Tips for Teaching Pronunciation A Practical Approach

250 BAppENDtx Ptoblems of Selected Languagcs Consonants 1. tl, sounds: Thai students often substitute /t/ ot /d/ fot tlTese sounds. which are stigmatized pronunciations (see page 126). 2. /l/, /(B/:These consonants do not exist in Thai. At tlte beginninll of a word, 'I'hai students nray substitute /tl/ fot /l/ and ,/dsl, pronouncing srlp like chip or Jeep Llke cheap. At the end ofa word,[/ and /d3/ may be pronounced /t/ (e.g., rr.,rs, sounds li]de ui\\ and age sounds likc dte). (See crror correction techniques fbr sibllants on pag€ 135.) 3. /gJ:yoiced /gJ ls not a Thai consonant and may be pronounced as /k/ (e.g.,g4me sounds lite c,7nx e). Students should practice voiced voiceless minimal pairs likc game-came, goat-coa, and gum-con1e (see page 155). .{. A'l:Thai students often substitute /v{/ for /v/. prono\\ncing r]€st like u)est (see page 124). 5. /r/, /l/:In spoken Thal, h/ is being replaced by /l/ , ttn<1 stlrdents may substittfte /l/ fot ,/r/ in English (see pages 141-147). 6. /s/+coosonant clusters:Thai students nlay add a vowel to separate the consonants, pronouncing .s/eep, for example, as sdleep (sce page 151). 7. Beginninla clusters: Thai students may deletc the second consonant in the clustcr; p/at sounds like 2 ay, antJ glass sounds like gas (see page 151). 8. Final consonants: Thai students may drop or change final consonants. f'hey necd both focused pronunciation work on prol.rouncing final consonants and frequent correction of linal consonant errors. fhc,v should also work on final consonants in the context of linking adjacent words (see pages 54 and 153). Vowels L /ey/ .\"fhai students often substitute a pure 1'owel /e/ or /€/ for /eyl, proneuncing bait like bet. Enphasize the Eilide ending of,/e)y' (see page i73). 2. /e/:This is anew vowel for Thai students, who often substitute /s/,e.g.,bad sounds like Z2ed (see page 176). 3. ,?-colored vowels:See page 192. \\IIETNAMESE Vietnamese is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, spoken primarily in Vietnam but also within communities in the tJnited States, Australia, xnd other countries. wofd Stress Most Vietnamese words are rnonos,vllables. As a result, Vietnamese students haI'e clifficult_y with stress placement in polysyllabic words.In addition to learning about word classes where English stress is predictable, new vocabulary should be presented orallv (see pages 3o- 38). Vietnamese students should also be taught to make length distinctions bet$-een stressed and unstressed syllables (see pages 21 27). Rhlthrn and Intonation Because Vietnamese stlrdents often gi\\''e equal prominencc to all syllables, their English rhlthm may sound staccato. They should be instructed to make length distinctions betrveeil stressed content words and unstressed function words (see page 50).

ApptNDtx B Problens ol Selected Lanluages 251 Vietnamese students should also practice linking words ending in final consonants to both following vowels and following consonants (see page 54). A primary function of pitch in Vietnamese, a tone language, is to differentiate words, rather than to structure discourse meanin!1. As a result, students need pmctice listening to English intonation in contextualized speech to learn the discourse meanings structured by pitch. Students should work with highlighting imporrant words (see page 96) and final intonation patterns (see page 100). Consonants 1. Final consonants: English final consonants are a majer source of pronunciation errors forVietnamese students. A linited number offinal consonants (/p,t,k/) are permitted in Vietnamese, but they tend to be pronounced very weakly. Final fricatives (e.g., /f/ and /s, are not permitted inVietnamese. When speaking English, Vietnamese students often appeaf to omit final consonants (.e.g.,bank card may sound like \"bah kah\"). Both focused promrnciation work on final consonants and frequent error correction are useful (see page 153). 2. Final voiced and yoiceless stops: Final voiced stops (^, d, g, are not permitted in Vietnamese. Sh.ldents should practice lengthening the vowels prececling Englisl.r voiced stops (see page 155). 3. Final sibilants /s,l tf:These consonants in final position are a source of many problems. Students may substitute /t for final /tt, prono djacing catclr L]ldie casb, for example. Sometimes /t is substituted for finaI /s/ (e.g., krss sounds like \"kish\") (see page 131). 4. Beginfling /p/: /p/ does not occur in begtuning position inVietnamese Q)et, for example, may sound like ,er). Students should be instructcd to pronounce words spelled $.ith beginningp with a puff of air (see page 150). 5. t sounds:Vietnamese studenrs usually substitute /t/ or /d/ for the t/? sounds, a stigmatized pronunciation (see page 12ar). 6. Consonant clusters: Consonant clustefs afe not pefmitted invi€tnamese, so students may omit one or more members of a clusterj for example, green may sound like \"geen;'and street may sound like \"seat\" or \"steat\" (see page 151). 7. Letter Jc.'Vietnamese uses a modified Roman alphabet and the letter r in is pronounced as /s/.Vietnamese students' pronunciation of words like expldin as \"esplain\" or \"espain\" may reflect both transfer of the Vietnamese letter-sound correspondence of tr and difficulty with consonant clusters (see page 139). Vowels I Tenselax vowels: Although Vietnamese has a complex vowel system, it does not distinguish vowels on the basis of tenseness, so pairs like sedt-.r/, are difficult for studcnts to pronounce (see pages 169, 173, and 183). 2. /e/, /E/: /e/ is not a vowel inVictnamese, so students may substittte /e/ for /E/, pronouncing b.td, for example, so that it sounds like bed (see page 176).

SUFFIXES AND ASSOCIATED STRESS PATTERNS -ee employee, trainee, en{aineer, career, volunteer -ain (uerbs onb)) Exception: cornmittee , c6ff€e -esque/ique: Chirese, Japanese, Portuguese enteftain, maintain, obtain cassette, kitchenette Excef) tion. 'tiqLtette picturesque.grotesque,antique,unique,techniquc millionaire, doctrinaire, billionaire -i?'U-cia'l/'sial/ trivial, presidentlal, artificial, commercial, contro!'ersial. -tiav-ual confidential, substantial, individual, intcllectual, factual -ian/-cian/-si^n pedestdan, sectarian, agrarian, musician, politician, physicjan, {sian. lndone\\ian companio11, opinior.r, production, deceptior.r. occasion. cohesion, possession, pef mission Exception: t'tevision -ious/-cious/-eous/ cufious,mysterious,deliciol\"ls,superstitious,ambitious, -gious/-eous/ prestigious, courag€ous, outrageous -geous/-uous -ic/-ical effi cient, omniscient, ilnpatient com€dic, geognphic, psychological, technological Exceptions: p()litics, linatic. -Arabic, rh6toric abiliqv, opportuniq', originaliry solidi$., identify, disquali4

254 AppENDtx C sut'fixes and Associated slress Prtlerns -graphy impressive, possessive, obsessiYe fepetitive, sensitive, competitiv€ attitude, multitude, rectitude geology, astrology, archeology photogaphy, ofthogaphy, telegraphy -ale Uett/ ?pith uerbs, duplicate, associate, appreciate /aV xattlr nouns/adjectiues) apologize, rationalize, recogflize secretary vocabulary s€col1dary -ary Q)ronounced /efiy/ Exceptions: elem'ntary supplem6ntary or /ariyD accuracy, intimacy. legitimacy category, allegory, salutaf Y adaptable (adapt), defensible (defense) ExcePtions: c6mparablc (comPare), dem6nstrable (demonstrate), idmirable (admire), pr6femble (prefer) sleepiness (sleepy), politeness (polite) goyemment (govern), amusement (amuse) beautiful (beauty), mast€rtuI (master) merciless (mercy), mothedess (mother) Cotnnxon sulfixes like -y,-ly,er/o{are and uerb endings do nol cbqnge stress.

DIAGNOSTIC TEST Students should record a one-minute description of the picture story below Students should tell the story in their own words. The fofm on the next page can be used to make a broad €valuation of pronunciation,

256 APPENDI{ D DiagnosticTest Name : GENERAL CI.{RITY SPEAKING RATE Too fast _ Mostly clear Appropriate Too many pauses Unclear in parts _ Mostly unclear RIIrIIIM AND FLUENCY INTONAflON Natural sounding: clear phqses Natural sounding and clear linking of words Flat sounding Some unnatural pausing/choppiness Some uflnatural sounds choppy, halting rises/falls in pitch Other problems (errors with word suess, errors with sounds, mispronounced words):

INSTRUCTI ONS FOR RECORDING AND SENDING A SOUND FILE RECORDING 1. Plug in the microphone. 2. START J ALL PROGRN.MS -+ ENTERTAINMENT J SOUND RECORDER, 3. with the microphone plugged into the computer, click dre red RBCORI) butto[ ,mcl speak intothemicrcphone.'fherccorderrecordsoneminuteofspeech.ClicktheredRECORI) button again to continue rccording- SA\\TNG 4. Open rhe FILE menu and cllck SAVE AS. Compress the file if it is large: On the SAVI AS window. click the CFIANCE button.In the SOUND SELECTION window urder FORMAT, select MPegla).er 3 (MP3). Close the SOUND SELEC'IION wiidos'. Nane the file and save it. SENDING 5.The file can now be attached in an email and sent. RECORDING AND SAI'ING l. Plug in the microphone. 2. Sli\\RT --+ AIL PROORAMS -r ACCESSORIES J SOUND RECORDIR 3. Click the red START RECORDING button arid speak into the microphonc. 4. Click the STOP RECORDING buttor when you firish. A Sal-e box \\!'ill appear. Name the file and save it- COMPRESSING AND SENDING l Right click on the saved souod ile. SEND TO J COMPRtsSSHD (ZIPPED) 2. A,ttach the comprcs$ed file to an email and send it. 1. Open any existing Sound Recording applicafion on your NIac. If you do not have a Sound Rccording application installed, dovnload and install the ftee version of Audacit)'lM sound recorder (httpr//audacitlsourccforge.net/dowdoadr. lt is very easy to use. 2. After the iastallation of Audacity, open the application liom )'our desktop and then use the recording tools to Record, Stop, Rewind, Pause, or Fast'forward. 3. To save the recorded file, click on the FILE mellu and then c]ick on ExPoRT AS MP3. .1. Choose the location to saye the file and then click on SAIE. 257

Affricate consonants complex consonants consisting of a stop consonant and dveolar consonants fricativejin English, the first sounds in ihair andjazz Alveolar ridge consonants produced when the tongue appfoaches of touches the alveolar rid€ie (rhe top of the mouth just behind the top teeth); in English, /t/ and, /s/ are alveolar sounds the top of the mouth just behind the top teeth, before the loof of the moutlt rises Appositives phrases fbllon'ing a noun providing additional information: for A.fticulation exanple, in the se\\tence Rudy GiutianL one_time nqlor of Neu York CitJt, ran unsuccessfullJt.for president in ZfiOS. plTrase one-time mayor of Neu york Cit! is an appositive ti,re movements of the vocal organs that produce consonants and vowels Aspiration audible puff of aif that accompanies pronunciation of some consonants;in English /p, t, k/ are aspirated wlten a stressed vowel follows Assirnilations modification of soulds so they become more similar to adjacent Audiolingual approach bsspeoeluieanukdeesr;s(fo\"aIrscesaixmmaimplaptbelec,lriheineveltahyseotups,oh,)uf,anmsdeso,d/ofaf(aicnnag'nt '/tbre(tl//ienasteo/)ir!ohoautth,beomt/lba.r;fyof souncls are pronounced with the lips (like ,4ril) method for teaching language based on behaviorist vic,w of language learning as habit formation; strong r€liancc on pattcrn drills and dialofis Back rzowels Vowels produced with the body of the tongue pulled back in the mouth;in Engtish, these inchtde the vowels rn i,uke, took, boat, Bilabid cougb, and in some dialects,lot Consonants made by moving the lips togetherj in English, /p. h. m. w,/ Blends ovedappinti pronunciation of the encl of a word and the beginning of a lbllowirlg word; for example,,,didj a.' for (lid !ou. Centfal vowels vowels pronounced with the body of the tongue in tlte center of the mouth, rdther front or back;in English these include the Citation fof(n vowels in crr, and, in some dialects. the vowel in cot Cleat /V pronunciation of a word in isolation Closed syllables Cognate words pfonunciation of /1/ at the beginning of a word (toue) syllables that end in one o[ more consonants;for example, the words 4og and 4uck consist of one closed syllable wofds from tx.o different languages with a com]Iron ancestfy; for cxample, English 4ualit! Sp nish cati.tqd are cognares ^ttd, 259

260 ck,ssarv Communicative approach to thc teaching of second languages that emphasizcs approach me,rningftrl language use as both thc means and goal of Cornpounds languagc learning Consonant clusters worcls conrposecl of two words; the rneaning of compounds Consonants often differs from the meaning \\a.hcn the two \\41)rcls do not Content wofds ftrnction as compounds ((r greenlJouse \\s.6 green ltouse, Continualrts groups ol c<rnsonanls (bclt, speqk) Contrastive stress sounds like /p/ or /s/ that are produced b,v obstnrctinli the flow Da,tk /V of air Deductive rule learning worcls with cle1Ir lne aning, usuall,v nouns, r'crbs, adjective s f)evoicing ancl adr.'erbs (.table, run. big, sloul!): cofilent $'ords are Diphthongs usuall) stressed and contrast with functioll words (usuall) Discourse markers grammar words) w'ith more abstract meanings (.the, lo) alf'd without stress Epenthesis Flap consonarts tlut can be prolonged (non-stops) Fricati\\.e coflsonaflts use of stress and pitch to contrast t$'o words (ls it BIG or Front Yowels SM4LLh Full yow-el Function words pronunciation of /l/ at llrc end of a word or s'vllable (c.9., rrell, o/d); tlre back of the tonliue rises to creatc this pronunciatiur learninli general rules ar.rd then applying thcD to Particular cases pronouncing yoiced sounds as !'oiceless sounds (.c.g., b.rue \\s prononnced like bu[) complex vo\\r,elsj in English, /aw/, /ay/ a]nd /oy/,the vowels in how, biglJ, and Do:).! respectiyely linguistic expressions showing thc rclatio0ships of differcnt parts of discourse to each othcr; linking words like Bat or Well Jrc c\\!ntPlcs uf discottrsc ntrtrlcrs insertion of a vorvel North American pronunciation of /t/ and /d/ in $'ords like uctter irttd ladde\\ flaps have thc sound of a /d/ prorouncccl rcry quickJl- consorants producecl by obstructin€a the air but not completely stopping it, examples of linglish ftrcatives arc /s/ afld /z/ Yowels procluced with the b(xh of the tonllue pushed fror.It in the mouth;in English, thes€ includc the vo$'els in leqLe. liue, late, Iet, utd cat. an unrcduced rro\\\\'cl;lbr txample, the volvel in con in thc word consul.ult ts a ftlll vowel: in thc $ofd col1t1rl tl is rcduced words with abstftrct lirammatical mcaning, Iikc articlcs (a, on, llle) and short prepositions (4-t to): function words are usuall-v unstresscd ancl coDtfirst with contcrt worcls that have clcar meanin€i (e.9., t/rle, rttn, big, sktu,ly)

Gtossary 261 Functional load the frequency of linguistic features in a language;for example, the vowel contrast in liue-leaue h^s x higher functional load than Glide vowels the yowel conttast rL Luke-look because there are many more Glides word pairs like liueJeaue in English than pairs like luke-look Glottal consonants Glottal stop vowels ending in /w/ or /y/ Glottaltzed /t/ /w,/ and /y/ in English Glottis Heary syllables consonants produced at the vocal cords;in English,,zh,/ High vowels the sound separating the two parts of ub-olt Highlighting the sound oflt/ in ,nountain Inductive rule the space between the vocal cords learning syllables that are often stressed;in English, closed syllables ending in two of more consonants; syllables with long vowels Intefdentah vowels produced with the body of the tongue high in the Inteflocutef mouthiin English, the vowels it1 leaue, Iiue, Luke, and look Intonation use of pitch,length, and/or loudness to make a word more Intonatlon contour salient to listeners Isolated fh)'thm patterns infefring general rules from particular cases IIAS consonants produced with the tongue between the te€th;in Labial consonants English, the \"th\" sounds of tbink tben conversational partner;person w^itnh(lwhom one speaks Labiodentals Larynx meaningful use ofmelody in speech I-ateral consonant Lax vowels melody or tune of a phrase l-colored vowels English phrases whose syllables are replaced by nonsense kxlcal syllables (e.g., daDA is the isolated rhlthm pattern of at home), L€xical stress rhl'thm patterns are easier for students to hear when both the Light /U phrase and its isolated rhlthm pattern are nodeled together international teachin€i assistants consonant articr ation than involves the lip(s); in English, /p, b, I v,m,w/ Consonants made by contact of the teeth and lips;Lr English, /i v/ cartilage structures containing the yocal cords (Adam's apple) air passes out over the sides of the tongue;in Englisli, /1,/ Vowels produced with less muscula! tension causing them to be slightly centralized compared to their tense counterparts; in Engllsh, the lax vowels include the vowels in liae, let, afld look. vowels followed by s1'llable final /l/ (e.g.,uell) pertaining to words (vocabulary) Stress within words pronunciation of /1/ at the beginnin€i of a word (/ore)

262 clossary Liquid consonants /l/ and h/ in English Low vowels vowels produced with the bod,v of the tongue low in the mouth; in English, these include the vowels ir.r cat, cot, and cough Major stress syllable with hcaviest stress Marked, less rnarked, pairs of linguistic firatures that differ in ease of learning or more marked natrfalnesst \"more marked\" rnexns 'morc dificult/4ess natural\"i for example, a consonant at the end of a word (oat) is more difficult to prononflce (or learned later by first language learners) than the same consonant at the be[iinnin€i of a word (roe), making word-final position for consonants more marked than word-initial position Mid vowels r.orvels produccd with the bod,v of the tongue in the middle of the mor.rth, neither high nor low;jn English, these include the \\owels in mate, ntet, cttt, l'j].d boat Minirnal pairs pairs of worcls that differ in or y one sound (fot example,go4, Mfuror stfess a$d co.tt ?rc a mininal Pair) vowel that is stressed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch is low on vol\\'els with secondary stress); secondary stress Monosyllables words consisting of one s,vllable (.e.g.,man) Nasal consonants consonants prodlrccd with air going out through the nose rather than mouthjin En€ilish, the last sounds ir some, son, ancl sung Nasalization air passes through the nose as a sound (often a vowel) is prolouncecl, crcating a \"nasal\" solrnd Non-final ifltonation intonation ovcr a phrase which does not cnd an utterance Obstruents in English, stop, tiicative and atfricatc consonants Opefl syllables s_yllables that end in \\-owels;for example, both syllables in .so;fa are open svllables Ordinal numbers numbers inclicating ordcr (t/.st, second, tlrird, etc.) Pvl^t^\\, pa,latallzed consonants pronollnced with the bod,v of the tongre near the palate Palate, hard palate the bonl, front part of the roof of the mouth Paratone wid€ning of pitcll range at thc bcginning of a new discourse topic Pafefltheticals expressions set apart f1'om thc rest of a scntence; in the sentencc that follows,l gres-r is a parenthetic^l: It's time to start uorkinS, / g//css. Phonetic symbols symbols usecl to represent one and onl,v onc sound (e.g., /iyl represents thc v()wel so:ufld in lneet, brief, and key Phonology study of the sound s-Ystem of a language, languages Pitch a notc (hi€ih pitch,lo{' pitch) Pitch leYel average pitch Pitch range dilferencc bcts'cen the highest and lowest notes in an utt€rance Polysyllabic words with nlore than one syllable

Clossary 263 Pfilrrary stfess prominence given to a syllable/vowel by length, loudness and sometimes high pitch; healy stress Pronunciation spellings respellings of words to mak€ their pronunciation clearer; €.g. Prosody, prosodic respelllng pbilosopr:l as \"filosofy\" Pure yowel r-colored vowels rhlthm or intonation r-dropping Reduced voweV vowel produced withour a glide ending Uw/ ot /yt) syllable vowels followed by /r/ (c..r; four) not pronouncirg /r/ after vowels Reduced words unstressed vowel that has an indistinct sound (often /a,O; for Retroflex example , the vowel in con in the word control h rcd\\ced;in the wotd consonan' it Ls not Rhy.thm words pronounced with less prominence (with less stress andlor Schwa length, with low pitch, with reduced vowels);grammar words like a ot the typically have reduced pronunciations Secondary stress the front of the tongue turns up and back; in English, /r/ is a Seglnentals Sibilants retroflexed consonant Spelling alternation of strong and weak syllables/words in connected pronunciations speech; pausing; linking of wof ds Stop consonant reduced vowel sound /J/ (e.g., the pronunciation of the bold Stf ess-tirned languages letters in ago, Iesson, jealous) Suprasegmentals vo$/el that is sttessed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch is Syllable structure low on vowels with secondary stress); minor stress Syllables consonants and vowels Syllable-tirned \"s\" like sounds; the bold sounds in the following words are languages Tense vowels sibilants:so, zoo, sltoe, tneasure, chair, jazz mispronunciations of words because of confusing spellings; pronunciations based on spellilg consonants produced by a complet€ stoppage of ah; English stop consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g/ languages with a large variety of sllable rypes; stressed syllables are usually longer than unstressed syllables; vowel reduction in unstressed syllables may also occur pronunciation features involving stress, rh]'thm, or intonation types of syllables (e.9., open syllables, closed syllables) that are permitted in a language units of spoken language that consist of a vowel, possibly surrounded by consonants; ?lslt has two syllables languages with few closed syllables; syllables are often neady equal in length, regardless of sifess vowels produced with greater muscular tension; in English, these include the vowels in leaue, late and sr?on.

264 clossaty Thought groups meaninllful groups of words pronounced together (phrases) Tone languages languages which associate a particular pitch or pitch pattern with individual words; i11 tone languages pitch is an integral element of each word; Chinese is a tone language Universals features of language that are found in many languages and are learned early or morc easily [r]- first-language learners Unstressed vowels/ in English, vowels/syllables that ar€ short and often indistinct;for syllables example, the iirst \\.owel in ago is rn.rstresscd Uttera{rce speech prececlecl and followed by pauscs Uttefance boundaries beginning or end of an utterance Velars consonants produced by moving tlte back of tlte tongue up velum toward the soft palate;in English, the first sounds in oo4t and 8o4t ltld t]|re last sound in s/l?g soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth Vocal ofgafls structrJres used to produce speech sounds (fo[ example, the tongue, thc vocal cords) Yocal tract nouth ancl upper throat Voic€ quality features pronunciation features that are generally present in native speech, such as average level of pitch (some languages are spoken with a relati\\''ely higher overall level of pitch, others with a relatively lowcr ovemll level of pitch) Voiced sounds sounds produced with vibration of the vocal cords;/z/ is a voiced sound Voiceless sounds sounds producecl without vibration of the vocal cords;/s/ is a voiceless sound Yowel quality sound of a vowel;in this book vowel quality rcfers to whether a vowel is reduced or not vowels sounds like /o,/ produced with very little obstruction of the air flow Vowel-vowel sequencc of two adjacent vowel sounds (e.g., the bold vowels sequences i\\.t rideA Word list pronrurciation of a $'ord in isolationi citation forn pfonuflciatiofl word stfess prominence given to one or lllore syllables in a word, realized in English as length, loudncss, levcl of pitch, or quality of the vowel \\Yord-to-word linking the way in which final sounds and beginning sounds of adjacent words are pronounced

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