148 IcltAPrtR Consonant uffdcs: /y/ ,et /w/ VA.v ^nd, What the Teacher Should Know The glides (dso called semivowels) /y/ and /w/ are consonants when they begin a word or syllable, as in 1,eq young, uineyard, u.ny, and auoke. After a. vowe| they function as part of the vowel, xs in boy and nou. \\fith /y/ (e .9.,:rc.t, the body of the tonlaue pushes up through an /iyl posirion (,/iyl is the vowel sound in see).The lips may be spread.Wtrh /w/ (e .g.,ulr?),the lips start rounded and then unround ro the vowel that fbllows.le The back of the tongue is raised witll /w/, but tltis infomation is not pedagogically important. ]'es way The glides pose few difficulries for students generally, although students from certain native-language backgfounds malr experience pfoblems with some wofds.20 Spanish students mal,' pronounce let and J,tolk like \"jet\" and \"jokej\" a srereot\\ped pfonunciation which shoulcl be addressed in class. Japanese and Korcan srudents have difficult]. pronouncing / ,v/ in year and J,,edst when the following .i.owel is /I/ or /iy/; year ma.v sor.rnd like \"ear\" 2Jtd least like \"east.\" There are very few words with this sequence Q)i.eld is nnotlj'ff example). Since the onl1. comrnon problem word is leaI, its mispronunciation can be addressed through error corrcction. A similar problem ifl.olves the pronunciation ot /w/ in uould/uoo4 u.nman, uo$ and uool.This is a problem primarily for Japanese and Korean speakers, who find it difficult to say /w/ when the vowel /u/ follows, pronoun cing ruoman and Loould llkc\"'omarl\" and \"'ould.\" Again, since there are yery fbw Entilish words where this difficult sequence occurs. the problem can be dealt wirh through error coffection. The confusion oflw// and /v/ (pronouncing ,e?, as \"wiuy\"), cliscussed in Labial Consonants, eadier, is more widespread. (as in zzr1) '0 !'or Chiiese studentr prorunciation ofrir?simil,llto lbnt, sec liphthongs, page ]90.
4CHA?TER Consonants \"l49 For Spanish students, the pronunciation of /y/ in yesterday a:nd, yet can be added to work on the past tense or present perfect. ERR0R C0RRECTI0N: Mispronourclflg \"Yet/ as \"Jet\" (Spantsh Speakers) 1, On the board, write the mispronolnced wold with its normal spelling, and below it, a pronunciation spelling in which the double l€ttefs r7 are substituted fof/ and the following stressed vowel is written in lar8e l€tters. Model the coffect pronuncia- tion, spreading your lips for /y/. Tetl tlle student to pronounce ? as a long /V Gn the pfonunciation spellings, the letter / has the same yalue that it does in Spanish), stressing the second r.owel. The student repeats. yesterday young ii6sterday iiSng . Add some other words beginning with /y/ to the board, writi.rg pro{mnciation spellirigs below the words. Ask the student to say them, stretching out the fust sound and spreading the [ips. yes year you ii5s ii6ar ii6u Mispronouncing ''O:dd\" Oapanese and Kofean Students) 1. On the boa.fd, write the mispronounced wotd with its nofmal spelling, and below the wofd, a pfonunciation spelling in which the double lelters ut are substituted Jor zu. Tell the student to start tlle word tl,oman with a long /u/ sound that moves into the following stressed vowel. would u u 6uld 2. Alternative feedback: . Tell the student to imagine he is stretching a rubber band as he says the first sont\\d of uould. . ?ell the student to prepare to say u,ould wil}] the lips tightly rounded. As he says tlle word, he unrounds his lips. 3. Add these words for practice: would woman wool wolf wooden Mispfonounclng \"Yeaf\" as \"Eaf\" Oapanese and Korean Speakers) On the board, write the mispronounced word with its normal spelling. Below it, write a proflunciation spelling in which the double letters ll are substituted fot !. Contt^st )Ear alfd eatt prolo/lg;tflg tl'.e /y/ of year'leU the student to statt lear wilt' a long /i,/ sound that mo\\'es into the following stressed vowel. year ii6ar
150 4:HAPTER Consonants ffi t*,trt .lroiceless stops: p ea, tea, key What the Teacher Should Know when the yoiceless stops /p/, /t/, ot /k/ are followed b}' a stressed vowel, the stop is pronounced with a puff of ai! aspiration. In textbooks, this may be represented as a small stlperscript \"h\" after the consonant or by a small superscript \"<\" after the consonant (e .g., pt'ea, f ea, kh e1t, ot p<ea, t<ea, k'e!). Aspiration occurs when the buildup of air behind the stop is released suddenly. ln pan, fot example, the treginning /p/ is held while air builds up behind the lips. When the lips open, the air is suddenly released.In a language like Spanish, stops are unaspirated;the stop closure is not helcl as long as it is in English and less air builds up. If /p,t,k/ are insufficiently aspirated, native listeners may hear them as their voiced counterparts, /b, d, g,/;prg may sound like\"big,\" tie like \"die,\" and coat like \"goat.\" Aspiration of /p,t,k/ occurs only when a stressed Yo,wel follows.ln apb^ , atfAck, fot example, the consonants are aspirated because a \\.^onwdeldfeocllbo6w.ys,. In dpple, 6ttic, and ddcadent, the bold consonants are stressed not aspirated because a stressed vowel does not follow2t Voiceless stops are also of the role of unaspirated in /s/ clusters, such as spot, stop, scrool Because time to apply stress, the rule for aspiration is complex and st^unddents do not have it when they are dealing with stops inside a worcl (for example, decbdy versus (lecad.ent).If your students' pronunciation of Pig, tie, and cold sounds like \"big,\" \"die,\" and \"gold,\" address aspiration in monosyllabic words beginning with these consonants. The vowel that follows is ?rlways stressed in this context, simplifying the rule. ERROR CORREBTI0N: Pie sounds rjke Buy 1 On the board, write the mispronounced word together with monosyllabic words begnning with other voiceless stops.Write a small superscript \"h\" after the Yoice- less stop to fepfesent aspiration. pnie thie kney 2- Model the words. students repeat. Explain that dle ffist sounds are pronounced with an e-xplosion or puff of air 3. Demonstrate aspiration. llold a sheet of paper or a tissue so that the bottom edge is iusa a tittle below your mouth and about 2 inches a$/ay from the mou:h. Turn side- ways to your stud€nts and say each word in tum. The bottom edge of the paper should blow out when you say the words. Students may notice that the papef mo\\.es fafthest for /p/ \"nd less for /t/ and /k/. This occurs because with ,/p/, the /t21 The in rd. diffe$ fmm lhe /V tn atta& \\r al\\alhet way: Illdtlic, /tJ \\sirPped bccause stres precedes jl The flapped flonuncixtion of/y is dscussed in /t/ and/d/ l1eps, abolc
1cHAPr[R Consanants 151 buildup of air is closest to the paper;with /t/ /W,tlae buildup occurs farther ^1td back in the mouth. 4. students repeat ttre demonstration in pairs. Remind students to hold the sheet of paper up, about 2 inches away from the mouth, so that the bottom edge is just below the mouth (if the lower edge of the paper is at neck level, aspiration is not sroog enough to move it). One student watches for movement of the paper as the other student says the words. If the paper doesn't move, the speaker has not aspi- rat€d the consonants sufficiently. ). on the board, add minimal pairs that contr.rst voiceless and yoiced sounds. Explain that there is no aspiration v/ith the second word in the pais. Stud€nts repeal the words, strongly aspirating the flrst word of each pair pay-bay too-do coat-goat pill-bill tie-die c0me-gum card\"guard pack-back town-down ffi trrnr.t Consonant Clusters: Pxtbkm Vihat the Teacher Should Know The worcl pl\"oblem contains two initial consonant clusters: /prl begins the word (and the first syllable) nnd All begins the second syllable. English allows a large number of two-member begiruing clusters (for example, s'zake, sIoP, ploud, glass ln n, tbree, txuin, and music). Three-mcmber clusters are more restricted; all begin with /s/ followedby /p/, /t/, or /k/, followed by /r/, /l/, /y/, or /u,/,as in string, square, and speut (/sJlutr/). Most students are able to recognize pefmissible and impefmissible clusters in English (e.g., /ml/, /bn/, ancl /pt/ are impcrmissible). Altenberg reports that beginning to advanced students had a good sense of permissible and impcrmissible English clusters, though they could not alw,tys pronounce the pemissible clllsters accurately (2005). Difficulty with a specfic consonant cluster depends ot.t what is permitted in the native language.22 Spanish, for example, does not permit cluster sequences of /s/+ Consonant (as in scbool). Spanish students often add a vowel before these 22 Dive6al facto$ also ir luence difficuLn. Broselou and Fincri tr'lininaLSonodft lli$ance model (199i) pledicts that sto| + liquid clu$e6 (e.g, 4r4 eill be morc difficuit than fricatilc + liquid clu$ers (e g.,tr.?i. H rcin Bhatt end Bhatt's slud! oi]apanese xnd Sfanish ESi. ljstrne$ pxrti,llh corllflned this prediction (1991, 341).
\"152 I:HAPTFR Consonants words (e.g., \"eschool\") so that they conform to Spanish patterns. Some languages Oapanese, Cantonese, and Vietnamese, lbr example) do not permit any be€iinning consonant clusters. Adding a vowel to separ4te the consonants in a cluster or deleting one of the consonants also occurs. Japanese students may pronounce s/,tss like \"tiurassl' Egyptian Ar':rbic students may pronouncefZoor as \"filoor'.\"Vietnamese students may pronounce problem vs /pabam/ ot Sreet 'd:s \"geetl' As mentioned above, Korean students have difficulty with /kw/ and /glw/ in words like cluestion ^nd language, pronouncing ,/w,/ too weakly of not at 2ll. There afe a yariety of techniques that can be used to correct beginning consonant cluster effors, depending on the type of error, but none works in all cases. Students who add vowels in front of clusters (e.g., \"eschool\" for \"school\") can be instructed to prolong the flrst consonant of the cluster (\"ssschool\"); this helps them avoid starting the word with a .\\rowel. This tecl-mique does not work when the first consonant is a stop (/p, b, t, d, k, g/) because stops cannot be prolonged. When studei.lts separate the consonants in a clustef (e.g., \"filoor\" fot flootr \"gurass\" for grass) or delete a consonant fiom the cluster (e.g.,\"geen\" for green),the first technique to attempt is tbe simplest. Students who pronouncefloor as \"flloor\" should be instructed to pronounce both consonants close together Students who pronounce green as \"geen\" should be instructed to prorloullce /r/. The simple approach sometimes works. If the simple technique tails, teachers c2!r1 tell students to prepare to say the second consonant in the clustcr (n/ ir floor or /r/ n Sreen) ?'nd then say the whole word. This technique works well in words like grc?r?, Jloot pla!, break, afld cloud. In these clusters, the tip of the tongue is inYolved in pronoLrncing the second consonant (A/ or /r/) but not in the first consonant (/p, b, f, k, g/). The vocal organs can therefore be in position for the second cor.rsonant as the first is pronounced. This technique, howe\\.e! does not work when both the fust and second members of the cluster involl,.e the tip of the tongue (in words like tee, clriue, three, snou, ^ d sleet). Activily 4.10 Extrene weather level lntermediate Worksheet None Tip Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant clusters. Description This activity provides practice with beginning consonant clusters in the context of weather and can be added to the topic of climate change or global warming. 1. Elicit from students words or phrases used to describe the weather or effects of ihe weather and write them on the board (not all of the words need to contain beginning consonant clusters). Underline beginnlng ciusters. Add a few new
4 153CIIAPTER Consonants Actiuit! 4. I 0 continaed words, The words below cover a range of weather conditions; the teacher should choose vocabulary that is appropriate for the studenis' level as well as for the types of weather they are lrkely to talk about. Weather Words !!ow sleet st0tms thunderstorms bright sunshine extreme weather hlizzaft cloudy cyclone hazy sunshine drought hunicane drizzle sprinkles blistering heat tornado Eeeze spreading tires slush climate 2. Go over new vocabulary. lvlodel the words. Students repeat. provide pronunciation feedback on consonant clusters. 3. Students work in pairs and make two lists, one for words describing extreme weather (or weather effects) and the other for words describing mild weather (effects). 4. Following the pair work, ask students to volunteer words from their lists. Provide feedback on pronunciation of consonant clusters. 5. ln small groups, students use the words to discuss questions about weather. . Have you ever experienced extreme weather? Explain. . Has the weather in your country changed with global warmjng? How? . What type of climate do you prefer? 6. Following the group work, ask several students to answer the questions. provide feed back on consonant clusters. ffi taut consonants: p iece, ask What the Teacher Should Know Consonants at the ends of words and syllables are more difficult to pronounce than those in bellinning position.In English, all consonants except A/ can occur in final position (e.g.,rob, lip, bead, bat, dog, pick, kiss, rose, eaclr, eclge, laugb, loue).2. Tri'Gmember final consonant clusters are common (e .g.,ask, barut, heaft, betp, l.efD, taesxatrc(/kthsrteDe,-mueomrkbser(/crlkusstle),rso.JeldsplaeucinaclJbyewdh(e/nngtfrtafm. mBeacrairr..arsleemndainngy,la\"n.\"gu,aatg.te.Os ,pula,cie' '?3lfhen 4y' aud 4t occur in iiialposition, the! arc considered pert olfie vowel.
154 (H^PILR4 Cansanants gfeeter restrictiolts on fi]lal consonants than English does. errors;rre widespreacl and less depcndcnt on the stlldent's native language than those il]|olyinla bcgifliing consonants (and beginning clusters). Japanese, for example. permits only /n,/ in final position; Sparish permits or.rly /d, s, n, r. l/. Languages F'hich do permit a Lu.ger r4nge of final consonants ((icrman, Russian, and Polish, for examplc) ma| not allow the final \\.oiced stops and fricatives that are :rllowed in English: (e.Ei.. rr1re, lJafld, rttb, dog). Universal factors ancl narkedness (linguistic naturalness) interact with and feinlbrce natiyelangu:rge festrictions (see krtroductior], page 5). Final voiced obstruents (stops and fricatives, ns rn dog or bate) are more clilficult than final voiceless obstruents (as in dock antl half). They occur less tiequently in the $'orlcl's languages, and in langurges where they do occur', like English, thcy are acquired later by cl.rildren learning their lirst lan1 uage. Most errors involving final consonants have the eflect of making English words and syllables more like thosc in the speaker's native languagc, thereby simplifiiing pronnnciation for the leaflrer 'l'wo common rypes of errors afe delction (e.9., big pronounced as \"bi\") and cpenthcsis (thc addition of a vowel; e.g., rrg pronounced as \"b.igPoro\")n.2otuncing final voiced stops ;mal fiicatives as their yoiccless collnteryafts (i.c., clcvoicing) is another comrnon error (e.g., Drg sounds like \"bickl' lsr.tue sounds litri:e \"half'and u6ts sounds like \"wass\"). Less fi€quently, final consonants may be changed to other consonants (e.9., pocketbook pronounccd as \"pocke(t)boor\"). The tvpe of efrof studcnts make depends on native language, the level of formality in speaking. the learner's level of proficiencl', the specilic final consonant or cluster. and the soun':ls preceding or folk)wing it (Tarone l980,Weinberger 1987, Hansen 2001, Hansen 200.1).weinberger found that his Mnndarin EsL lcarners r\\.ere more likely to pronounce lrlt as \"bit)\" (adding an epenthetic vowel) when they were feading wofds in a list, out of context (1987). When thc same words were used in context (such as in paragraph reading or speakiflg), both deletion (c.€1.,\"bi\" for bit) epenthcsis (c.9., \"bit'\") occurred. In list readinli, clcletion of the final consona^nntdintroduces ambiguity-is \"bi\" big, bit, or bid? 'flre addition of the yowel (as in \"bita\") allows the listener to \"rccor,'cr\" the $'ord more easily than deletion of the final consonant. Both types of errors (deletion and epenthesis) shoulcl be a.ldfessed in pfonrnciation work. Whilc deletion cxr difectly lower intelligibility of a word (because part of the wold is missing), cpenthesis (addition of a linal vowel) can lowcr it inclirectl_v, by creating an unnatural rh1-thm; sl.llablcs that should not be present are pfesent. Epenthesis efrors can be addressed by teaching the pronunciation of final consonarts as part of linking (scc Linking Words Togethe! Rhythm). Deletion can be addressed throu€lh error corrcction by focusing students' attention on missing final consonants, and in lessons on -el and -s endings. consoliadls, lle unrcle.Lsed ir nixnr contc s in llnglish (scc Linking [rords lbged]er Rh\\1hln).
cHl\\pfti I ConsDnants 1Ss Native English simplifications of Final consonants. Not an deretions of final consonants are effors. Natiye English speakers do not always pronounce all the consonants in final clustefs. Some simplifications are specilic enough to teach to students (for example, simplification of f\\n I follow rules which are too complex to be tb souncls before an _s encling). Others of much use to stuclents. Howevet if students use the same simplfications that natiye speakers clo, they should not be corfected and required to produce consonants that the teacher himself does not. ZII Simplifications before a/,n s-osunEdnsdaiarreg.rzhrelynopnrotnhosun/mceednbsy/ and clotlres native NAE /klowz/, common plurats, the speakers, even in citation word pronunciations. since the tr, sounds ar.e difficult, students will be grateftll to leam this. In other words, interdental //: is often dropped and the _s endin| mav be lengthened (\"holding the place,'of /r). two fifths f lfs/ She bathes /beyzl the baby. earth's /ars/ orbit Sequences of Consoflant+Stop+Consonant. Nati\\'e speakers often delete the middle stop consonant in sequences of consonant + stop + consonant, as long as the stop is not a grammatical encling (e .g., aske.l /ast/, facts ,,fa_x,,) (Avery and Ehrlich 1992, 87).25 kindness /kaynaY next month /n€ks meno/ softness /sofnev past policies /pas polasiyz/ textbook /t€ksbuk/ left side /l€l sayd/ Middle stops are not omitted when rhe next wor{l begins wirh /h/ (.e .?,..left b ande d, not \" lef h^nd,e(|,, ). The simplilication of consonant + stop + consonant clusters should not be taught to students. Most students have at best only a vague nodon of what a stop is and would not be able to apply this rule in actual speaking. In addition. because students do not pronormce many final cons()ltants thdt should be pronounced. it is unlikely that teachers would feer comfortable presenting a .- e which cannot be applied whiclt might encourage more inappropriate in real speaking and simplification offinal consonants.It is, however, appropriate to reach simplifications of common words like \"ast', for as&ed and ,,gifs\" for gqflg on a word_by_wofcl basis. Final Voiced afrd Voiceless Consonants. Students may clevoice final voiced setxoapmspalendbafrgicamtiayyess,opurnodnoliukenc,i,nbgactkh,,e' amndwpitehasthmeaifyvsooicuenleclsslikceou,,pnetearcpi.a,,ftsS;omfoer ?t Temperley cites some crses $herc th€ slof is oj)litted even $hen it i, a grammdicaL etding 0987. 80).
156 IcH.\\PrtR Consonatlts languages, like German or Russian, do not permit voiced obstruents (stops 'ind fiicatives) in final position; in these langualacs, devoicing is r rule. Cliltlren leaflring their first language also have more difficulqv with final \\ oiced obstruents. Stampe describes the de\\.oicing of final obstrucnts as a natural process of language (1979). Eckman describes linal voiced obstruents as more marked (diJ}icr-rlt) than final voiceless obstruents (1981).Thus,there can be both universal and language-specfic reasons lbr a stuclent's pronunciatioll of Drzg as 'back\" or /:al e as -halJ. \" Researchers have invcstigatecl several issues involving tinal voiccd :urd voicclcss obstments. Yivas reports that his Portuguese, .Japanese. :rnd Mandafin learners werc more likely to devoice final /<I/ and /g/ than linal /b/, bid antl big were more likel]-to lle pronounced as \"hit\" and \"bick,\" and r/1, s?s less likely to be pronouncecl like rip (1997).2'; M.rgcn rrl')rtcd thxt devoicitrg errors did not appear to bc an impoftant contfibutor to accent (1998). Tcxcling students to voice final obstruents is diilicult tbr r$o reasons. First, students have little awareness or control over the articulator responsible for voicing the vocal cortls. In general, articulatory awrrcncss is higher with articulators closcr to the front of the mouth (for example, the lips, the teeth, the tip of the tontiue); thc vocal cords, howe\\rr, arc the articulators lArthest fiom the tiot]t of thc nouth. Sccond, devoicing errors are rnost cornrl1on when the obstruent occurs in fiml position, an already difficnlt position fbr consonant pronunciation. A pedagogical stratclay thet sidesteps these dilliculties is teaclting the vowcl iength clift'erencc that occurs betbte final voiced and voiceless cousonants, rathef than Voicing (or together with \\.oicing).Vowels before voiccd cOnsonants are longe;' than vowels bcfbre voiceless consor]ants. In thc mininal pairs beloq the vorvels in the first column (coming before voicecl sounds) are longer than the vowels in thc seconcl column (coming before voiceless stLtnds). Vowel + Voiced Consonant vowel + Voiceless Consonant raise race feed feet pick pig When studcnts learn to lengthen gowcls befbre voiced consonants, the finxl con- sonant sounds mofe \\-oiced, even if it is not. 26 l)clolcing 0l linrl /d/ flrd /g/ w,r\\ nost Likely wh€n dre consonlnt \\rr€ lteceded b! high r o$'eh
ICHAPTER Cansonants 157 Activity 4,11 Recognition and production of final consonants, finat cons.,nant clusterc, and final voiced consonants level Intermed;ate Worksheet Page 23I Tip fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com_ prehensibility and grammatical accuracy. Description This activity targets deretion errors with finar consonants and vower Iength differences before voiced and voiceless sounds. t.@ StuOents listen to the pairs in part 1 and repeat them. @ 2. Students ljsten to the pairs in part 2 and repeat them. 0f you model the words live, exaggerate the length of the vowel in the first member of each pair and pronounce the final consonants normally_do not overpronounce the final consonants.) Ask students to describe the difference jn vowel length in these pairs. Explain that the fjrst words in part 2 end in voiced sounds (the vocal cords vibrate), and the vowels are longer. The last words in Part 2 end in voiceless sounds (the vocal cords do not vibrate), and the voweJs are shorter. @ 3. Students iisieil to one word from each of the pairs in part 2 again and circJe the word they hear. 4. ln pairs, students practice the words in parl 2. Then each student reads a word from each pair and the partner identifies the word. 5. After the pair work, ask each student to select a pair and say one of the words. The class will decide which word was said. 6. Ask each student to choose a pair of words from the handout and write a sentence containing both words. Students read their sentences to a partner.
158 I]HAPTER Consonants Activity 4.12 How woultl you use 2.7 tti ion dollars? Level Advanced Worksheet Page 232 Tip Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com- prehensibi lity and grammatical accuracy. Description This activity targets final voiced consonants, such as in advise, (to) use, and raise (faxes). Students work in small groups io decide how best to use money in a budget. The sample shows how U.S. tax dol- lars ($2.7 killion) in 2OO7 were spent (and overspent). Any budget, however, could be used, such as a typical lamily's yearly income, your school's budget, or your city's budget. The budgets of many organ izations are available online. 1. On the board, write minimal pairs ihat contrast final voiced and voiceless consonants. The words below are useful for discussing budgets. advise-advice (to) use-a use raise-race halve-half (to)close-close(adi\") 2. l\\4odel the words. Students repeat. Explain that the vowels in the first word of each pair (i.e., before voiced consonants) are longer than those in the second word. Distribute Worksheet 4.I2. Make sure students understand the categories. 4. Ask students to describe how federal tax dollars were used in 2007. Encourage the use of use as a verb. Provjde feedback on final consonants (lengthening the vowel in use). 5. Ask one or two students how they would advise the government to spend tax dollars. Encourage students to use advise and use. Provide feedback on pronunclation. 6. In srnall groups, students advise the government where to spend more or less money. Remind students to pay attention to final consonants. 7. After the group work, ask a representative from each group to report on their decisions. Provide feedback on final consonants. 8. Ask students whether the federal government spent more or less money than it took in (since the percentages add up to more than 100 percent, the governrnent spent more money than it collected). Ask the class how the government should close the budget gap. Try to elicil raise taxes as one possibility.
4CHAPTER Consonants 159 ffi -rrf .na -s Endings V{hat the Teacher Should Know Pronunciation work with -ed and, -s endings reinforces gmmmar and focuses attention on final consonants. -ed endings. The pronunciation of the regular past tense -ect ending <Iepends on the last sound of the yerb.If the last so];tr;rdis /t/ ot /d/,the -e,/ ending is pronounced as a syllable Uad/ or /tdD. ended reminded invited ledl ledl ladl If the last sound of the verb is voiceless (as in /p, k, 0, t,s,l,t[D,the -ed ending is also voiceless and pronounced as a single final consonant, /t/. kicked washed laughed tkv tfi lltl With these verbs, the -ed ending always creates a final consonant cluster. If the student simplifies the cluster by dropping f:trjlal /t/, ttre pronunciation error will sound like a grammar errof. f If the last sound of the verb is a vowel or a voiced consonant (such as ,/b, g, 6, z, 3,q, n, m, l, f V),the -ed ending is pronounced as a single final consonant, /d/. robbed showgd saved planned lbdl ldl luU tnd! When the base verb ends in a consonant, the ending creates a cluster (e.g., planned /ndD. With most adiectives ending in -e4 the pronunciation of rhe ending follows the rules for regular verbs above. interestqdstudents scarqdchildren a lockgd dool ladl tdt N In some adjectives, the -ed ending is pronounced as an extra syllable (/ad/) even when the sound preceding it is rrot /t/ ot /d/. the wicked witch a thlee-legged dog a learngd genlleman /3dt ledl ladl Including these adiectiyes in a pronunciation lesson for advanced students can add interest to the topic (other similaf adjectives are xaretcbed, naked, and, rugge^. In some -ed adjecri]',es, the ending has two pronunciations (for example, beloued /btlevad/ and /btlal\"df).\\n learned, the two pronunciations ha.t'e different meanings:
160 '1:HAPTIR Consonants learned /latnd,/ bcbctuior a:nd q learned /larna(l/ gentletlt4,t (Celce-Mufcia et al. 1996). The -eri ending is also pfonounced /a.l/ jn aclverbs fi)rmcd from ed adiecrives (e.9,., sul )posedl.|, allegedly). -.s Endings. -s endings include plurals, third-person singular present endings, possessives, and contractions of bas antl l'.s. Likc the ed endings, thc pronllnciation of an -s endin[i depends on the last sound of the word to which thc cndir]g is added. wlren the word encls in a sibilant (slike sounds, see Sibilants. above), the ending is pronounced as an extra svllable, /az/ or /t7/. After other words. it is pronounced as r firal conson.rnt. /s/ tt /L/: Thc -s ending is pronoundcccl /az/ ot /tz/ when the last sound of the word is a sibilant (/s, z,l,3.tf, d3D. ki99-kisses r0!g-r0ses wi![-wishes garagg-garages match-matches age-ages The -.s e nding is pronouncccl as r'-oicclcss ,/s/ whe n the last sound of thc word is voiceless. writes /tY The lock's /ks/ broken. lips /pV The -.r ending is pronouncecl as voiced /z/ when the last sound of the worcl is a vowcl or voiced consonant. Sue's /z/ sister pigs lgzl John's /nzl here. Vhen -s endinpls are added to words encling in t/, sounds, nxtive speakers ma1' simplify or delete thc t sound; the -.! ending may be lengtltened to \"hold the plece\" of the th sound.'l'his is a simplification that can be taugl]t to students (sce Final cor.rsonants. Native Spcakcr Simplifications of Finxl (i)nsonants, page 155). The rules fbr when -ed or -s cndings arc pronounced :rs sin[ilc consonants (/t/ or /d/,/s/ ot /z/) peclagogicall_v complex. nr apply the rules, students must know the invcntory of ^vroeiced and r-oiceless sounds in English, an unrealistic expectation. Further, evcn if students have this knowle.lge . it is r-[rlikely that thev wjll have time to apply it in normal speakilrg. A pedagogically si|tpler approach is 1o focus on ['hen the ending is pronouncecl as a separate svllatrlc (,/ad/ or /azl.).With the past, the ending is a syllable wben the verb encls in /t/ ot /d/, otherwisc, it is a final consonant (/t/ or /dD. For the -s endings, the ending is a s1.llable when the word ends in a sibilant sound: otherwise, it is a final consonam Us/ ot /zD. 'this simplified approach also focuscs students attention on thc most noticeable mispronunciation of the er./ endiflg-the inappropriate use of ,/ad/ with r,-erbs like listened. The simplificd n-rle does not capture YOicing distinctions; tltat is. it does not speciti'when -ed, for exanple. is pfonounced /t/ or /d/.yoicrng of the cnding mav be either left to yoicing assimilation (a natural ten.lenc-y for a following sound to takc on thc voicinli of the prcccding sound) or resolved through errof cofrection.
4CHA?TER Consonants 161 Research on final consonants suggests that when a grammatical ending is the only final consonant in a word, as in bols or shoue4 it is tess likely to be cleleted than single final consonants Hansen 2001). that are not endings, as in lose or zrke (Saunders 19g7, In addirion, endings scems to the deleti(xt of -, depend on the function of the -s ending, with verb enclings (e.g., pay) more likely to be delered than noun endings (c.g., daJLls). The larger number of errors witlt the present tense ending (compared to plural or possessive) may reflect the fact tltat the meaning addecl by the yerb ending is alnost always redundant: Mandarory subyect nouns oi pronouns clcarly iodicxte the person and nurnber ofthe Lightbown and Spacla su€igest that vigilant subiect (,lhrone and pafrish 1988).' error coffection may be necessary fbr accurate use of the present -s cnding (1999, 151). Pronunciation of grammatical endings is especially important for students who will use English in academic or pr,,fessional settings. Mf,ny grammar ancl course books for beginning and intermedinte students cover prorr.rrii\"tion of the _ed nnd -s endings; thesc exercises have the bcnefit of using vocabulary and topics that studenb afe aheady co\\.ering in class. Course and grammar books for advanced students, on the other ltand, may not address the pronunciation ofendings. Teachers should not assume that their advanced students know these pronunciation mles. Deleted endinlls may indicate only the general diffic.lty with final consonants and can bc dealt with as such. Howeyer. pronunciations like listen-ed, as a three-svllable wor.1, or toatclt-ed, as a two_s),llable word, probabl,v mean that the sh.rdent does not know hos/ to pronounce the enclings. Activity 4,13 Past endings: Montlay noming wam-ups Level Beginn ing/lniermed iate Worksheet None Tip Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to imorove com_ prehensibility and grammatical accuracy. Desctiption As a regular part of Monday morning classes (once the past tense has been taught), ask students to describe what they did on the weekend, using the past tense. 1. Ask students to describe what they did on the weekend, using the past tense. Provide feed back on pronunciation. 2. List all past tense verbs on the board. (continued on next page) In2t Vith some irrcgulat plural sirbjects, the J ending is not rcduJr{lant rc lollorving senlences, onlvthe ve$ending (orlackoiit) identifi€s re subj€ct as pluttl at sit.rg\\tlxt:7he [hee\\ llohs sick,,Jl)e sheel) llak sick.
162 1cHAPrtR Consanang ActiuitJ' 4.I3 contin ed 3. Ask students to divide the past verbs into three categories: verbs where the -ed ending is a syllable, verbs where the -ed ending is a stngle sound, and irregu lar verbs. 4. Students check their lists and ask questions if necessary. Ask individual students to read the verbs from one of the categories. Provide feedback on pron u nc iation. CONCLUSION Pefhaps mofe than any othef afea of pfonunciation, stereotyped pronunciations involve mispronunciations of consonants. For this reason, as well as to improve comprehensibility, it is important to address them. Teachers can often pro\\'ide visual clues to the pronunciations of consonants by exaggerating the shape of the mouth, using hand llestures, or providing simple diagrams. The most pervasive and persistent errors with consonants occur when they are in final position. Errors with final consonants can lower students' comprehensibility as well as their grammatical accuracy. Teachers can use both pronunciation actiyities and frequent error correction to help students pronounce consonar\"iis in this difncult position. Although controlled practice of consonants is important for students to gain skill, they also need the opportuniry to use their new skills in connected speech, in activities that mo.t'e them bevond the domain of the word.
CHAPTER In a discussion of TV shows and entertairlers, a low_intermediate French student said that he likecl Joe pardee. I asked who Joe pardee \\fas, ancl he said, .No, Joe Pardee.\" I was puzzled and wrore ,Joe par<lee,' on the board. He said no. the show .Joe Pardee. 'I'he student meant the game show Jeopar(ty. Although my misunderstanding involved more than rhe effof in the first vowel, I might have understood the intended word if that vowel had been closer to its English pronunciation (of I might have guessed ,Jay parclee'). Pronunciation difficr tics with English vowels are widespread, in part because English has a relatively large number of yowels. The diagrim below shows the vowels of North American English (NAI. spokcn in the Unired States and Canada) and their relative positions in the mouth.r Bebw the diagmm are the three diplrthongs (complex vowels): ,/aV (as il.t houD, /ay/ (as in bigb), .and /oy/ (ds jn may differ &oJLl). Because of dialect yariation, some native speakers, vowels somewhat from those shown below [:] bought Diphthongs lawl how /ay/ high loyl boy In contrast to consonants, vowels are procluced with little obstfuction of the airflow.Vowcls also havc longer durations than consonants (Mehler et al.1996). English vowel differences are procluced by varying the height of the body of the tongue (high, mid, or low); the frontness or. backness of the tongue (froni, t consonantsThese positions dfti altered sont€\\|h at bl adj accnt 1 63
164 5(HAt'rER Votlels central, back);the degree of muscular tension (tense or lax): antl the rounding of the lips (rountlecl or unrounded). The grid imposed o\\er the mouth in the diagram above shows how vowel height, frontness,/backness. and tension/laxness are reflected in NAE \\.ow(jls. All English b;rck vowels are rounded, xs they are in most languages. VOWEL PERCEPTION AND PRONUNCIATION BY ENGLISH I.EARNERS Like most unfamiliar features of a ner' language. vowels and vowel contrasts that do not occur in the student's nativc langua€le are likely to be difficult. However, both perception and pronunciation of English vowels improve as proficiency, exposlrre to English, and use of English increase (Bohn ancl Flegc 1992,Ingram and Park 1997, Flege and MecK:ry 2004). Cenoz and Lecumberri report that practice with listening ancl discriminatiofl improyes the accuracy with whicll students hear unfarniliar vowel contrasts (1999). lVhen vowels and vowel contrasts are heard more cleadl', students haYe more accurate \"perceptual models\" on rvltich to base pronunciation (Flege, Ilohn, and Jang 1997,Ing$m and Park 1997).The /il/'/r/ conrrlst (as in lealte'liue) is a new and difficult contrast for many students.If a student is unsure of how the vowel in /lae sounds (e.g.,1/lre in NeuY('rk),he fiq- substiture his closcst native-langlrage vowel (especially if he is a beginner) or pronounce the vowel ofle Na) orl ollc occdsion and another way on another.Itrithout a clear perceptual model of the Yowel. he will not have a clear tafget for pronunciation. An example from onc of my students is the pronunciation of the last yowel in democrctt (/a/).The student, ;r native speaker of Mandarin, was talking about the two-party system in the llnited States. He used the word clemocrctt six times in two minutes, and pronouncecl the tlird Yowel in that word in five different w.rys: \"democrease\" (once, also nispronouncing the final consonant), \"dcmocrit\" (once), \"dcmocrate\" (twice), \"dcmocrais\" (once), and \"den.rocr.rt' (once, with the third vowel pronounced correctll). Almost all of his substitLrtions were frot.tt vowels (like English /a/). One explanation for his variable pronunciation is that he wasn't sure llow /e/ sounds and thereforc didn't have a clcar pe|ceptual target at v/hich to aim his pronunciations. Since accumte perception of vowels is linked to more accurate Pr,)nunciJtion, work with vowel perception is important. Ilowever, vowcl perception develops llraduall,v. 'i9ork with pronunciation can still be cffcctiYe cven when the vowel (contmsl) is not clexd)' perceived. Many students who cannot hear a vowel particularly well can nevertheless lexrn to pronounce it more accurately once tbey understand how it is made, ancl more accurate pronunciation may lead to more accurate pefception.2 '] Perceltion lna-r aho lag production $ith consonxnl\\ (see Colronalb f4e 146).
5CHAtrtR Vo\\,\\/els 165 Vowel Pronufrciation ifbcnreaonEcntkntragIvanlloinsvwgdhoeewwnclseeeornlra(sdt/lrD,sa(.f/wlraor//rnobbtwolt]ote/,otl,w/co/eou/lns/ptr(boa/otisryotslrkab,aerr/eeoatpw,be/o/crtl/tah:iglaicou|lgei,fiT,c/i;/Jcreluilyyltb/mofbouoaigrieths,tt)/ium,€d/speibonnetrcsttea, ;n/rmEnt da/thnlbaiyeanqotum)f etaohnnsettd Tense-ktx aoluel contrLtsts are also diflicult for students, in particular the pronunciation of lax vowels.a Tense Lax /lyl leave hl five ley/ lale kl bt /uw/ Luke lu/ toak f\\tdltttrtoeeohehhernrawoneeqesulpsueaevmeismi-oxlorT)loianw,/ndohvtxurhegoeoui/teslhwwpstm(th.,aLeernbetioWrplrs(somslrrata.eid.ihoistnxtyThdemedlhtiuodeutueecbcfnesneaaisl)tncsinhcepuelgiiktesstleaatvtlpartfrhaoeolrdwrei,otlneseiedrgltnalthlguautslsxheeece,xioenettt(\\ndiehoe.smo.rrenftaeehwoogDltstilroeugyietrtfnelehofmeogatcromtucarooehhnwerunoerceeca\\nali.slmeetrnafrerdsespdxuorleopasnttmihocnscxatliauewettltiiildpin.onaapcontrrFealtdlessheotnihneidesrttaaneisotefp-srmhaonexsierooasports.nfhmrfre,oaeeehtrpfarhrpee.lcdeoeqtfweaih,suoolnmseihwimrtftoier.ooliatrctdponut,hslhrnstsephrte.gho/sWo)iruye,ceosp,ehenut/itrth)noetnoi,(oetnndadwetngesuhrtliucahtuciiohlennxee)sf ( @rcaYe/i,/ @''\"\"\" r\"\"u,Wi.,--r--;-,----,-;_ @tarc/ev/ @*,n, / $eluke/uv @ bok/u/ ii rl.iI Ir sone dialecl!. {relc\"\\1. !t /q/ 0ol) is a Lrack or centmlback \\,0$r1 (rte$,and lhrlich 1992, J0). ,t,r Jp ir,-'d\\\\o*el. t,,,U,
166 5IHAPTER Vowels Vowel Spellings The sound-spelling correspondence of Entilish vowels adG a ler-el of difficr ty to pronunciation. My student's mispromurciation of the first \\-o\\\\ el i-fr.leopard! was probably the result of its unusual spelling in that word (i.e.. a -spelling pronunciation) Sound-spelling correspondences are complex partlv because there are only slx vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y'\\ used to spell more than a dozen vowel sounds. In addition, English has \"borrowed\" many words from other languages along with their spellings (suite, for example, is a French borro\\r'ing). Finally, linguistic changes in the vowel system, most notably the Great Vox'el Shift, produced new pronunciations. bul old spellings were relained.i Students should be aware of both the common spellings of !-owels and the exceptions to the conrmon patterns; spelling is coYered in many textbooks, especially at the beginning and intermecliate levels.6 Intermediate and advanced students who hn\\'e learned the comlnon spelling patterns ma still need work with the exceptions. Phonetic Symbols Phonetic symbols are used in pronunciation tertbooks and in ESL dictionaries. Thcy proyide a means fo| representing sounds unambiguously and are especially useftll when teaching vowel pronunciation (because of the complex spelling rules for vowcls).7 It is not necessary for students to memorize a phonetic alphabet. Most textbooks do not assume or require memorization of a phonetic alphabet, and symbols are always accompanied by sample words. Different phonetic conventions sometimes give rise to diffefefit symbols for the same sound. Some textbooks, for example, use ,/ayl to represent the boldface vos/els in time or iron; ot]l'erc use /ail. rvith ,/ayl, the second part of the vowel (the glide ending) is represented with the consonant symbol /y/; wilh /ai/, it is represented with the vowel symbol /i/. For some pronunciation problems, one sltnbol is pedagogically more useful than another. In helping Chinese students correct mispronunciations of time as \"Tom,\" the symbol /ail is more useful because the second part of the vowel iri tlnxe sounds like /i,/. HoweYer, the symbol /ay/ is rnore nseftrl when showin€i the pronunciation of iron,,/ayarn/, because the second part of the vowel sounds more consonantal.In this book, alternate symbols (to those shown in the diagnm on page 163) are explained and suggested when pedagogically appropriate. A comprehensive list of phonetic symbols and their alternates is provided inside the front cover of this book. 5 The lowel aLlemafons in sane satll\\,, u'lie Lidlh,lt]ld metetmehic, ior €ti^mple, arc resuliJ 0l the Crcal \\b$€l Shift. 6l,rator and Robinelt (1985) inclLrde ayery cornplete |st ofWelLings for $ressed vowels. The rules are aLranged br lclte4 rathet than by sound. 1 In the Silent val lovels are ilrsocieFd wifi pafiicular colon to represent theni unamblguousL,v; sce Gattegno (1912).
5cHAprER Vowels 167 Dialects and yarieties of English English dialects r'ary more in pronunciation than they do in grammar or vocabulary, and vowels show more dialect variation than consonants (Ayerv and oEthhdeircshn1o9n9n2a).tivSepo(kfoefneiEgnngalischceinntcsl)u.dEessLmteaancyhyearsriewtiehso,sesosmtueclneanttisyesplOeaiaktedicfftej raennOt natiye languages are faniliar with the difficulty students have understanding classmates from other language backgrounds, especially at the beginning of thi tefm; as the semestef progresses, mutual undefstanding improves, even though accents remain (see also Gass and Varonis 19f14 for the role that familiarity ptays; intelligibility). since many of our students will use E'glish to communicate with other nonnative speakers, it is impoftant to expose tltem to clifferent yarieties of English.Thcre are a number of web sites that provide rDeciaolredicntgsSoocf ideitfyfe,sren.Wt deibalescittes, and accents; see, for example, the American www.ameficandialect.org or the University of Kansas,s International Dialects of English Archiye, http:/ /web.ku.edufid,ea/. Bringing dialect infotmation into the classroom not only adds variety and intefest, but sometimes provicles with \"dialect altematives', that make stuclents pronunciation easier. For cxample, many speakers of NAE use the sane yov/el (/o/) in pairs like caugbt-cot. The pronunciarion of cougbt with /o/ (as opposed to n,/, a vcwel used by native speakers in the Northeast) is acceptable and often easier fof Students to learn than,6,/. It does no harm for stuclents to speak English with features from different dialects of \\.arieties as long as thc features are intelligible and n()f stigmatizr(l Natiye English reachers should teach their ow1.r dialects, pointing out differences between their vowels and textbook \\.owels. Nonnative English teachers will probably not pronounce all English vowels like a native speaker and ma,v prefer to focus on vowel contrzsts they feel confoftable teaching. In addition, tapes and other recordings should be used in class. Interactiofl of Vowels and Other Areas of pronunciation Vowel pronunciation can be affected by neighboring sounds as well as bv stress. R- ancl /-colored l.owels, discussed bektw, are examples of how a following consonant can affect vowel pronunciation. Voiced and voiceless consonants can alter the length of preceding stressed vowels. A following voiced consonant (as in peas ot bad) lengttrens the vowel; a following voiceless consonant (as In peace or Z2at) shortens the vowel (see Final Voiced and Voiceless Consonants, page 155). The vowels in some words (e .g., and, can, or) are reducecl to /a/ in connected speech unless the speaker giyes them special emphasis. The conjunction arz4 for example, is pronounced /an,/ in normal speaking: I'll hatte bacon ,n eggs (see Reductions, page 72).
168 5:HAPTER vowels TIPS FOR TEACHING VO\\VELS The si-x tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helping students improye their pronunciation of vowels.The tips are based on how yowels afe pfonounced and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers. The remainder of this chapter presents the specific vo$/els and vor',sel contrasts listed below. The six tips above are further explained and reflected in the context of specific Yowels. [] sprctrtc vow+s t. Front yowels:/iyl an(l /r/ (leaueJiue) t Front vowels: ,/e1y' afld /e/ (Jaait-u)et) J. 4. Front vowels: /a/ (bad), /a/ /E/ (had-bead) ^nd 5. Front and centnl vowels:/e /, /E/, /a/,and /o/ (kept-cap-cup-cop) 6. Central vowels: /3 / a'nd /o/ (not-nut) 7. Back vowels:/u\\V,/ /u/ (boot-book) ^nd 8. Back vowel:,/ofl (go) 9. Back vowel: A/ (cauglit) 10. Diphthongs:/ayl 1tigb), /a'gg/ (hotr), dnd /oy/ (boy) 11. R-colored vowels and /-colored vowels 'We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and provide suggestions for teaching most of them. In some cases, the suggestion is a classroom activiry In other cases, it is error correction. Suggestions for error
5cHAprER Vowels \"l69 correction are short enough to use when students are engaged in nonpronunciation actiyities.They are also useful for addressing pronunciation problems that only one or two of your Students experience. ffi u\"on, Vo*.ls: /iy/ atd /r/ (I.eaue-kae) \\Xlhat the Teacher Should Know The vowel conrrast in leaue-liue is difficult fbr most students to hear ancl pronounce. Since there are nany minimal pairs like leaue_liue, and each vowel occurs in many words, the vowels and the contrast afe pedagogically important. Perception of /iy/ alrd h/. ln many languages a single pure vowel ,/i/ (e.g., the vowel in Spanish s/, \"yes\") corresponds to English /iy/ and / . Many students identiry the tense \\.owel /iyl as ,,similar,, to their natiye-language vowel. Some students report that //re sounds llke lectue, suggesting that /iy,/ and,/r/ are heard as the same vowel (like the native language vowel). Other students say that liae and, leaue sonnd. diffbrent, but rhat they are nor sure v/hat the difference is. st l orher students say that sometimes /r/ sounds similar to,/i)y' and sometimes different. Although most students feel that /r/ is more difficult than /Iy/, improyements in pefception and production may be greatef with,/r,/ than with /iy/ (Lax.e 1994), perhaps reflecting diflerent amounts of attention paid to rhe two vowels by learners. Str-rdents are likely to direct learning efforts toward a vowel they perceive as new or different from their native-language vowel (hence. something to learn); a vowel like /iy/, ss'hich is often pefceiyed as similaf to the native-lan€iuage vowel, may receiye less attcntion, since the student feels she already \"knows\" it (Flege 1987). The lax vowel /r/ is easier to hear when it is followed by a yoiced sound (as in kicl and is), which adds length to the vowel. Following yoiceless stops and nasals make the yowel more difficult to hear (Lane 1994).8 Easier io hear: his, live, fish, big Harder to hear: sit, quick, th n, I p Pronunciation of /t/ and /ry/. Tbe diagram on page 170 shov/s the relative heights of the body of the rongue for /iyl and /t/.The rdised part of the tongue is a little higher and farther front for the tense vowel /iy/ (teaue) rlT n for /t/ (.liue).For ,/r,/ the tongue is a litrle lower (i.e., the mouth opcns a little) and more central than for /iy/.'fhe lips rclaxed for /t/ and spread (requiring muscular tension) for /iy,/. The difference in^rliep shapes for difference. Many students /iyl and /r/ is a secondary 3 lbiceless stops are /p, I, v. the iiIxt sounds in l/e, /ra */e. Engl ish nasals ilclude /li. n, rl /, the last soLrnds in .ro4 Jrrre, and srrg \\bwels lollo$€d by I'oiceless stops (as inpaltl1 p/i*) .rn r rnder tlrrn thosr to loued bv rorced stops (ar )npeas pig);see also !\" 1C0n'onan6. n .
170 5IHAPTER Vowels afe able to rclax their lips and produce a tense vowel. (This is not difficult. Try keeping )'our lips relaxed and say eat; then spread your lips afld say /t) The glide ending ol /iy/ Uy/) is created by a short front gliding motion ofthe tongue and iaw A pure (steady state) /i,/ lacks this front gliding motion. leave /ly/ li]ie /r/ (/-*-i-#:\\ t,7 @ EFL students may be taught to pronounce /I/ as a short version of /iyl. Although /i)y' is sornewhat longer than /I/, native listeners pay more attention to the difference in vowel quality (the sound of the vowel) than to vowel length; /I/ is not just a short l'ersion of /iyl (Flege, Bohfl, and Jang 1997, Escudero and Boersma 2004, Cebrian 2006).The difference in tongue position for /iy/ and /r/ is what creates the difference in \\.owel quality, and students must learn the tongue positions for the two vowels in order to pronounce pairs like liue-leaue correctly. Because the /iy/Jr/ contast is important and difficult, it should be taught to students at all leyels and usually needs to be reviewed. with beginning and intermediate students. classroom work should focus on /I/. the \"new\" vowel. Beginning and intermediate students are concerned about this vowel and ready to work on it. Adyanced students who pronounce /I/ accurately in common words like big ot kitcben benefit from practice with words like indiuidual or ambiguous, where stressed /r/ is not the flrst r'owel in the word.These words may also have cognates in the natiye language pronounced with the pure vowel /i/.9 Most advanced students need work on the glide endlng (/y/) of /iy/. Perhaps because /iyl is heard as a \"similar\" vowel, students often substitute their native-language pure vowel /i/.The use of a pure vowel in words Iike beacb and sreet creates the embarrassin€! pronunciations that many students are familiar with. The glide cncling of ,/iyl is also important when /iyl is followed by another vowel, as in uideo or pis.no.In these words, the glide ending joins to the next vowel, creating a new syllable and functioning as a linking sound:videvo, pivano. This also occurs across word boundaries (as in see vit), and therefore has an impact on word-to-word linking, which is part of rhythm (se e Linking Adiacent rwords, page 54). ' Cognates are pain ol *'ods lrcm diftircnt lengueges that have similar soun& and meanings (e.g., English 4aa1d, and,lrench tluahq
5CtlAtrcR Vo\\\\,els 171 Spellings of /iy/ and /t/. The spelling of /r/ is consistent ancl a good clue pronunciation of the vowel, althougl.r there are somc important exceptions. Exceptions: busy, business, buil<l, guilry gym, women, pretty /i]y' is spelled in a varieqv of ways: Exceptions: key, people, techniqr-le, medium 5,lActivity /iy/-/ : Presenting pronunciation level Low lntermediate Worksheet Page 232 fip Direct students, attention to vowel characterislics that they can see. Description Students use diagrams showing both lip shape differences and tongue height differences. Since differences in lip shape are secondary pronunciation differences, students may still mispronounce the vowels even though they use appropriate lip shapes. The procedure ou tned below focuses more on hl lhan hyl. 1. Model the words live and leave, lengthening both vowels, exaggeratrng ljp relaxation with live, and the d jfference they see. spreadjng the lips with leave. Ask siudents to describe 2. Ask students individually lo say live and leave. 3. Direct students' attentjon to the cross,sectjonal diagram showing the two vowels on Worksheet 5.1. Ask them whether the tongue is higher for /r/ or tor liyl. 4. Tell students to start with liyl and leI their tongues drop a lit e to pronounce /r/.
172 5.H^PIER vowels Activily 5.2 /iy/-/r/: How Do You Spe Live? Level All Worksheet Page 233 Tip Provide students with controlled praciice to develop skills with vowels. Description This spelling activity practices both /iyl and h/ and the pronunciation of letter names, necessary for spelling. 1. From the ist on Worksheet 5.2, select minimal palrs involving /iyl and /r/ which are appropriate for your students' level of vocabulary. 2. Present the pronunciaiion ol liyl and A/ (see page 171). 3. Write the selected minima pairs on the board in two columns; number the coLumns \"1\" and \"2.\" The samples below are appropr ate for beginning to low lntermed iate students. 12 eat ir seat sit leave live reach rich 4. ]\\4odel the / y/ words. Students repeat. Then model the /i/ words. Students repeat. 5. Say a word from each palr and ask students to tell you the column number of the word you said. Repeat if students have difficu ty. 6. Ask each student t0 choose a word for the c ass to identify. Provide feedback on pronLrnciatlon. For errors with /]yl, wr te \"r i\" on the board and tell students to say /i/ twice without break ng the voice and stressing the flrst /i/ (see page 1.73 Ior beach and sheet). For errors w th /r/, tel students to lower the tongue; reinforce the verbal instructions by lower ng your hand. 7. lvlodel the pa r work. Choose a word from one of the pairs and ask a student \"How do you spe I nch?\" (For low level students, write the questlon on the board: How do you spell-?) The student should spe I the word he heard. Choosing a different word, ask another student the same quest on. B. Pair work. lf possible, pair students who speak different nat ve anguages. Students who speak the same nat ve language can sometlmes recogn ze the ntended word even if it ls mispronounced. Students take turns asklng about the spelling of words on the board. Instruct thern to pronounce the words carefully so their partners know whlch words to spell. Circu ate among the pa rs and prov de feedback on pronunciation. g After ihe pair work, review the activity with the whole class. Provide feedback on pronunciation of the vowels.
5cllAPrER Vowels 173 Activity 5.3 Ptoblen words: Beach ard sheet. Level lntermed iate/Advanced Tp Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or groups of words which contain the vowels. Worksheet None Description This activity focuses on pronouncing /iyl tn beach and sheef, two words of concern to ESL students. When students use a pure vowel (/i/) in these words, English listeners are likely to hear the lax vowel h/ (and the lax vowel counterparls ot beach and sheef). For these words, which end in consonants, the symbol /iil, with stress marked on the first \"i,\" is more helpful than /iyl. 7. Wrile beach and sheefon the board and pronunciation spellings below the VOWEIS: beach sheet ll 2. lVodel the words, lengthening the vowels. Explain that in English, /iyl is not a single sound. Students should pronounce this vowel with two /i/ sounds, stressing the first. The voice does not break between the two vowels. 3. Ask each student to say the two words. 4, Ask students to volunteer expressions involving beach or sreef (for example, beach blanket, beach party, beach ball, a sheet of paper, spreadsheets, and sheet music). 5. ln groups, students plan a beach party, describing the place, food, games, and other activities thai will create a good beach party. 6. After the group work, ask selected students to report on their beach party. Provide feedback on the pronunciation ol beach. ffi nront Vo*e lsz /ey/ and /e/ eoait-u;et) What the Teacher Should Know The vowel contrast in u,ait-uet (/ey/-/e/) is a new contrast for many students. The native language vowel corresponding to English /eyl may also be a pure vowel /e/ (as in Spanish pe.so). For most students, tr.e /ey/-/E/ contrast (as trit u,ait-uet) is easief to hear and pronounce tban the /iy/-/r/ contrast. The glide /y/ in /ey/ (as tn Laait) is also easier for students to hear than the glide ending in /iyl (as in ubeat). /eyl is a tense vowel and /e/ is a lax yowel. The body of the tongue is higher and farther front for /ey/ than for /x/.In addition, the lips for /eyl are more spread (requiring more muscular tension) th'ln for /E/.
174 5cuAPr[R vawels With Spxnish students, the symbol ,/ci,/ (rather than /evl) should be used since el is the nomal spclling of this vowcl ir Spanish. Chinese students have persistent problems pronouncing the glide ending of /ey,/ wlren it occurs beforc /n/ or /m/, prollouncin€i errplain and ndmq for example, like \"explen\" and \"nem\" (see also Diphthongs bclow). Spellings of /ey/ ajnd /e/. There is ovcdap in the spellings of /cy/ and /x/,wlricl] can be a source of mispronr.lncirltion. Tbe letter sequence ed, lbr example, is a spclling for /e1y' Qts in break) as well as /e/ (as iD breakfast). babl', papcq fatnous, table, vacatior] (word ends in sitent e) late, take, mistake, plane, strange tr41n, rain, wait, afraid play, say, today, maybe glght, vqin, nqlghbor the-v, convey break, great Exceptions: gauge, b4ss (low note) e (followed by a consonant) h4!{, ak, f4i!, chair breakfast, he a\\,y, wcather Excepdons: many,4ny, says, again, friend, guess
S( HAprtR t/owels \"l7S levelAclivity 5.4 /iy/-/ey/-/tl Sotting sound and spetting lntermediate Worksheet page 233 TipDescription reach exceptional or confusing spellings associated with vower sounds, This activity focuses on overlapping spellings of /iyl, ley/, andk/. 1. Direct str.tdents'attention to the tist of words on Worksheet 5.4. @2. Students listen to the words and repeat them. -3. ctleniryc/pu,aloajrrtse/,sttstaaunndddenmwtorsidtdeeelescaidwcehorwwdshoFradtshrennretten.hdueed\"u.pnpde.prji,nieudi l,eotte;;rsi;;a;rre;pi,ronorhunecteedac/ihyel,r Wj;T:ir;[ add the pronuncjatjon i.\"|,,i],Jj:lsd1\"0, corumn headings from *5. spwAarsoamkrcdetasicvvebooewlsJueaonlyn.tiegneginr thttoheecwocomorledusmt,opntrshoenW^obhuoenancrrdna.g.llCetlhaasecs-hmwwaootrerJsduwrinu/lla tell the volunteer which i,'l.'OJuro, UrO\"nU corumn with the H uron, Vowels; /r/ and /e/ (tticl_heatl) \\I/hat the Teacher Should Know When students first lc, conruse ir \\\\.ith /t/,,,; ;1,',i;:i;';,.liffi,,j':\",\",:l:l#,:'i.glil,:t:\";ffi if'if*,I#\",.::-1:::ln1#*:t*-iu'l1t \"l,\"l,;.';l'r,:'.v:X'j,l1.s:i:tiiiol,n $::t'6'h,l',:*:: jllsle:e,/,,i.l1X. 1 1 1*o;ni 7.l rn\" \"r,',.,.i.1i:;; ERR0R C0RRECTt0N | /iy/ -/r/_/e/ i/P:r:/rof\\fboiul:e:nm:JHj:' :iyrtrousuudrcecsctnsusdtioennt{spp(r,roconnpoorruutbnntcccreenss*\"Dbrie0r q'l.itkole.ll<-be-eba/rtt.,,LruaNs'titrltuu)c.ctttl]h,ioeuosl trsu*tdu.ed,ne_tnrtt,oroloswaer.rftro llJ#fi,.T\"\" \"tudent pronounces 6rlr like ,er. Instruct the student to raise the l;J.ltfi*},,\" \"tudent pronounces ,er like br?. Instruct the snrdent ro lower the ffLm:1ru:HTj-|?:iil:es !,,e'rike u''tit' rnsttuctthe student to drop
\"176 5:HAPTER Vowels the problem is one of pronunciation and does not persisr long. Natiye speakers of Arabic may produce a vowel that is midway between the Yo\\l'els of / an(l /E/. [R n\"orrt Vo*\"lsz /a/ (tcad), /e/ and /e/ (batl-head) \\T/hat the Teacher Should Know The vowel in bad, /a/, is the lowest front vowel in English.The body of the tongue is low and front in the mouth. and the lips are spread.The tip of the tonLue rests behind the bottom teeth and pushes down and fors'ard. For most students, /a/ is a new vowel. It may be confisecl in perception and pronunciation with /€/ (as in bed) ot /o/ (as in body), <lepending on the nati1'e language of the student. Native speakers of Hindi,Vietname se , Korean, Chinese, Portuguese, and Polish, for example, may pronounce bad with a vowel closer to that in Zred Native speakers of French, Japanese, Spanish, and Greek, on the other hand, may pronounce words like &ad with a vowel closer to th^t n bod! Uo/) ot buddy Ua/). Students who haye been taught British English may use the British pronunciation /o/ in words like laugh or can't, a \\owel that sounds closer to NAI /o/. This pronunciatiofl should be corrected if it makes the word harder to recognize (which may occur when there are other errors in addition to the unexpected British pronnnciation). Spellings of /e/. The spelling of /a/ is very consistent. Once students are familiar with the common pattern, spelling is rarely a source of mispronunciation. a (followed by a consonant) Exceptions: laugh, plaid, auntlo Activity 5.5 /E/-/E/; Presenting /a/had and /e/nead levels All Worksheet Page 234 Tip Djrect students' atlention to vowel characteristics that they can 0escription Guided by mouth shapes for the two vowels, students learn to pronounce the difference between /ai and /€/. 1. Present the diagrams ol lal and /€/ on Worksheet 5.5. r0ln some dralects arzl is prcnounced bny.
|HAPIER 5 Vowets l// Actiuitf 5.5 contnued 2. lVodel had slowly, exaggerating the openness of the mouth and the spreading of the lips. Ask students whether the mouth is more open or closed Ior had. Ask students whether the lips are spread or relaxed. 3. lVodel head,Iollowed by the same questions: Are the ltps morc open or closed? Are the lips more relaxed or spread? 4. Ask each student to say the pair had,head. Provide feedback on pronuncjation: . had lel sounds like head ltl: Open your mouth more. . cap lal sounds like cop lolt Push your tongue front. Spread your lips. . cap lel sounds like cup lalt Open your mouth more and spread your lips. Push your tongue down and front. Activity 5.6 /a/-/th Staying healthy level High lntermediate/Advanced Worksheel None Tip Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or groups of words which contain the vowels. Description The sample activity is taken from Focus on Pronunciation 3 (Lane 2005c, 20) and provides communicative practice with words related to health issues, containjng the vowels /a/ and /e/. After studenls have practiced the two vowels in conirolled activities, they discuss possible causes for becoming overweight or obese, using words like fat, calories, fast food, exercise, and genetic propensity, which contain these vowels. 1. The list shows some of the causes cited for overweight and obesity. Check the three that you think are most responsible for these problems. The bold leiters are [a] or [€]. fata. eating too much g. lack of information _b. taking in too many calories h. genetic propensity c. eating too much sugar i. poverty foodd. eating too much fast l. wealth e. lack of exercise Other f. watching too much TV 2. Compare the causes you checked with your classmates, Do you agree? Talk about your choices and listen while others explain their opinions. Look at the list again, Would you check the same three causes now?
178 5cHAPr[R vowels Front and Central Vowels. /e/ , /e/ , /a/, atd /a/ (kept-cap-cup-cop) l*/hat the Teacher Should Know The vowels 1n kept-cap-cup-cort are pronounced in the lower front-central region of the mouth.'lhe vowels in kept UE/) and cap (/e/) are fror]t vowels (see /E/-/E/ on p|rge 176), and the votvels in cup (/a/) and cop (/a/) are central vowels.r I Diaflrams of the lip shapes associated with these vowels are very ellbctive in teaching their pronunciation. Most students who can duplicate thc lip shapes can usually pronounce the \\.owels accumtel)'. Some combination of these four vowels is a problem for most students. The quartet of vowels can be presented as a review alter coverinp; specific pairs, snch as /t/-/a/ (bed-bad) aJrd /a/-/o/ (.^s it7 nut-not). Activity 5.7 /zl /al /al and /o/ (kepl-cap-cup-cop): What hugs you? Level Adva nced/l nterm ed iate Worksheet Page 234 Tips Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see. Base communicative practice wlth problem vowels on words or groups of words which contain the vowels. Description This activiiy can be used to review pairs of vowels already practiced. lf you prefer to use three rather than four vowels, choose the three that calse your students the most difficulty. In many classes, these are lel (as in cap\\, lal (as in cup), and /o/ (as in cop). In groups, students discuss things that \"bug\" them. 1. Prepare a llst of phrases of bothersome behavrors (e.g., stand ng in l ne). Choose phrases that include words wiih some of the vowels (/:/, lal,lal, or /o/). The examples below are common complaints. What bugs you ? ltl Words: kept lal Words: cap /a/ Words: cup lal Words: cop cell phones stqnding in line muggy weather hot weather tests imrayfflicaJnadmlosrd studying rny brqther my boss12 telemarketers rny jqb Lr The vovrl in .ol /o/ is also dcscribcd ru a central-bxck r,orcl (Avc[ rnd lihrlich 1992) b/t'Sonre speaken pronounce the vo\\reLtrr rr.$ as
5.HAPTER Vov/els 179 Actiri1' 5.7 contlnued 2. In class, present the dragram of the four vowels on Worksheet 5./. Dernonstraie ihe vowels, starting wiih kept and cap. Far kept, keep the opening of the mouth small and spread the lips a little. For cap, exaggerate the lip spreading and openness of the mouth, Students repeat. l\\4odel cup and cop, keeping the lips very relaxed. Students repeat. Explain that the lips are relatively spread for kl and lal; for /a/ and /o/, the llps are relaxed. 3. Demonstrate djfferences in the openness of the mouth. l\\lodel cup and kept, keeping the opening of the mouih small. Students repeat. lvlodel cap and cop, exaggerating the openness of the moLth. Students repeat. Explain that for /e/ and /e/, the mouth is relatively closed. For lal and lal, the mouth ls open. 4. ln addition to the lip diagrams, you can present the dlfferences using a grid. 5. Ask each student to say the four words: kepi, cap, cup, and cop. Provide feed back on pronunciation: . Cop sounds too close to cupi Open your mouth more for cop. . Cap sounds too close to copi Spread your lips more for cap. lVove your tongue front. . Cap sounds too close to kept; Open your mouth more Ior cap. . Cop sounds too close to cap: Move your tongue back for cop. 6, On the board, write \"What bugs you?\" Below that, make four columns conesponding to the four vowels. Then write the preselecied phrases containing the target vowels (or use the phrases above) in the columns, underlining the targei vowels. Explain vocabulary (e.g., \"bug\" is slang for \"bother\"). Tell the class that the phrases on the board describe things that bug people. 7. lVodel the words and phrases in each column. Students repeat. Provjde feed back on the vowels. 8. Students list on a piece of paper three things that bug them. Encourage them to use words and phrases frorn the board or add their own pet peeves (whether they contain the target vowels or not). 9. Students work in small groups and compare the things that bug them. 10. After the group work, ask several students what bugs them, Provide feedback on pronunciation of the target vowels.
180 scHcPrER vo\\^els [6] C.nt\"ul vo*.lsz /a/ and /a/ (nut-not) What the Teacher Should Know /e/ nut. Thc vowel ln nut (/a/,\"sc]n:wa\") is a mid-central r.'orvel.The tongue is in the center of the mouth, neithef high nor low, front nor back.The lips are sLightly open and relaxed.The tongue position for ,/a,/ is close to the rest position of the tongue. nu.t /a/ (H-={.-\\ \\ ,-/ This vowel occurs as a stressed vowel in words like nut and nrtmber and, as the yowel of most unstressed s)4lables, as in \"ag6\" (ago) and, \"jlz,las\" Cjealous), makinEi it the most cofirmon yowel in English (see Unstressed Vowels, Word Stress).1l It is also the pronunciation of the English hesitation word rzl:, used when speakers need time to think. In this book, the symbol /e/ is used for both the stressed vo\\rel in number an(I the unstressed yowel in cfgo (see also I)auer 1993), Other authors use the symbol /A/ for tbe stressed vowel (as j.n n mbet m6ther) and /a/ for unstressed vowels (as rn !!Eo, jealous).In some NAE dialects, the tongue may be slightly lower for the stressed version /A/ and slightly higher for the unstressed version ,/a/. These differences are unimportant for ESL students. For many students, /a/ is a new vowel.Japanese, French, and Spanish students may conflise lt with /o/ (as in not). Polish students may confttse it with /€/ (as in net). Greek students may confuse it with /a/ ot /o/. /o/ not. The l'owel in not father (/o/) is a low central or lorn back-central vowel (Avery and Ehdich 19^9n2d,,30).The tongue is in the center or back center of the mouth;the mouth is open, and the lips are relaxed. not /o/
5( HAprER Vov,tels \"lB1 pl(\"i^orkso\"enisnuoSSnuptpnucoaddiLan,etnieilsootsshncpkewob,cerhsiacobPalloyuhotsa,lieinysbehoow,tff,oirwsrpsdpothseslilecslwianihbhrgnlee.aer,SerdetautBnhdsdree,iptnim.es!t.slhoolecwmEdleeanlrpygnishl)ia.soalhsNlnsoemoatctasiiovcypneaepfllulslryespo,deenmaowtkuhaiente1hrc,syeutoohsw/feoecla/llesrnwthgtieuientrahpg,,,,eaooos,,n,l, | /0/ ) rnd bought \\ /J/ t. po' Iyhen native speakers ofromance langualaes lenrn that the vowel in worcls like lock, and moclern is native_language vowel, /o/, they may substirute their producing a sound that is close ro English ,/a/ (a vowel that is farther forward in the mouth than English /o/), so thatpot sounds close to pat. Spelling of /a/ arrd /o / Spelling is a sonrce of mispronunciation fof ,/a,/, which is spellecl in nanv ways. as well as for ,/o/. mother, brolher, monel', love
182 5.HqPIER Yore/s Aetivity 5,8 /a/ and /o/: Prcsenting /a/ and /o/(nut'noo Levels All Worksheet Page 234 fip Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see. Description Guided by mouth shapes lor lal and /o/, students learn to pronounce the difference between the two vowels. 1. Direct students' attention to the mouth shapes of the two vowels on Worksheet 5.8. 2. l\\4odel nut, keeping your mouth almost closed and your {ips relaxed Students repeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed. 3. lVodel not, exaggeratlng the openness of the mouth and keeping the lips relaxed. Students repeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed 4. Ask each student to say nut and noi. Provide feedback on their pronunciationsr . ivut sounds too close to nof: Close your mouth. (Or, keep the inside of your mouth small.) . Not sounds too close to nutr Open your mouth Activity 5.9 /a/: Luck or skill? Level lntermediate/Advanced Worksheet Page 235 Tip Base communicative practice wiih problem vowels on words or groups of words which contain the vowels. Description This activity practices the pronunciation of /a/ in the word luck. 1. lVlake sure students can pronounce the vowel in /uck (see Presenting /a/ and /o/, above). 2. Write s0me expressions that include the word /uck on the board. lVodel the expressions. good luck lots of luck try your luck down on your luck 3. Ask students to volunteer other expressions that include the word /ack, and add them to the board.
5CHAPTER Vowels 183 Actiuw 5.9 continued 4. Read the quotations on Worksheet 5.9 to students. Go over vocabulary, but do not paraphrase the quotes. Students will do thjs in small groups. Ask each student to choose a quotation and read it. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck. 5. ln groups, each student chooses one or two quotations to paraphrase. The group discusses the quotation and students agree or disagree with it. Students also d iscuss this questionl . Do you think you are a lucky person, an unlucky person, or that luck isn't very important in your life? Explain. 6. When the group work has finished, ask individual students to explain the role luck plays in their lives. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck. lffi Back vowelst /rw/ arld /o/ (boot-book) V{hat the Teacher Should Know /rtw/ booL The vowel in boot /u.w/ is a high, back-tense yowel. The body of the tongue rises up ;Lnd back; the lips round for the beginning of the yowel and continue rounding to the glide ending (/w/). boot /uw/ Many languages have a pure vowel /u/ that sounds similar to English /uw/ (as in bool).The glide ending of /uw,/ is difficult for students to hear, and they are likely to substitute the native-language pure vowel /u,/ (as in French tort meaning \"a11\"). In vowel-vowel sequences in which,/uw,/ is the first vowel (as in ruin),Ihe glide ending (/w,/) links to the follov/ing voweL (ru*in) and is easier to hear than when a consonant follows /us/ (as in root)-The glide ending is important when a vowel follows because it creates a new syllable.This occurs both within words (as '1n ruin) and acrcss word boundaries as in do- i/).The glide ending of /uw/ is rarely reflected in spelling. ruwin Do\" ii.
184 5.HAPTER Vo$'els /u/ book. The vowel n book (/u/) is a ncw vowel for most students '/u/ does not occur in some very common words' such as occru in many English words but does uctukl. cottltl, sltttuld, good, book' look, ar'(l lL'otnan' more cenftalized Comparecl to /uw'/' the tongue is /uw/; the lips are with /u/ is a high back lax vowel ancl forwarcl from its Position for /u/, dropping slightly down less roundecl than thcy are for /uw/ (^s rt]. boot)' book /u/ Although students may Lrse a pure tcnse vowel '/u'l tfhorerbcotahre/uf/eawndm/uinim'aml apkainirgs little difference befween pairs ltkc Luke ttnd lortk' the contrast is a low-priority pronuflciation topic' a\"\"f\"i\"g ,f-tata two vowels, and are some odd-soundiflg Pronunciations of /c/ lhat On the other hand, there //swsycuwthlariho/oa/r,i,iiulraletenl'pOdctTaitortsohbiotnY,teenehenrioeanaasecrrdptsln/idceiYuscriapree/iek:rsnnseossilainrienps.tcdieuovtdohaueo.(IfeknsntJeEnecawureanesProgolG:rtmsplmdlioiser^cmodsslhseenn.esf'd'ou,oeloiupstait,rapnootpcegcauncelceliltla(t1llo,rlf'v-4otvfl9auaottt,nrlJahtdifd;anebiutdsshrbievouoesaonlroowlrldm''ofoi'infrvsrebcavvttcrrhlinosmaoecclcrrlvexwretreaisinnoicmttKghgohtiepootmn/l/rnewcusio'msw/ownpsf'sTior/totomhhmlnlanieasienuutryhe.tnpnrleotcrai/mo/istuaw/ibv.utai/liet/eowlstpmnhIso/rn'epe)de'wvcisaioenahokdwilidemeecearcshsellt' rrse a vowel close to /a/. hiaslpun.etydwllep//.trtu.rmwwninouth,/sl)ni.c,.rT.. ihIsnLeipnrmBsonru^iotsniusidcnh,ctuecpnucreolte/ny^,usubnw/ecnd'iy/auottt!ii\\.ov'nSz/tuuiandsneiodnantc/stc')ew'uupnhwtiaotn'b/,hle^(ainnlaesdsteluealoandnrinaogeef datrhssBeitrt!iNh'tiAsethhEew/EnoYnurogdwwlisezihsl/ lecognizable. IbtxanlhiekvetvfeeooolgwfuewerneteatwilleotloisnernroufdgfuoesitnfGn.lduvikrSroael(tilruumveudeegresnrannsriagtitdtsnrrylae'namsiseusnnen/dytodaiu/fPrte(otrahvrosnelecni'tlaobu\\n'rpennsLrgoocttiTnhnnitanaaiutti'ntnnitoaacg)r'rnirazdtlh'tciuiesAotntneauciqsrrotes)uimccteSullme'bilnbeoeaecfnfeclomtasrptnuehrssmoeewtbaboflytieehrrdmseuustsswesaeboosdetrsuhgdo(nesiscndeianaesitiftnentaAidgcrrwtlteiwwwocrliaieidttthnhshs' page 61). ()li Although the seluence /lLl\\y' is a consonxnl plLrs vorelscqlrerlce (/]y' + /u\\t) il is includcd herc becal$c its qtlling oltcn leads sLudenlrj lo co use is pr)nLlncidion witll /u$y' \\'i'1' versll
ScH^prER Vowels \"lBs Spelllngs of /tuw/ (boot), /u/ (book), alad /lrrtw/ (music) A common spellir.rg of both /U/ and, /uw/ is the letter sequence oo (as in book and boot). This oveflap in spellin!! makes it difficr t for students to predict pronunciation. oo (word ends in silent e) boot, shoot, root, noon, food, school, soon, too u (word ends in silent e) choose, loose, soothe student, truth, iunior June , rule, true , include do, who, movie , whose , lose, move you, ItqUp, through lev/, grew, threw, flew sg!t, juice, frqit book, look, foot, good push, fr.rll. put. sugar would, coulcl, should cute , pure , confuse, music beaury beautituI
186 5(H^PIFR vowels Activity 5.10 Integrating Gammat and Pronunciation: lndetinite Articles beforc u Level lntermed iate/Advanced Worksheet None Tip lntegrate vowel pronunciation with grammar practice. Descr:ption This activity can be added to grammar work on indefinite articles. lt provides practice choosing between a and an with words beginning with the letter u. 1. 0n the board, write nouns or noun phrases in which the first word begins with the letter u. lnclude words where u is pronounced /yuw/ (e.g., unit, union) and words where u represents a vowel (e.9., umbrella, uncle). Before each noun phrase leave a blank for the indefinite article. Sample words are provided be low. umbrella unique idea unit useful tool university - unusual day - usual day uncle - - -2. Ask students to say the words on the board. Write the pronoun you on the board. Ask a volunteer to come to the board. The volunteer will record the class's answers to questions 1 and 3 below. Ask the class the following questions: . Look at the words beginning with the Ietter u. Circle words where the letter u sounds like the pronoun you. . ls the first sound of the pronoun you and the circled words a consonant or vowel? . When the circled words require an indefinite article, should it be a or an? Write an indefinite artlcle before each phrase. . What is the rule for choosing between a and an? Does it depend on the first sound of The word or ihe Ii\\I lettet? ffi Back vow el: /ow/ (go) what the Teacher Should Knoqr' The vowel in go (/ow/) is a mid-back tense vowel. The body of the tongue pushes back and up a little and the lips are rounded; the lips continue rounding through the vowel to create the glide ending /w,/.
5CHAPTR Votyels 187 go /ow/ + In many languages, the vowel corresponding to /oIv/ is a pure vowel, /o/ (as in the Spanishpo.4 meaning \"little\"), $'hich lacks the glide ending /w/. Substitutions of /o/ fot /ow/ arc a maior source of mispronunciation of this vowel.r5 In words like folk and focus, the pure-yowel proriunciation produces pronunciations that can embarrass students. Most students do not have difficulty hearing or pronouncing the glide ending of /ow/, once it has been pointed out. They may have difficulty, however, remembering to pronounce it since it is rarely reflected in spelling. Spanish students may be better able to notice the glide ending if the symbol /ou/ (rather than ,/ow,/) is used to represent the yowel.The glide ending of /ow/ is important to teach. Students may confuse the vowels in boat (/ow/),pot (/o/), anrJ bougltt (h/), pronouncing all three words with a similar vowel. This niay occur because of spelling (the letter o can represent all three vowels, as in home /ow/, sbot /a/, afld /oss D/) or because they have learned British pronunciations ofthese vowels, which have a more \"o\"-like sound thafl the NAI versions. If the ,,o,:like pronunciation of /o/ words (such as lrot, k)ck, sbop) is not distmcting and does not reduce intelligibiliry students do not need to \"unlearn,' the British pronunciations. Some students, however, do use conftlsing pronunciations with specific pairs of vrords involvin g /o/ UJ/) and /ow/,like uant and uon ? When both words sound the same, pronunciation should be addressed. 15 The pure Iowel/o/ does nol exist in NA! €xcepl in ,r few erpresions. such as d rc fi$tpaft al0h oh /a'tau/. This warning is also writttn 'Uh-oh,\" and \"uh\" is pnnounced with /e/.
188 5IHAPTER Vo\\rels Activity 5.'!1 /ow/ or /o/; \"o\" Spellings level lntermediate/Advanced Worksheet None Tip Teach exceptional or confusing spellings associated with vowel sounds. Descript:on This activity targets words where ihe letter o is pronounced /ow/ or /o/. Students sort the words according to the pronunciation of the vowel. Teachers should look through past readings or vocabulary that studenis have covered and select words where the stressed vowel is spelled with o (as in possible, stolen) and pronounced either /ow/ or /o/. The activity can be made more challenging by including words in which the letter o is pronounced lal (as in moneD. 1. Prepare a list of words where the stressed vowel is spel ed with o and pronounced either /ow/ or /o/. The sample words below, where the o spelling is pronounced /o/, are ones my students often mispronounce. possible nqtice gone a lone cold modern bone lost potent gr0celres bother m0nster problem college folk shop rotten stole most hold 2. Write the words on the board or present them ln a handout. Add two column heads to the board that corresponds to the two pronunciat ons. /oM (go) /o/ (father)
5cuAPrER Vowels 189 Actiui1t 5. 1 I continue/l lAnswers: /a/ wordsr p6ssible, m6dern, shop, gone, bother, pr6blem, r6tten, lost, m6nster, college; /ow/ words: cold, p6tent, folk, most, n6tice, groceries, hold, bone, a lone, stolel 3. IVodel the words. Students repeat. 4, Using the handout (or copying the column headings onto a piece of paper), students write each word under one of the columns, according to the pronunciation of the vowel. This can be done singly or in patrs. 5, Ask a volunteer to come to the board, The class tells the volunteer which words belong in the two columns. 6. Elicit from the class other words spelled with o and clarify questions about pronunciation. Your students may volunteer words that are pronounced with vowels other than /ow/ or /o/. ln that case, model the pronunciation and explajn that lowl and lol are common pronunciations of this spelljng but not the on ly ones. ffi BackVowelt /t/ (caugttt) Y/hat the Teacher Should Know The vowel /r/ (as in caught, bought, and lala) is a low, back, slightlv rouncled vowel.There is a great deal of dixlect variation in how native speakers pronounce this yowel, what words thcy pronounce it in, and whether they pronounce it at all. Many native speakers do not use /1,/ at alljinstead, they use the yowel in cot (/o/). These speakers do not make a pronunciation distinction between paks Like caught_ cot and lctn-la (the musical note). In NAI dialects that distinguish caugbt and cot, h/ m y have more or less of an ',o,' sound. In addition, speakers who contrast D/ ,Ind /o/ (as in cauglJt-cot) do not alwa_vs pronounce /J/ in the same words; some speakers, for example, use /J/ (as in dog) y/hile others use /o,/. it Students who h/aovwe /le(ai.ren.e,dlaBuritissohuEndngslislihkema*lyowpr\"o)n. oifunthceisthpirsonvouwnceilastioonthaist sounds close to confusing, instruct students to liil/e this yowel more of an .,ah,' sound. Teachers whose dialects do not include ,/J/ need not teach this vowel. Students, however, shor:ld bc aware of its use in dialects in the Northeast and in other pafts of the United States and Canada. Reco(lings of dialects can be fourd on the American Dialect Society's Web site, www.americandialect.orfa, or on the University of Kansas's International Diale cts of English A-rchi\\.e Web site, http://web.ku .eclu/ideal .
190 5cH^PrER vowels Spellings of /r/ pause, author, caution, llqndry law, jaw, dawn, draw coffee, off, on, song, cost t4!k, always, salt, call E ERR0R C0RRECTION: zarz sounds like \"low\"i bougltt sounds like \"boat\"' Instruct students to pronounce lau (or bougllt) with an \"ah\" sound instruct them not E to round their lips too much when they say words like bougbL lalu, ot Pquse ffi otnn norrgs, /ay/ (bigtr), /aw/ (hont), and /oy/ (boy) v/trat the Teacher Should Know The vowets in rrgh /^v/,hou /alv/, and boy /oy/ are diphihongs;these vowels are also known as the pain Yowels-Ay! ow! oyl Although both diphthongs (/ay/,/'dw/,/oy/) and glide vowels (,/iyl [see], /ey/ in diphthongs is tstryl, /ow/ [so], xnd /\\w/ [sue]) encl in glides' the glide ending tongue travels in than in glide vowels.The distance the easier for students to hear moying between the two pafts of 2 diplrthong (for example , between /^/ and /y/ in ,/a,y/) is greater thari the clistxnce involYed with glide vowels (for example, between /i) and /y/ in /i)'/). The greater distance creates a larller perceptlral difference, making the two patts of a diphthong easy to hear' Diphthongs /ay, aw, oy,/ clide Yowrls /iy. ey. ow. ttw/ ( Lv€i\\ rY\" \\iifit5 The consonalls /s, z, r,/ arc eraltplcs 0l contln,lan$. conti ltutls. thc ,rir is obstructed but nol comllerly blocked
cH^prrR S Vowels 19'l There are some dialect differences in the pronunciation of diphthongs. Some Southemers pronounce the glide ending of diphthongs weakly in informal speech;for example, o/ may sound similar to \"ole\" or ,,all,', and time may x]iltnd a little Iike .Tom.,, Few students have problems hearing or pronouncing English diphthongs. Chinese students may weaken the glide ending of ,/ay,/ (and to a lesser extent /aV) when these vowels are followed by nasd consonzurts, as in time or count. Ther- pronnnciation of time, fot example, may soru]d close to Tont (similar to the Southerners' pronunciation). The phonetic symbol ,rai,/ is more effective than /avl ir.r efrof coffection of this problem. Diphthongs pfoyide an oppoftunitF ro pfactice r'owel-r'owel sequences and the correct s]4labification of words liirie science (sci|ence). The lilicle ending of the diphthong acts as a linking sound, joining to the following vowel to create the next svllable'. scilence. Activity 5,12 Vowel-vowel sequences: Fields of Etudy level lntermediate/Advanced Worksheet None Tip Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words or groups of words that contain those vowels. Description This activity practices joining diphthongs Uay, aw, oyl) or glide vowels (/iy, ey, ow, uw/) to a following vowel (vowel-vowel sequences) in ihe context of fields of study: biology, psychiatry, meteorology. Because of its connection with science, this topic is appropriate for lTAs or students in academic English programs. 1. 0n the board, write words containing a diphthong or glide vowel fo lowed by another vowel: soctety, psychiatry, zoology. 2. l\\4odel the words and ask students how many syllables are in each word (there are four syllables in socivety, zo*ology, and psychlatry). Students rnay erroneously identify soclety a foursyllable word, as a three-syllable word because they fail to hear or pronounce the glide /y/ which creates the additronal syl/able: socttety. lxplain that when two adjacent vowel letters represent different vowel sounds, the two vowels are in different syllables and the syllables are joined wjth rylr!9uan unwritten lyl (e.9., socivety, or twt (e.g., e-ggCI 3. Write a superscript y or ry between the vowel-vowel sequences on the board and model the words again, emphasizing the dtfferent syllables. Students repeat. 4. Elicit from students names of other scientific fields and/or terms (for example, meteorology, geology, nuclear medicine, sociology, political science, radiology) and add them to the board. Not aIl words must have vowel vowel sequences. 5. In pairs, students discuss which fields are lrkely to have the hlghest paying 1obs.
192 5:HAPTER Vowels ERR0R C0RRECTI0N: Chinese students pronounce tirne like \"Tor ,\" arrd explain as 'explen.\" 1. Chinese students are unaware that they are weakening glide endings befofe /n/ or /n/ (\"s in time, explqin\\. 2. Write the mispronounced word on the board, underlining the problem Yowel ( e.g , tlme, fi,nd, exptglln, trqln).under the Yowel write the phonetic symbol /ail (for time an<lfinD or /ei/ (fot exptain ?;nd train).^lelJ the student that she is not pro- flouncing dre second part of the vowel sound strongly enough whef' /m/ ot /,/ fol' lows. Model the correct and incorrect pronunciations. 3. Alternatively, model the word without the final nasal consonant; say \"tie\" instead of \"dme,\" \"tray\" instead of \"tlain,\" and \"explay\" instead of \"explain.\" Ask the student to repeat the shortened word seYeral times, iust as you said it.Then ask the student to say the shortened word (e.g., \"tie\") and add,/na/ or / . ffi Vowels and z-colored vowels \"-aoto..d strat the Teacher Should Know ,R-Colored Vowels. R-colored vowels ere Yowels followed by /r/ (e 8., are, or, ber)' The tip of the tongue cuds up and slightly back (retroflexiofl) at the end of the vowel and alters (colors) the sound ofthe vowel These vowels are difficult and their mispronunciation can make wortls unclearThey should be taught at all levels There are clialect differences in the pfonunciation of some r-colored vowels' Some speakers from the Noftheast pfonounce merry and Maryl with the same vowel (/meriy/) btt many with a different Yowel (/meriy/) A sm2tller number of and marry speakers nake a three-way clistinction:J44ry /meyrry/ ' merry /meriy/' same, with /meriy/. Most spezLkers of NAE, however, pronounce all three words the the vowel of merry. Teachers may wonder whether retroflexion with these Yowels must be taught, since there are r.less dialects of Engtish (British English ancl some dialects of NAI)' Howeyer, native speakers of these dialects do not simply \"drop\" /r/'so that four atTd
.HAprcR S Vowels 193 ifog for example , sound the same. The vowel which remains in r-less dialects is different from its counterpart before other sounds.Thus, to achieve an accurare /- less pronunciation of thc vowels ii hear /ft/, bait /Er/, trer /ar/. haftt /o , more /or/,a'17d tour /ur/, tlte student needs to alter her pronunciation of six vowel sounds (the r-colored versions of /r, r, a, o, o, u,/). Learnin!! to pronounce a following /r,/ is an easier task itnd produces the reqrdred \"cok)ring\" of tlte l.owel. In addition. even in rless dialects, final /r/ is pronounced as a linkir]g consonant when a vowel follows, as rn heq_ansuter. .lenkins (2002) irlso recornmends teaching the pfonunciation of /r/ aftcJ these six vowel sour]ds, rather than their r-less cor-lnterparts (see Lingua Franca Cofe, page 9). Pedaliogicall,v, the three mosr important and difficult r-colored vowels are /ar/ (.as in lser), /or/ (as in bard), and, /or/ (^s in rzore). Mispronunciations of these vowel sounds are especially distorting. For many students, the vowel in lter is the most difficult.This \\,.owel is really a unitary yowel eyen tlroulah it is represented wirh two phonetic symbols (,/arl).r7 The spellings ot /ar/, /or/,and, /arl also o\\Iedap and afe anotlrer source of mispronunciation. R{css pfonunciations of thc vowels in t,eat, bair, and tour (/n/, /tr/, /ur/ ) are not as difficult to understand. Certain sounds following /r/, especiallv /n/ and /1/, can make the r-colored vowels more difficult. Students who ltave learned to pronolmce the r-colorecl \\.owels in words like lJurt and first may still ha\\.c difliculty q/ith learn, burn, and turn. One of the most difficr t sequences of sounds is that in u'ort(l and girl.'Ihe pronunciation of these words is learned morc easily when thel/ a1e presented as two-syllable words: ,/warald,/ and ,/garal/. 'the word squirrel, with the same sequence, is spelled as a two-syllable word. Pronouncing u.torld ,,nLl gid as t:wo syllable words gives students more time to m'tke the articrjlxtory chanlle from/r,/ to /l/. Early has a similar sequence, but is easier to pronounce because ,/l/ begins the last syllable. Spellings of /a , /ar/, and /ot/. Spellings of /arl. her, were , serve. alelt hurt, turn, mulder, chqlch filst, circle, dirty, birrhday rt Other slnbols for this rowel lnclude 4-/ $,hen the lo\\rcI rs gressed ({s in ,?)2, and /a-l \\rhen fie vo$,el is unstrssed (as in ,1qqa).
194 5:HAPTER vowels SpellJngs of /crl. Spellings of /orl. com, store, wore, moming dgq1, floor four, mourn The r-colordd vowels /at/, /a ,^nd /or,/ are acqlrired gradually They warrant a fllll pronunciation lesson, in addition to error correction and review. R-colored vowels should not be taught as part of a lesson on beginning ,/f/ (for example, the 13 Sonre speaken pronoun ce Ihe 'tawel n loumtlnent ?s lat/ .
ScHAprER Vowels 195 /f/ in rou, red, and correct).Teaching approaches for,/r/ alter vowels (i.e., r-colored vowels) and /r/ in beginning position (as in rou) atf. different. pronunciation problems associated with the two and the (for teaching beginning positions of h/ arc also different see Consonants, page 1.i1).1e Z-colored Vowels. ^/, that occur before ,4/ at the end of a wo rd, (as it all) ot Vowels syllable (as ln allaays) are /-colored vowels. The vowel is pronounced with a short glide ending, /a/.2o feel fiifv sell lseeV cold /kow.ld/ Z-coloring of vowels is a topic for accent reduction and polishing, and does not have to be covered in most sounds different fcrloasmsesi.rsHo.wrcegyuel!asr,t'udpernotnsumnacyiantiootnicebethfaotrea vowel before /l/ other consonants. When working with minimal palrs like feet_Jill, where yowels occur before ,/l/, students may comment that the vowels sound different from the vowels in leaue-liue. The teacher can explain that the vowels sound a little different because of the /l/ sorurct. In some textbooks, /l/ coloring may be part of a lesson on \"diltk /l/\" (see /l/,page 144). Activity 5.13 R-Colored vowel* presenting r-colorcd vowels /ot/ (arc), /at/ (he.), and /or/ (o.) level Ail Worksbeet Page 235 Tip Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels. Description Students learn to pronounce /r/ after vowels by using a combination of diagrams showing articulation and hand gestures that mimic retroflexion of the tongue\" 1. Using the diagram on the worksheet, direct siudents,attention to the cross- sectional diagram of /r/. N4odel are. Explain the pronunciation of /r/: The tip of the tongue turns up and back a lit e. (continued on fiext page) 19ltaching //,rchoflexion h-ihe pedagogical locus for the /-colorcd vowels. for beginring rchof]exion and the absence ofconta.t betw€en the tongue tip and the top of the mouth arc both impoftnt. 'zo A1temativel11 tlrc /a/ glide can be consjdercd part of the ,'dark /,, (see /l/, Consonants).
196 5:HAPTER vowels Actiuit! 5. 1 3 continued 2. Use hand gestures to reinforce the retroflexed movement (up and back) of the tip of the tongue. This gesture is also useful for feedback and error correction. As you say are, start with your hand flat, palm facing up, and curl your fingertips up. Tell students that your hand represents the tongue.21 3. Tell siudents to make a long \"ahhhh\" sound and then slowly turn the tip of the tongue up and back (this is the pronunciation of are). Use the hand gesture as a visual model. Students may be able to pronounce /r/ more easily if they close their eyes and visualize the tongue tip turning up and back, 4. Ask each student to say are. Use the hand gesture to re nforce pronunciation. 5. Direct students' attention to the diagrams of the mouth shapes for lorl (are), larl (her), and lorl (or). Remind students that inside the mouth, the tongue tlp turns up and back a little. 6, IVodel are again. Explain that the rnouth is open. Inside, the tip of the tongue turns up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciation of /r/. 7. IModel her. Explain that the mouth is nearly closed. lnside, the tip of the tongue turns up and back. Students repeat, Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciation of /r/. 8. l\\4odel or. Explain that the lips are rounded, Inside, the tip of the tongue turns up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciation oI lrl . 9. Ask each student to say are, her, and or. Provide feedback on pronunciation. 214 suggests thalneadng a rcd milten adds an eLement oifun lo the prcscntxtlon. n:riewer
5CH \\PIER V,,$els 197 Activity 5.14 fhe Herc and Now level Eegjnning Wotksheet None fip Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels. Description This activity practjces /r/ after vowels in words referring to classroom objects. The act,vity should follow presentation of /ar/,larl, and lorl but js not restricted to words containing only these vowel sounds. 1. Ask students to look around the room and volunteer words for the things they see. 2. Write the words on the board and circle those that have /r/ after a vowel; examples include door, floor, blackboad, purse, paper, shirt, skirt, chair, and water (bottle). Students practice the words. 3. Provide feedback on pronunciation of /r/, using the hand gesture described on p. 196. CONCLUSION The pronunciation ofyowels is difficr t for students partly because English has a relatively large number of vowels.Teachers should focus on high-frequency vowels and vowel contrasts, such as the front and central vowels. Among those, nonnative Engish-speaking teachers should select vowels that they pronounce accurately and feel comfoftable teaching. English vowels are also diflicult because of confusing ancl inconsistent spellings. \\We have provided some examples of actiyities which help eliminate \"spelling mispronunciations,', by focusing students on exceptional spellings. Finally, vowel articulation is difficult for teachers to describe and for students to yisualize.We haye proyided some vowel presentation activities in which teachers provide visual clues to vowel pronunciation. Hand Flestures that mimic the pfonunciation of ,/r/ after vowels are effective in presenting and giving feedback on these clifficult vowels. The distinctiye mouth shapes associated with some yowels also simpli8. the task of presenting pronunciation. In the classroom, students shoulcl have enough opportunity to gain skill with a particular vowel (or yowel contmst) in controlled activities. Once students are able to pronounce a vowel reasonablv accurately in contfolled practice, the teacher can mo\\.e to mofe communicatiye practice by selecting a key word or set of words containing the vowel to establish a context fof less-scripted speaking.
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