Mosiacque Magazine September Final Edition

Being Frugally Happy: Making the most of the money you have Nearly 80 percent of U.S. adults say they need more David Bach, author of \"The Automatic Millionaire\" has money to feel financially comfortable, and more than a listed Five Tips of Happiness. quarter would have to double -- or more than double -- Here they are: their current income to achieve that goal, according to a Give Yourself a Break new Yahoo! Finance/Harris Interactive survey. Make a list of all your personal and financial if-onlys. For example, \"If only I had saved more money. If only I The survey, conducted earlier this month, looked at five hadn't quit that job. If only I hadn't taken the job I have.” broad areas of financial life: satisfaction with income; Get Connected with Your Truth awareness of cash on hand; budgeting; obstacles to Asking yourself some key questions will lead you to some money management; and work life balance. amazing discoveries, and possibly motivate you to do what it takes to create the life you envision for yourself. Researchers in the field of well-being said they weren't surprised at the results. \"It doesn't matter what the income ·What make you happy? level is, people always think they need more than they ·What are you currently doing that prevents you from have,\" says Tim Kasser, a psychology professor \"The new experiencing joy? car is great when you get it, but after six months you get ·What's working in your life? used to it, and then the culture steps in and says, ‘Are you ·Who's not working in your life? dissatisfied? Buy this year's model with heated seats, a ·Who in your life is subtracting value from and adding global positioning system, and an MP3 player,'\" Kasser misery to it? says. ·Can you fix any of these relationships, or should you let them go from your life? Studies show that a certain amount of money does indeed ·What relationships are working in your life? make people happier: People who live in wealthy nations ·What's the single most important thing you've learned report higher levels of happiness than those who live in about yourself as a result of poor ones. But excessive wealth seems to raise the answering these questions? happiness bar only slightly. You'll find that writing the answers on paper will help you Even the filthy rich -- the Forbes 100 richest Americans -- understand your life better and scored only slightly above the average person on the the actions you need to take are more obvious and easier happiness scale, according to a study by psychology to initiate. professor Ed Diener at the University of Illinois, Urbana- Champaign. Stop Judging Yourself Be nicer to yourself. Most of us are more judgmental and \"People always want more money and then, when they get critical of our own selves and more, they end up wanting more again, because they adapt say things to ourselves that we would never say to others. to the kinds of things they buy,\" explains Richard So, let's stop with the negativity. This is going to be Easterlin, a professor of economics at the University of especially hard for me but I am Southern California and a pioneer in the research on well going to try even harder. being. Researchers suggest that people are stuck on a \"hedonic treadmill,\" constantly adapting to the Stop Judging Others improvement in their material circumstances. It's hard to enjoy life when we are constantly judging I know many people who always have this illusion they'll others. Judging others creates stress in our marriage and be happier if they make more money. They end up all our relationships. For most of us, it's an unconscious sacrificing family, health, and everything else to make habit - a habit that needs to be changedob. If only I hadn't more money when they'd be better off sacrificing money taken the job I have.” to spend more time on health and family BUT money if lost can always be made again, family and health are harder Pursue Fun with a Vengeance to get back when lost. It's fun to have fun. Kids do it all the time. But as we grow up, we forget this important aspect of life. Fun isn't HAPPINESS IS MUCH MORE THAN MONEY, something that you should squeeze into 2 weeks of IT’S AN ATTITUDE. vacation. and remember to have fun all the time. Here's to a fun, frugal, happy, healthy 2007. Hope these 5 tips help Most people believe that if they just had more money, the you get started on the right track this year... things that make them unhappy would disappear and their Manjula Dhupati is a software consultant twinsburg ohio. lives would be better. The truth is that your life can be better without more money. It can be better today, but you by: need to make some decisions and take some actions. Manjula Dhupati Ohio 237

BIODIESEL AS AN AUTOFUEL: STEPS TOWARDS MANAGING THE SOARING TRANSPORTATION FUEL DEMAND IN INDIA 1 Introduction India has been facing rapid urbanization. Along with urbanization comes increased motor-vehicle activity causing a wide range of impacts on fuel demand, vehicular emissions and most importantly an increase in the burden on cities’infrastructure. These become manifested as greater fuel consumption in the transportsector, increased ambient pollutant levels and traffic congestions and thus inefficient fuel consumption patterns. These effects are neither mutually exclusive nor independent. As a result of urbanization and a gamut of other factors such as  growth of road facilities Figure 1:India’s growing share in energy consumption.  efficiency of current and future vehicle technology  greater reliance on privately-owned vehicle in absence Projected Oil consumption (MTOE). (Projections for of efficient public India are based on GDP transport system,  fuel-quality growth rate of 8%) (Planning Commission, 2005)  poor vehicle maintenance  improper traffic planning 2.2 Oil production, consumption, imports there has been a considerable increase in fuel sumption Indian oil imports have been rising continuously. Indian and a significant growth in transport energy demand oil reserves are not sufficient to meet its domestic which is expected to swell at an alarming rate. Various demands. Due to insufficient domestic oil reserves, India policy actions by the Indian government have been relies heavily on oil imports to meet its increasing oil directed towards solving the problem of this increasing demand (figure2). India is sixth largest oil consumer and fuel demand. A few examples of these include: the seventh largest net oil importer in the world (2005) (figure 4 and figure  Diversification of fuel-mix  Promote urban mass transport 5) As can be seen in the figure 2 below Indian oil  Improve efficiency of motorised vehicles through production has not increased in proportion to its better vehicle design and hybrids. increasing oil demand and hence its increased oil imports.  Encourage hybrid vehicles Infact in the year 2003 -04 71 % of India’s oil  Substitution of fuel imports by domestic alternatives consumption came from imports (figure 3).  Improved fuel-consumption patterns In this paper, I present the current scenario of Indian oil and transportation sector in light of India’s growing energy demands, especially for transportation; increased reliance on oil imports due to insufficient domestic oil production; contribution of increasing number of vehicles towards increased demand for gasoline and diesel. This is followed by an emphasis on the factors that have stimulated the increasing concern for auto fuel demand. Further I have analysed the option of introducing biodiesel as an alternative auto fuel in India. 2 Indian oil scenario at a glance 2.1 India’s oil consumption has been growing rapidly with Figure 2:India’s oil production and consumption (EIA, increasing economic growth. For a GDP growth rate of Short term energy outlook, 2007) 8% India’s oil consumption is expected to rise four fold by 2030 than that in year 2003 (Planning Commission, 2005) 238

Figure 3: India’s oil consumption (sourcewise) (EIA, 2.3 Sector- wise consumption of oil in India 2005, www. eia.doe.gov) “Petrol and diesel demand is dependent on growth of Figure 4: Top world oil consumers (EIA, 2005 , www. road facilities, price of oil and future efficiency of eia.doe.gov) vehicles, the shares of alternate modes of transport and emergence of substitutes like bio-fuels and/or technologies such as hybrids.” Planning Commission, India, 2006 A major portion of growth in India’s oil consumption can be attributed to the increase in number of gasoline/diesel motor vehicles and increase in the distance traveled by people. Transport sector in India is a major consumer of oil (Figure 6). This has occurred primarily in response to increased demand for mobility by the Indian population. In India, energy demand in the transportation sector grows at an average rate of 2.9 percent a year, from 1.4 quadrillion Btu in 2003 to 2.1 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and 3.0 quadrillion Btu in 2030 (EIA, 2006). Transportation energy demand could grow even faster than anticipated in the IEO2006 reference case, if all of the new highway projects currently under consideration in India are completed (EIA, 2006). Diesel usage in India is expected to be much higher than gasoline, in contrast to the United States. Diesel is often the preferred fuel for vehicles in developing economies. In the OECD countries, especially the United States and Europe, ultra-low-sulfur diesel is legislatively required for emission control purposes. Although there are similar regulations in many non- OECD countries, including in India, they are rarely enforced, and vehicles continue to burn less expensive, lower quality fuels. Figure 5: Top world oil importers (EIA, 2005, www. Figure 6: India’s sector wise oil consumption (MoPNG, eia.doe.gov) Basic Statistics, 2005) 239

3 India’s transportation sector Figure 8 : Population and urbanization statistics India has seen a rapid rise in motorization— especially in Source: Motor Transport statistics of India 1999, 2002- motorcycles over the years— 03, Ministry of Shipping Road Transport & Highway, GoI particularly in its major urban areas. The total number of In 2003, 23 out of 35 metropolitan cities accounted for registered motor vehicles in India has increased from 1.86 about ⅓ of the total 67 million vehicles registered in the million in 1971 to 67 million in 2003 (Figure 7). Motorized country. About 45% of the total cars in India are confined two-wheelers (motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds) to these metropolitan cities. The corresponding figures account for over 70% of the total registered fleet and for other vehicular modes are shown in Figure 8. In the clearly impact on carbon monoxide (CO) and five major metropolitan cities (Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. These operate on gasoline. Chennai, and Bangalore), the growth in registered motor The absence of an effective mass rapid transport system vehicles has outpaced population growth. While the (MRTS) and intra-city railway networks have resulted in population in these cities has doubled during 1981–2001, people using their own vehicles to commute to work. The the number of vehicle has gone up by six-and-a-half fold. proportion of buses to the total registered fleet has fallen As mentioned earlier, two wheelers are the dominant from 5% in 1971 to 1.1% in 2003. (ADB, Clean Air mode of transport in these cities, accounting for more Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia), 2005) than 40% of the total vehicle population, with Bangalore registering the highest percentage share at almost 75% (Bose 2006). Figure 7: Vehicular growth in India Source: Graph by Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities Figure 9: Vehicle composition in Indian cities 2003 (CAI-Asia) Managing the fuel demand in transport sector along with minimizing externalities such as local pollution, congestion and GHG emissions is a major challenge. Rapid urbanization is now taking place in India. It is expected that more than 50 per cent of the population may reside in urban areas by 2025, a substantial increase from 28.9 per cent in 1999. An efficient transport system is a critical infrastructure requirement in cities for greater economic productivity and better quality of life. 240

Source: Graph by Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities 4.2 Reduce vulnerability to price (CAI-Asia) fluctuations and foreign supplies The Indian population has witnessed 4 Reasons for analyzing fuel alternatives tremendous increase in gasoline and diesel prices. Since major quantities of these are 4.1 Reduced dependence on oil imports and further derived from imported oil, high taxation has reduce dependence on fossil contributed significantly to rising prices. fuels Energy security can be increased by reducing the need for Figure 11: Diesel and Super Gasoline prices in imported energy substituting it with other form of US cents per litre (1 US gallon = 3.785 litres) energy. Though this does not reduce the need for total Source: International fuel prices, GTZ (2005) energy, it reduces import dependence. Concerned about its growing reliance on oil from the Persian Gulf - 67% of “INDIA has continuously increased prices and revenues its energy is imported from the region (figure 9) - India is from gasoline (consumer price now 87 US cents per litre) following in the footsteps of and diesel (now 62 US cents per litre) over the last 9 years other major oil importing economies, and seeking oil and can serve – also due to its parallel economic growth outside the Gulf. Indian firms' investment in overseas rate – as a benchmark for many Less Developed oilfields is projected to reach $3 billion within a few years. Countries (LDC).” International Fuel Prices by GTZ, Of particular interest is Africa, especially Sudan, where 2005 India has invested $750 million in oil, and Nigeria, with which India reached a deal last November enabling it to purchase about 44 million barrels of crude oil per year on a long term basis. The situation is complicated by a number of factors: 1) major oil suppliers are in unstable regions in the Middle East and Africa; 2) oil prices are high, spurring higher gas prices; 3) geopolitical uncertainty stokes fears of a possible supply disruption and volatility in oil prices; 4) slow market reform has limited investment; and 5) few or no viable energy alternatives currently exist: India’s civilian nuclear program has regularly fallen behind schedule and large- scale development of hydroelectricity generation facilities has been stymied. Development of nonconventional energy sources has progressed, but their use is currently limited. 4.3 Reduce GHG emissions Figure 10: Sources of India’s oil imports (EIA, 2005) Transport is a critical infrastructure for development. As the sector accounts for a major share of consumption of petroleum products in India, it is also responsible for an appreciable share of pollution, both local and global. Local pollutants are concentrated in the urban areas due to transport activities. The emission of global pollutants, especially of carbon dioxide (CO2) from transport, is also a problem of increasing concern in the global environmental scenario. 241

Figure 12: India’s carbon emissions (EIA, transport to air pollution is growing in Indian cities, given www.eia.doe.gov) the rapidly growing motor vehicle activity. Bulk of transportgenerated particulates is PM10, which is strongly linked with morbidities and mortalities associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Shah et al, 1997). Key issues of concerns for emissions from transport sector are: a) Vehicle-mix in India: Although new vehicles are comparatively fuel-efficent and have lesser emissions, in-use vehicles especially motorized two wheeler and three wheelers cause majority of the emissions; b)Fuel quality- Fuel adulteration is not uncommon in India; c) Evaporative emissions from gasoline and diesel. Figure 13: India’s sectoral GHG emissions (EIA, www.eia.doe.gov) Figure 14: Transport Emissions by country 1990-2030 (WRI 2006, IEA 2004) 5 Biodiesel 4.4 Improved air quality and hence better health Biodiesel is a renewable, environmentally friendly using low emission fuel substitute for petroleum-based diesel fuel. It is produced Indian transport emission inventories have tended to from vegetable oils, animal fats, waste cooking oils and account only for vehicle exhaust, not fats, and can be used in existing diesel engines without any for other vehicle and transport system sources, and have expensive modifications. Biodiesel can be added to employed emission factors that do not adequately petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend with represent actual vehicle populations or in-use conditions. environmental benefits roughly proportional to the Besides, there are discrepancies between inventories biodiesel fraction. Biodiesel is safe, nontoxic, generated by different agencies (Badami 2001). biodegradable, and reduces the emissions of many Notwithstanding these issues, the available data show, in harmful compounds associated with the combustion of Delhi, for example, that motor vehicles are predominant petroleum-based diesel. Because biodiesel is produced in terms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and from domestically produced plant oils or waste fats that nitrogen oxides. And although their share of particulate grow easily in the tropical Indian climate, switching from and sulfur dioxide emissions is considerably lower than petroleum-based diesel to biodiesel decreases that of other sources (CSE 1996, 2002), their contribution dependence on foreign petroleum, reduces net to these emissions and the contribution of urban greenhouse gas emissions, and provides tangible benefits for the domestic economy. 242

5.1 Biodiesel – An attractive option in India The final factor making biodiesel production in India attractive is the potential to cultivate cheap feedstocks. Shift to next generation fuels and increased use of India’s climate that is conducive to growing two species of renewable sources of energy: India isprobably the only trees, Jatropha Curcas and Pangomia Pinnata, produce country in the world with a full-fledged ministry dedicated large quantities of non-edible oil. Among these prolific oil to the production of energy from renewable energy producing trees, Jatropha : sources. The Indian government is promoting the use of ethanol made from sugar cane and bio-diesel extracted • has a wide environmental tolerance from trees that are common in many parts of India, such • grows in any type of soil as the Jatropha, Karanja and Mahua. On top of the • is easy to propagate through seeds or cuttings evolving policy mandates that require the use of cleaner • requires minimal care fuels, biodiesel production in India is attractive for several • demonstrates a lower gestation period other reasons. In 2002, the Administered Pricing • is not susceptible to grazing by animals and Mechanism (APM) for petroleum products was abolished • adapts well to various kinds of wastelands the in India as part of the continuing reform of the petroleum government currently is trying to sector towards a sector based on market mechanism. In reclaim. theory, India’s public downstream oil companies would now be free to set retail prices of all petroleum products Thus the adoption of large-scale biodiesel production based on an international parity pricing formula under the and consumption can potentially supervision of a petroleum sector regulator. The lowers India’s dependence on foreign oil (suitable Government would abstain from influencing petroleum alternatives to gasoline would be needed as well), helps product pricing. Up to then, prices were controlled (or improve air quality in major cities like Delhi, reclaims administered.) for two transport fuels, gasoline and high unusable wastelands, provides employment opportunties, speed diesel, and two cooking fuels, kerosene and LPG. and keeps the country’s economy on track for its planned Even in the absence of subsidies that kept the diesel price 8% annual GDP growth over the next five years. lower than gasoline (diesel fuel had been sold at government-subsidized rates in India to keep the 5.2 Biodiesel - Analysis for India transport costs low and to increase the GDP), currently, a litre of gasoline normally costs 1.5 times more than a liter As mentioned earlier India being sixth in the world in of diesel fuel. Taking advantage of this cost differential, energy demand, accounts for 3.5% of world’s commercial Indian car manufacturers have been investing heavily in energy consumption. However, a large part of the the production of diesel vehicles. As such, there are a population has no access to commercial energy from substantial number of vehicles on the road that demand hydrocarbons at all. Since hydrocarbons in India, diesel (figure 15) and would not require the relatively predominantly diesel are responsible for most of the expensive retrofits needed to use CNG. transportation fuel in India; the transport sector is the most problematic as no realistic alternatives have been found so far. Figure 15:Sector-wise demand for gasoline and diesel in Four hundred and fifty species of oil yielding plants have India (NatCom, 2004) been identified in various parts of India through wide research activities. Jatropha has been selected for focused development in the country due to its shorter gestation period compared to 7-8 yrs. of Karanj. While the jatropha seeds are used for oil extraction, other parts of the plant i.e. leaves, bark etc. can be used for developing organic dyes, medicines, biogas etc. India has vast stretches of degraded land, mostly in areas with adverse agro-climatic conditions, where species of jatropha can be grown easily. Studies (Winrock, 2006) have estimated that 30 million hectares of jatropha cultivation for biodiesel can significantly (upto 20%) replace the current usage of diesel in India. The authors also stated that use of 11 million hectares of wasteland for jatropha cultivation can lead to generation of minimum 12 million jobs. Jatropha plantation has been planned in a total of 243

400,000 hectares of land in the country with the Table 2: Biodiesel production potential at various yields following objectives (National Mission on Biodiesel, (Winrock, 2006) Thus 38 Mha of wasteland required for 2003): 20% blending by 2030 with yield of 5 tons/ha, and shall reduce the diesel demand by 20%. • Increasing the yield of Jatropha plants by using good planting material. Emission reductions from use biodiesel compared to conventional diesel are shown • Selection of varieties/strains, which have more seed below: content. • Development of processing techniques, which results in maximum oil recovery from seeds. 5.2.1 Feedstock The biodiesel program of U.S is basically driven by availability of excess of soybean oil while in Europe; it is sunflower and rapeseed, which is commonly employed. Malaysian biodiesel program is centered on palm oil. Since India is a net importer of edible oils (that require regularly irrigated farmlands) thus, the Indian biodiesel program is based upon nonedible oil seed like Jatropha and Karanjia, which can grow on marginal lands. (Kureel, 2006) 5.2.2 Oil demand reduction and GHG reduction India’s demand for diesel along with biodiesel blend requirement is shown below. Note: Biodiesel as pure, or 100 percent, is referred to as B100 or \"neat\" fuel. A biodiesel blend is pure biodiesel blended with petrodiesel (diesel). Biodiesel blends are referred to as Bxx. The xx indicates the amount of biodiesel the blend (i.e., a B20 blend is 20 percent biodiesel and 80 percent petrodiesel). Figure 16: Emission reductions from biodiesel compared to conventional diesel Source: Planning Commission, 2003 Table 1: Diesel demand and Biodiesel requirements for Carbon is also sequestered in the plant biomass at an various blends estimated rate of 8 t/ha under high density plantations. (Hooda, 2006) The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG), India has put forward biodiesel specifications (BIS standards) for B5, B20, B100 that are primarily an Indian adaptation of American standard ASTM D 6751. (Biodiesel Purchase Policy, MoPNG). Also R&D efforts have shown that biodiesel blend upto 20% requires no modification in engine specifications when used as transport fuel. 244

5.2.3 Land use issues Table 3: Area Coverage vs. Blending Requirements Table 5: Estimates for Feed Stock Production Per Hectare (Centre for Jatropha Promotion and Bioddiesel, India) & Cost (Centre for Jatropha Promotion and Biodiesel, India) Plan for 13.4 Mha of land under jatropha plantation to achieve 20% blend by 2011-12 The main competitor of jatropha oil is palm oil but while palm oil is currently prized as a future source for biodiesel, it is increasingly in the spotlight for environmental issues. Given that Jatropha is a non-edible, its cultivation doesn’t impact the supply or prices of food crops. As such jatropha appears to be best and cheapest feedstock for biodiesel production. 5.2.5 Benefits and costs Jatropha plantation- benefits and costs Table 4: Land availabilty being considered for Jatropha plantations (million hectares) (Centre for Jatropha Promotion and Bioddiesel, India) Along with this, India has about 33 Mha of wasteland assigned for tree plantation. 5.2.4 Costs and Market Impacts In India, approximate 85% of the operating cost of biodiesel plant is the cost to acquire feedstock. Securing own feedstock to ensure supply at a fair price and sourcing it locally to avoid long haulage for delivery of seeds to biodiesel plant are critical factors in controlling profitability. The cost of biodiesel is largely dependent on the choice of feedstock and the size of the production facility. If Jatropha feedstock is used, the fuel will cost depending on the country approximately US $ 0.40 per liter plus taxes when applicable. (Biswas et al, TIFAC, 2006) 245

Table 7a: Costs- benefit calculations for Jatropha • Priority for registration as authorized suppliers for those plantation - 100 plants/acre (Shukla, 2006) who propose to use nonedible tree borne oils and have *The data may change according to cultivation zone. undertaken/committed to support farming of oil bearing plants with a view to use TBOs for manufacture of Biodiesel production -costs: biodiesel. • Oil marketing companies shall buy B100 at uniform price (decided depending on marketing conditions) inclusive of taxes, duties, transportation cost for delivery to purchase centers. • Uniform price for biodiesel to be fixed for and reviewed every 6 months. Initialpurchase price Rs.25/liter ($0.56/liter = $2.12/gallon) • R&D studies for data on increasing biodiesel content with aim of achieving maximum of 20% blend. National Mission on Biodiesel: In April 2003, the committee on development of BIOFUEL, Table 7b: Cost calculations for biodiesel production from under the auspices of the Planning Commission of India, Jatropha (Planning Commission, 2003) presented its report that As a by-product the oil cake and glycerol are to be sold to The National Mission on Biodiesel, was therefore reduce the cost of processing biodiesel to par with the oil proposed in two phases as below: price. The sales cost of bio-diesel is expected to be very 1. Phase I consisting of a Demonstration Project to be close to the cost of oil obtained for production, since the implemented by the year 2006-07 with an investment of cost of trans-esterification is meant to be recoverable to a Rs. 1500 crore ($300 million) on 400,000 ha. great extent from the income of oil cake and glycerol. 2. As a follow up of the Demonstration Project, Phase II However the MoPNG has put forward a purchase price will consist of a self sustaining expansion of the of Rs.25/litre of biodiesel for oil programme beginning in the year 2007 leading to marketing companies. The price of biodiesel is fixed at the production of Biodiesel required in the year 2011-12. rate of Rs. 25/- ($0.56/liter ≈$2.12/gallon), it may not be sufficient for obtaining returns for farmers. 5.2.6 Recent policies and future directions Autofuel policy (MoPNG, GoI, 2003) remain silent over biodiesel. There are no mandates with aim of achieving biodiesel blends or specifications for introduction of biodiesel as an autofuel. Biodiesel purchase policy (MoPNG, GoI 2005). Key features: • Requires approval and certification of samples for oil marketing companies to become certified biodiesel suppliers • Identifies purchasing centers for oil marketing Figure 17: States implementing biodiesel project (Center companies to buy B100 (that meets the prescribed BIS for Promotions of Jatropha and Biodiesel) standards) for blending with high speed diesel (HSD) to make a 5% bend. 246

5.2.7 Challenges (5% blend) and successively B20 (20% blend) should be introduced all over India. This would ensure a demand for Although there is immense potential for biodiesel in biodiesel and encourage participation of oil marketing India, the technology faces some challenges. With the companies. Also the government should encourage the increased land requirements for agriculture, treading a line emergence new vehicle-type that would operate that does not interfere with food and fodder requirements on B100. Large scale adoption of such vehicle is a major challenge. Vast investment need to be technologies for new vehicle would contribute reduced channelized to develop waste lands in biodiesel farms for demand for diesel. However, fulfilling entire diesel soil and water conservation measures, efficient water and demand with biodiesel may not be feasible from solely nutrient utilization. Huge investments are also needed domestic sources due to limitations on land availability towards research and development of crop variety with and cost involved in using available land for these enhanced production. In addition to these are the plantations. looming threats from breakthrough technologies like fuel cells, hydrogen etc. Also, it is important to target 6.2 Tax breaks: In India, biodiesel is not offered any direct production of biodiesel at prices competitive even at very and indirect tax breaks. The revenue department had low crude oil prices perceivable - by intensive R&D indicated that it would not favour biodiesel in Budget efforts in production technologies. Apart from these 2007. The revenue department does not find justification issues, currently, biodiesel manufacturers in India, face a in extending tax concession to any new sector of the big hurdle: collection, procurement, transport and storage economy. The department’s contention is that in the of Jatropha / Pongamia (Karanj) / Seeds. Most of the present regime of moderate taxes, there is a need to plantations are on small farms of 1 to 10 acres. The review the existing tax concessions. quantity of seeds produced from such farms will be few tons, available in pockets, spread all over the states. Managing the logistics of getting them all together for biodiesel production could be a major challenge. The efficient storage of biodiesel resources can provide energy security to the country. Adequate data are not available for long-term storage of biodiesel and blends. Based on the country experience, biodiesel can be stored up to a maximum of 6 months. As a mild solvent, biodiesel tends to dissolve sediments normally encountered in old diesel storage tanks. Brass, teflon, lead, tin, copper, zinc etc. oxidize biodiesel and create sediments. The existing storage facilities and infrastructure for petrol & diesel can be used for the biodiesel with minor alterations. For biodiesel storage, shelf life and how it might break down under extreme conditions assume importance. (Biswas et al, 2006). The main problem in getting the biodiesel programme Figure 18: Petroleum price rate build-up in New Delhi rolling has been the difficulty in initiating the large-scale 2005-06 cultivation of Jatropha. Farmers do not consider Jatropha Source: www.indiapetro.com cultivation is rewarding enough. To alleviate this problem, confidence-building measures need to be taken. The The sales tax on diesel at present is 12% and is proposed government should clearly formulate its policy and to be increased to 20%. Biodiesel being novel to the explain to the farmers that their role is vitally important to market requires some exceptions as far sales tax, excise the success of the biodiesel programme. The government duty, custom duty is considered. The exemptions on should establish a minimum support price for Jatropha biodiesel ought to be made keeping in view various duties oilseeds to assure farmers of timely payments. being imposed on diesel. Duty structure should be designed in a way that the price of biodiesel will be slightly Another key challenge is related to the issues of scale. lower than that of imported petro-diesel fuel. Biodiesel production scenario at current projected rates 247

6.3 CDM benefits for Biodiesel projects raised transaction costs. Assuming an average productivity of 5 t/ha thearea required for small scale The first phase of CDM until the year 2012 is open to CDM projects would range between 250 and 400 ha reforestation and afforestation (A&R) projects in depending on species and plant density. The biomass developing countries as defined in the CDM guidelines energy plantations for renewables under A&R could be a and modalities and procedures finalized at COP 9 for such huge potential under CDM and other mitigation options. projects. The main criteria to be met by projects include The provision of issuance of tCERs for the duration of meeting benchmarks of additionality (i.e. on top of the project activity is a positive move that will favour the business as usual scenario), permanence of emission plantations. reductions achieved and no leakage (i.e. ensuring that emissions achieved at one location are not emitted 6.4 Diversification of raw material base by inclusion of elsewhere). more tree based oils: There is a need to look at other plant sources for biodiesel that are optimal for a region (region- specific options). Increased “Cell Biology level” interventions to enhance productivity of these crops would make these highly competitive. All these efforts require increased investment in the sector, especially for marginal and wastelands utilization. Figure 17: Carbon dioxide emissions from various fuels, 7 Summary- Implementation Issues and the Road Ahead life cycle analysis (Planning In Europe and the US blends between 5 and 20% of bio- commission, 2003) diesel are used without engine modification. In France (5% bio-diesel blend) is mandatory. Sometimes a low Small-scale A&R project activities under the CDM are percentage additive for lubrication and sulfur removal those that are expected to result in net anthropogenic from diesel fuel is used as well. In Europe biodiesel is greenhouse gas removals by sinks of less than 8 mainly made from rapeseed, sunflower, in the US from kilotonnes of CO2 per year and are developed or soybean and in Malaysia increasingly palm oil is being implemented by low-income communities and utilized. Nicaragua is cited as an example where Jatropha individuals as determined by the host Party. If a small- oil is used for bio-diesel to replace petro-diesel. (ESMAP, scale afforestation or reforestation project activity under 2005) Alcohol, mainly in form of ethanol is planned in the CDM results in net anthropogenic greenhouse gas India to be made from sugar cane directly or from removals by sinks greater than 8 kilotonnes of Co2 per molasses and to replace 5% of motor spirit for spark year, the excess removals will not be eligible for the ignition engines. The alcohol program has started already. issuance of tCERs (temporary Certified Emission Biodiesel, without further processing, is only suitable for Reductions) or lCERs (long-termCertified Emission sturdy compression ignition engines (diesel), or requires Reductions). (UNEP, 2004) The key features as per considerable motor definition are that projects should sequester up to 8 modifications and maintenance. Therefore, the Indian kilotonnes of carbon annually and should be Government should focus the processing of biodiesel implemented by low income communities. There is scope from plant oils. However, a direct use in rural engines, for bundling of projects of similar nature so that water pumps, tractors and generator sets to produce cumulatively the units sequester up to 8 kilotonnes of electricity are additional options to provide rural energy carbon. Larger areas would have to be subdivided into two and energy security to the rural population. or more projects, each less than 8 Kt per year, resulting in Biodiesel, considered an equal replacement of petro- diesel (atleast in 5-20% blend) can be made after transesterification from virgin or used vegetable oils (both edible or nonedible). Other non-edible virgin oils (in particular Pongamia pinnata, called honge or pinnata, as well as Neeni, Mahua) are yet to be used for practical purposes at large scale. Also, biodiesel requires little or no engine modification up to 20% blend and minor modification at higher percentage blends. The use of bio- diesel results in substantial reduction of un-burnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matters. It is considered to have almost no sulphur, no aromatics 248

and has about 10% built-in oxygen. Its higher cetane REFERENCES number improves the combustion quality. Almost all 1. ADB, Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) present emissions standards are expected to be reached (2006): “Country Synthesis report on Urban Air Quality with bio-diesel. Management : India”, December 2006 While India is short of petroleum reserve, it has large arid 2. Badami M (2001): “A multiple-objectives approach to lands as well as good climatic conditions, potential to address motorized twowheeled vehicle emissions in produce biomass to be processed into biodiesel. Demand Delhi, India’ (unpublished PhD thesis), Vancouver, of edible oil is higher than production, so edible oils, as University of British Columbia. mainly used in Europe and the US for transport oil, are not considered. Also, edible oils are much more 3. Biswas S, Kaushik N, Srikanth G (2006): “Biodiesel: expensive, sometimes by a factor 3-5, in India. Technology & Business Opportunities - An Insight” Technology Information, Forecasting and Assessment Instrument to promote non-edible oils is hoped to be Council (TIFAC). Conference Towards Energy buy-back arrangements with oil companies to be put in Independence – Focus on Jatropha, Hyderabad on 9 – 10 place and mandatory use of bio-diesel blends. The June, 2006, Editor: Brahma Singh. Jatropha program should be combined with other programs of the Ministry of Rural Development to 4. Bose, Ranjan. (2006): “Energy Efficiency and Climate attract growers, entrepreneurs and financial institutions Change Considerations for On-road Transport in Asia. so that a self sustaining programme of expansion takes Available at: off on its own, with the Government playing mainly the w w w. c l e a n a i r n e t . o r g / c a i a s i a / 1 4 1 2 / a r t i c l e s - role of a facilitator. Hence, for the expansion phase, the 70656_draft2.pdf. Government will need to give only marginal financial support. Responsibility for availability of sufficient 5. Center for Jatropha Promotion, India processing units will be with the Ministry of Petroleum. http://www.jatrophaworld.org/11.html Studies have revealed that direct and indirect impact of bio-diesel e.g. employment generation, balance of trade, 6. CSE (Center for Science and Environment (1996), emission benefits etc. are substantial and need to be “Slow Murder – The Deadly Story of Vehicular Pollution accounted for while considering the duty structure on in India” New Delhi, CSE. bio-diesel and diesel. Another incentive of using bio- diesel is that of environment and protecting public health 7. CSE (Center for Science and Environment (2002) due to reduce pollutant exposure. In fact the surplus diesel “State of India’s Environment – available from reduced diesel demand can also contribute The Citizens” Fifth Report, Part I: National Overview, towards increased fuel exports by Indian companies that October 2002 reprint, New Delhi, CSE. are already expanding their exports. “Reliance industries and sta-run oil companies may increase their fuel exports 8. EIA, 2005 because plant expansions are expected to outpace www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/topworldtables3_4.html domestic sales” (Bloomberg News, March 23, 2006) A clear comparison between the yields and economics of 9. EIA (2007): “Short Term Energy Outlook 2006” different edible and non-edible oils, and why production Energy Information Agency www.doe.eia.gov of non-edible oils for farmers is expected to be more viable than of edible oils, is not readily available for an 10. ESMAP. (2005): “Potential for Biofuels for Transport analysis. in Developing Countries”.Report 312/05. Washington, DC: World Bank. One needs to understand that, it will take time for adequate quantities of Jatropha Curcas and Pongamia 11. GTZ (2005): Metschies GP, “International Fuel Prices Pinnata to be planted and extraction of oil from them for 2005” 4th Edition – 172 Countries, GTZ Germany mixing biodiesel in diesel. The program to sell diesel mixed with non-edible oil extracted from Jatropha Curcas 12. Hooda N, Raawat VRS (2006): “Role of bio-energy and Pongamia Pinnata, could reduce India's diesel plantations for carbondioxide mitigation with special demand by a significant amount, but would require reference to India” Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies concerted efforts and a planned approach by the for Global Change 11: 445–467 Government of India to launch on commercial scale. 13. IEA (2004): “World Energy Outlook 2004, IEA/OECD”, Paris. 249

14. Kureel RS (2006): “Prospects and Potential of by: Jatropha Curcas for Biodiesel Production” Conference Towards Energy Independence – Focus on Jatropha, Neha Mukhi Hyderabad on 9 – 10 June, 2006, Editor: Brahma Singh. World Bank, 15. MoPNG, (2003): “Auto Fuel Policy” Government of Washington D.C. India. 16. MoPNG, GoI, (2005): “BioDiesel purchase Policy” Government of India 17. MoPNG (2005) Ministry of Petroleum Oil and Natural Gas, “Basic Petroleum Statistics 2005”, Government of India (GoI) 18. Motor Transport Statistics in India (2003), Ministry of Surface Transport, GoI, New Delhi. 19. NatCom (2004)– “India’s Initial National Communication to UNFCCC”, 2004 20. Planning Commission (2003). “Report of the Committee on Development of BioFuel”. GoI 21. Planning Comission (2005): “Draft Report of Expert committee on Integrated Energy Policy, Planning Commission”, GoI, 2005 22. Shah, J and Nagpal T (1997): “Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia – Greater Mumbai” Report (World Bank Technical Paper No. 381), Washington, DC, World Bank. 23. Shukla A (2006): “Jatropha (Physic Nut) in Research Frame at Pantnagar” Conference Towards Energy Independence – Focus on Jatropha, Hyderabad on 9 – 10 June, 2006, Editor: Brahma Singh. 24. UNEP (2004): “CDM Information Guidebook”, second edition June 2004, UNEP project on CD4CDM. 25. Winrock International India (2006) Dass A, “Role of Bio-Fuels in the Indian Transport Sector” Regional Workshop Climate Change Mitigation in the Transport Sector. At ADB, May 24-25, 2006 26. WRI (2006) World Resources Institute (2006): “Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) on-line database version 3.0”, Washington , DC: World Resources Institute, available at http://cait.wri.org 250

Global Environmental Change and Millennium Development Goals in India Rapid economic growth has often come at a price of The unprecedented increase in the rate of global unsustainable use of natural resources and rapid environmental change has prompted various global environmental degradation. As developed and developing advisories and actions. The stressors include changes in nations continue on the path of unprecedented economic greenhouse gas emissions and global warming, as well as growth, the regional and global environment remain in anthropogenically induced changes in global cycling of threat. Global environmental change can have both local important bio-limiting elements such as nitrogen and and global impacts and have serious implications for phosphorus. As developing nations forge ahead with success of the Millennium development projects. GEC exceptional economic growth, it is unlikely that human impacts resource availability and use; is tied to global population and pressures on our natural resources will awareness and education; disproportionately affects abate in the near future. In all likelihood, global human women and children through socio-economic burdens; is and economic growth will contribute to increase in intricately linked to human health issues including spread emissions of greenhouse gases with yet unpredictable of diseases and their vectors; critical for ecosystem health consequences. Understanding the impact of diverse and environmental sustainability; as well as global environmental stressors and development of efficient partnerships, since agents of cause for environmental mitigating strategies requires an integrated effort of change and the affected can often be separated in time and comprehensive long-term data collection, synthesis and space (for example citizens of Bangladesh are susceptible analyses, which can also form the basis for informed to changes in sea-level rise that is attributed to global policy decisions. In fact lack of availability and environmental change due to disproportionate resource accessibility of robust scientific data from developing use by the developed and developing world). Some of countries is one of the major factors that undermine the these sector impacted by global environmental change are predictive capability of global and regional models on shown in Figure 1. global climate and environmental change. Globally, various countries have invested in long-term monitoring networks, which have already yielded dividends in terms of robust scientific data that have helped develop defensible resource management guidelines and policies. These global programs are a collection of regional efforts that while providing globally relevant data, also generate vital information that are regionally / nationally important. Currently there are no coordinated multidisciplinary long-term flux towers and biogeochemical monitoring programs in India to help assess the present status of the environment and create a baseline for environmental changes in the future (e.g. Figure 2.) There are however many activities / programs underway in various agencies that can provide the basis for establishing the proposed long-term biogeochemical monitoring network. 251

Figure 2. Global distribution of FLUXNET sites. There development initiative to succeed, the strategies will have are 275 flux sites in the FLUXNET community to necessarily incorporate the causes and consequences representing 42 countries. The area of opportunity (and of global environmental change. need) is circled. There are no known network sites in India the Indian subcontinent. The proposed IndoFlux will fill Dr. P. V. Sundareshwar is an this gap. Assistant Professor at the Institute Source:http://www.fluxnet.ornl.gov/fluxnet/graphics.c of Atmospheric Sciences at the fm#growth South Dakota School of Mines and Technology and the Director Recently, I initiated an effort to establish a long-term of the Biogeochemistry Core biogeochemical monitoring network across terrestrial, Facility. He has his Bachelors and coastal and oceanic environments in the Indian Masters degree from University of subcontinent. The scientific community in India and the Bombay, and a Ph.D. from the US are partnering to help design this network. The Department of Science and Technology, Government of University of South Carolina. Prior to joining the Institute India has taken a proactive role in establishing this of Atmospheric Sciences, he served as a research network and filling this critical gap. Through a series of associate at Duke University, where he worked on water planning meetings, the Department of Science and resources and ecosystem restoration oriented projects. Technology, Government of India, has agreed to His research focus includes basic and applied aspects of coordinate the establishment of an IndoFlux network. global environmental change. In partnership with the The concept has broad multi-agency interest and support. Department of Science and Technology, Government of To facilitate this, Indian and United States scientists are India, he has initiated an effort to establish a long-term developing a blueprint for the IndoFlux through bilateral continuous monitoring system across India. workshops. Such a workshop is planned for July 2006 in Chennai, jointly organized by Anna University, Chennai, The will be a multi-agency effort that will establish a India and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, in the USA. This workshop will be held national center to create the infrastructure needed to under the aegis of the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India and the Indo-US address global environmental change issues at the Science and Technology Forum. This bilateral workshop will partner a team of 17 multidisciplinary US scientists academic, economic, cultural and political levels. He has with their Indian counterparts to design guidelines for the IndoFlux. The outcome of the workshop will include a received more than 13 awards and honors and his research decision on placement of monitoring stations and an agreement on the instrumentation at these stations. has been featured in leading scientific and environmental Importantly, we will create an oversight committee, a scientific plan for the proposed network, a statement of magazines such as Environmental Science & Technology, strategic vision, as well as identification of near-term bilateral actions for sustained interactions. For India, Environmental Review, Forestry Source, etc. Overall, he there is an urgent need to implement an integrated long- term monitoring program that will link terrestrial, coastal has over 15 years of academic and professional and oceanic processes. The proposed network will most certainly provide a map of various sources and sinks for experience in areas of natural resource management carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases from diverse Indian landscapes; will enable better representation of including water resources, coastal and freshwater wetland regional biospheric processes in global and regional climate models leading to improvements in our ability to ecology and management, wildlife management and predict climate change scenarios; provide information and strategies for mitigating domestic and global emission alternatives in development. His other professional of these gases; enhance scientific inquiry and education; as well as provide the kind of robust scientific data that is training include targeted workshops on Socioeconomic central to developing long-lasting and defensible public policy. The infrastructure put in place trough this initiative Impact Analysis under National Environmental Policy will help India manage its natural capital more effectively to achieve its MDGs. It is clear that for the millennium Act (NEPA) at the Duke University Executive Education Program; Orientation to rural development programs at the Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency (MYRADA), India; and courses and workshops on environmental sciences and vertebrate ecology conducted by the Ministry of Science and Technology- Government of India, and The Bombay Natural History Society, and the World Wildlife Fund. Recently, Sundareshwar was appointed on the Board of Directors for C-Lock Inc., a startup that works on carbon sequestration issues. by: P. V. Sundareshwar, Ph.D. Institute of Atmospheric Sciences South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, SD 252

India and Pakistan in a Security Community Can India and Pakistan ever be friends? Or are they in the 1980s and 1990s, and the Lahore agreement of doomed to dislike, fear, and violence? It would be easy 1999. In 1993, they were close to signing agreements on enough to predict that their future will be more or less like, the Siachen, Sir Creek, and Tulbul/Wular disputes as well. or even worse, than their past. After the 1965 war, they agreed to arbitration in the case of the Rann of Kutch dispute, and in 1967 their And yet… differences were resolved on the basis of the Rann award handed down by the arbitration tribunal. So also, in …a different interpretation of the past should give us accordance with the provisions of the Indus Rivers hope. Did you know that between 1947 and 1964, when Treaty, they have turned to arbitration. India got a Jawaharlal Nehru died, India and Pakistan had solved decision substantially in its favour on Baglihar in 2007 and every bilateral problem, except Kashmir, through will probably also get a relatively favourable decision on negotiation and cooperation? They came to agree on the Kishenganga in 2013. division of the Indus rivers, arguably one of the most important river water accords in existence anywhere in the Of course there is no denying strife. India and Pakistan world, in 1960. Before this, they had also agreed on the have been to war with each other in 1948, 1965 (twice), division of assets between the two countries in the wake 1971, and 1999. They have They have blundered into of Partition. After Mahatma Gandhi reproached the crisis, under the shadow of nuclear weapons, in 1986-87, Indian government, India released the hard currency it 1990, and 2001-2. And they are only the second pair of owed Pakistan. In April 1950, the Nehru-Liaquat Pact was states to fight a war when they were in possession of signed to allow refugees to return to dispose of their nuclear weapons (the other pair is China and the Soviet property, to let abducted women to go back to their Union in 1969). In 2008, after the terrorist attack on homes, to restore looted property, to negate forced Mumbai, they could have confronted each other again, religious conversions, and to institute minority rights in but the Indian government wisely held back from both states. threatening to go to war. Even on Kashmir, India and Pakistan came close to a The presence of nuclear weapons has made cooperation negotiated settlement. From 1948, when the first war over and long-term peace between the two countries an Kashmir ended and the UN stepped in to help the two imperative. Nuclear weapons have emboldened those in warring sides to settle the dispute, to the late 1950s, the Pakistan who want to bleed India through terrorism. They two countries tried through the good offices of the world are counting on Indian patience and the protection of organization to find a solution. Early mediation efforts by nuclear weapons. But India's patience is not unlimited and Admiral Chester Nimitz of the US and A.G.L. in the event of a future attack Indian leaders will face McNaughton of Canada failed, but in March 1950 the two monumental pressures to retaliate. If India retaliates, the governments agreed to demilitarize Kashmir, hold a pressure on Pakistani leaders to counter the Indian attack plebiscite, and further mediation. Sir Owen Dixon of will be hard to ignore. And so on, in an escalatory spiral Australia led the mediation effort. In February 1951, after that could end in nuclear war which would kill millions on Dixon's report, India began arrangements for a plebiscite. both sides of the border. This did not work out for a variety of reasons, and so a new mediator, Dr. Frank Graham, an American, was This is the greatest reason that India and Pakistan must appointed. On August 20, 1953, after the visit of cooperate and build a permanent peace. There are at least Pakistani Prime Minister Mohammed Ali, Nehru three other reasons that they must resolve conflict and announced his willingness to hold a plebiscite under a agree never again to use force against each other. plebiscite administrator. Again, for a number of reasons relating to the modalities of a plebiscite and the First of all, South Asia, including India and Pakistan, is conditions under which it could be held, the offer never perhaps the most horribly poor region in the world. On went forward. When Nehru died in October 1964, Sheikh various developmental indicators, our region is worse Abdullah, the leader of Jammu and Kashmir, was in than sub-Saharan Africa which has always been counted Pakistan, at the Indian Prime Minister's request, to reopen as the greatest developmental challenge on earth. India talks on a final settlement of the quarrel. and Pakistan do worse than some of their neighbours including Bangladesh – for instance, on child mortality, Since then, India and Pakistan have repeatedly shown maternal mortality, and women's literacy. One reason we thatthey can cooperate. Cooperative agreements include do so badly is that we are spending huge amounts of the Tashkent agreement after the 1965 war, the Simla money on defence, money that could be used for agreement after the 1971 war, the return of 90,000 development and for productive investments.In 1947, Pakistani prisoners of war, the Salal Dam agreement in India and Pakistan had about the same standard of living 1978, a number of military confidence building measures as Southeast Asia and East Asia. 253

Today, even the poorest Southeast Asian countries, injured, or have disappeared in Indian Kashmir and given Burma, Cambodia and Laos, do not feature the kind of that the quarrel over Kashmir feeds extremism and grinding, merciless poverty and deprivation that one sees terrorism in Pakistan, there is little doubt that Kashmir is in India and Pakistan. The irony is that in terms of the the primary cause of our present and future differences. infrastructure we inherited from colonial rule and in terms of fertile, arable land, India and Pakistan rank very Is there a solution to Kashmir? And will a solution to high. India, for instance, has more than twice the arable Kashmir lead to Kashmir and that though a Kashmir land of China even though China is two and a half times solution by itself will not deliver long-term peace, it will India's size in overall land area. China though produces far provide the essential ingredient for what International more food than India because it has invested in Relations scholars call a \"security community\" in which productive agriculture. states no longer expect to use force to settle their differences (e.g. Canada-US, the European Union). Secondly, India and Pakistan must cooperate and make peace because the challenges of the future are so immense What are the key elements of a Kashmir settlement? First, that our present situation, terrible as it is, will seem a all parties – the Indian and Pakistani governments as well happy one. Climate change, environmental change more as Kashmiri separatists – should agree that the Line of broadly, as well as rapidly declining potable water could Control will be left as it is for a period of 20 years. If there lead to total economic, political, and social collapse. The is one thing that everyone agrees on, it is that the Line of day of reckoning may be much nearer than we think. Control (LOC) is not a final boundary. Certainly the Pakistani government and separatists do not agree on Thirdly, the conflict is taking a cultural and moral toll on division of Kashmir. Even Indian is ambivalent about both our societies. Perpetual conflict inevitably debases converting the LOC into a permanent boundary. one's values and practices. There is no doubt that political According to a resolution of the Indian Parliament, India and social life in India and Pakistan has been degraded by formally lays claim to all of Kashmir including territories the sense of anger, fear, and frustration arising out their on the Pakistani side of the LOC. differences. With each war, crisis, and terrorist attack, we add another layer of bitterness to our already substantial Second, all sides should agree to a demilitarization of layers. The rise of religious fundamentalism and internal Kashmir. This means a significant reduction in the strife in both countries and the tolerance we have presence of troops and heavily armed paramilitaries to developed for human rights violations in the name of the point where 5 | P a g e Kashmir has only lightly-armed national unity are symptomatic of the degradation of our forces deployed at the LOC as well as police personnel values and practices. from the state looking after law and order. As for the militants, they must agree to give up their arms altogether, We are both democracies, but it would be hard to say that and they should be rehabilitated. Rehabilitation includes today there is much to admire in either one of our political loans to start small business ventures (including retail systems and the general social intercourse that prevails. shops), government employment, and absorption where The position of religious minorities and of disadvantaged possible into the police force. Those militant separatists groups – caste, tribal, women, and the poor – are who do not agree to give up their arms will of course have appalling. Compassion, gentleness, and the sense of to be disarmed by both India and Pakistan and Kashmiri restraint and refinement have gone out of our lives, and police. this is related to the India-Pakistan quarrel that has so ruined our collective existence. We may pretend that the Third, India and Pakistan should move towards a similar gradual corrosion of our values and practices are constitutional relationship with their respective Kashmiri unrelated to our international relations; but in fact they are governments. In the case of Pakistan, this means the deeply related. holding of free and fair elections. At the core of the new constitutional status of the two Kashmir's should be as Can India and Pakistan make peace? Yes, though it won't much autonomy as is commensurate with good be easy. India and Pakistan have been negotiating almost governance. Another key aspect of constitutional continuously since 1991 when Narasimha Rao was Prime convergence would be guarantees of minority rights on Minister. The agenda is a rich and integrated one, both sides of the LOC. Fourth, the two parts of Kashmir featuring two key issues – Kashmir and security – and six should allow citizens of the two halves to move freely to secondary though also very important issues (rivers, the other side via a system of identity permits rather than Siachen, Sir Creek, trade, people to people, and so on). requiring them to carry passports and apply for visas. There is no doubt that Kashmir is the biggest problem for both countries.We in India may find it hard to accept this, Fifth, the two Kashmir governments should begin to deal but given the number of people who have died, been with each directly and collaboratively on issues such as 254

trade, environment, tourism, and other municipal Both have shown that they do have the courage to take functions (perhaps power and water). Sixth, and more bold decisions. It is not beyond them to do so again in challengingly, the three parties should consider some kind light of the many other daunting challenges that will of reconciliation process with regard to those civilians confront them in the decades ahead. If they do not set who were killed or injured during the militancy. aside their differences, they risk chaos and collapse in the long term, as they are overwhelmed by natural, economic, Seventh, at the end of 20 years, there should be further political, and social problems. They must begin to make consideration of the status of Kashmir including the the case for a Kashmir settlement and an India-Pakistan possibility of shared sovereignty. security community, and the sooner the better. What are the advantages to India, Pakistan, and the Profile: separatists of such a compact? To the extent that Kashmir stays within the Indian Union, New Delhi can claim that it The author is Professor and Vice has not lost Kashmir and has a say in its affairs, especially Dean Research, Lee Kuan Yew its defence. For Pakistan, the advantage is that it too will School of Public Policy, have a say in Kashmir affairs and can argue that it helped National University of demilitarize Kashmir and thus end the violence there. As Singapore. for the separatists, they get the substance of a united Kashmir, a chance to live a normal civilian life again, and Prior to this, he was Professor to enter democratic politics and share power by in the Politics and International participating in elections and administration if they so Relations of South Asia, Oxford choose. It is no one's best solution; but it is no one's worst University (2009-2010), and solution either. It is vital to be clear about the 6 | P a g e advantages and about what each side is giving up or Headmaster, The Doon School, Dehra Dun, India (2003- forsaking if the agreement is to be sold to the Indian, 2009). Pakistani, and Kashmiri publics. From 1994 to 2003, he was Professor of International With Kashmir settled in this way (for at least two decades), Politics in the Centre for International Politics, a lot of the bitterness, fear, and suspicion that has dogged Organization and Disarmament of the School of India-Pakistan relations will abate. The situation will then International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New be ripe for further cooperation – on other aspects of Delhi. He was Chairman of the Centre in 1997-98 and security, river water use, the lowering of trade barriers, 2003. enhanced movement of people and cultural and social contact, and so on . India and Pakistan will then be in a Dr. Bajpai has also taught at the Maharajah Sayajirao better position to handle other common challenges University of Baroda (1989-91), and was a visiting scholar including the effects of climate change and other at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, and the environmental changes, the flow of narcotics into the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign in 1992-93. Dr. region, and disaster management. At last, India and Bajpai has held various fellowships. Dr. Bajpai's most Pakistan, like Canada and the US, may usher in a security recent book is Roots of Terrorism. community in which the use of force against each other becomes unthinkable . The benefit to common Indians In 2012, he was awarded the K. Subrahmanyam Award for and Pakistanis will be enormous; indeed, the whole of Excellence in Research in Strategic and Security Studies, South Asia will be psychologically, socially, politically, and New Delhi, India. economically transformed. India and Pakistan can resolve their differences – as they by: have shown in the past. A solution to the most pressing and costly conflict, namely, Kashmir, is within sight. Prof. Kanti Bajpai Interestingly, India and Pakistan have recognized that Vice Dean Research and Professor, something like the solution proposed in this essay is the The Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, way forward. Both sides have endorsed the idea of softer, if not soft, borders. Soft borders are the essence of a National University of Singapore putative Kashmir agreement outlined here. It will take courage and shrewdness for the two governments to move ahead and to defend such a course of action to their own publics and to the people of Kashmir. 255

Partnering for Poverty Reduction: The Growing Sustainable Business Initiative Widespread poverty reduction can only be achieved by distort the market and respect the Global Compact improving access for the world’s impoverished to needed principles, among other criteria. goods and services, as well as creating employment opportunities. Business investment in developing Ericsson in Tanzania. Ericsson has initiated an innovative countries and regions can drastically improve livelihoods business model that will reduce the required monthly by establishing infrastructure, delivering access to basic average revenue per user from approximately US$ 20 to necessities and generating local economic development. below US$ 5 per month, thus demonstrating an important However, such corporate investments are often contribution to more costeffective delivery. This challenging and frequently perceived as high risk, causing investment project is being developed with the technical interested companies to place promising opportunities on input from local partners, including companies, the “too complicated” pile. The Growing Sustainable governments and entrepreneurs, as well as financial Business (GSB) initiative was developed to address this support to research from UNDP, SIDA, and Ericsson. dilemma by helping to bring risk-reward ratios into a The development partners were critical in further refining commercially viable balance. an innovative “shared use” model, to bring costs down even further to ensure accessibility by the poor. Inspired by the 2002 Global Compact policy dialogue on “business and sustainable development”, UNDP e7 Fund in Madagascar. e7 fund has a US$ 19 million rural developed the GSB to facilitate business-led enterprise electrification project underway in Madagascar. New solutions to poverty in advancement of the Millennium technology and a new business model allow for the Development Goals (MDGs). The GSB is designed to delivery of electricity at 60 percent lower-cost than assist companies throughout a potential investment cycle, current government delivery, accomplishing this in a ranging from opportunity identification and business cleaner manner that also taps into slower moving rivers. model development through financing and The model has been developed in partnership with the implementation. In each of these steps, challenges and intended beneficiaries – namely, CAPE, the SME risk factors present themselves - association representing local vanilla and other for instance a company lacking the resources to actively agricultural producers, local communities and unearth business opportunities on the ground or lacking municipalities, and the relevant government ministry – as market intelligence to inform the business model; or a well as NGOs, who have ensured environmental issues company facing obstacles in establishing partnerships are addressed. GSB support also involves bridging access with local stakeholders or an inability to access sufficient to finance, particularly important given that the financial resources to develop investment where investment is financed by a combination of resources commercial viability is not yet proven. from private sources and public concessionary finance. In the face of such challenges, the GSB helps companies GSB in Action identify and develop investment opportunities, helps bridge access to finance (especially targeted public The GSB began operations in Ethiopia, Tanzania and finance) that makes the business case viable, helps broker Madagascar approximately two years ago, and then began partnerships and helps resolve political barriers to work in Kenya and Zambia in early 2005. The program successful implementation. At the core of the program will be expanded to include El Salvador and potentially are full-time GSB “brokers” on the ground in each Malawi, Egypt, Turkey, Kyrgyzstan, Serbia, and beyond. country, drawn largely from the ranks of the private Across the current five countries, investment projects sector, who help solve problems and keep things moving being pursued include: forward as well as a national steering committee where information can be shared, issues raised and solutions • Ericsson – Rural electrification found. • Tetra Pak – Value chain development for milk production Main goals of the GSB are for enterprise solutions – or • Unilever – Value chain development for Allanblackia Oil pro-poor investments – to accelerate and sustain access • Total – Hydro carbon transportation for the poor to needed goods and services, and to build or • e7 Fund – Rural electrification strengthen small and medium enterprises (SMEs) by • EDF- Rural electrification extending value chains into developing economies. • Société Générale – SME co-financing Additional critical impacts of these initiatives are • Mad’Eole – Wind Energy Center increased employment and mitigation of key disparities in economic development (e.g. rural vs. urban). Importantly, GSB investments must be relevant to local contexts, not 256

• Hotel Gasy – Franchising of fast food restaurants this spirit by engaging the private sector in innovative • Dometic – Pro-poor stoves partnerships, often around new business models, to • Holcim/Tanga Cement – Biomass Energy accelerate progress towards the MDGs. The GSB welcomes more companies – large or small, foreign or Companies in the GSB portfolio join those at the leading domestic – to join us! For additional information, please edge of operationalizing their obligations under the visit www.undp.org/business/gsb. Global Compact and contributing to the MDGs. At the same time, they are “first movers” in tapping new business Sanjay Gandhi joined UNDP’s private sector group in opportunities and expanding markets for their business. 2003 and in 2005 took on the global management role for The economic development of the poorest countries, and the GSB. Prior to UNDP, Sanjay spent four years working the poorer parts of other developing countries, is of in the New York office of McKinsey & Company, with a fundamental long-term interest to the global community range of Fortune 500 clients in sectors spanning from – private and public sector alike. consumer goods to financial services, with a focus on new business development and new business models. A lawyer To meet the programme’s objectives and deliver its value by training, he has worked with law firms in the U.K., proposition, a GSB Delivery Mechanism is established in Australia and Canada and is a member of the New York selected developing countries, where stakeholders assess Bar. [email protected] the need for such a programme and where the UNDP Country Office is committed to supporting it. The GSB Delivery Mechanism consists of three components: (1) a full-time GSB broker who acts as convener, problem solver and intermediary for various stakeholders in the sustainable business investment projects; (2) a research platform that can provide co-funding for socio-economic and feasibility studies; and (3) a technical assistance platform which helps build capacity of relevant local stakeholders in the implementation of a given GSB investment. Equally important, the GSB engages key local stakeholders (government, civil society, local and foreign private sector, donors, IFIs) through a national launch, a national steering committee chaired by the UN Resident Representative and working groups that ensure investments are thoughtful, well grounded and relevant to local needs and priorities. As such, the GSB investment projects are part of a transparent and open process, which actively engages beneficiaries and policy makers. This GSB’s Delivery Mechanism has proven to be by: flexible, with the ability to facilitate a large number of investments ranging from rural telecommunications to Sanjay Gandhi, agriculture supply chains to provision of finance for Global Program Manager, SMEs. It is equally flexible in terms of investment size, Growing Sustainable Business initiative with the current portfolio supporting investments Bureau for Resources and ranging from US$ 200,000 to US$ 20 million. Strategic Partnerships UNDP is well positioned to offer the GSB value United Nations Development Programme, proposition. Over the last few years, UNDP has been developing its experience in engaging the private sector to New York help advance the MDGs, and has concluded more than 30 partnerships with companies. We are increasingly finding that sustainable social impact is greatest when we can identify the overlap between commercial and development interests. The GSB programme captures 257

Media and Development Media has a very significant role in the development of a development in a more efficient way. nation. It was probably the first newspaper, which recognized the If it happens to be a developing nation like India, it importance of developmental journalism and developed becomes all the more crucial. This is because given the a team of reporters for this. With advent of electronic large-scale poverty, illiteracy and social background of a media, reporting on development related issues have large section of Indians, it is the media that plays role of become more focused. At times it tends to have instant providing information, mass awareness and a watchdog. impact because of its visual appeal. The media need not necessarily be a daily newspaper, a But all this is going to change in the years to come, because weekly magazine of a popular television channel. In India, of the convergence of various sources of media – print, where a vast majority of the population lives in rural areas, electronic and internet – into one. even a small one-page pamphlet or a local radio station becomes crucial to disseminate information. Staying far away from our motherland, we young professionals from India have a dual responsibility of People could be seen glued to these radio sets listening to helping our nations accelerate the rate of development by radio news, enjoying popular Bollywood numbers. It is the judiciously utilizing the vibrant media we have in India. small commercials inserted in between the songs helps in providing important information to the highly illiterate people on topics like AIDS, their own rights and duties. This is at the level of village and rural areas. Role of media gains much more important role at national level. It keeps the officials and political leadership on tenterhooks by writing and reporting on events and issue, which are crucial for the development of a nation. In India, the national media and also the vernacular newspapers has had a very crucial role to play in its development after 1947, when we achieved our independence from Britain. This has been more so after 1980s when the concept of development journalism gained acceptance and we got a new breed of reporters who wrote only on development related issues. All the major newspapers started giving prominence to stories on development related issues – road construction, collapse of a bridge due to use of poor quality construction material, poverty related deaths and so on. At times, in place of political news and cricket, these by: started gaining page one attention in the newspapers and prime time focus in television channels. It would be Lalit K. Jha difficult to name any one particular newspaper, but worth Bureau Chief motioning would be The Indian Express and The Hindu. The Indian Express North American Edition 305 Seventh Avenue, 6th Floor; New York The Indian Express over the years has focused more on investigations, focusing on the loopholes and drawbacks in development and exposing the people and the institutions responsible for it. This has its own impact. The reports often jolted the government of the day and later on forced the administration to carry on the 258

Restaurant Noma: an exquisite experience in Nordic Cuisine Chef Rene Redzepi, Denmark’s finest culinary artist; has ethics. reinvigorated Nordic culinary experience through his restaurant “Noma” a two Michelin star restaurant. The The programme will communicate these themes through name is an acronym of the two Danish words \"nordisk\" different campaigns such as Nordic Food Diplomacy, (Nordic) and \"mad\" (food), and the restaurant is Food & creative industries, New Nordic everyday food. known for its reinvention and interpretation of the Please visit Nordic Cuisine. In both 2010 and 2011, it was ranked as http://nynordiskmad.org/en/ the Best Restaurant in the World by Restaurant magazine. Norway holds the Presidency of the Nordic Council of “For those in the know, Rene's colossal achievement of Ministers in 2012 and the NNF Conference will be moving up seven places inside the top 10 is no surprise. organised in October in Oslo. But just look at the legends he has leapfrogged and you cannot help but think something truly significant is taking At “Noma”, Chef Rene’s team offers a personal rendition place at Rene's Copenhagen restaurant. of Nordic gourmet cuisine, where typical methods of cooking, fine Nordic produce and the legacy of their common food culture are all being subjected to an innovative gastronomic approach. What you will find at “Noma” is not centered so much on olive oil, foie grass, sun-dried tomatoes and Mediterranean black olives. Noma is homage to soil and sea, a reminder of the source Instead, they have been busy travelling around in the of our food. Take his starter of crunchy baby carrots from Nordic regions and have been discovering a number of the fertile Lammefjorden region of Denmark, served simply phenomenal ingredients that they have flown into with edible \"soil\" made from malt, hazelnuts and beer, town for their daily use, e.g. musk ox from Greenland. In with a cream herb emulsion beneath - you are literally much the same fashion, they are constantly scanning for eating the earth! new sources of inspiration in Denmark, especially, as well as the other Nordic regions, for purposes of securing Great restaurants are a blend of sophisticated cooking, reliable sources of top-quality raw produce. This pertains imaginative ideas and respect for ingredients. Noma is both to very costly ingredients and also ingredients of a more than this. It's an experience that reminds you why more everyday character that we feel have come to be some restaurants deserve to be revered, and why we overlooked in the formulation of a salient Nordic created this list” from Restaurant Magazine rankings. approach to cooking: cereals, hulled grains and legumes, which you will come to experience in Noma in the context Chef Rene, is currently one of the most influential and of surprising preparations. referenced persons on the gastronomical scene for his efforts to advance and promote the knowledge of Nordic food world- wide. It's the entire package, from its ingredient ingenuity to flawless execution that makes Noma; a beacon of excellence and which leads to an emotive, intense, liberating way of eating, unlike any other place. New Nordic Food programme launched by the Nordic Council of Ministers, will run from 2011 to 2014, and is launched to promote the use and diversity of Nordic regional ingredients, development of new Nordic cuisine and create a common Nordic food culture that reflects the qualities of the region - purity, simplicity, security and 259

Rene and team has been exploring the potential of milk and cream in today’s modern cuisine and are developing new ways of prep aring the well-known and other not so well known kinds of cereal grains. They are constantly on the lookout for berries and herbs in the natural environment, including certain varieties that other people do not generally feel like gathering. They are also interested in working with raw ingredients which have no part in any systems of formalized cultivation and which therefore cannot be obtained through the ordinary channels of distribution. Vegetables, herbs and spices and wild plants in season play a decidedly prominent role in our cooking. Consequently, they take up more room on the plate than what is generally served in traditional gourmet restaurants. Rene & team’s intention at “Noma” is to create and to prepare a distinctly advanced kind of cuisine, while nonetheless conjoining their patently Nordic approach with a manner of purity and simplicity in the approach. They are also busy infusing their interpretation of a Nordic cuisine with a markedly curative potential. These values are all reflected in their menus’ ultimate articulation and manifest themselves both in the construction and presentation of the individual courses and in the means of preparation and ingredients upon which they are based. Profile: Rene is a chef, a skilled craftsman who happens to be one by: of Denmark’s finest culinary artists. Rene opened Noma after having served as sous chef at Kong Hans Restaurant Nordic Food Ambassador Rene Redzepi in Copenhagen. & Team Before that, Rene worked for extended stints at some of Noma Restaurant, Copenhagen, Denmark the world’s highest esteemed 3-star Michelin restaurants e.g. French Laundry and El Bulli. Chef Rene Redzepi has been recently appointed as Ambassador for the New Nordic Food Programme by the Nordic Council of Ministers. The programme is a Nordic cooperation to expose the value of Nordic food and Nordic food culture. 260

End of Famine in Africa Recent images shown on Kenyan television could not fail people argue that it could have been prevented or to move even the stone hearted among us to tears. It was minimized.Many attribute the origin of this preventable heart wrenching to see women hopelessly cuddling the situation to poor governance, corruption, over lifeless bodies of their children, victims of merciless population, climate change, dependency syndrome on famine that swept across the country. Many appeals were food aid from foreign assistance and so on. The main root made both by government, churches and even the causes of famine remains the dependency of African corporate world to help mitigate against the disaster. agriculture on the weather, particularly the rain. This Across the continent and to my home country of heavy dependence, not only reduces the number of Cameroon, a similar event recurs almost every two years harvest per year, but also gives little freedom to the farmer and appeals are usually made by those in authority seeking for proper planning. Several years ago, rain fed agriculture food to help the victims. As an African professional, these was not an issue in Africa, since entire community could are some the issues that leave me pondering on how my migrate from drought areas to greener pastures. This is no fellow learned Africans and I can contribute to alleviate longer the case as no free land is available any more. the suffering which our people have been undergoing. Globalisation is also contributing to the burden of The problem of recurring famine goes deeper than the famine: cheap crops import dominate some local markets often touted reason of lack of water to help grow food or to the detriment of local crops. This situation is worsened for animal use. The water levels available in Kenya are by the fact that agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa depends enough to sustain a heavily on human labour as opposed to mechanisation. As hunger-free nation. In some parts of Cameroon, people a result, farmers need to provide more and more effort for suffer famine despite that country having the distinction little output. The application of irrigation methods in of being home to the wettest climate on earth. African agriculture remains very limited due to the water drudgery associated to it. The percentage of land irrigated Examples abound of how others have managed to in Africa is the lowest of the world. overcome. Despite the scarcity of water in semi-desert and arid lands of North Africa, the Arab World, the It is therefore time to seriously explore other alternatives Mediterranean countries and part of the South East Asia, and affordable ways of improving traditional farming farmers there enjoy better food security, compare to Sub systems. Africa is endowed with permanent rivers that Saharan Africa. This is not because their economies are flow undisturbed to 4 the sea, passing through hectares of better off to enable them to easily pump water for idle lands suitable for agriculture. Using some of these irrigation. Long before the discovery of fossil fuel, most rivers and streams to irrigate lands will be very beneficial of these countries already enjoyed food security. In fact, in to present and future food security in Africa. order to cope with the harsh climatic conditions with little rains, inhabitant of these dry lands developed traditional The high operational cost of motor pumps to increase knowledge of water lifting techniques to exploit streams, productivity through irrigation is simply not affordable to rivers and underground water for irrigation to increase the majority of African farmers, leave alone the high cost food production. As a result, farmers are able to harness of the pump itself that is prohibitive. Drilling borehole is available water to grow crops and harvest up to three another solution but again very expensive and costly. It is times a year. In this process, all available forms of energy common knowledge that people living in arid land have are put into use, such as human power, animal power, developed irrigation techniques that have ensured them water power and wind power, to lift water for irrigation. food security for centuries. This is the case of Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Jordan and many other Arab States, India, These ancient water lifting knowledge that have been in China, Israel, just to mention a few. Fortunately, despite used in Europe, Arab World and part of Asia for centuries the advance of modern technology, some of this are still ignored in Sub-Saharan Africa. Farming in Africa traditional or indigenous knowledge are still in use today depends heavily on rainfall and human labour and after thousands years of operation. therefore, agriculture is vulnerable to the weather. As part of a long lasting solution to the recurrent drought and In the city of Medinet El Faiyum, also known as the famine, there is a pressing need to document, adapt and Garden of Eden, situated 100 km south of Cairo,over 40 transfer these technologies to areas suitable for their waterwheels known as Noria are used to lift water from application. Famine in Africa has reached unprecedented the river Nile for irrigation. In this ancient city known as a and disproportion levels. Images of malnourished garden in the middle of the desert, farmers are able to children, weak adults and carcasses of livestock’s are harvest three times a year despite the fact that the region portrayed in the mass media every day. All Sub-Saharan receives only three days of rain a year. In addition to that, Africa countries are affected by this drought, which many El Faiyum Governorate is considered as the main granary 261

of Cairo. Some farmers in Hama use Noria in urban agriculture, Ef Faiyum waterwheels were introduced several and occasionally when the water flow is not enough to turn the waterwheel, up to 5 motor pumps are needed to centuries ago by Ptolemic engineers. They are still lift water to the aqueduct.This age-old technology is very working today side by side with electric water pumps to much appropriate to the African rural lifestyle, especially grow olives, vegetables, fruits, nuts, sugar cane, rice, wheat with the fuel price increase that is already impacting etc. negatively on the economic growth. The Noria, is a simple wooden waterwheel with buckets PERSIAN WHEEL which use the flow of the river to lift water to an irrigation aqueduct above the river: water by gravity is directed to The Persian wheel, also known as Saqiya, is a water-lifting several farms. The noria works round the clock, 7 days, all device made of two gear wheels and an endless chain of year round, provided that there is a flow of water. This pots or buckets, capable of lifting water from both time tested technology, invented more than two thousand shallow and deep well. The system is powered by one or years ago, must probably by the Romans, has survived up two animals (donkey, horse, camel, bullock, buffalo etc. ). to today because of their efficiency and effectiveness on Person wheels have been used since time immoral to food security. Thousands of them are still in operation in supply water for irrigation in Egypt, the Mediterranean’s Spain, Portugal, Syria, Iraq, Mexico, China (in China, they countries, India, China, etc. are made out of bamboo tree) etc. The city of Hama in Syria is very famous for its different norias, built along the Animal revolves around the first wheel and generates Orontes River, some of which are still used to irrigate horizontal rotations, which are transferred into vertical urban agriculture while others, national heritages, attract rotations through gears and, bring up the chain of pots thousands of tourists every year. (buckets)that carry water from the well and empty into a conduct. Since animals don't like the boring revolution The Romans relied on irrigation systems to ensure food walk, they are blindfold. This technology has been in use security in the empire. Roman architects and engineers for over 2,000 years. An American geographer, who developed different techniques as described by Vitruvius visited Egypt in 1727, estimated that there were over in 1 BC in his “Ten 5 Books on Architecture” to support 200,000 Persian wheels in operation driven by oxen for their agriculture. Some of these irrigation systems have agriculture purposes. survived up today. In 1913, Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary gave this definition: In the region between India and Pakistan, Persian wheels, known as Rahat in Urdu, are traditional tools used for “Noria- a large water wheel, turned by the action of a irrigation. Before their introduction in the region, stream against its floats, and carrying at its circumference irrigation was a very tedious and inefficient activity, as it is buckets, by which water is raised and discharged into a today in rural African countries, where people have to trough; used in Arabia, China, and elsewhere for irrigating walk long distances to fetch water. The introduction of land”. this technology improved agricultural productivity substantially in medieval India. As a result of a successful The Norias found in Spain were introduced during the rural electrification programme across India, electric Islamic domination and have double sets of buckets on pumps are gradually replacing this time tested device. each side of their rims, other have two wheels on the same Despite the availability of modern energy, Persian wheels shaft. This allowed the system to increase the amount of remain popular in the Indian region of Rajasthan. It is water lifted. Spanish priests introduced Norias in Mexico estimated that one Persian wheel can irrigate up to one during the colonial period. Some of them are still in hectare of land. operation in farms located in the northern part of the county. Their buckets are made of plastic material as SAKIA oppose to clay pots or wooden buckets. Another water raising device that is worth to mention Another living testimony of this magnificent time tested here is the Sakia. Sakia is an ancient waterlifting technology is the largest noria (over 20 meters) known as technology that has been in used intensively in Al-Mohammediyyah in Hama, Syria. It was the subject in Egypt,where it originated,from time immemorial. The one of the famous American television programme called device is efficient and effective widely used in the Nile Ripley's Believe it or Not! With the following title, \"A Valley and Delta. Sakia is made of a large hollow wheel water wheel on the Ornotes River in Syria is still working, with scoops around its periphery, and water discharges at although it was built in the year 1000.” itscentre. The diameters of the Sakia range from 2m to 262

5m; and they lift water from 0.8m to 1.8m respectively. malnutrition. Sakias originally made of wood, are now made from Food aid should not be seen as a long-term solution, galvanized sheet steel with gears system that convert the people should be empowered with affordable horizontal rotation into vertical rotation. There are mainly technologies that can help them to overcome present and powered by animal, but recently some are using electric or future period of food gasoline motors. According to the Egyptian Hydraulic shortages. Research and Experimental Station, more than 300,000 Sakias are in use in the Nile Valley and Delta mostly driven All the above-mentioned traditional knowledge of water by animals. A Sakia of 5 m diameter will lift around 36 lifting techniques can be domestically manufactured with m3/h of water, while a 2 m diameter model will lift 114 local material: no imported part is required, no fossil fuel m3/h. is needed, and humanpower is saved. WIND PUMP This technology may seem very old but its efficiency surpasses those of the imported motor pumps. It is Simple wind pumps as opposed to the sophisticated and regrettable to note that despite the 21th century’s high- costly one that are occasionally seen in some African rural tech society, one person in six has no access to clean water. areas are another appropriate solution for the irrigation. Therefore any affordable solution that can bring water In the mountain plateau of Lassithi in Crete, Greece, closer to people should be considered as an innovation simple wind pumps have being used for over 400 years to rather than an attempt to bring development back. To irrigate land that produces crops mainly vegetables, fruits make famine history in Africa we need to introduce these and wheat. These wind pumps, manufactured locally by affordable, tangible, proven, and traditional knowledge village craftsmen, were originally made of wood and from the arid world to African farmers. The creativity of cloth. Wood was later on replaced by metal steel in order African informal sector will innovate and adapt the to extend the lifespan. A decade ago, over 10 000 technology to different local social and economic windmills could be found in the plateau, each farmer conditions, aiming at ensuring long lasting food security. owning at least one of them to supply water for irrigation. Today less than 2000 are in operation, as a result of While exploring modern technology to address the European Union’s agricultural subsidy policies to famine situation in Africa, it will be wise to consider this purchase farmer’s implements. Traditional windmills are know how which is in the public domain and does not gradually replaced with electric pumps. Model windmills required any copyright to be negotiated. are sold to tourists as souvenir. Since the technologies described here are in operation, as When there is wind, each windmill pumps water from a we speak, in Egypt and Syria, it would be highly well to a tank, and the water is later used by the farmer to appreciated if stakeholders in the fight against hunger in irrigate their gardens by gravity. Africa visit Medina El Faiyum in Egypt and Hama in Syria to witness how these simple traditional technologies can African coastal areas and hilly regions with permanent turn arid land into forest. This will be the beginning of the winds are ideal place for the application of this end of famine in Africa. technology. About UN-Habitat: The United Nations Human CONCLUSION Settlements Programme, UN-HABITAT, is the United Nations agency for human settlements. It is mandated by This clean and affordable technology for water lifting the UN General Assembly to promote socially and remains unknown to Sub-Sahara African environmentally sustainable towns and cities with the goal farmers. of providing adequate shelter for all. If thousands of them are introduced in the continent by: along its many rivers and streams to irrigate idle lands, food will be soon in abundance on the local markets, in Dr. Vincent Kitio just three months: the average time to grow and harvest Energy Chief, UN-Habitat vegetables badly needed to stop the spread of Nairobi, Kenya 263

“Efficient Internet Access over Wireless Networks” This article presents new research that significantly problem compared to various other challenges reduces the delays experienced in data transport over a encountered in the deployment of these networks. The general class of wireless networks. This work is essential most significant hurdle faced is that of data transport for the efficient use of the emerging class of high-speed efficiency. Much of the traffic on the Internet – over 80% wireless networks, which can enable Internet access in of it require that all the bytes reach the destination with areas where the cost of laying high speed cables is too 100% reliability – that is, every single byte in a file is steep to attract serious investment. transferred reliably and in-order. These applications predominantly use the Transmission Control Protocol Wireless networks have made a tremendous impact in the (TCP) that in the last 30 years has been highly optimized world. Particularly in India, wireless cellular networks to perform this task of reliable file transfer. In fact much have enabled widespread voice connectivity. As recently of the success of the Internet is due to the robust as 10 years ago, one had to wait for at least a month for a performance of TCP in handling end-to-end losses. home phone connection, even in large cities like Bangalore. Today mobile phones are affordable and in However when it comes to wireless networks, TCP is widespread use even by street vendors in remote corners found to perform very poorly. In WiFi networks for of the country. example where there is a single wireless link close to the user, TCP simply shuts down when the wireless losses This communication feat of cellular networks is only the exceed 5%. Even in ideal wireless scenarios where there tip of an iceberg. It provides an inkling are negligible losses, TCP throughput peaks at about 80% of the immense benefits when Internet access itself of the available bandwidth. This poor TCP performance becomes easily available to the common man in India. In in wireless environments has been a “hot” topic of this Information age, Internet has become more of a research in the last 15 years. However, various efforts to necessity than a luxury. However, several parts of India fix it have not been successful because a TCP fix for one still lack broadband access, because of difficult-to-reach situation (such as web access from a cell phone in a park) regions where laying high-speed cables is not cost has little effect in another environment (such as web effective and the return on investment is deemed low. access from your laptop in an Airport hotspot/hotel Wireless networks hold a key solution to this problem. room). It also poorly adapts to rapid bandwidth New wireless technologies have emerged in the last few fluctuations that common occur in wireless networks due years that can support data at speeds of several mega bits to Doppler effects, interference, complex cross-layer per second over large distances. Primary among these interactions etc technologies are WiMAX (IEEE 802.16 standards) and mesh networks (IEEE 802.11 standards) that support Various new protocols have been proposed to substitute broadband data rates in the range of a couple of mega bits TCP, but like the various TCP enhancements, they also per second per user. cater to specific wireless network scenarios and simply shut down in mesh networks, where losses can often WiMAX belongs to the class of cellular networks with exceed 20%. Thus it is evident that the emerging class of wide area coverage. They are centrally operated in licensed high-speed wireless networks have far different frequency bands. characteristics than their wired counterparts. The primary difference is that wireless links have time-varying Mesh networks on the other hand are decentralized in bandwidth and error characteristics and are far less operation, and individual entities may install their own reliable than wire-line links such as Ethernet. The various mesh network without requiring any licensing to obtain protocols available today for Internet access are designed the spectrum. Their band of operation is similar to WiFi to deal with problems that occur in wire-line networks, networks (IEEE 802.11 standard) and cordless phones, where the losses are due to the queue overflows in nodes but the technology differs significantly because of the use rather than losses in the links. Wireless network challenges of multiple wireless links. The cost of installing and on the other hand are dominated by wireless link losses operating mesh networks is a fraction of that of WiMAX and rapid bandwidth and error fluctuations. (cellular) networks and is hence quite lucrative to many businesses. For example in the United States, several In our research, we addressed this challenging problem of towns (for example, Amherst, MA) are considering multi- how to efficiently transport data over wireless networks, hop wireless mesh networks as a low-cost alternative for and hence minimize the delays encountered for file municipal access, such as to connect local police stations transfer. We adopted a top-down approach for a fresh and fire stations. perspective. To nail down the exact reasons for poor TCP performance, we conducted extensive experiments to Operating a network however is a relatively minor capture various real world scenarios that were 264

problematic and recreated them in a simulator. Detailed outlined here was the topic of her PhD thesis titled analysis of the simulations showed that the problem “Cross-layer aware transport protocol for wireless occurred because of several TCP design aspects that were networks”, done in collaboration with her advisors Prof. mismatched to fundamental wireless characteristics. For Dipankar Raychaudhuri and Dr. Sanjoy Paul, and funded example, while wireless link losses are transient and often by Corporate Research, Thomson Inc. Before beginning unrelated to the available bandwidth, TCP assumes losses her PhD, she worked for 2 years as a research associate in can only be due to congested routers (a wired network NEC Labs in Princeton, NJ. She currently works for characteristic) and scales down the sending rate, wasting Ortiva Wireless Inc., a startup company in San Diego, CA precious bandwidth. Second, while TCP design assumes that specializes in video delivery to mobile devices. constant link bandwidth, the bandwidth in wireless links fluctuates significantly due to environmental conditions Apart from her professional activities, Sumathi has been such as mobility, rain etc. These and other TCP an active volunteer and chapter coordinator of the mismatches due to wireless delay fluctuations and Princeton chapter of “Asha for Education” - a 100% interference caused TCP to perform inefficiently over volunteer-based organization that strives to bring wireless networks. It was evident from these findings, that education to underprivileged children in India. Along data transport efficiency required catering to the core with other Asha volunteers, she has raised over $60,000 wireless characteristics of time-varying bandwidth and for various projects in 4 years, and been closely involved losses, and interference. with SUPPORT – a non-profit in Mumbai that rescues and rehabilitates drug-abused street children. She has also We developed a new transport protocol called CLAP volunteered with “RFB&D” recording K-12 tapes for (Cross-Layer Aware transport Protocol) that extracts blind and dyslexic children across the United States. At supplemental information from the wireless interface to Rutgers University, she served as the Graduate Student adapt quickly to bandwidth fluctuations and with a novel Representative for 3 years in the Electrical and Computer feedback mechanism improved error resilience and Engineering department and was awarded the prestigious recovery. We compared its performance to state-of-the- “ECE Award for Service Excellence” in April 2007. art TCP (TCP-SACK) in rigorous WiFi (single wireless link) and mesh network environments (multiple wireless Sumathi hails from Bangalore, India and came to the links). While TCP simply shut down operation when United States in 1998 soon after completing her Bachelors losses exceeded 5%, CLAP sustained file transfer even in B.M.S. College of Engineering. She’s married and her when losses exceeded 12 40%. At the same time, it utilized better half Vinay Iyengar who works in IBM as a over 85% of the available bandwidth, compared to less management consultant. They have a beautiful son Rahul than 2% by TCP. When the bandwidth changed rapidly, who is in his “terrific twos” at 27 months. TCP had several durations of unutilized bandwidth, while CLAP opportunistically made use of them. In summary, our research marks a new approach to reliable file transfer over wireless networks, and its efficacy is demonstrated by the large gains of CLAP over TCP in challenging scenarios that are a common characteristic of emerging wireless networks. The CLAP protocol is also far simpler to implement compared to TCP because of its use of supplemental information. The biggest obstacle facing CLAP adoption is the inertia to substitute TCP, which is understandably an outcome of the success of TCP in enabling the Internet of today. Implementing CLAP is in fact quite feasible because plug- in software methods available today and the relative ease and frequency of operating systems upgrades. Profile: by: Sumathi Gopal recently graduated with a PhD in Sumathi Gopal, Ph. D. “wireless networking” from WINLAB, Rutgers Ortiva Wireless Inc., San Diego, CA University located in North Brunswick, NJ. Research 265

Social Entrepreneurs on Common Ground It is suddenly raining “Social Entrepreneurship”! For infrequent - sometimes due to lack of opportunity and/or years Ashoka has trodden the lonely path and now we individual motivation but more significantly due to the have been surprised and delighted at how many people absence of a reading environment. In the everyday know, talk and practice social entrepreneurship. The context, the national strategy has depended on the current debate on Social Entrepreneurship is amazing – creation of libraries and making available wallpapers, there are at least 50 definitions and 100 ways of magazines and other reading material designed for neo- interpreting them in a way that advances research, literates. Generally, in these situations, the contact with practice, and efforts to build and strengthen the field. participants tends to be short term and costly, serving only a small percentage of the partially literate population. Let’s take a look at some of those definitions. CASE Moreover, these strategies require the learner to be highly Faculty Director Greg Dees and Managing Director Beth self-motivated for lifelong literacy. Anderson argue that the study of social entrepreneurship should focus on “innovations that blend methods from Having diagnosed this problem, Brij set out to marry the the worlds of business and philanthropy, creating two most popular things in Indian society – hindi film sustainable social value with the potential for large-scale songs and television to come to the aid of non and neo- impact.” In a complementary piece, Social Entrepreneurs literates. Brij leveraged a billion-strong nation’s voracious on Common Ground, The Institute for Social appetite for film song lyrics to create a reading Entrepreneurs’ Jerr Boschee embraces that framing as an environment far beyond what textbooks or classroom or important step forward that will help “create a framework night schools can provide. His Same Language Subtitling for the next generation of practitioners.” At the same (SLS) program subtitles film song programs, in the same time, University of Toronto’s Roger Martin and the Skoll language as the audio. Thus, Hindi programs are subtitled Foundation’s Sally Osberg collaborated across academia in Hindi and likewise with all the regional language and practice in Stanford Social Innovation Review’s Social programs in the country. The basic idea is, what you see Entrepreneurship: The Case for Definition, where they (text) is what you hear (audio). The audio track is promote a rigorous definition of social entrepreneurship reproduced verbatim in a synchronized manner. to strengthen the development of the field. By their definition, Social Entrepreneurship is a more rigorous As per government reports, about half of India has access and precise way to grow the field. They focus on to television and there are 27 million entrepreneur's ability to transform unsatisfactory and more rural viewers than urban viewers. There is an annual unpleasant equilibrium into a new stable equilibrium that increase of 10% in the number of houses with TV. Today, is more efficient, effective or just. besides television, Internet and Computers and DVD players are making rapid inroads into rural and urban Ashoka Fellows who are social entrepreneurs are people homes. While media has been a major conduit for the who have figured out how to make a system change, and that knowledge is huge for humanity. They are the government to spread literacy awareness, Brij has injected inventors of cures, the developers of mechanisms to new meaning in the approach by using a major source of make people move, act, live, think, buy, parent, care in a entertainment to introduce literacy in a non-intrusive different Social Entrepreneurs on Common Ground manner. The power of SLS lies in the fact that it is covertly Sohini Bhattacharya, Director, South Asia Partnerships, educational. On the surface it enhances the entertainment Ashoka Innovators for the Public 15 way; they have value of popular song programs and simultaneously created systems to encourage people to make change, makes reading practice an incidental, automatic and organize for power, lift themselves out of poverty, hold subconscious process at a ridiculously low per person corporations accountable, improve their workplaces and cost. It is simply hitched on to the regular programming fight corruption at every level. And when they have by the state-owned television channel, Doordarshan. As figured out a sustainable business model to fuel this the lyrics change colour in perfect timing with the latest process, they have been able to scale more quickly and Bollywood hits, hearing and reading reinforce each other have more freedom to pursue their goals. for all age-groups . Take the example of Ashoka Fellow Brij Kothari from Who are the most likely partners for Brij to spread this India, who discovered that even after years of running message – the national television company ? Yes in terms literacy programs in India, the number of non-literates in of reach and spread into every remote rural area in the our country remains at an overwhelming 444 million. country. Google ? Yes, in terms of scaling up and out into Some key factors are at play here. The low level of literacy, other countries, other languages. Star TV ? Yes, India’s both in terms of rate and quality, is to a great degree most popular private television channel to popularize this maintained by frequent relapse into illiteracy or stagnation among urban neo-literates. Brij is exploring every one of of semi and neo literates’ skills following short stints in them to find a sustainable model for his idea and to scale school and adult literacy programmes. The scope and up considerably. Here you have an Ashoka Fellow in its opportunity of reading outside the classroom is purest form. 266

Ashoka Fellows are such subtle players working on a creating an opportunity for YPO members to interact range of ideas, from low cost farming methods to health with Ashoka Fellows in a structured program which will insurance for the poorest of the poor, aiming at lasting also include site-visits early next year and create a space social change. Definitions notwithstanding, systemic where business leaders from India will also have a chance change remains their and our biggest objective in to share their experience of working with the citizen everything we do and building a structure so that everyone sector with members of YPO. can be a part of it is what we strive at. For 25 years since its creation in 1981, Ashoka Innovators for the Public has These illustrate also a core approach – that of invention created, nurtured and evolved the field of social of the processes that defy borders between sectors, and entrepreneurship and has stayed on the cutting edge, demands creative thinking about how best to make these spotting new global trends and defining the growing field. borders porous for ideas that flow across them. This is also the beginning of creating an environment where Since 1981, Ashoka has elected over 1,800 leading social everyone has the opportunity and freedom to make entrepreneurs, men and women with system changing change. I leave you here with some words from Bill solutions for the world’s most urgent social problems, as Drayton, Founder of Ashoka and Social entrepreneur Ashoka Fellows, providing them with living stipends, extraordinaire : “I believe that the transformation of the professional support, and access to a global network of citizen half of the world (the non- commerce half) into an peers in more than 60 countries. Ashoka India came into entrepreneurial social sector, competitive and allied with being in 1981. Since then it has grown into a rich business, will close the productivity gap, deeply fellowship of 300 Fellows who are working in diverse strengthen democracy and create a world that is radically fields in six cluster areas: Civic Participation, Economic different from the world we have today where two or three Development, Education, Environment, Health and percent of the people run everything.” Human Rights. Ashoka India has a vibrant fellowship across 24 states around the country, out of which 17 Profile: almost 50% are involved in various initiatives of Ashoka, Sohini, started out working with Child In Need Institute as facilitators, co-developers and leaders. (CINI), a premier Mother and Child Health organization in India and later on helped in the launch of a new Ashoka’s rapid growth has been made possible by our program within the organization working on income strength in developing relationships with generation and micro-credit for rural women. As a individuals, family foundations and business program officer with Dastkar, a society for traditional entrepreneurs ready to invest in new programs. We are craftspeople working on identifying the needs of working towards models that are long-term, will boost the craftspeople in India and brining them closer to the Fellowship in every region and would serve as a model for market, she worked with craftsgroups all over the country, similar partnerships for other leading business understanding markets, issues in production and the entrepreneurs. One can join Ashoka's movement of struggle of the craftspeople. During 1996-1998, Sohini social change engaging with Ashoka in a customized way worked on setting up reporting and accounting systems such as the Ashoka-Deshpande Sandbox Project , as a for micro-credit and training women’s groups across the group such as the YPO, or as an individual. country on gender rights and micro-credit working with an Ashoka Fellow. In 1996 she also helped another Ashoka has crafted and has just launched a new Ashoka Fellow set up Sanhita, a Gender Rights Centre, in partnership in India with Gururaj \"Desh\" Deshpande, an Calcutta and worked as the Trustee and the main program extremely successful Indian-born hi-tech entrepreneur coordinator for the crucial first two years of the launch. based in Massachusetts. With the recently established Deshpande Foundation, that aims to bring social change Sohini joined Ashoka in March 2000 to help expand the to the Hubli-Dharwad area in North Karnataka where Venture program in West India. Later as a Director, Desh grew up, Ashoka is creating what \"Desh\" Venture for India, she ramped up the program, built Deshpande calls a ‘sandbox’ in North Karnataka : an systems and created awareness and resources for Ashoka arena where Ashoka Fellows (and later other local social India. entrepreneurs) will be able to try out their ideas, Sohini holds a post-graduate degree in English Literature collaborate with each other (plus local government from Jadhavpur University, Calcutta. bodies, academia and business) and benefit from synergistic support by Ashoka and Deshpande.Ashoka is by: also working to connect Ashoka Fellows worldwide with Sohini Bhattacharya, the Young Presidents Organization (YPO), a worldwide network of leading CEOs under the age of 45 and an Director, incredible source of potential funding, mentoring, South Asia Partnerships, contacts, and information. In India, we are working on Ashoka Innovators for the Public 267

Leading Science in Africa The main food source for much of the world’s livestock, continent’s farmers. Defying strong cultural norms, she forage grasses are vitally important to meeting the became the first woman from her region to attend what increasing demand for meat and milk. Dr. Segenet was then Ethiopia’s only university. Kelemu has been recognized by L’Oreal-UNESCO 2014 Women in Science award for her research on how In 2007 Dr. Kelemu established microbes living in symbiosis with these grasses influence the Bio-sciences eastern and their health, their capacity to adapt to environmental central Africa (BecA) Hub stress and their ability to resist disease. laboratories, hosted and managed by the International By enabling small-scale Livestock Research Institute in farmers in tropical and Kenya, and is currently Director sub-tropical regions to General of the International choose the most Center for Insect Physiology and productive,most pathogen-resistant Ecology. “Africa is in desperate need of world-class forage grasses, her work institutions…” has both helped them improve their lives and Dr. Kelemu advices: “Set your goals and pursue them increase supplies of relentlessly. Don’t let anyone tell you that you cannot do it. Science is not reserved for the privileged few or the super much needed animal proteins. smart or the especially crazy! If I can do it, so can you!” In particular, Dr. Kelemu’s research on Brachiaria grasses has shown that their capacity to thrive in diverse environments is related to an endophyte fungus which lives within these plants, protects them and exists in symbiosis with them. Her work has led to solutions for disruptions in food by supplies caused by pathogenic organisms andextreme climatic conditions and may help to determine which Dr. Segnet Kelemu microbes allow crops to survive environmental Director General, alterations. International Center for Insect Dr. Kelemu grew up in a remote village in Ethiopia. Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) Although she bore the unequal burden carried by rural African women, she had an uncommon determination to Nairobi, Kenya. overcome any obstacle to achievement and to help her 268

Women Scientist of Americas This book was developed by the efforts of Women for Science Program of the Inter American Network of Academies of Science (IANAS) to share the journey’s of 16 extraordinary women scientist of Americas as to how and why they choose science as their career. IANAS & IAP’s goal is to encourage young women to think of science as they evaluate their own future opportunities. The Science Academies of the Americas are committed to the ideal of equal opportunities for women in the scientific endeavor. The goal of the IANAS Women for Science Program is to encourage gender equity among their member Science Academies. Enclosed are few quotes by the featured Women Scientist: “I am convinced that it is important for women to participate in all human activities and not to be excluded from them. For example in my discipline there were women who made significant contributions, and were only able to do so by assisting their husband or brothers, since they were not allowed to carry out their work freely. Only a few of them were recognized, and this was done belatedly. I consider that those women that are interested in scientific research should have similar opportunities as men” “I made the best decision in my life, because biological research is an inspiring recreation of Nature” ~ Monica Moraes, Bolivia “Women are more intuitive, which [...] is an important characteristic for science” ~ Mayana Zatz, Brasil “My parents made me feel I could achieve whatever I wanted; the sky was the limit” ~ Marla B. Sokolowski, Canada “Being a scientist does not conflict with feminine values; you can be a mother, a housewife and glamorous!”~ Grace Sirju Charran, Carribean “It is quite awe-inspiring to gaze at that wonderful dark sky, but even better to actually know what you are looking at…”~Maria Teresa Ruiz, Chile “It is worth trying to change the world through your work.”~ Angela Restrepo Moreno, Colombia “I dreamed of becoming an astronomer or astronaut, under the influence of the novels of Jules Verne…”~Maria G. Guzman, Cuba “Science is about data, perseverance, discipline and often about love, and women know a lot about all this.” ~ Idelisa Bonnelley, Dominican Republic “The most important thing is to devote yourself to what you like best, regardless of the pay or recognition, because this will come if you do your work with passion.”~ Eugenia Kalnay, United States of America. 269

Adriana De la Cruz Molina, Interamerican Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS), Mexico 270

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