98 3]HAPTER lntonation Actlulry 3.1 continued 1. Before class, plan t0 go with your students to a local restaurant for breakfast, lunch, or dinner. Bring copies of the menu to class and go over them. 2. In class, after explaining the restaurant trip, pass out menus to students and ask them to choose what they will order. Go over vocabulary as necessary. lf the menu is long or includes a great deal of new vocabulary, ask students to go over it as homework, choosing the items they will order. In this way, class time can be used for speaking and pronunciation praciice raiher than vocabulary development. 3. Write the students' choices on the board. lvlodel the pronunciation and ask students to repeat. IVake sure students can pronounce their choices u nderstandab ly. 4. Write a dialogue on the board, using one student's choices, or use the sample dialogue on Worksheet 3.1. To keep the practice natural, do not insist that students always use complete sentences. Capitalize highlighted words and mark intonation. @ s. oirect students' atteniion to the capitaiized words. Students listen to the dialogue and repeat the lines. Explain that the capitalized words have the most important mean ing. 6. Students practice the dialogue in pairs, taklng both parts. 7. After practicing the dialogue, students use the model on the board to practice their own choices, in groups of two (waiter and customer) or three (one waiter and two customers), before going to the restaurant. [F] contrastive stress V/hat the Teacher Should Know Contrastive stress is like highlighting, except that two words are pronounced with salient pitch and stress. ContmstiYe stress tells the listener that two pieces of information afe being contrasted or compared. The lecture wil be in HA[/lLTON Hall, not LEWISOHN Hai . Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg describe tlle pitch accent on contlirsting information as a sharp rise (from a low note) to a high note (1990,296).
CH^PIFR 3 lntonatian 99 Act;vity 3.2 Conttastive strcss: Which apartnent is bettet? level lntermed iate/Advanced Worksheet Page 22O Iip Teach highlighting of key words to help students make meanings clear. Description In this inforrnation gap, students complete information missing from descriptjons of two apartment shares and then decide which is preferable. This activity can be adapted to many other comparisons, such as two schools, two cars, two cell phone service plans, or two bus routes. lt can also be used to integrate pronunciation with grammar practice of comparatives. 1. lntroduce the topic of housing. Ask the class what is irnportant when they look for a place to llve. List thelr answers on the board, recasting them as much as possible as nouns (e.g., location, size, rent/price, privacy, noise). 2. lntroduce pronunciatlon. Check two of the items on the board and contrast them in a sentence Iike \"For me, loCAtion is more irnportant ihan SIZE.', 3. Ask students which words you contrasted and how your voice shows the contrast (the contrast words are heavlly stressed, pitch is higher on these words). Repeat your sentence and ask students to repeat, using their voices to h ghlight the contrast words. 4. Ask a student to choose two items on the list and compare them for importance. Provide feedback 0n pronunciatlon of the contrasted words. Choose several other students to do the same. 5. Find out if anyone tn class is living tn an apartment share. Ask the class why people choose apartment shares. 6. Put students rn pairs, giving one member Chart A, and the other Chart B. Tell the class that each student has half of the information about two apartment shares. Each member of the pair tells (not shows) her partner the information on ihe chart, stressing words that contrast (not all of the information on the sample charts contrasts). The listener writes the missing informatron to complete his chart. When the charts are complete, the pair discusses which apartment share is more desirable. 7. After the pair work, ask students which apartment share they preferred and why. Provide feedback on the pronuncia on of contrasting words.
100 3:HAPTER lntanation ffi ua\"t rntonation Patterrx what the Teacher Should Karow As discussed aboyc, specific intonation patterns are often linked to sentence types'. Yes'no questior.ls, for example , end in rising intonation. The link, however, is a loose one. Bolinger, for example, reports that J,es-no questions end with falling intonation almost as oflen as they end with rising intonation (1998). Research on the role of gender and intonation in yes-no questions shows that women are more likely to use rising intonation than men (Svrdal and Jilka 2003). lfli questions can end with either falling or rising intonation. When the question is a true information question, intonation falls. When the lVH question is used to ask for a repetition or clarification, it rises. The example below illustrates both. A: I know somebody at the UN that you should contact. B: Great. -W-h-'a-t-'s''-h-ls--n-a.r.n-e? (asking for informat on) A: A. Chandaha nathan B: What was that? (asking for a repet tion/c arification) A: C'H-A-N-D-A-H-A-N-A-T-H-A-N. Thl] use of rising intonation with 1f11 questions is a useful one for ESL students, who frequently need to ask for repetitions or clarifications, and is also addressed in a number of textbooks. In discourse intonation, fisinE! intonation at the end of a tone unit (thought group) signals that information in the tone unit is shared between speaker and hearer It can also be an invitation for the listener to make a conment (i.e., indicating the end of a turn). Brazil explains yes-n o questions plonounced with risin!! tones (e.g., Is tbat tlre titleX as \"making sure\" questions, questions whose answers the hearer knows and the speaker assumes to be true (1994a,20). Flral Falling Intonation Declaratives, Comrnands, Iflformation Questions. Final lalling intonation (also called rising-falling) is t)'pical with declarative sentences, commands, and information qr.restiol.rs. The genefal meaning of falling itttonation, certainty or finality, is consistent with the typical meanings of declaratives and commancls. Ifl the first statement below (\"I saw John yesterda)'l'), the speaker is not expressing doubt
3cHAprER Intonation 1O1 about seeing John yestefday. Similarty, commands do not reflect doubt about what the speaker wants to happen. 1 saw John yesterday. Open the window. Although information questions are not statements of fact, they neyertheless reflect a good deal of certaintF. For example, when we ask the question Wbere did sbe go yesterd.ay? we believe that she went somes/here-we iust don't know where. In discourse, speakers use final falling intonation when they are informing listeners of something new (of something the speaker believes the listener was not aware of). Final faling intonation is also used to signal that a discourse or conyersational tum is finished. For ottrer uses of falling intonation, see also Comprehension Checks and Tag Questions, page 104. Yes-No Questlons. Thompson describes yes-no qtestions with falling intonation as conducive questions, questions to which the speaker already knows the answers (1995). Teacher (going over a student's essay that is very repetitive): Are these two sentences really dfferent? .) Bolinger gives the follov/ing example of a yes-no question with falling intonation, spoken with a steadily falling pitch by an exasperated mother to a child: Are yolr going to pick -u-p--yo=u-r'=toy-s? Final Risfurg Intonation I.es-No Questlons. A final fising intonation can mean that the speaker is unceftain. This final pattern is cofltmon in yesao questions and intonation questions (declaratives used as questions).Btaztl calls yes-no questions with rising intonation \"making sure\" questions <1994b, 2O).In the question below, intonation rises on the prominent word (\"Sonia\") and stays high to the end of the question (righ rising). ls Sonia here?
102 3IHAPTER lntonation A low-rising iJrtonation, where pitch is low on the prominent word and then rises to a high note, is also used and appears to differ little in meaning from the high- risirg t ontour Oevis 2002). lst\\l'r9fiere? Low-rising intonation is common in polite requests for information from stmngers. We might use this intonation to stop someone on the street to ask for the time . Excuse me. Do you have WU Questions Asking for a Repetition or Clarification. When 1tr41 questions are used to ask for a repetition or clarification, intonation rises on the question word, remains high, and rises a little at the end of the question. Let's go to a movie. B: What did you say? A more exaggerated use of this rising pattern with lFI1 questions can indicate disbelief or increduliry A: A taxi hit my blke today. B: What? Holding the Floor A final falling intonation indicates a speaker has fiiished speaking. To show the opposite, that the speaker is not finished and has more to say, final intonation doesn't fall ro the bottom of the speaker's ranfie, but remains at a higher ler.el. Consider the two pronunciations of \"I know\" below.In the first, spoken with falling intonation, the speaker signals to the listefler that she is finished.In the second, final intonation remains faidy high, a signal that the speaker is not finished or needs time to think. I know .
cnaprrn 3 lntonatictn \"lf)f,. Activity 3.3 final intonation: Mininat diatogues Level Most Levels Worksheet Page 221 Iips Use short utterances to illustrate jntonation patterns. Descriptior Teach inionation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances. This activity provides practice with final intonation patterns associated with declarative sentences (falling), information questions (falling), and yes-no questions (rising). As students practice ihe dialogues, the teacher can glve feedback on whether the range of intonatjon is wide enough. O 1. Students listen to the djalogue and practice jt in pairs. 2. Students write their own mjnimal dialogues and perform them for the class. Activity 3,4 Finat intonation: Fanous people Leyel Beginn ing Worksheet None ]lps Teach intonation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances. Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language ihat your students know how to use. lsolate intonation patterns usjng nonsense syllables to make them easier to hear. Description ln thjs activity, students practice the rhythm and intonatjon paiterns of common questions used for asking about names and spellings in order to discover the name of a famous person. The spelling questions also provide practice with the pronunciation of letter names. 1. Before class, prepare cards with the names of famous people your students will recognize (actors, poljtlcians, musicians, school officials).'prepare as many cards as there are students. (continLted on next page)
1O4 3:HAPTER lntonation ActtuiA 3.1 continue.l 2. ln class, write the following questions on the board, varying the size of the words to show their relative prominence. Draw intonation lines. (Do not write the isolated rhythm patterns shown in parentheses on the board.) wHAT',S your FIRST NAtVtE? (On ou DA Dn) HOW do you sPELL it? (DA DA oa oa oa) WHAT'S your LAST NAM E? (on au DA On) How do you SPELL it? (DA o, ou DA ou) 3. l\\lodel each question, followed by its isolated rhythm-intonation pattern, Students repeat both the question and the isolated pattern. 4. As a demonstration, choose a student to ask another ciassmate the four questions. Provide feedback on rhythm-intonation and pronunciation. Repeat the process, choosing another student to demonstrate the questions. 5. ln pairs, students ask each other the four questions. (Although many students will know each other's first names, they may not know last names and spelling may be even more mysterious, especially in classes where students speak different native languages. ) 6. Famous people. Put students in new pairs and give each student a different card (see step 1, above). Students ask each other the four quesiions on ihe board and write their partners' answers. When pairs finish thelr cards, they pass them to another pair and repeat the activity with cards from another pair. Repeat the card passing and questions two more times. 7. Following the pair work, ask several students to ask a classmate (not their partners) the same questions about the names on the classmate's current card. Provide feedback on rhythm and intonation. @! comp\"ehension Checks and Tag Questions What the Teacher Should Know Comprelrension checks, tags like OK? ot Rigrrt? Me appropriate for all levels of students. Comprehension checks are added to the ends of statements and pronounced with risinla intonation. So I twist the white wires together, right?
. 3A?TER tntonation \"l0s ::s\\e expressions are easy for students to use and afe communicarively usefi-d, as -:-.i1ie1.rPticokebrrienagksuugpgethstes that ITAS include comprehension checks in their lectures in that haye been preponderance of falling and level tones :.::rn-ed (20O1). Tag questions llke isn't be? or can !ou? end in either falling or rising ::Dnation.When the speaker is asking for confimation, the falling pattern -:-r€n the speaker is expressing rincertainry rising intonation is used. is used. Ihls is a nice party, isn't it. (requesting conf rmation) _ ''-, You're from Mexico, aren't you? (expressing uncerta nty) A tag question alone with falling intonation can also be used to express .rgreement. A: lt's cold outside. B: lsn't it. Tag questions are among the last question types to be used accurately by students. They are granxmatically difficult, requiring mastery of the verb system as well as subjcct-verb inversion (Lightbown and Spada 1999, 79). Because they occur with either rising or falling intonarion, tlteA pronunciation is also difficr t. In addition, they are pragmatically difficult. Levis suggests that before students are taught how to pronounce tali questions, they lear-n the situations in which they are used appropriately (1999,52). As an example, he imagines e help room situation in which an ITA is working through problems witlt an undergraduate student who seems to be having difficulry Levis asks how the I'I'A knows whether to ask about the difficulty with a direct question or a tag question. He presents several possible questions, shown below, and concludes that only thc first is cleady appropriate (1999,53). Student: Oh, I'm just not getting these problems. ITA: This is real y hard for you, isn't it? This isn't really hard for you, s it? ls this real y hard for you? This is really hard for you? Because of the difficulties with tag questions, they are better left as a pronunciation topic for high intemediate and advanced students.
106 i(HAP\\IR tntanatian Activity 3.5 Conryehension checks; My favo te sandwich Level Most Worksheet None :ip Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that your students know how to use. Description Students write a recipe for their favorite sandwich. The recipe should be simple and easy to make. In pairs students listen to each other's recipes and take notes. The listener checks his understanding by reading back his notes and adding the confirmation check right? with rising intonation. (Alternatively, students can give each other directions to their homes, a favorite restaurant, park, movie theater, or library. lTAs can define a term or concept from their field to someone who isn't in their field.) 1. Before class, prepare simple lnstructions for making a sandwich to use as a demonstration, The example below is for a garlic-and-cheese sandwich. Only one copy of the recipe is needed. ngred ents, a slice of good bread, I c ove of garl c, ol ve oil, salt and pepper, your favorite cheese 1. Peel the garlic clove and cut it in half. 2. Toast the bread. 3. Rub the cut sjde of the garlic over one side of the bread. 4. Sprinkle a little olive oil over the bread. 5. Sprinkle a little salt and pepper over the oil. 6. Add cheese to the bread and eat, 2. ln class, give the sandwich recipe to a student who will read the instructions while you write them on the bOard. Tell the student to read at a normal pace. 3. As the student gets ahead of your writing, stop him. Repeat the last part 0f the instructions he read, ending with the comprehension check rghtZ 4. Ask the class what word you added to check your understanding. Ask whether your voice rose or fell over that word (i.e., rightn. lf necessary, repeat the last part of the instructions with the comprehension check. 5. The student continues to read the recipe instructi0ns and you continue writing them on the board, stopping the reader from time to time to check your understandl ng, using rteht?
3.HAPTER lntanation \"l07 Ytilnr) 3.5 continued 5. Students write their own slmple recjpes for a sandwjch (or some other food). Provjde help with vocabulary. 7. asPtneadpi suw.soTinrhkge, tOhpenaertcnsoetmur pdthreeenhnterncehsajedocsnkshcehhreisrcekucjnrpigdehettr.ozstwahneitdrf,iplgia.irntongve-rr,,!tw.oonhiruoe'ttiaobknae.csk notes on the the notes NISotno-TFliinoar,l-rTfyhitohugIhjsttsG, rCouhpoisce euestions, and S/hat the Teacher Should Know Listing Intonation. The first items in a lisr are usually pronounced with rising pinrtoonnoautinocne,deswpietchiaf.allyllinwgheinntotnheaytioan-retosiinngdleicawteorothsatorthsetrloisrtt ptrrases. The last item is is complete. We v'sited B-.e'i'j'ir'/g-.-S-h\\arghsi. and Horg4oig. If the speaker wants to show that the list is not complete and that she could ,lrirrg irriorration. The raised add more to it, the last item is also pronounced *itt final pirch indicates that the list is nor finished. Th e word1nd is ofren omitted in \"open\" lists. One, two, three. . . ----''/--''''/ We visrted Beijing, Shanghai, Ho-ng Kong. . . duppaos,rrlweeoesssgaet?ynwcnsmoatoetuo.dglbldiss:awtesstreh;v\"tlh-rh:eae<aprlndofdiiernastHnrtyden(waaof)aitfnusfPgort.sahl,l'oliTlpwlshioppseineyLttehaccoe&ithueipnt(aat1ht(nt19ae99tern9x6tha6)cims,lae3pisn]n8lcdetro)i.bfntIrhneao.atmlidotaenb,asfoncrrvu\"reiinlbe,tiw.nr,rlohgifkd.ielh,ueicsasttlhhilpoeooonuetshtletredoycr,osnan,Liosdraatrnd(kbboiinoe)t (a) | tike to see at a gtance ,-,.-1\"-ngt'. tniGilo,^,u no ,* *--===J;nuru. (b) And r want to prck up things rir\" p*.trnt-----ron uno ituti..iiltlil-J i. g\"t ro.t. iir9Cnmis3taiop)n,unogsladr,uttwabgioegnencetlalsimutnasntoehpddaoepteHlu,tLernfaywacrltik(luniiin.nagegts.ic,o,lihonnwootsookisenrinkanr€iotoniiotguansstieonpismufaaunelscltidhentuiidgsnacgttiooniotuthnosresigneisrnua\"irnndtioetinonowenluwiaisnnttifiiponnonrteronmr.sfrmariautawimoafoionetuir)wolr.d.Ionner,kxarpu(destihsecceet ortpuotarlrsbg^eene
108 3:HAPTLR tntonation Choice Questions and Questions with o/. Choice questions are often phrased with or: They look tike -lLlesr?o qllestions, but the speaker expccts them to be answered with one of the choices, rather than with./es or zo. 'l'he choices are in different thought groups;pitch rises on the first choice(s) and lalls on the last. A. Do you want to go on '-'-,'-'--'- or Sunday? Friday, Saturday, B. Saturday. Some J,es-no questions with or are trucJes-/lo questions, qr,restions that can be appropriatel) answefed with J€s o!: ,?o. In this case, both items in the or phrasc arc in the same thought group, ancl intonati(.,n fises as with other l.,es-7?(/ questions. A: Can you corne on Saturday or Sunday? (the speaker doesn't care wh ch day) B. No, sorry. I'm busy. Non-Final-Thought Groups. Non-final-thought groups (phrases or clauscs) can encl with a slight rise or fall. Pitcll cloes not rise or fall to the level it docs at the end of an uttcraficc. This slight chanl;c in pitch is one of the rvays the boundaly of a thought group is markcd (Avcry and Ehdich 1992). Th€ intonation on the second clause often starts at a lower note. These changes in intonation at internel thought grc-r4r bounclaries are difficult to hc:r. lforgot my keys, and now I'm locked out. lf h s score is good, he'll app y to law schoo s. You can't come n b-e-c''a-u-s.-e-.it.'-s-ate. ,-=------^--,-- ___--,,-..--_ When the phone rang, I didn't answer it. In a discourse intonation fi?mework, final and nonfinal phrases (tone units) afe not differentiated from eaclr other tbrmall_\\.. A risin€! tone at the end of a phr.rse inclicates that the inlbrmation in thc phflse is slrared betn'een the speaker and hearer'. A falling tone shorvs that the speakcr believes the informetion is new (or chooses to speak as if it were new). In Pierrehumbert and Hitschberg's framervort, noof nrlfninianltcprhmracsdeiastcanpdhcralasncseinsdaicreatecaslltchdatinitteirsmteodbiaeteinptelurparsectse.d'\\ high tone at the encl $,-ith what follows. A low tone is used to show that the phrase is independent of $.'hat follows ( 1990, 287). Neither explanation of the differencc in meaning bet$-een nonfinal rising and falling intonation is concrete or clear enough to appll in the classroom. Cllxssroom studies ha\\.e shown that the shared-ne$' distinction is frequcntly unclear to tcachcrs and students. It seems likely that the distinction bet$ een informrtion that is to be interpreted with $'hat fbllows and information that is indepefldent of s.'hat follows
3cHAprER lntonation 1Og will be as unclear, leaving the teacher with no ready explanation for why intonation on one nonfinal clause falls but rises on anothef. In my own teaching, I address the pronunciation of nonfinal clauses (phrases) as part of rhlthm (thought groups) and do not focus on the co-occuffinfi intonational changes, which are especially difficult for students to notice. Acaivity 3.6 Listing intonation: eobrs, aninals, fanily wotds , , , level Beginn ing Worksheet None Tip lntegrate intonation work wilh classroom work on other English skills. Description Students practice listing intonation in the context of a game. After presenting the intonation patterns associated wiih lists, students play the game in groups of three. The group chooses a vocabulary category that your students have learned (for example, family words). One student starts by naming two types of family members, using listing intonation (e.g., mother and father). The next student repeats the two items and adds a new one (mother, father, and sister). The third student repeats the three items of the second ' student and adds a fourth (mother, father, sister, and brother). When the group can't think of any new words in that category (or remember all the words that have been said before), the last contributor to the list chooses a new category (e.g., colors, animals, rooms in a house, or means of transportation). 1. On the board, write category headings. Choose familiar categories that students can expand (e,9., animals, colors, family words, months). Ask students for words that belong in each category and add them to the board. 2. Demonstrate listing intonation when the lists are complete. Ask the question What are the first three (colors) in the list? Choose a student to answer. 3. Write the answer on the board, adding intonati0n lines, and model the answer, Students repeat. r-e-d-,-b-l/u.e''('a/nd) \\ yellow 4. Then ask What are the first four (animals) on the listT \\Nrite the answer on the board, showing the intonation lines. Students repeat. 5. Elicit intonaiion: l\\4odel each item on the lists and ask students whether your voice goes up or down. (Alternatively, explain intonation: 0n the first words, your voice goes up. When the list is f nished, your voice goes down.) (c xinued on next page)
10 I 31 LAPTER lntonation Actiuitt 3.6 dlntlnued 6. Erase the words in the categories, leaving only the category headings on the board. Choose two students to demonstrate the game with you. 7. Choose one of the categories on the board-for example, colors. Ask a student from your \"group\" to say two colors. Give feedback on intonation. Ask the other student in your group to repeat the first student's colors and add a third. v,ou repeat the three colors and add a fourth. The student who chose the first two colors repeats your four and adds a fifth, and so on. When someone forgets a color word or can't think of a new one, a new category is chosen. The student who is the last to add to a category (i.e., has produced the longest list), gets to start the new category. 8. Students work in groups of three and repeat the demonstration. Kl Appositives and Parentheticals V{hat the Teacher Should Know Appositives. Appositives are phrases that follow a noun and provide additional fufofmation about the noun. They are pronounced in a group by themselves, set off from the rest of the sentence. When an appositive occurs insidc an utterance, intonation also sets it off from the rest of the sentence. At the beginning of the appositiye, pitch drops to a low note, rises a little on the impofiant word in the appositive and falls again to a low level. I\\4r. Johnson, rny boss, s coming to d nner. ._?,--..\\ Yakima, \"The Frult Bowl of the Nation,\" rs my hometown. tr---l ft When appositives end a sentence, intonation usually starts low, rises, and then falls. I inviled l\\4 . Johr:on. mv boss. - -/--'\\.- _r--l\\4y hometown is Yakima, \"The Fruit Bow of the Nation.\" __ Pai:entheticals. Parentheticals are expressions that are set apart from the main utterance . Examples include direct address forms (e.g.,Mr Smitb, can I ask lou a question?), comments thnt exprcss how the speaker feels about the message (e.9., He's late ag.in, I suppose), politeness expressions (e.9.,I'd like an application, please), of final reporting expressions, (e.g., I'm la4t, be said). Parenthetical
3CH^prF,R tntonation 111 information is pronounced in its own thought group,e with low pitch and low volume. This rather monotone delivery sets the parenthetical information off from the \"livelier\" intonation ofthe main message.weaker le,,els of stress are also involved in parenthericals (Dickerson 2003). The intonation on sentence initial parentheticals can end in either a rise or a fall. lVr. Smith, can I ask you a question? lVary. c6\" lash you a questior. In the middlc of a sentence or at the encl, parentheticals are pronounced v/ith lower levels of pitch; intonation rises slightly on the prominent wofcl (Celce_Murcia et al. 1996, 191). I was waiting, I guess, for an hour. That's rny book, I think. Students use parenthetical expressions, but they may not use appropriate stress, grouping, and intonation to set the expression off from the rest of the utterance effectiyely. If students give a parenthetical word too much prominence, that word may be interpreted as part of the main Lrtterance rather than as a pafenthetical, leading to a possible confusion between Ilozr,.s J,, our (Jncle Cha es? lbr example, and Aou.t's lour uncle, Cba es? Activity 3.7 Parcntheticals: Yau look ptetty happy, Iuke. Level Advanced Worksheets Pages 222-223. Tip Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that your students know how to use. llescription This activity provides practice listening to final parentheticals in dialogues, and noticing the pronunciation that marks them as parenthetica ls.1o For pronunciation practice, students add final parentheticals to a d ialogue. (continued on nefi page) 'l long pa1€nthetical may laeek b.$bee letific ln consist olmore than one thought group:for example, lo ur uark. ln facl, all the aot h )nu'ue darl thit lhis sentence, the parenthelic l is long (ii1.bct, aitlhe aork 'rc t1atrc altl would likelv be tbis zr,ee*) :.onounced in firce thoughl gto.lps o/l.t'act/all the aorhl,ou l,p 76r, 6i, ,,rrU, Regirilles of Length. a lou\"pitched, monoton'e -lir€ry \\I'ould chffecteria the entiN p tnthetical l0l his a.tivitvls nodcled after Dicke$on (2003)
112 3]HAPTER tntonatian Actiuit! 3.7 conunuecl @ 1. Students listen to the dialogue. Direct students' aitention to how the underlined parentheticals are pronou nced. 2. Elicit the pronunciation, using these questions: . ls the parenthetical separated from the main sentence? o ls the voice loud or soft? . ls heavy stress used on the parenthetical? . ls the voice low or high? Alternatively, explain the pronunciation of parentheticals: There's a slight pause before the parenthetical expression; the volume of the voice is low; the stresses are not as strong; and the pitch 0f the voice is low. 3. Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat the lines. 4. Students practice the first dialogue in pairs and then do a class reading. Give feedback on pronunciation of the parentheticals. 5. ln pairs, students add parenthetlcal expressions to the second dialogue. They can use examples from the table of parentheticals given on Worksheet 3.7B, or other expressions they know, Tell students to use parentheticals that are appropriate to the meaning of the dialogue and not to overuse specific parentheticals. Students practice ihe dialogues in pairs. 6. After the pair work, choose palrs of students to present their dialogues to the class. Provide feedback when parentheticals are not clearly set off from the main sentence. ffi ntonation, Emotions, and Attitudes What the Teacher Should Know Intonation plays an important role in the expression of emotion and attitude. Gussenhoyen (2004) distinguishes between informational interpretations of intonation and affective interpretations. An example of an informational interpretation of falling intonation is \"finished\" or \"ceftain.\" As cliscussetl above, languages show considerable similarity in how they interpret the informational meaning of final intonation. Affective interpretations includc e'mluations of whether a speaker is angr)', fiiendly, conlident, or sacl. There is evidence that languages associate similar affective intefpretations with particular chamcteristics of pitch and intonation (Bezooijen 1984, Scherer 2000, Scherer et al. 2001), ns well as evidence of sorne differences (Graham, Hamblin and Feldstein 2001, Chen and Gusshoven 2003). The universal interpretations
ICttAPtER lntanation 113 (infomational and affecti\\.c) of jr]tonarbn are belieyed to clerive from biological codes (Ohala 1983, Gusshor''en 2(X)4). One biological cocle, rhe ficc1uenc1. code, associates conrotatioos of \"small\" with high pitches xnd \"big\" with low pitches. .Ihcse associations come from the fact that larger vocal cords and yocal tmcts, such as those of men (or large animals), ploduce lo\\rer pitclted sounds;smallcr r,'ocal corcls ancl \\,ocal facts procluce higher pitchcd sounds, slrch as those of childrcn (of small animals). Afltcti\\,'e interpretntions of intonation arc believcd to havc developed from thc big-small meirnings of low and high pitch. Low pitch is assorliatcd wirh assertivcness, confidence, dominance, aggression, finalitl', and thrcatl hi€lh pitch is associated with lack of certainq', fricncllir.tcss, lack of confidence, politeness, vulncrabiliq', and submissivcness (Ohala 1!t3J, Gusscnhoven 2004). Another code, the effort code, maintxins thxt lireatef articulatory efloft results in clearer, more explicit speech contfirsts. In intooation, greatcr ellbrt produces a wider ranlle of pitch, wliile less effort produccs a narrower rarlle of pitch. Affective interpretations of a widcf range of pitch include surprise, enthusiasn, authority, and helpftrlness. Interprctations of a narrowef fange of pitch (less effort) ir.rclude lack of interest, lack of commitment, less surprise, ancl so on. ln intcrpreting others' emotional states, we r.ely not olly on vocal cues (level or range of pitch), but also on r.isnal cues (facial gestur.es, posturc, or body language); on context cues (the situation in which a particular conversatiolt takes place or the felationship between speaker and listener); and on linguistic cues (the specific wolds used ancl their connotations). An emplo,vee who takes offensc at l.ris boss's criticism, for example , mav say nothirg but srill rcveal his rlnlier in a stiffening of the lace ancl body. An onlooker to the exchange rnight latcr \"Isa,.\\r, know he was angry I conld sec it in his face.\" Research on nativc speakers' abilitr,' to recognize ernotions in audio recordings. where there are no visual cues;rnd therc may be no context cues, shows agrcement as to what emotion is being portrayed, alrbougb there afe diff'efences in rhe degree of agreement. When listeners arc asked to choose among a small numbef of \"prinary\" emotions (anger, fear, sadness, jolD, agreement is highef than when \"secondafy\" cmotions (hate, nervolrsness, or timidity) arc also included among the Disa€ireements usuallv inyoh-e distinctions between closely r.elatecl choices.r 1 emotions such as sadness and depression.r2 Graham et al. (2001) studic.l the abilit]- of lrati\\.e and nonnatiye speakers of Englisl] to idcntify emotions portm,yed in English in an ar-rclio recording of fbur professional actors. The nativc English listencrs $,'ere Alnerican college students;the nonnative listeners werc Japa[ese and Spanish ESL studcnts at different levels of ilor extnple. leer leads to flighl) S€condan cmolions nll'be mo|e culture specilic. \\lOst firchologists flace rngc1 1iu, sadness, io hapliness xnrurg lhe frrnaN e.roLions but nto' not aqLe€ 0n lhe lull set Stc l0r criLNllc. ElnDm (1999) rccitations ol ihe iLlphabet |ead with diliercnt emotiors (Deurz lnd DlriL 1959) t0 te\\ts rcad bl actors.
114 3(H^PIER lntonatiott proficiency. They found that although the ESL learners identified emotions at better- than-chance le\\.els, they identfied them less accuratell than natir e EngLish listeners. A rnore surprising finding was that the more-proficient ESL srudents wefe not bctter able to identify the emotions than the less-proficieflt students. Gmham et al. suggest several possiblc explanations fbr their results, including the tact that students are not likely to be exposed to certain types of emotion in the classroom. Indeed, the clzssroom is not an appropriate place for tlte expression of man] strong emotions; neither teachers nor chssmates welcome the genuine expression of erupting ra€!e, deep despaif, of scathing sarcasm. The attitudes and emotions we want our students to express more appropriately are tamer: confidence, interest, ffiendliness, and so on. These are positive attitudes that are likely to extend conYefsation, create more opportunities for practice, and, ultimately, lead to greater learning. We can expose our students to the expression of more extreme emotions and attitudes vicariously by bfinging emotion into the classroom through Yideos and movies. Because the affbctive interpretation of intonation is highly dependent on context, it is difflcr t to make teachable, generalizable statements about its use (LeYis 1999) As a result, intonation teaching should focus preclominantly on features of intonation that ha\\.e broad informational value in discourse (e.g., making words prominent or turn taking) father than on the expression of emotions. Students can, howeYer, without explicit irlstruction on the use of specific pitch levels or pattems of intonation, be given the opportunity to \"stretch their Yoices\" in role plays and skits, where they ffy expressing different feelinp;s and attitudes and try on different persoflae. 3.8Activity Attitudes and emotions: Anbiguous dialogues level l\\4ost Worksheet Page 224 Tip Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more Description This activity can be used as a voice warm-up. The teacher or students describe different situations in which a short exchange between two people might take place. Pairs of students act out the exchanges. The differing relationsh:ps and situations require the expression of different attitudes and emotions. 1. Students read the dia ogue and the situations on Worksheet 3.8. 2. The teacher explains that the class wlll use the dialogue to act out the situations in the handout. Since the words in the dialogue do not change, students must use their voices to show the different situatlons.
3CHAPTLR lntonati.)n 115 Actit) y 3.8 mnttnued 3. The teacher and an outgoing student perform the dialogue, acting out one of the situations on the handout. 4. ln pairs, students perform the diarogue three times, to refrect each of the three situations. 5, aoAncftteeinrogtfhotehuept asAiitrf_tuwearotrirokisn,tset.hnTeinhtgee,aptchaheier rcsrhcahosousoldwsenisIoddt eitfefcelildreethnewt hcpilacaihsrssoowf fthhsjectuhdthesrnietutesasttioiotunaacttihtoenoysutare was demonstrated. Actiyity 3.9 lnprovs; The Chaser level High lntermed iate/Advanced Wolksheet None Tips Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more. lntegrate intonation work with classroom work on other English skills. Description lmprovisations are useful in the classroom and give students an opportunity to take on other personae. I use the short story ,,The Chaser\" by John Collier (1940) for improvs. ln ,,The Chaser,,, a young man purchases a love potion very inexpensively from a shrewd shopkeeper. The shopkeeper first tells potion he sells, a ,,life cleaner,\" which the young man about another is far more expensive than the love potion. The shopkeeper knows that the love potion will produce such suffocating devotjon from the woman who drinks it that the young man will return to the shop, later in life when he is well_off. to purchase the life cleaner and rid himself of the woman. The improv scene takes place either iwenty days or twenty years (students choose) after the purchase of the love potjon and uses two to three actors. lnstead of basing the improv on a short story the teacher can choose a different situation for students to enact*ior. example, a first date, breaking up, or lost :uggage at the airport. 1. The teacher or teacher and students choose a situation to act out in a five-minute scene. Objects in the classroom can be used as props. 2. Two students are chosen initially as actors and one as director. The director decides what props should be used and blocks the scene (decides where the actors and props should be, where actors should enter and exit the set, etc.). The two actors and director come to the front of the class. (coittinued on next page)
\"116 3cHAprER lntanation Actil'io, 3.9 continued 3, The class creates the script, which the teacher writes on the board and students copy at their desks. New characters and actors are added as necessary. As the scene is being written, the teacher provtdes needed language, gives feedback on grammar and word choice, makes suggesttons about the direction in which the scnpt is going, and decides when the scene is finished. 4. The script is rehearsed by the actors and the class as it is being written. The director and audience provide feedback to the actors to make them more expressive. For examp/e, they might say, \"that doesn't sound angry enough\" or \"that sounds too angry\" or \"say that louder.\" 5. Once the script is written and on the board, the actors rehearse again, receiving direction from the ciass and director, 6. Then the script rs erased. The actors act out the scene, improv sing as necessary. 7. After the performance, the actors and director stay in character. The rest of the class asks probing questi0ns about the characters. CONCLUSION The role of intonation in both structuring and interpreting a speaker's meaning makes it a crucial component of pronunciation. It is also the most colrmunicative aspect of pronunciation: Alone , withot-lt words, it can communicate meaning. Native speakers, for example , may \"hum\" common utterances lilFie I don't knott) ot yes, A: ls l\\4ax ready? (l don't know.) A: Are you ready? Fr (Yes. ) B: ff ['l Teachers should focus intonation work on communicatively useful ancl easy- to-hear intonation features such as highlighting or comprehension checks, presented and practiced with sufficient context to make meaning clear Dialogues and other materials from nonpronunciation class work can provide an excellent source fbr intonation practice and at the same time reinfofce the sructures ancl vocabulary taf[ieted in those materials.
C HAPTE R pGfoivneunCnocthwiaebtioocynotnownteagsxs?to, TdIhdiusenindsoehurosgwthootoodnemwoahfkane]tyfit]shetucctulesrntnutsditepnrootvneworauannntcedecdlo.yctoocfwsibnaoyym, b.,t,ouwhten1.sr:.dh,e, missing whatever the student said next. part of the problem was a mispronunciation of the I'inal consonant in tozlr?z Pronunciation difliculties with consonants are highly dcpendent on the contrast to vowel cliflicr tics, which are more student's native language, in widespread (McNerney and Menclelsohn 1992). There are 24 consonants in Noffh American English. There are only a few Engrish consonzurts v/hich afc difficr t for most studcnts e(cheaoe.sggui.inentrtnheitenropgfasticrfsai(s'tcl hsiwnot(uh,ornaddtn\\hs.eveirnoawslati(ehn.rligsntuog(aDglacaenfusfdc,nrstDlt2hul0Ordt0n.c5nSv).tionswccmoeclrsams.yoaTnnfeiry.dnr(dtE.hncecgorolrninst-shmro1scntoas,nnf.sat,sonr.eniaaUnntoltOslte.ahaosasn\\tc'.erlaintcltrilcnotuhs,rleet perceptually as vowel contmsrs (Tench 2003), ancl the spelling of consonants is nore consisteflt than the spelling of vowels. ln addition, because consonants involve touching one part of the mouth to zu.lother (or moving one part of tlte mouth close to anothcr part), the studcnt has fixed refefence points, which are often easy to visu;tiize and control;instructinli a student ro touch the rop teeth to the bottom lip, for example, is usually sufficient to enable l.ler to pronounce tlte first sounds in ,s/J ancl uan. Pronouncing consonants at the cnds of words or sylleblcs, on the other hancl, is challenging for most students, even when the same consonants pose no problems at 1'17
118 lcuAPrtR Cansanants the beg rnings of words. A student who has no difficulq' pronounclitg th.e /t/ '1l]. time may nevertheless have a great deal of difficulty pronouncing tbe /t/ it migbt. Consonants that occrr in consonant clusters Groups ofconsonants, as in train or test) are also rnore difficult than consonants which occur singly (Hancin-Bhatt and Bhatt 199D. A student, for example, may be able to pronounce /r/ in rou), but not in grozl Problems with consonant clusters and with finxl consonants generally are tied to the dilferences between syllable structure in the learner's native language and in English. SYII-{BLE STRUCTT]RE A syllable is a \"beat\" in a word. For example, dog has one syllable, urslt has two s_yllables, and u)onderful has three syllables. The center (nucleus) of a syllable is a r'owel. In English syllables, vowels may be preceded and/or followed by one or more consonants. Every language places restrictions on the type and location of consonants that can occur in syllables. The word tlack, for example, is not a permissible English word because /tll is not a permitted cluster (although it is in some languages). Trlrs4 which doesn't happen to occur in English, is a permissible word because it does not violate English s_vllablc strucLrre (the beginning cluster in the nonword t /rst occurs in tbree altrd tbrift). Syllables are either open or closed. Open syllables end in a vowel;for example, the word see is an open syllable, and soJn? contains two open syllables (\"so\" and \"fa\"). Closed syllables end in one or more consonants; r/og for example, is a closed syllable, pictule.s (pic-tures) contains two closed syllables. Op^ennd syllabtes, found in every language, are simpler oi more ufliyersal than closecl syllables (Jakobsen and Halle 1956, Greenberg 1965, Tarone 1980). Students whose natiye languages are predominantly open-sllable languages Oapanese, Cantonese, Portuguese) often have difficr.rlty pronouncing the final consonants and consonant clusters of English s-vllables, like those in dog, felt, or utaltz. Thus, the teacher can assume that pronunciation work with a few generally \"difficult\" consonants. with consonant clusters. and with final consonants $'ill benefit most students, regardless of nativc-lanlauage background. For other consonants, howe\\.er, the teacher will need to cliagnose the speech of his students and base additional consonant work on those assessments. ARTICIIIATION OF CONSONANTS When two parts ofthe vocal tract (the areas where souncls are produced) move close enough to€iether to obstruct the air streem, consonants arc produced. For example, the fust sounds ln path llnd batb in'.r'olve a brief closure of the lips, an obstruction that completely stops thc airflow. If snrdents cannot pronounce a
4CtlAprER Consonants _i,19 ssttsopviaeci.nhhoprobeobevuoocstnonosohwwatscslrfuylnulToneiPsstett_chndhrlsiaciotahenaeniacocfttnoohetlttnltcot.hetwhrghoneodeaFeeongeefslotctttuscheaehrhcfdhoeeaefruwteiantcrahritsrataaosogeroe/cln.rnuvrbredaoafsteclsuisat/n:mnohtstthlsgoiaahainteoonbrnfegazndsderEnpoliabidldncrlpo/taneeggnopscwfhthel.denie/sieirnscIhsosTfaaode_rohyrrfntaiaftoeoatnetohrrpmurgtttoecehpiiaccttapeiilhtupunatltroleligrlepcpaacnopldeatldatodeaitecognenourabedendeedcift.t,lhhwa/eyb(tate.ptobdah/hrmrTitetetaoihaaishcorplnnae,mteuddy(otolse,htaar/t,uhefloirAietrmsnwevtlpuoth/ecloet,oaennoea*i_ctrfdlrhetapc\"iootps)efnhulbn.fatsdyeero\"gc,ssC\"atu,demhmp)ioem,i.smei,snaoracolsyiulyei,\"vnsluonotlc,*inhnnuoco.rteldbahlTrjalseucss,npeorhdsottlrrobtdncuvr,iueaobnjs\"oclwlcnlroe.tfdcgteofashniha,ccrouftia.limenuhlncsfnetdilea.chnaratilnas\"tttfttitticahghiohsohrirt.eesnesne,e.t Nasal Cavity Bilabial consonants p, b, m,w @oth lips) Palate I-abio-dentat Velum consonants (teeth and lips) Tongue Vocal cords/ glotis Interdental 0 (thought), consonants 6 (though) Getweefl the teeth) AlYeolat consonants t, d, s, z, n,l, r Gehind the rop teeth) Palatal consonants J (\"hip), (front roof of the g (pleasure), mouth) tf (chair), q CazT-) y (ves) Velaf consonants k (cow), (soft palate) c Go) Glottal consonant ! (sing) (vocal cords)
120 4:HAPT:R Consonants Manner of articulation refers to the wa-Ir iI Fhich the air stream is obstructed.Ifith stop consonants, the air stream is brieflr but completely stopped. Tty p6th and bath again and holcl the first sound-do not release it. If you now try to breathe through your mouth, you will find ,vou cannot: The closure of the lips completely stops the airflow. Now say the first sounds of ls, ard uan, prolonging the consonants. You will notice two differences betryeen /p,b/ nnd /f, v/. First, with /f/ /v/,rhe air continues to flow through the mouth. Second, /f/ and /v/ are \"noi^sniedr\" than /p/ or /b/-there is a hissy sound when they are pronounced. /f/ an(l /v/ are fricati!-es, a second manner of articulation. With fricatiyes, the air stfeam is obstructed enough to create turbulence and a noisy sound, but not completely stopped. Affficate sounds represent a third manner of articulation. There are two affricates in English: the first sounds in cbeck /tl/ and jazz /Q,/. An affricate is a complex sound that combines a stop consonant Ut/ or /d/ in English) with a (^s in fricatiye: [/ sbip) or /s/ 6s in pk..sure). s^y mucb edge very slowly, the end silence tha^tn\"dcuts off\" the vowel prolonging of the words. There is a brief before the final consonant is produced; this is the \"stop\" part of the affricate (the /t/ of /t[/ and tl]'e /d/ ot /qD.when the stop is rcleased, the noisy fricatiye part of the affricate is heard. In all, there are six manners of articulation. rvhen important, manner of articulation is covered below in Specfic Consonants. Stops (air is stopped) p,b,t,d,k,g { \\. 0, 6, s, z, f (ship), S (pleasure), Fricatives (afu is obstacted but not stopped) h (hearT) Affricates (stop + fricative) tf tchairr, Q tjazzl Nasals (air comes out tlrough the m. n. ! (sin9 noso l,r Liquids (A/ and /rDl w,y Glidts (Jw/ and /yD The final factor that determines the sound of a particular consonant is uoicing-whether the vocal cords are yibrating as the consonant is produced. 'When the vocal cords vibrate, yoiced sounds (e.g., /b/ 'and /v/) are produced. 'When the vocal cords do not yibrate, r'oiceless sounds are produced (e.g., /P/ and /f[). //I The tem'Ljquid\" is a perceptual ternr 'lhe c0ns0nanls and/l/ heve a liquid sornd.
4]HA?TER Consonants 121 You can test voicing by placing your fingertips alongside the yocal cords (the Adam's apple) nnd pressing gently while 1'ou alternate between a long /y/ arrd a long /f/: wvrrffflfi'vwffffff 'When you say A'l'v\\.v/, )'ou should be able to feel the vibration ifi )'our fingertips. When yotr say /ffff/, th.e yibration \"switches off.\" It is difficult to feel rhe difference in voicing between /p/ and /b/ n ttls way, because these sounds can't be prolonged a^nsd/f/\"baan,\"dk/eye/pcinang. Howerze! if you close youf e;rrs with your fingers and then say\"pa\" the vowels as short as possible, you can hear the vibration in your head with \"ba\" but not with \"pal' Voiceless sounds (vocal cords do p, r, k, 0 (think), f, s, J (ship), tf (cheap), h vibrate) sounds (vocal cords vibrate) b, d, g, Y, 6 (then), z, 5 (pleasure), & (jazz),n,m,D (sin9, r l, rv, y WIIAT DO STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW? Although eyery consonant has a place of afticulation and a manner of articulation and is either \\.oiced of voiceless, teachers rarely need to refer to all three parameters (place, manner, and voicing). For example, if students pronounce other as\"ozzer:'the error involves place of articulation, not yoicing or manner of articulation. For the middle sound in ot e4 the tip of the tongue should be between the teeth;when students say \"ozzer,\" the tip of the tongue is behind the top teeth. In addition, teachers should avoid technical terms like uelum or alueolar ridge or fricatiues in the classroom.lwhen it is necessary to refer to features of consooant afticulation, diagrams afe effective, and most technical tefms have easy- to-understand, ordinary English paraphrases.
122 I(1lAPttR C(ntlonants AIJTRRNATTVES TO TECHNICAI TERMS Bilabial Both lips Labio-dcntal Alveolar ridge Top tceth an.l bottorl lip Palate Td)th ridgc;flat part behind the top teeth (this can be felt with Vchul the tongue) Front part of the top/roof of the mouth (this can be felr with the Vocal cords tonglre) Back part of the top/roof of the mouth (this cannot be felt with ry the tongue) No substilute , but tl.le teacher can point to tlle Adam's apple Stop Fricative Stop: the air is completely stopped Affricate A noisy sound; the air isn't completcly stopped Nasal /t/ + /J/ prcnounced together (4/ is lirst soturd in s/rrp). Students Liquid will not hear the two parts as separate sounds (see Sibilants, Retroflexion below); Lareral Glide /d/ + /3/ ptonouncecl together (/3/ is the middle sound in pleasure). Students will not hear the two parts as separate sounds Nasal;lhe eir comes out thc nosc; 1/, tn, or \"en[a\" rorl The tip of thc tongue poil.rts/cu s I'rp l; air passes over the sides of tl.tc tongue (refetence to this term is rarely necessarl, &, V\\\\-an or j/ VYan Voiceless Voiceless; r'ocal cords do not Yibrate voiced Voiced; vocal cords \\.ibrute; morc \"sound\" than voiceless consonants
cHApT[R,i Consonants \"l2i TIPS FOR TEACHING CONSONANTS The six tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helping sfi.tdents improve their pronunciation of consonants. The tips nre based on how consonants are pronounced in English and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers. ffirps improve their W'e discuss what the teacher shor d know about each of these topics and provicle suggestions for te;Lching ttrem. In some cases, the suEigestion is a classfoom activity.In other cases, it is effor coffection. Suggestions for error correction are shon enough to use when sh.rdents rre engaged in nonpronunciation actiyities. They are also usefij for addressing pronunciation problems that only one or two of your students experience. The remainder of this chapter presents the following consonants and lbatures of consonant ptonunciation. The slx tips aboye are explained further and reflected in the context of specific consonants. 7. Labials: pe' bet, jfeet, uet, net 2. th so].]lJ'ds: tbink, this 3. Srops /r/ and /d/: tie, die;Fla[rs: tuefting, zaed.ding; Glottaljzed /t/: xuritten 4. Sibilants: see, zoo, sboe, pleasur?, cheap, jazz 5. Nasals: sz4 somq sung 6. Stops /k/ and /g/: coat, goat;'lhe lettef x 7. Glottxl /h/ lzand 8. Illltial /r/ . rigbt 9. Initial A/: Ugbt; Final A/: all; Contrasting /l/ ^nd /n/: ligbt,night
124 I( HAPILR Cotisonants 10. Contmsting /r/ afld /l/: rigbt-Ught lI. Glides:/)/J\"l xnd /\\\\/ tttt)' 12. Initial yoiceless stops. pea, tea, ke! 13. Initial consonant cllusters'. probletl 14. Final consonants:plecq asft 15. -ed and -s endings ffi ruriur., p\" t, bet, feet, aet, uet what the Teacher Should Know Articulation of the labial consonants /p, b, f, v, w/ involves the lips.Vith /p/ ancl A/, the lips firnrly close;/p,/ is voicclcss /b/ ]s voiced.With /f/ a'nd /v/,tlre top is yoiceles^snd /v/ is voiccd. with /w/, the lips teeth touch the lower lip; / are rounded. The diagram'below shows the mo^untdh shapes for these consonents. pandb fandv Coflsonants nnde with the lips, the labial sounds /p, b, f, v, w/, are the source of a variety of pronuncintion problems. The protrlems clepentl on the native language of the student end usually involve specific pairs of souncls: . /p, b/: These sounds are problems for Arabic students. The problem is onc of voicing. In Arabic, /p/ and /b/ are variants of the same sound. . /p, f/: These souncls are confused by Koreart-speaking students . /i v/:These sounds are problems lbr Japanese-spenking students . ,/b, v,/:These souncls are problems for Spanish-speaking studcnts . /y, w/: These sounds are problems for native speakers of a wide rangc of lan- guages: Chinese, Vietnamcse, Thai, German and other Germanic languages, l'urkish, and Russian and other Slavic latlguages . Consonant clusters with /w/, especially /kw/ (e.g., question, quiet, Ian- guryq hoin):These words are problems for Korean sttrdents, who often omit /w/ (or fail to round the lips enough to make ,/w/ cleady heard;scc also Initial Consonant Clusters, bekrw). . The sequence /wo/ (e .g., uroman, uoulD: 'Ihis is a pfoblem for natiye speakers ofJapanese especiall)', as wcll as Korean. See Glides, page 148.
CHA?|ER,4 Consonants 125 Few students ha\\'e problems with the articulation of all five labial sounds (/p, b, f, v, wD. In classes where students speak a varietF of native languages, the ftrll set of sounds can be presented, and the teacher can be confidenr that the lesson will address problems that each student has. Because labial consonants are pronounced at the front of the mouth and ctifferences between them are easy to see, students have good control and awareness of articulation. These souncls are easv to teach and eas) lLr letrn. In a classroom where all students speak the same natiye language, the teacher can focus the lesson on a specific pail (or pairs) of problem souncls. For example, with a class of Spanish studenrs,the teacher can fbcus on /b/ and /y/.In Spanish, the stop pronunciation [bl occurs at the beginning of a word; a bilabial fricative [p], which sourlds very close to English ,/y/, occurs after vowels.2 Thus, in Span ish bebir, \"to drink\", the first \"b\" will probably be pronounced [b], brjt the middle consoflant will be tpl.3 Followin!! the Spanish pattern, Spanish students may pronounce Englislr words Iike aery as \"berry,\"while words like rob arrd, table mav sound like - rop and - t:rvcl.' Activity 4.1 /b/ and /v/ (Spanish): A very big problem level lntermediate Worksheet None Tips Direct students' attention to the visible clues of consonant pronunciation. Teach the pronunciation of communicatively useful words. Desctiplion Students discuss problems (personal, job, local, environmental, world, etc.) and practice the pronunciation of beginning /v/ in com_ mun icatively important words. 1. On the board, write phrases containing words with lvl andlu /b/ that can be used to d iscuss problems. very important valuable (tesources) iob opportunities a very big problem very serious joh security not very important family values volunieel (conti aect on next page) 'z Square brackes (l ]) aLe used to indicate that the sound in bmckets is a va anl frununciation of anothff sound, rather than a diflerent sound. lror example, natile speake$ lronoxnc€ the / rn ,r e/a dlfferertlf ham thc t i.t mehic. rhe t tt nieta, aflzp, is a va anl |ronunclalion ol /L/ (se€ fla|s, /t/ llnd /d./, beloq,). ' .Ir A [i]rbial frcJtrre t[p] r rs made $h€n lhp air l.L$es thLough the lips, rfiich an alnost, but not quitr, closed. The labiodental lricali\\ \\ l i. -r...1' ,\\' hF ,o t\"prh t.. , . t p buLlo.n rrl.
126 1IHAPTER consonants Actiuit:y 4. 1 contlnuecl 2. lvlodel the phrases. Exaggerate the visible articuiation of /v/ and explain articulation if necessary (the top teeth touch the bottom lip). Students repeat. Provide feedback on /v/. 3, Brainstorming. Elicit from students specific problems from a particular area (e.g., adjusting to life in a new country, job problems, school problems, world problems), Write the problems on the board. 4. Group work (4-5 students per group). Each student in the group chooses two or three problems that he or she thinks are very important and explains them to the group. Remind students to pronounce lul carelrlly in words like rery. During group work, provide feedback on pronunciation 5. After the group work, ask several students which problems they chose and why. Provide feedback on pron unciation. tgt ERR0R C0RRECTIONi Westion Solor;'ds Llke \"Kestion\" (Korean) :X athKeomreiasnprsotnuudnecnitatmioisnpraosnoauqnucesetsioqnu:\"eKsetsiotionn^?s\"\"kIef sthtioens\"tuodtelnatnghuasagdeiffiacsu\"lltaytgsiedlfg-el' V/hen r€peat K correcting, model the word, exaggerating the lip rounding of /kw/ E rr sonnos tbink, tttis What the Teacher Should Know The flrst consonants n think (/eD a:nd, this (/6D are interdental fricatives The tip of the tongue protrudes slightly between the teeth These sounds can also be produced by placing the tip of the tongue lightly against the back of the top teeth (a dental place of articulation). Teaching the dental articulation is not as effective as teaching the interdental articulation (tongrle tip between the teeth). /O/ is voiceless and /6/ is voiced. Common substitutions fot tlre tlJ sounds are /s/ or /z/, as in \"ze man sir rs about zis probleml'or /t/ and /d/, as in \"de man tinks about dis problem]A r.rrer substitution is an /-like sound (for /d/) by some Chinese students, which produces \"lat man\" for \"that man.\" students from the same natiYe-language background often prefer the same substitutions, although there is some Yariation; most Spanish students, for example, substitute /t/ ar'd /d/ for the t sounds, while Japanese students prefer /s/ an(l /z/. Because of the widespreacl difficutqv with these sounds,Jenkins suggest that they be taught only receptively to students who use English primarily with nonflatiye speakers (2002). However, the t sounds are teachable and learnable, and, as many pronunciation teachers can attest, students are concerned about them. In addition, we cannot predict with whom our snrdents will use English in the future. If students ha\\.e professional or academic goals that bring them into
4.HAPTiR Cansonants \"127 contact (wfoitrhenxaartnivpeles, p\"ewakife,rsfo, rth.,ew)i'thsh.'o,r,-dlledmb,'efoarw.athreemth,'a, tasnodm,e,tinsukb,'fsotirtu.ttihoinnsk,f,o)ra,rJe sounds stitimatized apnrdonaossuoncciaetetdhewsiethsonto-lnnsdtsanadcacrudr,at'enleyd, uscoattheedyEsnhgolisuhld. Students can and do learn to be adclressed in pfonunciation wofk. Students usually learn quickly to percei\\.e the clifference between the ,/, sonnds and their common substitutions (as in think-ti11k_sink, tben_den_Zen), dtltough preceding sounds can influence rhe degree of perceptual similarity bctween the tl, sounds and natiye,language substitutions.i The intetdental articulation of these sounds is the most.lifficult tbature of their pronunciation. Students need to be taught that the tip of the tongue protrudes a bit between dte teeth and d1e aif passes out o]/er thc tongue. The sounds are easiest to pronounce at the beginnings of worcls (e.g., tbanks, tbink, thing, tbis, morc dlfficLt lt when t is in me dial positi on (e .g. . otlzef ueather, autt\\or) tbat) , difficult when t ends a word (.e.g., utitb, batb, breatlJe, fourtb). In , and most fin I position, students may have less difficrjlty with voicele ss /e/ eB in uitb) than with voicecl /6,r (as it1 breatbe) (see also Final Voiced and Voiceless Sounds). Native speakers sometimes simplify final t sounds when an _s ending follows. This is very common in the word clothes, which most Americans pronounce like the yerb \"(to) close,\" and ln months, which most Americans pronounce as ,,munts,, Umants/). These simplfications in common words should be taught to students. (See also -s endings and Native Simplifications of Final Consonants). Students may express embarrassment about pronouncing t/, sounds as interdentals, worrying rhat they will look rucle if they.stick out,,their tongues. The teachef should addfess this reluctance. With stuclcnts in academic programs, it is often enough to explain that incorrcct pronunciations of tD sounds may lead native listenefs to conclude that the student is not wcll educated.5 Teachers can also take the \"gafden path\" appfoach and ask students to clescribe what the q,pical American or Canadian tongue looks like-is it long or short, fat or skinny? What color is it? Since native speakers use the t sounds very frequently (jfi the, tbis, tbat, thing, etc.), students should have a cleaf picture of how thc tongue looks if it really is \"hanging out\" of the mouth. In fact, the tip of the tongue protrudes only a little, and it doesn't \"hang around\" outside. Students will not look rucle if they pronounce ,/, coffectly, but they may sound uneducirted if rhey don,t. Pronunciation of tb citn be included with the teaching of the fbllowin[i grammatical poiltts: arltcle: the demonstratives: th is/that/th ese/th ose ntrod ucer: there is/a re/was/we re a Trciinovich, Gatbontin, alrd Segelowiu (2007) report that the /d/ oi 1re wits casicst for frcnch canedian ESL lexnrexj to h€er{,hen it wrs preceded by a yojced fticatjre (e.g.,rutds |t onll the I 1 slLbstitution is stigm.tized Th€ the barr) or l,otced affricate (1lr\\t.t iudge the man). tior | \\ [,c hc.r I d Js romrlt| e. not noutandard. J-.; sub\\h tu
128 1cH^PrER Consanant compa ratlves: wtln than noun clauses: with fhaf adjective clauses: wlth that .functional language: giving opinions wrlh l think ot I don t think Activity 4.2 Th soundsr When's yow birthday? level Beginn ing wo.ksheet None Tips Teach consonants that are difficult for your students. Direct students'attention to the visible clues of consonant pronunciation. lntegrate pronunciation with work on functional language, grammar' or otner coursework. Bescription This activity integrates pronunciaiion of final TH in ordinal numbers (fourth, fifth, etc,). Students ask each other when their birthdays are and answer, using the rnonth and an ordinal number for the date (e.g., May 30th). L Elicit from students the ordinal numbers from 1-20 as well as 30 and 31' Write the ordinals on the board, using their standard abbreviations (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th). Provide feedback on the pronunclation of th Model all the ordinals from 1-31. Students rePeat. 2. Elicit the months of the year and write them 0n the board. Model each month name. Students repeat. 3. On the board, write \"When is your birthday?\" lVodel the question. Students repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of \"th\" in birthday' 4. Students copy the months of the year as a ist on a piece of paper, leaving enough room after each rnonth to write classmates' names and birth dates Students circulate and ask each other about ihelr birth dates, wr ting the information on the paper (in a room too smallto move around in, interviewing can be restricted to smaller groups). 5. When the interviews are finished, ask students about their classmates' birth dates. Provide feedback on pronunciation. In a class of 23 students, for example, there is over a 50 percent probability that two will have the same b irthday (month and date).
4cHAprER Consonants 129 GItgloetstalli1z/eda-/ttl//(!e/.9(.e,.gu.t,rittitee,nd) ie);Flapst (e.g., uetting, ueddins); What the Teacher Should Know The stop aclvoenosloanrarnidtgse/,t/jus\"ttdbe/hdi/ndartel.rpertoodpucteeedthb; y/t/toiuscyhoinicgelethsse, tip of the tongue to the and /d/ is voiced. In some languages (e.g., the Romance languages), /t/ and /d/ are dental stops; the tip of the tongue makes contact with the back of the top teeth. Substitutions of dental /t/ and, /d/ for alveolar (Enghsh) /t/ arld /d/ acceptable. ^re tie, die V/hile the pronunciation of /t/ and, /d/ in words like tie afld. die is difficult, both /r/ and /d/ har.e variant pfonunciations (for example, the'?tleilny uater), which can make words hard for students to undefstand. Variants are discussed below Flap* uetting, uedding. The middle consonanF in u.)etting aruI wedding are pronounced as flaps in North American English (NAE). The tip of the rongue quickly \"slaps\" the top of the mouth behind the teeth; the yocal cords yibrate. Inside words, flaps occur when /f/ ot /(l/ follows a stressed vowel (or a stressed vowel plus /r/, as in party) ard then is followed by an unstressed vowel.Inpotdto, for example, there are two ,/t/ sounds; the lirst \"t\" is not flapped because it does not follow the stressed yowel; the second /t,/ is a flap (phonetic symbol [D]) because it follows the stressed vowel. Compare the flapped prol.lijnciation of /t/ and /d/ In column A below (where stress precedes) with the sound in column B (v/here stress follows) : A c Attic taDtw aTTACK latav (an) Addicr /aDlkv (to) aDDiCT /adlkY FAtal feyDay laT Alily ltelateciyt Adding lal.lqt aD0ition /adfan/
130 IcHAPrtR Consonants Sincc flapped /t/ and /d,/ are both yoicecl, homorryms occur in \\\\ ords llke latter and lqddet; putting pudding, and u)etling xnd ueddings Fittal /t/ ca^rn. db.c flapped in common words when the ne\\t \\l'ord begifls with:r vowel (even if the vowel precedinti thc flap is not stressed): at a movie /aDa/ movie What is he doing? /waDr/ he doing? Get out ol here. /g€DawDa(v)/ here. The flapped pronunciation oflt/ and /d/ is charactcristic ofNorth American En€ilish (NAE) but does not occur iil British English, thc dialect that man)' ESL students learned when they lirst studied English. Bccause flaps can make worcls clifficult for students to understand, they sl.rould be taught for recoflnition. Teachers whose stu- dents are living in the United States or Canacla may want to teach f'laps lbr pronun- ciation in some comtlon words or expressions, such u)ater and What's the ,ncttter? h1 thesc words, thc unfhpped pronunciations c^asn be difficult for natiye speakefs to undefstand. For most words, however, substitutions of\"regular\",/t/ and /d,/ are acceptable, and the flap need not be ta'.iliht for pronunciation. Glottalized t: urirten. When ft/ is followed by an unstressed syllable containing /n/.as in mountain or u'ritten, it is pronounce d as a glotalized /t/ (s-vmbol td]) or as a llbttal stop (sirmbol /? D.1 A glotttrl stop is used in the warning Ub-otr.lt is ttle \"creak\" in the voice (thc yocal cords briefly closinla) that precedes eacl] of the two syllables: ub-oh is pronounced /?a?oV.8 As /t/ is pronouncecl, thc vocal cords (glottis) close briefly, cutting off the air. Say the following pairs of words end listen to the differcncc in the underlired /t/s: mounlain /maunt?er/ mainlain /meynteyn/ Salan /seyt?an/ satanic /satanak/ button /hat?an/ baton ]'he fitst word in each pair is pronounced with a glotta^liaztcodn//t/;the secoml word is pronouncecl with a \"regulaf\" l. Glottalized /t/ ]s not a high priority pronunciation topic. Native spcakers' use of glottalizeci / cloes not make worcls unrecognizable to students, xnd students'use of\"regular\" /t/ does not make words unrecognizable to natiyc listeners. i In these \\\\'ords. /i,/ is Uonour.ed N 1 slllabic nNxL (see \\asah page I 36) . in Cockne) lhglish, Dr1ltu is fuurnced b0?1.\" \\{ost NAfl spexkeN llxf the /y ln ,0/l1e hoDl ' or \"boDal. '
4CHAPTIR Consonants 131 Aclivity 4.3 Recognizing flaps level lntermed iate Worksheet Page 225 Tip Teach students to recognize reduced pronunciations to jmprove their listening comprehension. Description This activity focuses on recognition of flapped pronunciations of /t/. L Write matter and material on the board, underlining t's. lvlodel the words, asking students to listen to how the t's are pronounced. Ask student if the I's in the two words sound the same. 2. Explain that the I in matter is pronounced like a fast d. Ask students to say matter, pronouncing the underlined consonants as a fast d. Explain that in the United States and Canada, f's and d's have this pronunciation when the preceding vowel is stressed. Students can use regular lll and ldl in their own speaking, but should be able to recognize the flaps. 3. Add other cornmon words wtth flaps to the board, capltalizing stressed syllables and underlining flaps. l\\4odel the words. WAler WRIling pRElly tEACer ( !er) tomAlo 4. Ask students to volunteer words they have heard where t or d has an unexpected pronunciatlon. @ 5. Oirect students' attention to the dialogue on the worksheet. Students ljsten to the dialogue and write the missing words in the blank. ln pairs, students practice the d ia logue. R Sibilu.rt\", see, zoo, sboe, pleasure, cheap, jazz What the Teacher Should Know Sibilants have an s-likc sound. Students, problems in\\,olving sibilants vary according to natiye language and usually involve pronunciation rathef than perception difticulties. Spelling is also a source of confusion. Pronunciation work with sibilants can be added to glammar lessons on _.s endin€is (Simplc Presenr -s Ending, Plurals, possessives), count-mass (how much, how man)), and questions and adjective clauses witlt zrrlc/r.
\"132 4.HAPrrR Consonants /s/ a'rd /z/. The sibilants /s/ and /z/ are tiicatives (\"hissr\" sounds), produced by bringing the tip of the tongue close to the alyeolar ridge Oehind thc top reeth). /s/ js voiceless and /z/ is yoiced. Sue! Zou wY72;4 Y_-4r-^{// The consonant /s/ occurs in maq'languages ancl is a familiar sound for students.Its voiced counterpart /z/ i,s less common.Vietnamese, Thai, Korean. and most dialects of Chinese lack /z/; in Spanish, /z/ occurs only before voiced consonants (e.g., misrnr.t) ,tncl, even in this context, may be weakene d in some dialects. Voiceless /s/ is a common substitute for ,/z/, althoLtgtr /l'/ or /dz/ may also be substituted.Japanese and Korean students may pronotnce /s/ as /[/ in words like see, sit, sue, and pursue (that is, before higlt vowels; see Vowels); /s/ does not occur before these \\.owels in Japanese or Korean.e /l/ s}ei:p and ft1 pleasure. The boldface sounds rn sbip and pteasure ([/ and /3/) are plonolrnced by pulling the tongue back f.rom the /s/ /z/ positiot] (ro the palate) and rounding the lips slightly. The boldface sound in sbrp is voiceless; in pleasure, it is voiccd. mship . pleasure Y2 With the exception of a few l-rench words (e.g., gen rc'). B/ does nor occur at the i)rgirln ing ol English word.. The specific problems minavoylvpirnogno/lu/n^cnedthBe/ clepcncl on the student's native language. Chincse students bold consonants in usualll or measnre (BD too weakll', 5s that tltev sound like \"uwlally\" or \"mayor\" Greck studcnts may substitute /s/ for [/ before high front vowels;sbaep for example, may sound like \"seep,\" and garage like \"p;araz.' /tJ/ Gheck) and /q / (jeep). The lip diagrams for the affiicates /t/ (as in clreck') encl /4/ @s 1n jeep) iclcntical to those for /[/ a]nd /3/ ahovc. /tl/ is voiceless and /Q/ is voiced. The af^frriccates /tl/ (.^s it1 mucb) and, /Q,/ (.as in major) e complex /torl'Korqu sludenb mar suhstitllt€ 3 / for /s/ or /z/ bcforc nrid-io\\rcls irs $ellllor cvnrple. r'r,r'rz1l ntal sound like rezhult.'
CtAprER.tr Consonants 133 sounds which start as stops (/t/ or /dD and arc released as fricatives (/t or /3D.The stop is not heard as a separate sound but must be articulated lbr the affficate to be pronouncecl coffectl)'. In words witl.r flr]al /tJ/ and /S/ (for examplc. muclJ aIILl age), tl.e stop can be heard as a brief silence before the last sound. say tnuch vew slowly and notice that the vowel sounds \"cut off\" and is followed bv a Lrief silence. Tl.ris Occurs becluse the /t/ (.of 'Vtith musb, the vowcl is not /t[D briefly stops the airflow (ancl ihus rhe vowelJ. cut off because [/ is .d fricati.ve (the air flow is obstructed but nor stopped). The same is true for /e/ and B/, as in tnajor afld. measure. Pronounced slowl),, the first \\.owel in tnajor sounds ',cut off,,; the first vowel in ,neasure does not. Many students confuse pairs like much afl(l mush or major and mea.sure. The phonetic symbols /tl and /Q/ are uscful reJchi|g ajds since they show both pxrts of the sounds. which ordinary spellings sometimes fail to do. A Spanish or Victnamcse Student is less likely to n spronounce part of the spelling of matclz as r?as, because, iS tnatcb. It words like mucb, u,lticb, and ectcb, hower.ef, it is not. lbik.eeig\"eeKd)o,g,r/eyt[ai/'ln(is4sDstinnldikeuentht\"sifcislnht))n,.iy'aa;anndddd/$Da/evrg(oaewsleiiknlcse,od,u.bgneeci)lg. :Vr,ftte:]richfinmala[!/so(uansdtnlikue,is.wt')i,tcBiy/,,'@edsgietr g ss, c (followed by / or e), -se latter a consonanq-r'zgl[Effi.,sr, Exceptions: .ss is pronounced /z/ in dessert, scissors, and possess. z, -se, -$ (s between vowels), -es (e.nding): zero, dizzy, rcsi, caus., Exceptions: -se is pronounced /s/ , as in dose, clJctse, bouse, and erase sb, 1i-, -ci-, -ssion, -ssure: sboe, u)asb, patient, natioiStryr4ian, special, mission, discussion, pressure Unusual spellings: ocean, suga4 sure, Cbicago, macbine, clicbe -sure, -sion, -zurc: pleasure, Tneasure, decision, teletision, uisi<tn, seizure Unusual spellings: regime, beige, garage, equ.ttion cb, tcb, -tu- (xnstlessed): church, catcb, nature, centuty, picture Unusual spellings'. cello, amateur j. clj, g (Defore i and e), dge, z/r- (unstressed): judge, edge, Geor.qe, gene. gradual, educa lio,t, sdJ..lule Unusual spellings'. sold.ier, ex&ggerate
134 4:HAPTIR Consonants Activity 4.4 Sihilants: How nuch oil? Level lntermed iate Worksheet Pages 226 227 Tips Integrate pronunciation work wiih work on funciional language 0r grammar. Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com- prehensibility and grammatical accuracy, Description This information gap practices final ltll in How much questions about countries that import and export oil. The substitution of ltl f/tor is a problem ior Spanish, Vietnamese, and Thaj siudents; Korean students sometimes add a short vowel sound after hY (e.g., \"muchy,\" \"wh ichy\"). lll ll.1. On the board, write minimal pairs contrasting and Underline the target sounds. lvlodel the words, Students repeat, watch-wash much-mush catch-cash which-wish 2. Explarn pronunciation: The last sound in the frrst word of each pa r begins wlth a /t/ sound. In watch and catch |he /t/ is written. ln much and which iI rs not written, but it must be pronounced. Students wil not hear the /t/ as a separate sou nd. 3. On the board, write questions about the price of oil, using Haw much. . How much is a gallon (4 llters) of gaso ine (in the United States/in you r country)? . How much was a gal on of gas two years ago? 4. lVode the questions. Students repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of much. 5. Choose one or two students to ask classrnates the questions on the board. Provide feedback on pronunc ation. 6. Eljcit from students the names of oil exporting countries and wrlte them on the board. Ask students if their countries are o I importers or exporters. 7. Put students in pairs. Give each member of the pa r a differeni chart of oil importers and exporters. Students complete the nformation missing from their doescharts by asking \"How much oil import/export a day?\" B. When the pair work is finrshed, review the information with the class. Provide feed back on pron u nciation.
4CH^PIER Consonants 135 ERR0R C0RRECTI0NT Your student sa'.s \"race\" wh€n he wants to say ,.raise,,' or uwass\" when he wants to say'kas.\" \"lell the student to lengthen the vowel in \"raise\" and keep the last sound shoft (see also FinalVoiced andVoiceless Consonants, page 155). YoufJapanese student says \"she\" whefl he wants to say \"see,\" and,,shoe\" when he wants to say \"Sue.\" Youf Korean student says \"pefshuade' instead of \"persuade,\" \"rezhult\" lnstead of \"result,\" and \"muzheum\" ilstead of \"museum.\" Model the incoffect and correct pronunciations, exaggerating the sibilant sounds. Telt the students to move the tongue dp forward in the mouth (behind the top teeth) and repeat the words. Youa Spanish, Yietnamese, and Thai students say \"mush\" when they want to say \"much,\" and \"sheep\" when they want to say \"cheap.\" Introduce the phonetic symbol for \"cln\"t /tl/.E\\plai'f, that \"t\" is paft of the pronunciation even wheil it is not shown in spelling (though it is written in matclJ aj:'d ccttch, fot example). Students y/ill tnoomt ahkeeat\"m/te/ natsal\"\" sepanate sound, but it must be pronounced. Encoffage students respellings of\"ch\" as \"tch.\" Your Chinese student says \"uv/ally\" when she wants to say \"usually.\" Tell the srudent to keep the tip of the tongue up in the mouth. The tongue lighrly touches the top of the mouth. Contrast \"uwally\" and \"usualry Direct students' adention to th€ \"noisier\" middle sound in \"usually' Your students say \"cheap\" when they want to say \"sheep.\" Tell your students that the tongue does not make firm (strong) contact with the top of the mouth for the fust sound in sreep. Students should be able to prolong (exhale through) the first sound. Your Korean student says \"whichy\" or \"edgy\" wh€n he wants to say '.which\" or \"edge.\" Tell your student to keep the last sound of these words very short. Work with the pronunciation of final consonants (see Final Consonants, page 153).
136 ( HAPrtR,+ Cansonanrs rI:Lf l N-.It, su rt. sorrre. su,,g What the Teacher Should Know There are three nasal consonants in English:/n/ as in sun. /m/ as in some, and /l/asin sazg. With /n/,the tip of the tongue touches behind rhe top teeth; with /m,/, the lips close;and with /1,/, the back of the ton€iue rises to touch thc vclum (the back of the roof of the mouth) and the tip of the tor.rgue rests behind the bottom teeth.With all three consonants, the air is released throulah rhe nose rather than tlre mouth. /rJl occlrrs only in the middle or at the ends of words le.g., singing). suflg Students have few problems with ,h/ and /m/ at th.e beginnings of words or s)'llables (e.9.,fl /ce, dinnet; mice, dimmer).The Chinese conftrsion of beginning /n/ and /l/ (pronouncing ligbt as^\"nrdight\" and vice versa) is discussed ]D A/ /t/- \"Dd /l/,below. nll may be mispronounced as /r)gl or /lk/ by Polish or Russian students or as /n/ by Spanish students.lr) This problem can reflect a difficulty pronouncinli /!/ or a spelling confusion, since the r?g spellitg represents both /\\/ (as in slrrgel) and /\\g (.as n s/ngle). Students should be made aware of the spelling pattcrns of the fwo pronunciations. n8 is pronounced ,i rll nS is pronounced /!€il 1. Con.lparatives and supedatives of -/€ 1. fnal ng: long, young ^djectivel longer, loungesL stronger ?.tbe -ing efudirg 2. zgle spellings: single, tingle, ,ningle 3. most othe xg spellings 3.finger 10 The pronurciation ol /4/Ls /q g/ also occuni in son€ netile EngLish didects in fic lofih€estelr United States, especixLl! $hen the nexl word begi$ wth e vo\\\\'el Long ls[and rtty be prL\\rounced l,oncu\\'land.
IcHAprtR Consonants \"137 At the ends of wofds, two Wpes of problems occur. Spanish speakefs may substitute one nasal for anotheq prono\\lncing someone, for example, as,,sungwung', (Avery ancl Ehrlich 1992). These stLrdents should be instructed to pronounce nasal consonants as the). are written. Final nasal consonants may also be .dropped,, by Chinese and Portuguese stt-rdents and realized as a nasalization of the prececling vowel CJuffs 1990, Averl and Ehrlich 1992). the Chinesc student who pronounces solrleone as/s3w;/ (- indicates a nasalized vowel) needs to le,J'In to lengthen iinal nasals oL pronounce them as consonants rathef than as vowel nasalization. Although Spanish and Chincse students mispronounce final nasal conson,rLnts in cliflbrent ways, the Spanish problem of nasal substitutions ard the Chinese (or Portuguese) problem of vowel nasalization can be dealt with in the same lesson. Correcting both problems involves getting students to pronounce worcl or syllable- final nasals as they are writtefl:the lips close for /m/, the ton[luc tip touches behind thc top teeth for /n/, and, the back of the tongue rises fbr /rll. Spelling is alnost always a reliable cue for promnciation of linal nasals.r i In unstressed syllables,like the last syll^bl.e of taken, /n,/ may be prolongecl and pronounced as a syllabic nasal-(symbol [n]). The vowel virtually disappears and the nasal i$elf is the last syllable.12 In connected speech,and is usually pronounced as a syllabic nasal black and utlr/te (pronounced \"black 'n white;,,see also Reductions of Function Words, Rh]'thm). This is not a topic that needs to be coyered in class. Activity 4,5 /q /: Present continuous and -ing level Beginn ing Worksheet Page 228 Tips Integrate pronunciation work with work on functional language or grammar. Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com- prehensibility and grammaiical accuracy. Bescription This activity adds pronunciation work with /1/ to course materials for the present contin uous. 1. Before class, choose a picture (or cartoon or picture story) from course materials showing people engaged in a variety of activities. 2. ln class, on the board, write the progressive form of two or three verbs which can be used to describe the picture(s) (e.9., walking, studytng, sleeping). l\\4odel the words. Students reDeat. (continue.l olt nexl page) l'? 0ther consonanh ae also p|onounced i]s srllabics: in ,11r1c forere ple,Lhel t$lllablcisprcnoltncedir.sxs,vliabic'1,\"widtt€ry littLe voncL (slnbol lll)r rn ,r1lr,r. for exalnple. fie lrt srlhble is a sllLabic frtll.
3B :41 . HAPrtR Consanants Act irit! 4. 5 conti nae.l 3. Present the articulation of /n/ and /q/ on Worksheet 4.5. Explain that with /n/, the tip of the tongue is up, behind the top teeth. With /q/, the tip of the tongue is down, behind the bottom teeth. 4. Using the textbook picture (or cartoon or picture story), ask students to describe what is happening. Provide feedback on the pronunciatton of lnland lql. Activity 4.6 Final nasals: I'm thinking of someone who . . . Level lntermediate (Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, Russian, Polish) Worksheet None Tip fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com prehensibility and grammatical accuracy. Description This activity practices a variety of final nasals: lml and ln/ in someone and /11 in thinking. Students provide clues about someone until their classmates can guess the ideniity of the person. 1. On the board, write \"l'm thinklng of someone . . . .\" Underline the nasals. lModel the sentence. Ask each student to say the sentence, pronouncing the underlined sounds carefully. 2. l\\4odel the activity. Tell students they are going to use the sentence on the board to play a game about famous peopJe. Choosing a famous person that everyone 1n class knows, give a hint (e.g., \"l'm thinking of someone who lives in Venezuela\"). Classmates guess the person's name (e.g., Hugo Chavez) or ask questions to get more informatlon until they can guess the person. lnstruct students to begin their questions with \"Does/ls the person you're thinkingof...?\" 3. Ask a student to choose a person whom everybody in class knows and give a hint about that person, starting with \"l'm thinking of someone. . . .\" The rest of the class asks questions until they can guess the person's identity. The student who guesses the person's identity chooses a new person. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of nasal consonants in the phrase I'm thinking af sameone.
I 139CHAPTER Consonants K stop\" /ld arrd /g/t coat, goat; theletter r What the T€acher Should Know Few students have problems pronouncing the stop consonants /k/ aJrd /g/ when they begin a word or syllable,as n coat arrd gort Ifith both .orr.o,rurrtr, th. back of the tongue rises to touch the velum.,/V is voiceless and,/g/ is voiced. coat, goat Most problems involving /k/ and /g/ occur when the consonants end words, and they can be addressed in a lesson on final consonants or on final voiced and voiceless sounds. In Spanish, /g/ is pronounced weakly (as a fricatiye) at the ends of words and between vowels; Spanish stlrdents may tfansfef this weakened pronunciation into English words like beginning (which may sound like \"behinning\") or dog Korean students haye difficulty pronouncing /wil (or p(/roknfol)unocifntegnitssoturonndgslyliekneou\"kgehs) tiinonth\"eacnodnsloannagnut acgluesteergsw/kDw/Lakned,,l,a/gnVgi;dqguee',s(tsioene Beginning Clusters, below). The letter x inyolves difficult clusfers with /k/ or /g/.The pronunciations of r are largely predictable and should be taught to students. Activity 4.7 Ptonunciation otx: Spelling and sounds Level lntermed iate/Advanced Worksheets Pages 228-229 lip Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant cluslers. Descripti0n This activity practices the pronunciation of words with x. (continue.l on next page)
40 I1 . H)FTE!' aan'onants 1ctilit l.: contin ed 1. On the board, write ta4, e4am, and 4ytophone, underlining the letter x in each word. Explain Ihat xylophone is a musical instrurnent' 2.|Vode]thewordsontheboard.AskstudentsWheihertheletterXispronounced the same or differently in the three words. 3. Explain that the letter x has three pronunciations (ks, gz' and z) and write them on the board. 4. Pass out the first handout and go over new vocabulary' 65. Students listen to the words on the handout and repeat them. They listen again and write each word under the appropriate pronunciation column' 6. ln pairs, siudenis check their work. Ask the pairs to figure out ihe pronunciation rules for x. lnstruct them to consider the position of x in the words, whether a stressed vowel precedes or follows x, and whether a consonant follows x. Pass out Worksheet 4.7B 7, Elicit from students other words spelled with x. Ask students how x is pronou nced. ffil oo...t' /t:./ (band) V/hat the Teacher Should Know The consonant /h/ is a voiceless fricative created by pushing air throlrgh the glottis (vocal corcls). It is d1e sound of panting or breathing after exercise' /h/ is a weak sound in English and may be dropped when it is inside a word or sentence and not followed by a stressecl vowel ln history, for example' is always pronounced because the ibllowing vowel is stressed ' '&/ is ln bist'rical' followed by an unstressecl Yowel. It is always pronounced A1/ when it begins an utterance (e.g., Historical figures are. . ) However, w]ner historical is inside a sentence, some speakers say \"nn historical fact\" (omitting /hD ancl others \"a historical fact\" (pronouncing /hD There are two pronunciation problems involving /h'l The first is an incorrect place of articulation. Chinese and Spanish stuclents may pronounce /h/ at the back of th. mo.,th (rather than the glottis) so thal At/ sounds like the German pronunciation of cb in Bacb (lite a throat-clearing sound) 13 Spelling can also be a source of mispronunciation ln most words with D like beauy, abeacl, han(l, beart, bartl, /h/ is always pronounced Tn other words' mostly borrowings from French, /h/ is never pronounced, as in est' bonor' and bour: Frenct and Italian students may \"drop\" /h/ when it shou'lodnbe pronounced /l/15 'l he misprollrncialion is a leLer frciunciatjon ol
I 141CHA?TER Consonants (.e.9., bead is pronounced \"ead\") and add it when it should not be pronounced (.e.9., air is\"haij\"). In function words that are typically unstressed (such as he, bim, lsis, lse4 l:aue, lsas, and baD. native speakers pronounce /b/ afler a pause (e .g., ,,He ,s tall,,), but frequently omit it inside a sentence (e.g., Is be tall? is us:ual]ry pronounced .Izzy tall?\"). Students should be taught when /h/ is always pronounced and when it is never pronounced. They should also be able to recognize the /:-less pronunciation of function words (see Pronouns and Reductions of Function Words, Rhlthm). ERROR C0RRECTI0N; Mispronunclatio n of /b/ as a Velar Souad (a ,,Idieatry h) 1. Explain that A/ has a soft sound in English, like the sound of breathing. Demonstrate the sound, using bfearhs of a4 as if you were panting. Contrast the incoffect (the hea\\,'!' or thfoatdearing pfonunciation) and the correct pronunciation. 2. Ask students to think of words for parts of the body that start with /h/ (e.g.,t ear, lJead, lrand, foretread, afud, trair).ptovide feedback on pronunciarion. 3. Write a tongue twister sentence on the board that includes several,/h/ words (see example below). Model the sentence and ask students to repeat it- Harry heard Harrjet had heart problems. Whtitial/t/t Rigtrt What the Teacher Should Know The articulation of /r/ ya.res considerably from language to language. In English, /r/ is a retroflexed consonant: The tip of the tongue turns or cuds up and back.ra At the beginning of a word or sy able (e.g., riglt, arriue), the tip of the tongue starts turned up and slightly back (the retroflexed position) and then lowers or uncuds, without touching the top of the mouth.15 righr WWffiW'v.r^ //,r4 The body ofthe tongue a1s0 moles b11!k. som€ narive spea[elx do not rehofler but insllad \"bunch\" the longue. rorFdagogical purposes, explalning articuiation as rclrcflexion, atuniing up and back of the tongue, wiliprobabl,v produce th€ b;t resuli, (A;riand Ehrlhh 1992,23). \" //.15lhe How€ver, jnstructing students to rcund their lips sometimes produces misprcnunciations llke lips xre also sllghtly rcunded for \"whjte\" for ght ' In ny own teaching, I ignorc lip mundjng.
142 I:HAPfER Consonants Pronunciation Problems associated with beginfling /r/ ('as in rigbt) xe different from those associated with frn l ft/ (h/ \\o$ els. as in car) a1ld should ^ftet beaddressedh<lifferentpronunciationlessons(forlr,/aftervorlels'seeR-Colored Vowels in chapter 5).The movement of the tongue also differs; At the beginning of a word, the tongue moves out of the retroflexed position (uncurls); after a vowel' the tongue moves into the fetfoflexed position (cuds back)' Student mispronunciations of be€iinning /r/ include substitutions of native language /r/ or interrnediate sounds (Bcebe 1980) At the end of a word' students m\"y eiift.r dr,rp /r/ or substitute a different sound Japanese problems with /r/ and /l/ are discussed in the following sections Onitial /l/, and Contmsting /r/-/l/)' Retroflexionofthetonguetakesplaceinsidethemouth,anditsexternalvisual cues are minimal. Although some students are able to pick up the retroflexed pronunciation through exposure to spoken Eflglish, many will need to be explicitly taught how to make /t/. Activity 4.8 Beginning h/: The R gane Level lntermediate Worksheet Page 230 lip Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/' Desc]:ption Students learn the articulation ot hl and practice it in a guessing game featuring questions that can be answered with common /r/ words. By choosing /r/ words suitable to the vocabulary level of students, the teacher can tailor this game to any level ln addition' the game can also be a means of practicing question formation if the teacher asks students to write their own questions' 1. Present the diagram of /r/ on Worksheet 4.8. Model the words right and wrong' Explain that the tip of the tongue starts up and back and ihen lowers The tip of ihe tongue does not touch the iop of the mouth' Use the hand gesture below to reinforcle articulation and for feedback. ln the gesture, the hand represents the tongue; the fingertips represent the tip of the tongue' \\
I( HA?TER Consonants 143 ActiuiA 4.a conhnued 2. Model right and wrong again. Students repeat together and then individually. Provide feedback on articulation (Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish students may ircorrectly touch the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth; French and German students may use ihe back of the tongue, rather than the tip). 3. On the board, add other words containing beginning /r/ for practice. lnclude some of the answers to the guessing game questions. Ask students to volunteer other words with beg nning /r/. l\\4odel the words, using the hand gesture to reinforce articulation. Students repeat. right wr0ng roof Jetrigerator round road 4. The guessing game. Divide the class into two teams. Team members should sit together, facing the opposite team. Give the teams different sets of questions. 5. Team members first decide the answers to their questions. 6. Play the game. Team A starts, wjth each member in turn choosing a player on the opposite team to answer one of Team A,s questions. The team member asking the question must pronounce it clearly enough for the opposing team member to understand (this is the most challenging part of the game, and several repetitions of a question are often necessary). The Team B player answers the question with a word containing /r/. The answering team earns a point for a correct answer, with a correc|y pronounced /r/. lnttlal /U (ligbt); Filn l /V (att); Cotftrastjflg /l/ and /n/ Qigbt and nigl:t) What the Teacher Should Know /1,/ is produced by toucltinfa the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth just behind the teeth; the air passes out latenlly oyer the sides of the tongue. Since it is difficr t for students to feel the lateral passage of air, articulatory information abour the placement of the tip of the t()ngue is more useful pe dagogically. like
144 4;HAPTER Consonants Light and Dark /V. English /l/ has two pronunciations. depending on its position in a word. \"Light,\" or \"clear,\" /1/ occurs at the beginninE! of a word or syllable, as in like, loue, aliue.\"Dark\" A/ occufs at the end of a word or s,yllable , as inatl, cold, rongue is relaxed and down;with dark /I/,rhe andll. Wi^tnhd.light ,/l/, the back of the back of the tongue is nised. Perceprually, dark /V sounds as if it is preceded by a short /a/ sound (e.g., coalr/). Lis,ht /1/ D^tk /1/ Different pronunciation problems occur with beginning (light) /l/ and final (dark) /U, and the two types of /l/s should be addressed in separate lessons. Native speakers of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin may conftlse beginning /r/ wirh /l/. These two sounds may be both difficult to hear (especially for Japanese students) and difficult to pronounce. funeJ', Takada, and Ota suggest that teachers point out to Japanese sb,rdents that they are more likely to mispronounce A/ thafi /r/ t]:rat pronunciation work with /l/ be addressed bcfore work with /r/ (2OO^On,d731,). Howeye! the /r/ l/ contrast should also be addressed, since students for whom it is difficult invariably ask about both sounds. A common substitution for fiinnraellli(gdiabrilkir)y/la/ndisdo\"esclneoatr Oeginning) /l/. This not interfere with substitution does need to be corrected. A more serious problem is the ipnsrotannucne,cisaotuionndsolfikeda\"rokcle/1p/e^ospo/,o\" /, /u/, or /w/ (vocallT,ation of /1/);old l)eople,lbr beautiful sounds like \"beautifo.\" This mispronnnciarion is common with native^nds,peakefs of Brazilian Portuguese and Chinese, but may occur with other students, as well.16 The most impoftant goal fof students wh<t yocahze A/ is to pronounce it as a consonant (light or dark), rather than as a vowel. /U and. /rt/ (Ctrtnese). In some Cantonese dialects /l/ ancl /n/ can be substituted for each other at the beginning of a word, and Cantonese studcnts may make the samc substitutions in English words: /as, may be pronounced lil<e \"nast\" or n lglr, like \"light\" 16ln Br^zilian Po uguese, final/y is Iocxlized 10 a /$y' 0r /u/ sound. ln Chinese, /1/ do€s not occur ln find losjtion. \\bcalizeuon of/y aliNtlisalso common.nrong chiidrcn leallrirgEnglish aJ guagc (who ln a,v s,ry 'lilto peopo\" instead of littie people') andh2l occuned as asoundchange in other lalguages.
ICH^prER Consanants 145 (Avery and Ehdicl.r 1992, 1 15). t - Mosr students are not aw2lre that they are making this substitlrtion. Even if the conirsion of /1t/ and A/ does nor fesult in uninteligibilitl it is odd sounding to listeners (nati.!.e and nonnadve) and draws attention away iiom what the student is saying. This is a persistent but impor-tant problem, since there afe manv minimal pairs in English involving ,i nl .Lnd A/ (-Atfotd 1987). ERR0R C0RRECTI0N : Peopte is pfonounced ,.peopo,' 1. Explain to students dlat they are not pronouncing /l/ at ttre end of a word (or after a vowel) strongly enough. Model the mispronunciation and tlt€ correct pfonuncia- tion' exaggerating the final /1,/. Ask students to listen to thc difference between the inco[ect ancl correct pronunciations of the word (e.g.,',peopo,, and.peopte,,). 2. Instruct students to touch the tip of the tongue behind the top teeth when a word is spellcd widr (there / are, howel.er, silent /'s in wolds like ualk, salmon, nd calm). 3. Ifrite some commonly mispronounced pfuases with final ,4/ and ask students to repeat them. The plrases below are some that I have colected from m', students- old people snalt children a helpful article a lit e bit useful results meanwhile Zrgrt is Pronounced .,Ntglt\" ot Nigbt is pronounced ,.Light,, 1. Tell student that they arc sa,ving // instead of /n/ (or vice versa). Students are usually unaware that they are confusing the two sounds. Model the mispronuncia- tion and thc correct pronunciation, exaggerating both the /fl/ and /y (e.g.,,,night,, and \"light\"). 2. Explain that if the wor<l is spelled with n, air comes out the nose.l)irect the stu- dent to touch her nose as she says ,'nighrt, If the word is spelled with /, the air comes out the mouth. Direct rhe student to lightly touch her lower lip as she says \"light.\" 3. For intermediate and aclvanced students, writc this short poem on the board fof pmctice : You've no need to lrght a night-lieht On a ntght like tonight, For a night-light's light's a s ight light, And tonight's a night that's light.rs ,/-1lt7 Aldlough subsuluti0ns afir relofed t0 be uoblens l0r cantoncse stu.lerb. I har,€ had studeDb tl,ho idertif, then]sei\\es es natir,€ sFake.s of l\\{xndarin u'ho hare the samc problem. 13 This is the llNt half of a tongue t$isler foem thal cm be folrnd on htDi//$$'$i.dfs org and other tonglre hvisier \\feb sites.
146 I:HAPTER Consanants ffi aon .u\", ing /t/ and /l/: Rigltt-Ligltt \\Iahat the Teacher Should Know The contrast of / and /l/ (^s in right afld /rgrt) is notoriously difficult for riative speakers of Japanese. It is also djfficult for native speakers of Korean, Mandarin, and Vietnamese. The Japanese /r/ is a flap (the tip of the tongue \"slaps\" the top of the mouth) but can be pronounced like /l/ in some contexts. Research on the perception elfid pronunciation of the /t/-/l/ confta:st by Japanese ESL leaxners shows that even good pronouncers of /r/ and /l/ may h^ve difficulty hearing the difference between these two sounds (Goto 1971, Sl.reldon and Strange 1982, Riney et al. 2005). In addition, English /r/ may be perceptually more different from Japanese /r/ than English /l/ and, therefore, easier for students to hear and pronoulce (Flege, Takagi, and Mann 1995; see also Riney et al. 2000).It is important forJapanese students to leafn to pronounce /t/ and /V lccurately since their mispronunciations are stereotyped (e.g., \"flied lice\" for \"fried rice\") and are strongly related to a heary accent (Riney et a1.2005). In spite of lingefing pefceptual difficulty, students can learn to pronounce /r/ and /y, likely basing pronunciation on how the sounds feel when they are correctly pronounced. It is helpful to point out that with /r/, the tip of the tongue does not touch the top ofthe mouth, and with /l/, it does;substantial practice of these sounds is impoftant and helptul. right light W---- u?7a-d rc t/2/*-\\ : \\zt</1 Activity 4.9 Practicing the /r/-/U contrast. How do you spe tight? Level Low lntermed iate/lntermed iate Worksheet Page 231 Tip Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/. Description This activity focuses on the perception and pronunciation ol lrl and /l/ in minimal pairs.
4:HAPTER Consonants 147 ActiolA 4.9 continued 1. Direct students' attentjon to the djagrams on Worksheet 4.9. Model \"right\" and \" light, \" and explain articulation: . \"L\" is a contact (touch) sound. The tip of the tongue touches behind the top teeth. . Use the hand gesture below to show the articulation oI Al. fhe upper hand represents the top of the mouth. The tips of the fingers of the upper hand represent the teeth. The lower hand represents the tongue. point out to students that the tongue tip touches behind the teeth. . \"R\" is not a contact (touch) sound_ The tip of the tongue does nof touch the top of the mouth. . Use the hand gesture illustrated on page 142 and explain: The tip of the tongue starts up and back. The tip of the tongue lowers without touchlng the top of the mouth. . Write two sentences on the board, one containing only words beginning with /l/ (e.g., \"Lovely Lisa loves Luke\") and one containing only words beginning wilh lrl (e.g., \"Ray Rivers reached Rome\"). Ask students to say the sentences slowly, focusing on the different articulations. 2. Minimal pairs. lvlodel the /l/ words. Students repeat. Ask each student to choose three /l/ words and say them out loud. provide feedback on pronunciation. Repeat with the /r/ words. Then model the rows. Students repeat. Ask each student to choose three pairs and say them out loud. provrde feedback on pronunciatjon. Read one word from each pair. Students circle the words they hear. 4. Go over each word on the card, asking the class whether you read that word and how ii sounds. 5. 0n the board, write a model dialogue for pair practice of the minimal pairs. A: How do you spel right ? B: R-l-G-H-T 6. In pairs, students take turns choosing one member of a minjmal pair from the second part of the handout and asking their partners how to spell the words.
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