Feelings of alienation sometimes lead people to form small, close-knit Alienation groups such as cults. (AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced with permission.) Alienation is a powerful feeling of isolation and institutions as cold and impersonal, unresponsive to loneliness, and stems from a variety of causes. Alien- those who need their services. Entire groups may experi- ation may occur in response to certain events or situa- ence alienation—for example, ethnic minorities or resi- tions in society or in one’s personal life. Examples of dents of inner city neighborhoods who feel the opportu- events that may lead to an individual’s feeling of alien- nities and advantages of mainstream society are beyond ation include the loss of a charismatic group leader, or their reach. the discovery that a person who served as a role model Feeling separated from society is not the only way a has serious shortcomings. Examples of personal events person experiences alienation: sometimes the individual are a death in the family,a job change, divorce, or leav- feels alienation as disharmony with his or her true self. ing home for the first time. Although most people may This condition develops when a person accepts societal find that such occurrences trigger temporary feelings of expectations (to take over a family business, for exam- disillusionment or loneliness, a small percentage will be ple) that are counter to the person’s true goals, feelings, unable to overcome these events, and will feel hopelessly or desires (perhaps to be a teacher). He may appear to be adrift and alone. successful in the role others expect him to assume, but his true wish is hidden, leaving him feeling deeply con- Many sociologists have observed and commented flicted and alone. upon an increase in this feeling of alienation among young people since the 1960s. They attribute this alien- In the workplace, jobs have become increasingly ation to a variety of societal conditions: the rapid specialized since the 1700s and the Industrial Revolu- changes in society during this period, the increase in al- tion. Workers may see little connection between the tasks cohol and drug abuse, violence in the media, or the lack they perform and the final product or service, and may of communal values in the culture at large. Some sociol- thus feel intense loneliness while in the midst of a busy ogists observe that individuals become alienated when work environment. In the 1840s, American writer and they perceive government, employment, or educational philosopher Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) observed GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 27

Gordon Willard Allport that “the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation. Jackson, Richard. “Alone in the Crowd: Breaking the Isolation of Childhood.” School Library Journal (November 1995): What is called resignation is confirmed desperation.” 24. Thoreau dealt with his own feelings of alienation by re- Upton, Julia. “A Generation of Refugees.” The Catholic World treating to a solitary, simple life on the banks of Walden (September-October 1995): 204+. Pond in rural Massachusetts. He felt less isolated there— See also Loss and grief even though he lived in solitude—than when he lived in a town, surrounded by people. When living in town, his feelings of alienation confronted him daily, since his ac- tivities did not reflect his true feelings and desires. Alienation is expressed differently by different peo- Gordon Willard Allport ple. Some become withdrawn and lethargic; others may react with hostility and violence; still others may be- 1897-1967 come disoriented, rejecting traditional values and behav- American humanist psychologist who developed a personality theory that emphasized individuality. ior by adopting an outlandish appearance and erratic be- havior patterns. As society undergoes rapid changes, and traditional values and behavioral standards are chal- Gordon Willard Allport was one of the great per- lenged, some people find little they can believe in and so sonality theorists of the twentieth century. His work was have difficulty constructing a reality in which they can a synthesis of individual personality traits and the tradi- find a place for themselves. It is for this reason that so- tional psychology of William James, which emphasized cial and cultural beliefs play such an important role in psychological traits that are common among humans. He bringing about or averting a feeling of alienation. also examined complex social interactions. As a human- istic psychologist, he opposed both behavioral and psy- Psychologists help people cope with feelings of choanalytical theories of psychology. Above all, Allport alienation by developing exercises or designing specific believed in the uniqueness of the individual. A prolific tasks to help the person become more engaged in society. and gifted writer, he was the recipient of numerous pro- For example, by identifying the alienated individual’s fessional awards. true feelings, the psychologist may suggest a volunteer Allport, born in 1897 in Montezuma, Indiana, was activity or a job change to bring the individual into con- the youngest of four sons in the family of John Edwards tact with society in a way that has meaning for him or her. and Nellie Edith (Wise) Allport. He was educated in Some have proposed treating the epidemic of alien- Cleveland, Ohio, where the family moved when he was ation among America’s young people by fostering social six years old. John Allport was a physician with a clinic solutions rather than individual solutions. One such social in the family home and, as they were growing up, his solution is the idea of communitarianism, a movement sons assisted him in his practice. Gordon Allport’s moth- begun early in the 1990s by Amitai Etzioni, a sociology er, a former school teacher, maintained a home environ- professor from George Washington University in Wash- ment that emphasized religion and intellectual develop- ington, D.C. Etzioni became a popular speaker and writer ment. As a teenager, Allport ran his own printing business in the mid-1990s with the publication of his book, The and edited his high school newspaper. Following gradua- Spirit of Community. Etzioni advocates a return to com- tion in 1915, scholarships enabled him to join his brother munity values to replace the rampant alienation of con- Floyd at Harvard College. Although his education was in- temporary culture, education to reinforce shared societal terrupted for military service during the First World War, morals focusing on family values, and strictly enforcing Allport earned his A.B. degree in 1919, with majors in anti-crime measures. This movement has met serious crit- philosophy and economics. Following a year of teaching icism, however; civil libertarian groups are concerned English and sociology at Robert College in Istanbul, about communitarian beliefs that certain rights can and Turkey, Allport returned to Harvard with a fellowship to should be restricted for the good of the community. study psychology. He was influenced both by his brother Floyd and by the noted experimental psychologist Hugo Further Reading Münsterberg. He coauthored his first publication, “Per- D’Antonio, Michael. “I or We.” Mother Jones (May-June sonality Traits: Their Classification and Measurement,” 1994): 20+. with his brother in 1921. Allport received his M.A. de- gree in 1921 and his Ph.D. in 1922, for his study of per- Foster, Hal. “Cult of Despair.” New York Times (30 December sonality traits under the direction of Herbert S. Langfeld. 1994): A3. Guinness, Alma, ed. ABCs of the Human Mind. Pleasantville, A Sheldon Traveling Fellowship enabled Allport to NY: Reader’s Digest Association, 1990. spend two years studying in Berlin and Hamburg, Ger- 28 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

many, and in Cambridge, England. He then returned to Harvard as an instructor in social ethics from 1924 to 1926. Allport married Ada Lufkin Gould in 1925. Their son, Robert Bradlee Allport, grew up to become a pedia- trician. After four years as an assistant professor of psy- Gordon Willard Allport chology at Dartmouth College, Allport returned to Har- vard where he remained for the rest of his career. He be- came an associate professor of psychology in 1937 and a full professor in 1942. He served as chairman of the Psy- chology Department and helped found Harvard’s Depart- ment of Social Relations. In 1939 he was elected presi- dent of the American Psychological Association and, in 1964, received the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of that society. In 1963, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the American Psychological Foundation. Publishes theory of personality Allport’s first major book, Personality: A Psycholog- ical Interpretation (1937), distinguished between traits that are common to many people, such as assertiveness, and personal dispositions which are traits that are charac- teristic of the individual. The latter were classified ac- cording to their degree of influence on an individual per- sonality. Allport also identified how individuals develop self-awareness throughout childhood and adolescence. Gordon W. Allport (Archives of the History of American One of Allport’s most important concepts, functional au- Psychology. Reproduced with permission.) tonomy, encompassed his theories of motivation. Finally, he attempted to define the mature personality. Personali- ty: A Psychological Interpretation remained the standard During his career, Allport published 12 books and text on personality theory for many years. In 1961, fol- more than 200 papers on psychology and held important lowing years of study and research, Allport published a positions in American and foreign psychological associ- major revision of this work, Pattern and Growth in Per- ations. Allport was editor of the Journal of Abnormal sonality. He also helped to develop methods of personali- and Social Psychology from 1937 until 1949. Boston ty assessment, including the A-S Reaction Study (1928), University awarded him an honorary L.H.D. degree in with his brother Floyd Allport. 1958. He also held honorary doctorates from Ohio Wes- leyan University, Colby College, and the University of Durham in England. He died of lung cancer in Cam- Examines the nature of prejudice bridge, Massachusetts, in 1967. Allport was a man of diverse interests. During See also Personality development; Prejudice and World War II, as a member of the National Research discrimination; Religion and psychology Council, he began studying the social problem of spread- ing rumors. In 1947 he published The Psychology of Rumor with Leo Postman. Allport also was concerned Margaret Alic with racial and religious prejudice. His 1954 book, The Nature of Prejudice,was a milestone study. As a visiting Further Reading consultant at the University of Natal in South Africa in Allport, G. W. “Autobiography.” In A History of Psychology in 1956, Allport predicted that the white supremacist cul- Autobiography, edited by E. Boring and G. Lindzey. tures of both South Africa and the American South Boston: Beacon Press, 1967. would be overthrown. Like his predecessor William Evans, Richard I. Gordon Allport, the Man and his Ideas. New James, Allport also examined the psychology of religion York: Dutton, 1971. in The Individual and his Religion: A Psychological In- Maddi, Salvatore R. and Paul T. Costa. Humanism in Personal- terpretation (1950), in which he warned of the preju- ogy: Allport, Maslow, and Murray. Chicago: AldineAther- dices that could be fostered by institutionalized religions. ton, 1972. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 29

Alzheimer’s disease An irreversible, progressive condition in which Further Reading Alzheimer’s disease Edwards, Allen. When Memory Fails. New York: Plenum, 1994. Gregg, Daphna. Alzheimer’s Disease. Boston: Harvard Med- ical School Health Publications, 1994. nerve cells in the brain degenerate, and the size of the brain decreases. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common degenera- tive brain disorder, although onset of the disease is rare before the age of 60. After that age, the incidence of American Academy of Child Alzheimer’s disease increases steadily, and more than one-quarter of all individuals above the age of 85 have and Adolescent Psychiatry this disease. In addition, Alzheimer’s disease is the cause The American Academy of Child and Adolescent of about three-quarters of all cases of dementia in indi- Psychiatry (AACAP) represents over 6,500 child and viduals above the age of 65. General interest and re- adolescent psychiatrists, all of whom have at least five search focusing on the cause and treatment of this condi- years of additional training beyond medical school in the tion have grown in recent years because the number of fields of general and child and adolescent psychiatry. elderly persons in the population is increasing. The members of the Academy actively research, diag- The cause of Alzheimer’s disease is not known, but nose, and treat psychiatric disorders affecting children several theories of causality have been advanced. These and adolescents and their families and support their ac- theories propose genetic, environmental, viral, immuno- tivities through a variety of programs. logical, biochemical, and other causes for the disease. The Academy was established in 1953 as the Ameri- The specific features of Alzheimer’s disease vary from can Academy of Child Psychiatry with fewer than 100 individual to individual, but the general course of the members. Today the AACAP is a dynamic, growing or- disease is fairly consistent in most cases. The symptoms ganization whose mission is to direct and respond quick- of the disease tend to be more severe at night. The first ly to new developments in the health care environment, stage of Alzheimer’s disease is usually forgetfulness, ac- particularly as they affect the needs of children, adoles- companied by some anxiety and mild depression. This cents, and their families. usually develops into a more serious loss of memory, es- pecially of recent events, moderate spatial and temporal The Academy sponsors over 45 committees which disorientation, loss of ability to concentrate, aphasia, work to increase the areas of knowledge for Academy and increased anxiety. This set of symptoms is usually members and the public, and to disseminate information, followed by profound spatial and temporal disorienta- including position statements on various issues such as tion, delusions, hallucinations, incontinence, general adolescent psychiatric hospitalization, pregnancy pre- physical decline, and death. vention, and substance abuse. See also Dementia The Academy’s strong commitment to furthering the understanding and treatment of children and adoles- cents is also reflected in the wide range of their activi- ties, which include publishing the bi-monthly Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychi- atry and a quarterly Newsletter; promoting support for research careers; providing a national continuing med- ical education program and participating in the Ameri- can Medical Association regarding innovations in treat- ment; and providing public information in the form of Facts for Families,a collection of informational sheets providing the most up-to-date material discussing cur- rent psychiatric issues concerning children, adolescents, and their families. Further Information Brain tissue damaged by Alzheimer’s disease. (Photo by American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 3615 Cecil Fox/Science Source. National Audubon Society Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20016, (202) Collection/Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced by permission.) 966–7300. www.aacap.org/about/introduction.html. 30 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

son A), Person A should appear somewhat smaller than Per- Americans with Disabilities son B because Person A is farther from the viewer. Howev- Amnesia Act (ADA) er, because the room is constructed so that the back wall looks normal, the viewer has no depth cues and Person A U.S. federal legislation (PL 101-336; 42 U.S.C. appears unusually small, while Person B appears very large. 12101) enacted in 1990 and designed to prohibit If a person moves from one corner to the other, he gives the certain forms of discrimination against individuals illusion of shrinking or growing as he moves. That is, the with disabilities. cues that people normally use for size are so powerful that viewers see things that could not possibly be true. In 1990, approximately 40 million Americans could be classified as having one or more physical or mental disabilities. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted to legally address the widespread and seri- ous social problem of discrimination against these indi- Amnesia viduals in employment, housing, public accommoda- tions, education, transportation, communication, public A partial or total loss of memory. service, and other areas. In addition to establishing en- forceable standards in reference to discrimination against There are numerous causes of amnesia, including individuals with disabilities and ensuring that the federal stroke, injury to the brain, surgery, alcoholism, en- government enforces those standards, the intent of this cephalitis, and electroconvulsive therapy. Contrary to legislation was to provide a clear national mandate for the popular notion of amnesia—in which a person suf- the elimination of discrimination against individuals fers a severe blow to the head, for example, and cannot with disabilities and to allow these individuals into the recall his or her past life and experiences—the principal economic and social mainstream of American life. symptom of amnesia is the inability to retain new infor- See also Disability mation, beginning at the point at which the amnesia began. The capacity to recall past experiences may vary, Further Reading depending on the severity of the amnesia. Bowe, Frank. Equal Rights for Americans with Disabilities. There are two types of amnesia: retrograde and an- New York: Franklin Watts, 1992. terograde. Retrograde amnesia refers to the loss of mem- ory of one’s past, and can vary from person to person. Some retain virtually full recall of things that happened prior to the onset of amnesia; others forget only their re- Ames Room cent past, and still others lose all memory of their past lives. Anterograde amnesia refers to the inability to re- Specially constructed space that demonstrates as- pects of visual perception. call events or facts introduced since the amnesia began. Amnesiacs often appear perfectly normal. Motor People make sense out of visual scenes by relying on skills such as tying laces and bows and bike riding are various cues. The Ames Room is a specially constructed retained, as is the ability to read and comprehend the space that demonstrates the power of these cues. Normal- meaning of words. Because of this phenomenon, re- ly, people use monocular depth cues such as relative size searchers have suggested that there is more than one area and height in the visual plane as indicators of depth. If of the brain used to store memory. General knowledge two people of similar size stand a distance part, the one and perceptual skills may be stored in a memory separate closer to the viewer appears larger. Similarly, the person from the one used to store personal facts. farther away appears higher in the visual plane. The most famous study of amnesia involves a patient An Ames Room is constructed to look like a normal called H.M., who in 1953 underwent brain surgery de- room. In reality, the floor slants up on one side and, at signed to treat his epilepsy. Following the surgery, he the same time, slopes up from front to back. Finally, the could recall all the events of his past life up until three back wall is slanted so that one side is closer to the view- weeks before the operation. However, H.M. could no er than the other. The figure below shows a top view of longer function normally because he had lost the ability to the shape of the room and the spot from which the view- learn new facts and associations. For example, he could er looks at the scene. not recognize his doctor from day to day or hour to hour. If one person stands at the back right corner of the Childhood amnesia, a term coined by Anna Freud room (Person B), and another person at the left corner (Per- in the late 1940s, refers to the fact that most people cannot GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 31

The American Psychiatric Association supports psy- American Psychiatric Association recall childhood experiences during the first three to five chiatrists and their service to patients through publica- years of life. It has been suggested that this type of amne- tions such as the American Journal of Psychiatry, the sia occurs because children and adults organize memories oldest specialty journal in the United States, and the Psy- in different ways based on their brain’s physical develop- chiatric News, the Association’s official newsletter, as ment. Others believe children begin remembering facts and events once they have accumulated enough experi- well as numerous books, journals, and reports. The Asso- ence to be able to relate experiences to each other. ciation’s annual meeting attracts more than 15,000 atten- dees and features hundreds of sessions and presenters. See also Fugue Additionally, the Association schedules more than 200 Further Reading task forces to advance the cause of mental health. The Atkinson, Rita L.; Richard C. Atkinson; Edward E. Smith; and American Psychiatric Association also offers a compre- Ernest R. Hilgard. Introduction to Psychology . 9th ed. hensive continuing medical education program to its San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. meetings each year among its councils, committees, and Bolles, Edmund Blair. Remembering and Forgetting: An In- members. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of quiry into the Nature of Memory. New York: Walker and Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), an authoritative reference Co., 1988. work, is published by American Psychiatric Association. Zimbardo, Philip G. Psychology and Life. 12th ed. Glenview, See also Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men- IL: Scott, Foresman, 1989. tal Disorders Further Information American Psychiatric Association. 1400 K Street, NW, Wash- American Psychiatric ington, D.C. 20005, (202) 682–6000. Association A national medical society whose approximately 40,500 members—physicians and medical stu- dents—specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of American Psychological mental and emotional disorders. Association (APA) The oldest medical specialty society in the United The American Psychological Association (APA) States, the American Psychiatric Association was found- was founded in July 1892, and by the 1990s, it was both ed in October 1844, when thirteen physicians who spe- the world’s largest association of psychologists and the cialized in the treatment of mental and emotional disor- major organization representing psychology in the Unit- ders met in Philadelphia and founded the Association of ed States. APA has 159,000 members and affiliates (stu- Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the dents and high school teachers) from around the world. Insane. (It is interesting to note that this forerunner of the APA sponsors approximately 50 specialty divisions. American Psychiatric Association preceded the American The program of the APA is organized in four direc- Medical Association, which was founded in 1847.) The torates, namely Science, Practice, Public Interest, and goals of the physicians meeting in Philadelphia were to Education, all of which contribute to the goal of seeking communicate professionally, cooperate in the collection ways to increase human wellness through an understand- of data, and improve the treatment of the mentally ill. ing of behavior. The Science Directorate promotes the The American Psychiatric Association’s objectives exchange of ideas and research findings through conven- are still designed to advance care for people with mental tions, conferences, publications, and traveling museum illnesses: to improve treatment, rehabilitation, and care exhibits. It also helps psychologists locate and obtain re- of the mentally ill and emotionally disturbed; to promote search funding. The Practice Directorate promotes the research, professional education in psychiatry and allied practice of psychology and the availability of psycholog- fields, and the prevention of psychiatric disabilities; to ical care. It lobbies both federal and state legislatures on advance the standards of psychiatric services and facili- issues such as health care reform, regulatory activities ties; to foster cooperation among those concerned with such as state licensure, and public service such as the pro the medical, psychological, social and legal aspects of bono services provided through the Disaster Response mental health; to share psychiatric knowledge with Network. The Public Interest Directorate supports the other practitioners of medicine, scientists, and the pub- application of psychology to the advancement of human lic; and to promote the best interests of patients and oth- welfare through program and policy development, con- ers actually or potentially using mental health services. ference planning, and support of research, training, and 32 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

advocacy in areas such as minority affairs, women’s is- Further Information sues, and lesbian and gay concerns. The Education Di- American Psychological Society. 1010 Vermont Avenue, Suite rectorate serves to advance psychology in its work with 1100, Washington, D.C. 20005, (202) 783–2077. Anne Anastasi educational institutions, professional agencies, and pro- grams and initiatives in education. APA publishes books as well as more than 24 scien- tific and professional journals and newsletters, including Anaclitic depression APA Monitor and American Psychologist. Since 1970, PsychINFO, a worldwide computer database, has pro- See Depression vided references in psychology and related behavioral and social sciences. The week-long APA annual conven- tion is the world’s largest meeting of psychologists. More than 15,000 psychologists attend, and have oppor- tunities to attend the presentation of more than 3,000 pa- Anal stage pers, lectures, and symposia. See also American Psychological Society (APS); See Psychosexual development National Association for Mental Health; National Insti- tute of Mental Health Further Information American Psychological Association. 1200 Seventeenth Street Anne Anastasi NW, Washington, D.C. 20036, (202) 336–5500. 1908- American psychologist instrumental in developing psychometrics—how psychological traits are influ- enced, developed, and measured. American Psychological Society (APS) In her long and productive career, Anne Anastasi has produced not only several classic texts in psychology but Organization devoted to academic, applied, and has been a major factor in the development of psycholo- science-oriented psychology. gy as a quantitative behavioral science. To psychology professionals, the name Anastasi is synonymous with The American Psychological Society was founded psychometrics, since it was she who pioneered under- in 1988 to represent the interests of academic, applied, standing how psychological traits are influenced, devel- and science-oriented psychology and psychologists. The oped, and measured. In 1987 she was rated by her peers formation of APS originated from the Assembly for Sci- as the most prominent living woman in psychology in entific and Applied Psychology (ASAP), a group that at- the English-speaking world. tempted to reform the American Psychological Associ- Anne Anastasi was born December 19, 1908, in New ation (APA) to give the scientists greater representation York City, the only child of Anthony and Theresa Gau- and autonomy. As of early 1996, the APS had about diosi. Her father, who died when she was only one year 15,000 members. old, worked for the New York City Board of Education. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., APS prides it- Soon after his death, her mother experienced such a deep self on its strong, committed leadership and minimal split with her father’s relatives that they would never be a bureaucracy. It publishes two bimonthly journals, Psy- part of her life. From then on, she was raised by her moth- chological Science and Current Directions in Psycholog- er, grandmother, and great uncle. Her mother was com- ical Science, and produces a monthly newsletter. The pelled to find a job, and eventually she became office man- APS holds annual conventions and actively lobbies Con- ager of one of the largest foreign newspapers in New York, gress for funds to support scientifically oriented research Il Progresso Italo-Americano. Meanwhile, the precocious projects in psychology. In 1991, it initiated a national be- and intelligent young Anastasi was educated at home by havioral science research agenda known as the Human her grandmother, and it was not until the sixth grade that Capital Initiative (HCI). The goal of HCI is to apply the she entered the public school system. After graduating knowledge gained from scientific psychology to address from P.S. 33 in the Bronx at the top of her class, she attend- such social ills as illiteracy, substance abuse, violence,as ed Evander Childs High School, but found the entire expe- well as mental and physical health. rience dispiriting and dropped out after two months. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 33

Skips high school and discovers psychology Anne Anastasi school after only two months was solved by an insightful professor and sole member of the newly created Psycholo- gy Department at Queens College of the City of New York. at Barnard College After the war, she left Queens College in 1947 to become The dilemma of a 13-year old girl leaving high associate professor of psychology in the Graduate School family friend, Ida Stadie, who suggested that she prepare fessor in 1951. She remained there until her retirement in to skip high school and go directly to college. Since of Arts and Sciences at Fordham University, and full pro- 1979, when she became a professor emeritus. Barnard College in New York City did not specify a high The focus of her research, writing, and teaching has school degree as an admissions requirement, Anastasi been on the nature and measurement of psychological decided she need only submit the results of her College traits. In her landmark work, Psychological Testing, Entrance Examination Board tests. After taking two Anastasi emphasizes the ways education and heredity years to prepare at the Rhodes Preparatory School in influence trait development, and then goes on to demon- Manhattan, she took the tests and was admitted to strate how the measurement of those traits is affected by Barnard College in 1924 at the age of 15. such variables as training, culture, and language differ- Mathematics had been her first love since elementary ences. Throughout her work, the “nature-nurture” con- school, and at Barnard she was placed in all the advanced troversy is dominant, and typically, she argues that psy- math classes. During her sophomore year, however, she chologists have been incorrect seeking to explain behav- took a course in developmental psychology with the de- ior by using one or the other. She states, rather, that nei- partment chairman, Harry L. Hollingworth, whose stimu- ther exists apart from the other, and that psychologists lating lectures made her intellectually curious about the should be questioning how the two interact. discipline. In that course, she encountered a psychology At least two of Anastasi’s other books are consid- article by Charles Spearman,whose intriguing work on ered classics in the field and are found in many transla- correlation coefficients showed her that it was possible to tions around the world. The recipient of several honorary combine mathematics and psychology. Convinced she degrees, she became in 1972 the first woman to be elect- had found the best of both worlds, she enrolled in the ed president of the American Psychological Association Barnard’s Honors Program in psychology for her last two in 50 years. In 1987 her career achievements were recog- years, and received her B.A. in 1928 at the age of 19, nized when she was presented the National Medal of having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa and having won Science by President Ronald Reagan. the Caroline Duror Graduate Fellowship, “awarded to the member of the graduating class showing the greatest Anastasi’s life has not been entirely trouble-free, as promise of distinction in her chosen line of work.” she had to survive a diagnosis of cervical cancer in 1934. When the successful radiation therapy left her unable to have children, she looked only at the positive aspects of Receives Ph.D., teaches at 21, and writes her condition and stated that she was able to focus solely classic text at 29 on her career without guilt. A well-rounded individual with an avocational interest in art, she continued her pro- Having taken graduate courses at Columbia Universi- fessional writing, speaking, and organizational activities ty while still at Barnard, she applied there after graduation long past the time when most people have fully retired. and was allowed to skip the master’s degree and to go di- See also Nature-nuture controversy rectly for her Ph.D. in general experimental psychology. At this time, Columbia’s psychology department provided a stimulating and lively environment, made more enlight- Leonard C. Bruno ening by its summer sessions that were visited by eminent psychologists. During her second year at Columbia, Anas- Further Reading tasi began to specialize, and it was then that she decided “American Psychological Foundation Awards for 1984.” Amer- on the complex field of differential psychology. As the ican Psychologist (March 1985): 340-341. branch of psychology that deals with individual and group “Distinguished Scientific Award for the Applications of Psy- differences in behavior, it is a highly quantitative field of chology: 1981.” American Psychologist (January 1982): study, and therefore much to her liking. 52-59. Metzger, Linda and Deborah A. Straub, editors. Contemporary As she had planned, Anastasi received her Ph.D. from Authors. New Revision Series, Volume 17. Detroit, MI: Columbia in only two years, and in 1930 returned to Gale Research Co., p 21. Barnard to begin teaching. Three years later, she married O’Connell, Agnes N. and Nancy Felipe Russo, editors. Women psychologist John Porter Foley Jr., a fellow Columbia in Psychology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990, pp. Ph.D. student. In 1939 she left Barnard to become assistant 13-22. 34 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Sheehy, Noel, Antony J. Chapman, and Wendy A. Conroy, edi- subtly uncooperative or disrespectful but which provides tors. Biographical Dictionary of Psychology. New York: no concrete basis for disciplinary action. Passive aggres- Routledge Reference, 1997, pp. 13-14. sive acts may even appear in the guise of a service or favor, when in fact the sentiments expressed are those of hostility rather than altruism. Some of the more extreme Animal experimentation defenses against anger are paranoia, in which anger is essentially projected onto others, and bigotry, in which Anger such a projection is targeted at members of a specific racial, religious, or ethnic group. One of the primordial emotions, along with fear, grief, pain, and joy. See also Aggression Anger is usually caused by the frustration of at- Further Reading tempts to attain a goal, or by hostile or disturbing actions Carter, William Lee. The Angry Teenager. Nashville: Thomas such as insults, injuries, or threats that do not come from Nelson, 1995. a feared source. The sources of anger are different for Dentemaro, Christine. Straight Talk About Anger. New York: people at different periods in their lives. The most com- Facts on File, 1995. mon cause of anger in infants, for example, is restraint of Ellis, Albert. Anger: How to Live With and Without It. New York: Citadel Press, 1977. activity. Children commonly become angry due to re- Letting Go of Anger: The 10 Most Common Anger Styles and strictive rules or demands, lack of attention, or failure to What To Do About Them. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger accomplish a task. As children reach adolescence and Publications, 1995. adulthood, the primary sources of anger shift from phys- Licata, Renora. Everything You Need to Know About Anger. ical constraints and frustrations to social ones. In adults, New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 1994. the basis of anger include disapproval, deprivation, ex- Luhn, Rebecca R. Managing Anger: Methods for a Happier and ploitation, manipulation, betrayal, and humiliation, and Healthier Life. Los Altos, CA: Crisp Publications, 1992. the responses to it become less physical and more social with age. The tantrums, fighting, and screaming typical of childhood give way to more verbal and indirect ex- pressions such as swearing and sarcasm. Physical vio- lence does occur in adults, but in most situations it is Animal experimentation avoided in deference to social pressures. The use of destructive and nondestructive testing Like fear, anger is a basic emotion that provides a upon various animal species in order to better un- primitive mechanism for physical survival. The physio- derstand the mechanisms of human and animal be- logical changes that accompany anger and fear are very haviors, emotions, and thought processes. similar and include increased heart rate and blood pres- sure, rapid breathing, and muscle tension. However, Biologists believe that chimpanzees share at least anger produces more muscle tension, higher blood pres- 98.4 percent of the same DNA as humans. Gorillas have sure, and a lower heart rate, while fear induces rapid a genetic composition which is at least 97 percent con- breathing. Unlike the adrenalin-produced “fight or sistent with that of humans. Because the advancement of flight” response that characterizes fear, anger is attrib- scientific technology has increasingly demonstrated sim- uted to the secretion of both adrenalin and another hor- ilarities between animals and people, popular attitudes mone, noradrenalin. Other physical signs of anger in- toward the use of animals in research and scientific ex- clude scowling, teeth grinding, glaring, clenched fists, perimentation have changed considerably. Ironically, this chills and shuddering, twitching, choking, flushing or knowledge of the close genetic bond between species paling, and numbness. has enhanced the interest in animal experimentation. People use a number of defense mechanisms to Nevertheless, evidence of animals as “sentient” beings, deal with anger. They may practice denial, refusing to capable of a wide range of emotions and thought recognize that they are angry. Such repressed anger often processes, has led scientists and animal activists to finds another outlet, such as a physical symptom. Anoth- search for alternative ways to study behavior without er way of circumventing anger is through passive ag- victimizing animals. Although most psychology research gression, in which anger is expressed covertly in a way does not involve deadly disease or experimental patholo- that prevents retaliation. Both sarcasm and chronic late- gy, it often involves unrelenting or quantitative mental, ness are forms of passive aggression. In the classroom, a physical, and psychological stress—all of which animals passive aggressive student will display behavior that is are capable of experiencing. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 35

Animal experimentation Animal rights activists, protesting the use of animals in laboratory experiments by dressing in monkey suits, block the entrance to the Department of Health and Human Services in Washington, D.C. (Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced with permission.) History the United States, but in terms of relevance, it is tem- pered by the reality that between 85 and 90 percent of all Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution in 1859 be- animal experimentation is conducted on species not suf- came the scientific rationale for using animal experi- ficiently similar to humans to draw dispositive parallels. ments to learn more about humans. In the late nineteenth The majority of all animal research in the field of psy- century, Ivan Pavlov’s experiments in the development chology is conducted on various rodent species (rats, of “conditioned” responses in dogs (salivation) helped to mice, hamsters, etc.) or birds as laboratory subjects. foster an increasingly authoritative school of psychology known as behaviorism. The contemporary human treat- Australian philosopher Peter Singer made the case ment regimen known as behavior modification is fash- for an end to animal experimentation with his 1975 ioned from parallels drawn on these early experiments in book, Animal Liberation. Coinciding with his book was operant conditioning. the comprehensive and sensitive research of such etholo- gists as Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey, who suggested In 1876, England passed the British Cruelty to Ani- that primates were capable of a full spectrum of emo- mals Act, which regulated animal experimentation. Still, tions, including love, sorrow, jealousy, humor, and de- behaviorist thinking at that time denied animals any psy- ceit. These animals also learned to communicate with che or emotion. Academic journals described animal be- humans by using over 300 learned signs in American havior only in terms of physiologic response to stimuli, Sign Language. Studies with other species produced with no mention of any psychological consequence. similar results. During the late 1990s, an African gray In later years, the behaviorist theories were over- parrot named Alex, who was being studied at the Arizona shadowed by the development and spread (from Europe State University, fell ill and was required to spend the to the United States) of ethology which concerns itself night alone at a veterinary clinic. When his keeper at- with genetic predisposition, or innate/instinctive behav- tempted to leave the room at the clinic, Alex cried out, ior and knowledge. This theory continues to prevail in “Come here, I love you, I’m sorry. Wanna go back.” 36 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Such examples of the yet-unknown extent of emotional, Further Information psychological, and behavioral capacity in other species Humane Society of the United States, Animal Research Issues Anorexia have cast new doubts on the scientific rationale for the Section. Washington, DC. continuation of captive animal experimentation. Current trends Anorexia Animal experimentation is still widely used in psy- chological research. Animals are used in projects of An eating disorder where preoccupation with diet- many types from alcohol-induced aggression to pain ing and thinness leads to excessive weight loss medication. A 1999 medical study questioned whether while the individual continues to feel fat and fails to acknowledge that the weight loss or thinness is a animal experimentation on the neuroendocrine mecha- problem. nisms in laboratory rats might provide a better under- standing of human bisexuality. However, the trend in academia seems to be following the popular distaste for Symptoms of anorexia, or anorexia nervosa, include animal experimentation. A British study of undergradu- significant weight loss, continuation of weight loss de- ate students enrolled in psychology classes during the spite thinness, persistent feeling of being fat even after 1990s showed that students in psychology were less in weight loss, exaggerated fear of gaining weight, loss of favor of animal testing than students in medicine, and menstrual periods, preoccupation with food, calories, nu- second-year students were less in favor of such research trition and/or cooking, dieting in secret, compulsive ex- than first-year students. Several articles have been pub- ercising, sleep disorders, and a pattern of binging and lished which address the general lack of acknowledg- purging. The condition also has psychosexual effects. ment, in leading introductory psychology textbooks, of The sexual development of anorexic adolescents is ar- contributions made by animal subjects. rested, while adults who have the disease generally lose interest in sex. While the term anorexia literally means According to the American Psychological Associa- “loss of appetite,” anorexics generally do feel hunger but tion (APA), less than 10 percent of pure psychological still refuse to eat. research uses animals as subjects. This estimate does not include animal subjects used for cross-over medical ex- The great majority of anorexics (about 95 percent) perimentation, such as in the related field of neuropsy- are women. Risk factors for the disorder may include a chology. Best estimates for the total number of animal history of alcoholism and/or depression, early onset of subjects in all medical/psychological research is about puberty, tallness, perfectionism,low self-esteem, and 20 million per year. Of the animals used in psychological certain illnesses such as juvenile diabetes. Psychosocial research, 90 percent are rodents and birds. factors associated with the disease are over-controlling parents, an upwardly mobile family, and a culture that Concerns about animal cruelty have led to the search places excessive value on female thinness. Emotionally, for alternative methodologies. Of great promise in this re- anorexia often involves issues of control; the typical gard is computer simulation technology. As early as anorexic is often a strong-willed adolescent whose aver- 1996, psychology students were able to study “shaping” sion to food is a misdirected way of exercising autonomy and partial reinforcement in operant conditioning, by to compensate for a lack of control in other areas of his using a computer-created “virtual rat” named Sniffy. or her life. Commensurate with such technological developments Medical consequences of anorexia may include in- and their refinements, statistics have shown a slow but fertility, osteoporosis, lower body temperatures, lower consistent yearly decline in animal experimentation blood pressure, slower pulse, a weakened heart, lanugo through 1999. (growth of fine body hair), bluish hands and feet, consti- pation, slowed metabolism and reflexes, loss of muscle Lauri R. Harding mass, and kidney and heart failure. Anorexics also have been found to have abnormal levels of several neurotrans- Further Reading Baluch, Bahman; and Baljit Kaur. “Attitude Change Toward mitters, which can, in turn, contribute further to depres- Animal Experimentation in an Academic Setting.” Jour- sion. People suffering from anorexia often must be hospi- nal of Psychology (July 1995): 477. talized for secondary medical effects of the condition. McElroy, Susan Chernak. Animals as Teachers and Healers. Sometimes the victim must be force-fed in order to be New York: Ballantine, 1997. kept alive. Due to medical complications as well as emo- Mukerjee, Madhusree. “Trends in Animal Research,” Scientific tional distress caused by the disorder, anorexia nervosa is American (February 1997): 86. one of the few mental disorders that can be fatal. The GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 37

Antidepressants ance. Treatment and cure for anorexia are possible through skilled psychiatric intervention that includes medical evaluation, psychotherapy for the individual and family group, nutritional counseling, and possibly medication and/or hospitalization. With treatment and the passage of time, about 70 percent of anorexics eventually recover and are able to maintain a normal body weight. The American Anorexia and Bulimia Association is the principal and oldest national non-profit organization working for the prevention, treatment, and cure of eating disorders. Its mission is inclusive of sufferers, their fami- lies, and friends. The AABA publishes a quarterly newsletter reviewing developments in research and pro- gramming. It also organizes a referral network which in- cludes educational programs and public information ma- terials, professional services and outpatient programs, patient and parent support groups, and training of recov- ered patients as support group facilitators. See also Body image; Bulimia Further Reading Epling, W. Rank. Solving the Anorexia Puzzle. Toronto: Hogrefe and Hubers, 1991. Maloney, Michael. Straight Talk About Eating Disorders. New York : Facts on File, 1991. Further Information American Anorexia and Bulimia Association (AABA). 418 E. 78th Street, New York, New York 10021, (212) 734–1114. American Dietetic Association (ADA) NCDC-Eating Disor- The body of a woman with anorexia. (Biophoto Associates/ ders. 216 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Illinois 60606, Science Source. Photo Researchers, Inc. Reproduced with (800) 366–1655. permission.) National Anoretic Aid Society. 445 E. Dublin-Granville Road, Worthington, Ohio 43229, (614) 436–1112. American Psychiatric Association estimates that mor- National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Dis- tality rates for anorexia may be as high as 5 to 18 percent. orders (ANAD). Box 7, Highland Park, Illinois 60035, (708) 831–3438. According to the National Association of Anorex- ia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD), anorexia nervosa and its related disorders, bulimia and binge eating disorder, afflict an estimated seven million women and one million men in the United Antidepressants States. The peak times of onset are ages 12 to 13 and Medications used to treat depression. age 17. The American Anorexia and Bulimia Associa- tion (AABA) calculates that as many as 1 percent of teenage girls become anorexic and 10 percent of those The two most common types of antidepressants are may die as a result. tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Examples of TCAs in- In order to reduce the risks of eating disorders, clude nortriptyline (also known by the brand name cultural ideals connecting thinness and beauty to self- Pamelor), imipramine (Tofranil), and desipramine worth and happiness must change so that children es- (Norpramin). Examples of SSRIs include fluoxetine tablish healthier attitudes and eating behaviors, and (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), and paroxetine (Paxil). learn to value themselves and others for intrinsic qual- Clinical studies have shown that some people benefit ities, rather than extrinsic ones focusing on appear- from these medications. 38 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) discontinuing the medication. There are no specific labo- ratory tests required before administering SSRIs. These Before using TCAs, it is necessary to have a medical drugs do have potentially harmful interactions with sev- history and examination of the patient, including an elec- eral commonly prescribed drugs; therefore, all physi- Antisocial behavior trocardiogram (EKG). Not everyone develops side ef- cians should be informed if someone is taking an SSRI. fects when taking TCAs, but the most common side ef- fects include: dry mouth, impaired ability to focus vi- sion at close range, constipation, urinary hesitation, Patients who do not respond to treatment dizziness, weight gain, and sedation. TCAs may produce The most common reasons for failure of treatment minor cardiovascular changes such as orthostatic hy- are inadequate medication dosage or length of medica- potension (low blood pressure when the person stands tion trial, lack of compliance with treatment, exposure to up, often causing light-headedness), hypertension, rapid chronic or severe life events that require different modal- heart beat, and minor changes in the electrical activity of ities of therapy, existence of other psychiatric disorders the heart, which may show in the electrocardiogram (e.g., substance abuse, anxiety disorder), and misdiagno- (EKG). Most of these side effects can be minimized by sis. In adults with resistant depression,several types of slowly adjusting the dose of the drug. combinations of medications and ECT (electroconvul- During treatment with TCAs, patients should be sive therapy) have been found to be useful. monitored by a physician trained in the management of these medications. It is recommended that he or she per- form regular blood pressure, heart rate, and EKG moni- toring. TCAs may interact with other medications the pa- tient is taking, so it is important to consult a doctor be- Antisocial behavior fore doing so. Finally, the TCAs should not be stopped A pattern of behavior that is verbally or physically abruptly, as this may induce mild withdrawal side effects harmful to other people, animals, or property, in- (malaise, chills, stomachache, flu-like symptoms). cluding behavior that severely violates social ex- Though they are safe if carefully monitored and taken as pectations for a particular environment. prescribed, TCAs can be lethal if taken in overdose. Antisocial behavior can be broken down into two components: the presence of antisocial (i.e., angry, ag- Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors gressive, or disobedient) behavior and the absence of (SSRIs) prosocial (i.e., communicative, affirming, or coopera- The reports that SSRIs are effective in treating tive) behavior. Most children exhibit some antisocial be- adults with major depressive disorder (MDD), together havior during their development, and different children with the findings that SSRIs have a relatively benign side demonstrate varying levels of prosocial and antisocial effect profile, low lethality after an overdose, and once- behavior. Some children may exhibit high levels of both a-day administration, have encouraged the use of SSRIs. antisocial and prosocial behaviors; for example, the pop- ular but rebellious child. Some, however, may exhibit Several studies have reported 70-90% response rate to low levels of both types of behaviors; for example, the fluoxetine or sertraline for the treatment of adolescents withdrawn, thoughtful child. High levels of antisocial with major depressive disorder, but the results of these behavior are considered a clinical disorder. Young chil- studies are not conclusive because they have methodologi- dren may exhibit hostility towards authority, and be di- cal limitations. A recent, large, well-performed investiga- agnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder. Older chil- tion showed that fluoxetine was more effective for the dren may lie, steal, or engage in violent behaviors, and treatment of depressed children and adolescents than a be diagnosed with conduct disorder. Mental health placebo. Despite the significant response to fluoxetine, professionals agree, and rising rates of serious school many patients had only partial improvement. disciplinary problems, delinquency, and violent crime in- Overall, the SSRIs have similar effectiveness and dicate, that antisocial behavior in general is increasing. side effects as TCAs. The most common side effects in- Thirty to 70% of childhood psychiatric admissons are clude nausea, stomachache, diarrhea, headaches, mild for disruptive behavior disorders, and diagnoses of be- tremors, sweating, sleep disturbance, sedation, restless- havior disorders are increasing overall. A small percent- ness, lack of appetite, decreased weight, vivid dreams, age of antisocial children grow up to become adults with and sexual dysfunction (inability to have an orgasm or antisocial personality disorder, and a greater propor- delayed ejaculation). Most of these side effects are tem- tion suffer from the social, academic, and occupational porary and may be diminished by reducing the dose or failures resulting from their antisocial behavior. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION 39

Causes and characteristics Antisocial behavior cial behavior vary, but usually they include some form of the frequency of their negative behaviors, and any reli- able assessment must involve observation by mental Factors that contribute to a particular child’s antiso- health professionals, parents, teachers, or peers. family problems (e.g., marital discord, harsh or inconsis- tent disciplinary practices or actual child abuse,frequent Treatment changes in primary caregiver or in housing, learning or The most important goals of treating antisocial be- cognitive disabilities, or health problems). Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is highly correlated with havior are to measure and describe the individual child’s antisocial behavior. A child may exhibit antisocial be- or adolescent’s actual problem behaviors and to effective- havior in response to a specific stressor (such as the ly teach him or her the positive behaviors that should be death of a parent or a divorce) for a limited period of adopted instead. In severe cases, medication will be ad- time, but this is not considered a psychiatric condition. ministered to control behavior, but it should not be used Children and adolescents with antisocial behavior disor- as substitute for therapy. Children who experience explo- ders have an increased risk of accidents, school failure, sive rage respond well to medication. Ideally, an interdis- early alcohol and substance use, suicide, and criminal ciplinary team of teachers, social workers, and guidance behavior. The elements of a moderate to severely antiso- counselors will work with parents or caregivers to pro- cial personality are established as early as kindergarten. vide universal or “wrap-around” services to help the child Antisocial children score high on traits of impulsive- in all aspects of his or her life: home, school, work, and ness, but low on anxiety and reward-dependence—that social contexts. In many cases, parents themselves need is, the degree to which they value, and are motivated by, intensive training on modeling and reinforcing appropri- approval from others. Yet underneath their tough exterior ate behaviors in their child, as well as in providing appro- antisocial children have low self-esteem. priate discipline to prevent inappropriate behavior. A variety of methods may be employed to deliver A salient characteristic of antisocial children and social skills training, but especially with diagnosed anti- adolescents is that they appear to have no feelings. Be- social disorders, the most effective methods are systemic sides showing no care for others’ feelings or remorse for therapies which address communication skills among the hurting others, they tend to demonstrate none of their whole family or within a peer group of other antisocial own feelings except anger and hostility, and even these children or adolescents. These probably work best be- are communicated by their aggressive acts and not neces- cause they entail actually developing (or redeveloping) sarily expressed through affect. One analysis of antiso- positive relationships between the child or adolescent cial behavior is that it is a defense mechanism that helps and other people. Methods used in social skills training the child to avoid painful feelings, or else to avoid the include modeling, role playing, corrective feedback, and anxiety caused by lack of control over the environment. token reinforcement systems. Regardless of the method Antisocial behavior may also be a direct attempt to used, the child’s level of cognitive and emotional devel- alter the environment. Social learning theory suggests opment often determines the success of treatment. Ado- that negative behaviors are reinforced during childhood lescents capable of learning communication and prob- by parents, caregivers, or peers. In one formulation, a lem-solving skills are more likely to improve their rela- child’s negative behavior (e.g., whining, hitting) initially tions with others. serves to stop the parent from behaving in ways that are Unfortunately, conduct disorders, which are the pri- aversive to the child (the parent may be fighting with a mary form of diagnosed antisocial behavior, are highly partner, yelling at a sibling, or even crying). The child resistant to treatment. Few institutions can afford the will apply the learned behavior at school, and a vicious comprehensiveness and intensity of services required to cycle sets in: he or she is rejected, becomes angry and at- support and change a child’s whole system of behavior; tempts to force his will or assert his pride, and is then in most cases, for various reasons, treatment is terminated further rejected by the very peers from whom he might (usually by the client) long before it is completed. Often, learn more positive behaviors. As the child matures, the child may be fortunate to be diagnosed at all. Schools “mutual avoidance” sets in with the parent(s), as each are frequently the first to address behavior problems, and party avoids the negative behaviors of the other. Conse- regular classroom teachers only spend a limited amount quently, the child receives little care or supervision and, of time with individual students. Special education especially during adolescence, is free to join peers who teachers and counselors have a better chance at instituting have similarly learned antisocial means of expression. long-term treatment programs—that is, if the student Different forms of antisocial behavior will appear in stays in the same school for a period of years. One study different settings. Antisocial children tend to minimize showed teenage boys with conduct disorder had had an 40 GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PSYCHOLOGY, 2ND EDITION