Tips for Teaching Pronunciation A Practical Approach

48 2.HAPrtR Rhvthm It sprctrtc rrnrunrs or nnYrnvt 1. Stress-timed rhlthm 2. Content and fuilction words 3. Thought groups 4. l-inking adiacent words 5. Prepositional phrases and infinitives 6. Articlc + noun 7. Pcrsonal Pronouns 8. Pltrasal verbs 9. Coniunctions 10. Reductions of ftinction words 11. Fast-speech recluctions of function rvords we disclrss what the teacher shoul.l know about each of these topics and is a classroom p-afcotvividiner suggestions for teaching them ln some cases, the sullgestion In other cases, corrcction are it is efror correctioll. Suggestions for error short enor,rgh to use when studen$ are engaged in nonpronunciation actiYities' They are also useflil fbr adclressing pronunciadon problems that only one or two students in a class experience Fh stress-Tirned Rhlthn What the Teacher Should Know English rhlthm is described as stress-timed rh)-thm, one of several broad types oidrl-thm. Other stress-timecl languages includc I)utch, German' Mandarin' ancl Arabic. The cllaracteristics found in languages with stress-timed rhlthm include the presence of a large Yariety of syllable qvpes-both open syllables (encling in vowels) and closed syllables of various types (syllables endiflg in may also have hean- and light syllables;healy consonants). Stress-timed languages those that have long vowels andlor end in syllables, which attract stress, are consonant clusters. In aclclition, in stress-timed languages' unstressed syllables are shorter than stressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables may be reduced' The more of these characteristics a langualle has' tlle nlore stress'timed its rhlthm (Ramus et al. 1999). Strcsstimed rh)-thm contrasts with sf/llable-timed rh)-tlm, forurd in tanguages like Spanish, Ita[an, Korean anct Cantonese ln syllable-tined languages stressed and

2cHAprER Rhythm 49 unstressed syllables axe of approximately equal length; the variety of syllable types is more limited; and vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is unlikely. r Lloyd James likens stress-timed rhlthm to Morse code signals (long dashes and short dots) and sfllable-timed rhlthm to \"machine gun\" or staccato pattems (1940). Learners whose native language is syllable-timed have difficulty learning English rh)'thm, but with exposure and increasing proficiency, they will acquire some of the characteristics of stress timing. Infomation about the stress-timed nature of English rhlthm is included in many pronunciation textbooks and helps students understand and become aware of the genefal nature of English rhlthm. It is presented here in a similar spirit, as \"rh1'thm appreciation\" and as an introduction to more focused work on specific fe atures of rhlthm. Activity 2.1 Prcsenting stessi/ined rhythn: Linericks level lntermed iate and Advanced Worksheet See page 211. lip 1. Direct students' attention to the pictures of the two tree lines on Worksheet 2.1. Ask students to compare the tree size and spacing of the two tree lines. 2, Model the sentences below the tree lines. Ask students which words are longer and louder. Ask students if the rhythm of English is more like the natural tree line or the apple orchard. J. lvlodel the sentences again, following each with its isolated rhythm pattern: Ihe birds abandoned the forestAa DA da DA da da DA da; They built their nests in the orchard 4a DA da DA da da DA da, Students repeat the sentences and rhythm patterns. (continued on next page) I inslrumenlal bsdng hrs failed to confinn some of lie perceptuai charact€ristics of strcss-ti.oed languages (Dauer 1983, Ramus et al. : ll9) . In $rcss timed languag€s, slrcsses arc heard as occuring at equal inl€Nals in lime (isochrony) ; in syllable{imed larguages, the =e befteen $resses is more variable. llowever, instrumental measur€ments rcveal that stre$ses in English (e $ress-tined language) = n0 more rcgular than those in syllable{imed Languages (Dauer 1983).

50 2]HAPTER Rhythm ActiuiU' 2.1 conttnued 4. Ask students to read the limerick silently and then go over questions about vocabu lary. @ 5. StuCents listen to the limerick and repeat. Ask students which words are stressed (i,e., longer, louder). lStressed words: once, man, beard; said, just, feared; owls, hen; larks, wren; build(tng), nests, beardl 6. In pairs, students practice the limerick. Then, on the bottom half of the handout, the pairs write a new third and fourth line; lines 3 and 4 need nOt rhyme but the rhythm (i.e., the number of syllables and location of stressed syllables) should be the same as in the 0riginal. Each pair presents its limerick to the class, alternating the lines. Etl con..n and Function words What the Teacher Should Know Content words are words with clear meaning (e.g.,run, coffe4 bot) Fl]nctiott words lrave abstract or grammatical meantrlg (e.g.,tbe, to, at).In connected speech, content words are usually stressed and function words are usually unstressed. Content words: Stlessed Function Words: Unstressed dog)Nouns (table, Atticles (a, an, the) Ueths (watk, eat) Auxiliary verbs (an, is, has, can, will) beautifut)Adiectives (big, Short preposilions (to, at, in, for, with)3 vety)AdueJbs (quickty, Coniunctions (and, ot, that, when, if) those)2Demonstratives (this, Relative pronouns (who, wnon, that, which) How?)ouestion words (Who? Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives Negatives (inctuding contractions) 0' you' he' them' our' their) (not, don't, isn't) 2 Inng prepositions Like d&?e/t or undemeath h,we cleNer mexning (comp'lred to /0 or d/) and ,.lre often strcssed 3 Celce ]lurciaet al. list demonstrative adjectiles (e.g , that nan, lhue bctohs) ts functior Notds alid denorstrative Ponouns aj content words (e g , lDr, r/ /rpre) 0 996, I 53) .

2)HAPTER Rhythm 51 Activity 2.2 Content and lunction wods: Shopping level Beginn ing Worksheet None Tips Model phrases using nonsense syllables io make the rhythm pattern easier to hear. Teach beginning students the rhythm patterns of communicatively useful language at their level. Description This activity links the stress patterns of familiar words to the rhythm pattern of phrases\" The sample is a short dialogue about shoppjng. Reprinted lrom Top Notch: English for Today's World, Fundamentals by Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher, Pearson Longman, page 49. Used with permission. The activity in Top Notch taryets shopping language, including clothing and color vocabulary. Q 1. Students listen to the dialogue oir the Audio CD, track 8, and repeat the lines. T, LET'S GO S HOpping. H: OK. WHAT do you NEED? T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT. H: IS THAT ALL? T: YES, jt lS. OH, Actually, I NEED SHOES, T0Ol 2. Copy the dialogue on the board, capitaiizing the stressed syllables of content words. Below each line, write the isolated rhythm pattern, T: LET'S G0 SHopping. DA DA DA da H: OK WHAT do you NEED? DAda DA da da DA T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT. da DA da DA da da DA DA H: IS THAT ALL? da DA DA itT: YES, lS. OH, Actually, I NEED SH0ES, T0O! DADA da DA. DA, DAdada, da DA DA (c()ntinued on next l)age)

52 2]HAPTER Rhytl)m Actiri Dt 2. 2 co, ttinaed 3. lVode each line, followed by its isolated rhythrn pattern. Emphasize the stressed syllables. Students repeat the dralogue lines and the rhythm patterns. 4. Ask students which words are longest and loudest (the cap talized words). 5. Select pairs of students to perform the dialogue for the class. Provtde feedback on rhythm: The capitalized words should be long and loud. 6. 0n the board, list related questions from the textbook un t (or from units previously covered) n one column and possible answers in another column, with whlch students can create new dialogues. Capitalize the stressed syllab es of content words. Ft] rhought croups what the Teach€r Should Know Vords within an uttemnce are broken into shorter, meaningflil groups of words called thought groups. A thought group includes at least one content (stresse(D word and often corresponds to a gfammatical stfuctufe (e.g., a verb phrase, prepositional phrase, or short clausc).In the sentence below,thonght groups ale underlined. It's not too late to f nd a r6om at a natjona park this season. Most students understand the notion of a thought group and arc able to dividc a written sentencc into appropriate liroups. They may not, however, know how the yoice conveys this information. In English, both rhlthm and intonation provide cues for the Lstener The rhlthmic cue is a lengtlleninti or holding of the end of a thongltt group betbre the ncxt begins (Selkirk 1984,Wightman et al. 1992).The lengthenir.rg may be heard as a pause, although within an utterance, the !-oice \"lingers\" rather than stops irt a thought group boundary In addition, words within a thought group are linked more closely than words across thouliht gror-lp boundaries. Thought groups also have thcir own intonation patterns.* At thc cnd of an internal (nonJinal) thought liror-lp, intonation usually rises a little, a signal that the speaker has more to sa)', but may also fall a little. The sentence above is repeated below, showit.tg the drlthmic and intonational cues that mark its thought groups. 6ilIt's not toitate to f nd a ro66 at a nationa tni. .*--)n loo,\"rg .1 tO'O e18 ^ OO o drLat a Thought groqts are dso cxLled inlor)ation units (Gilhefl 1981, Cclce NlrLcie et el 1996). int0nnti(Dal lhrdes or inteDnedilte intoretional phm-ses (Pierehun )efi 19t0, Picrchlmbert xlld HiNchbeql 1990). and k)lle Lrnils (Bnzil 1994a)

2.H^prrR Rhvthn 53 Because thcse nonfind intonirtion changes are difficult for students and teachers to hea! the main tcacltinla focus should be on the rhrthmic cues, the lengtheninla or palrsinli at the encl of a thought group. 'l'hcre are no fixed rules for determining in adyance what tlte thougltt groups in a given sentence should be. Me:rninli is a factor, but so, too, are rate of speakinli (ftwcr thought groups ;uc used in fastcr speech) and stvle of speaking (morc thoulaht gfoups are used in public speakin€!). The senrcnce above, for example, coultl also be broken into two of thfee thought laroups: It's not too late to f nd a room at a fattona oarkthsseason It's not too ate to flnd a room at a nationa oark this season Appropriate thought groupinll bcnefits the student in two wa,vs. Organized into sl.rofter, meaningful units, thc student's message is more comprehensible. In addition, the brief pause or holcling of the end of a thought tiroup slows the student down, gir.ing him more time to make lexical, larammatical, and pronunciation choices (Gilbcrt 1994, Lcvis and Grant 2001). Thought groups arc both teachable and learnable. Anderson-Hsich and Venkatagiri found that ntore proficient Chinese learners used pausing more appropriatel_y than less proficient learners (1994). Ueyama lbund that aclrancccl Japanese learncrs lengthened the ends of thought groups more eppropriately than bcginning learners (1996).In this book, thoulaht laroups are atldressed below as I'ell as in activities that focus on rhe rh,vthm patterns of specific phflrse tvpes (c.g., prepositional phrases). Activity 2.3 Thoaght groups: Exercise Ievel High Beginning/Low Intermed iate Worksheel N one Tip To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach them to iengthen the end of one group before saying the following group. Description This activity practices thought groups in the context of exercise and fitness and can be iniegrated with topics on health, nutrition or sports and with the grammar of the present tense third-person sin- gular ending. Students interview their classmates about a) how often they exercise, b) what they do, c) where they exercise, and d) with whom they exercise. Each piece of information is a potential thought group. Once the information is gathered, each student reports to the class about another classmaie, using the present tense. (coittilllecl ot1 1rci page)

54 2otAPrF.R Rhythm Actixily 2.3 continue.l 1. Introduce the activity by asking students what kind of exercise they do. lvlake a list on the board (e.g., walk, run, work out at the gym, play soccer). 2. Wrile a sentence about yourself on the board, including frequency (e.g., once in a blue moon), the activity (e.9., I walk), place (e.g., around the block), and with whom (e.9., wlth my dog). Once in a blue moon, I walk around the block wrth my dog. 3. l\\4odel the sentence, ho ding/lengthening the ends 0f thought groups. With your hand, rnake sweeplng underlines corresponding to your thought groups (move your hand from right to left, which will be your students' left to right). 4. Ask students which words you grouped together. Underline the groups. I\\4odel the sentence again, holding/lengthenlng the end of each thought group. Students repeat. Explain that the end of a thought group is held briefly and lengthened a little before the next group starts. 5. On the board, write four headings: \"How often,\" \"What,\" \"Where,\" and \"Wlth whom.\" Ask one or two students to describe their exercises, providing the four pleces of information. 6. Elicit from the class questions for each of the four pieces of information, and write the questions on the board (\"How often do you exercise?\" \"What do you do?\" \"Where do you exercise?\" and \"Who do you exercise with?\"). 7. Elicit expressions for each iype of information (e.g., for \"How often,\" ellcit \"every day,\" \"once a week,\" \"occasionaLly,\" \"maybe once a month,\" and so on). For the last category, \"With whom,\" add \"by myself\" if students don't know the expression. 8. Students interview another classmate, take notes, and then report to the class about their partners. Instruct students to group words clearly and provide feedback on grouping. E rinkins eo;acent words What the Teacher Should Know In connected speech, sounds at word boundaries join closely togethe! in some cases creating blends;this linking of words is also referred to as word-to-word timing (Zsiga 2003, ,i00). Inappropriate linking of words contributes to accentedness and unintelligibility and can disrupt rhlthm as sh.rdents struggle with final sounds. Many problems with word-to-word linking occur when a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word beginning with a consonant (e.g.,Web slte). Depending on the natiye language of the learneq these difficulties ma] reflect difficulty with final

2C//,lfrER Rhydrrr 55 consonants in laeneral (that is, with English sl'llable fi,pes), difficulty with rhe wa,\\.s in which wofd final consonants are linked to following words. or with both. Learners whose natiye langualies limit of do not allow final consonants use several strategies to deal with them (see also Final Consonants, page 153). The final consonant may be deleted (e.g., \"re color\" for \"red cokrr',); it may be changed (e.g., ''pockctboot\" lbr \"pocketbook\"); or a vowel may be adclcd to separate it fi.onl the following word (e.g., \"redr colof) (Weinbergef 1987; Maior 1987, 1996; Hansen 2001). Chinese learners may substitute a glorral stop (phonetic s),mbol ,/?/, a sound found in the warning Uh Oh /?a?ow/ and in Cockney English): too& a ualk, for example, ma1, sountl like \"too? a walk.\" Specific final consonants mav also have distracting, odd-sounding pronunciations. One example is the pronunciation by Korcan students of linal /4/ es in ubich). /(13/ @s ln agg), [/ (as in catlO, a1:.d B/ (^s tn Derge). In connected speech, these wofds may sound as though the bpe.Jker hlLs r rrd.led short J/ ending to the word: nhichy one. a1cy limit. r.ashr pa1 nrenr. r Difficulties may also arise because English and tl.re learncr's natir.e language link words in different ways. In English, final consonimts are not strongly rcleased unless the following word begins with a vowel (Catfbrd 1987, Ladefoged 1993). The lack of release makes final consonants less audible than when the)r occur a1 the beginning of a word or syllable. In contrasr, in Russian, a langualae wl]ich also allows a large number of Rnal consonants and final consonant clusters, final consonants are audibly released, and Russian ESL learners carry this pattern into English (Zsiga, Z0Ol). An English listener may hear the released llnal consonant as an added vowel or.syllablc. The way in which worcls are linked in English depends on the nature of the final and beginning sounds. The information below describcs dilferent tlpes of linting. Linking Final Consonants to Beghrniflg Vowels. The final consonant joins closely to the following r-owel, almost as if it were part of the following s,'ord.ln this context, the final consonant is easily hcard. both_apples fix it black out other animals Linking Final Consonants to Different Beginning Coflsonants. 1. Final Stop Consonant + Ditferent Consonanr When a word ending in a stop consonant (/p, b, t, d. k, g,f is fbllowcd by a word beginning with a different consonant. the final stop is pronounced but not audibly released Oronounced strongly), and the nc'xt word is said immediarelv. In the examples bclow, the superscripted right parcnthesis indicates the unrelcasecl sto1.r. keep)trying big)storm black)bird white) coat cold)spell job)lair ': c atLc]ltion 0l a Koreen studelL, he srid he $?s not xddirg x ro\\cl

56 2(HAPTER Rhythnl Unreleased stop consonallts are short, altd students have ditTiculty ltearing them.A cue to their presence is the cutoff sound of the Yowel preceding the final stop. Consider the differcnce betwe en tl.te vowels in rzaAe and rla./ in the phrctses make dinners and May dinnersBxamples like this help \"convince\" students that the hard- to-hear final consonant is inde€d present. 2. Other Final Consonants + Different Consonant In general, other final consonants are kept short when fbllowed by a diffetent consonant. Ilecause the air is not completely cut olf with n()nstop consonants, they are easier fbr students to hear even though they are short.6 give) money nose) job pantsbeige) both) cars watch) Tv some) people one) day mail)man Linking Final Consoflants to the Same Consonant. rwhen a word ends in a final consonant and the next word bcgins with the same consonant, one long consonant links the words.T The consonant is not pronounced twice Linking is represented as _. hottl_ihings blac(_ca r live-_vans 0n e_nepn ew smal0amps lresh shellfish \\Vlren a word e nd ing it1 /L[/ (e .g., u)bi94 uatg!4 cburcb) is folktwed by a word beginning with [/ (e .g., shop, sboe, sheeqt), tl1e words ioin together as if the final and beginning consonants were tlle samet Luhlcb s/:oe. This occurs because the last part of /I[/ nfid the sound /t are the same sounds. Linking Final Vowels to Beginnirrg Vowels. ri/hen words ending with the vowels ,/iy, eyr ow, uw aw, av, o1',/ are followed by a word beginning with a vowel (e.g.. see Ann, sa! it, go in, ckt ouer, bout eas\\, my uncle, to! engine). the glide ending (/)'/ or /w,/) of the final vowel links to the following vowel, creating the next syllable (see also pages 170, 183, and 191). The glide souncl is not always written. seetlAnn say_it c{!n do \"over how_easy my_un c le toy_engine The same hlking of a glide cnding to a following \\.owel occurs inside words: uide ro, ponetr!. and voiceLess ftlcalives requires uoLe knowledge ofphonetrcs fian studerrls hal'c or need ?urd s|orld nolbe laught. 7 Slntilar final and begin|ing consonants aft dso linked as onc long sormd: Drg.?r The tonguc p0sition 0i the bold consonants in &tg ./l/ h fie sanlei tlle hvo soulds dill€r in ioicifg (see Consonants, f4e 1i9).

2cHAprER Rhythm 57 When a word ends in a vowel without a glicle endjng (e.g.,l.tto, sp.t, sof., and. the next word begins with a vowel, the two vos/els link smootl y togither- law_of nature spa_entrance sofa_arrangement at Pronunciation work on the linking of words in connected speech is impoftant can be divided all levels. The topic into two lessons, a lesson on linking consonants to consonants (e.9., dot com), whete many effors occut and one on linking consonants to vowels (e.g., fresb 4lr). Vowel-ro-\\.owel linking is discussed on page 191. Unking can also be addressed in pronunciation of the past tense endings (see Consonants, page 159). Simplifications of final consonants made by native speakers iLre covered in Final Consonants, page 155. Pfesefrting Linktng Rules to Students. The rules above are too complex to present to students. The following rules are simpler alternatives. 1. A word ends in a consonant; the llext word begits s/ith a vowe l:fresb .tir Join the consonant clearly to lhe vowel:fresb a.h pickJtp. 2. A word ends in a consonant;the next word starts with a different consonant: cloN 9om. Say the final consonant but keep it \\-ery short. Say the next word inmediately: doP com, Wel) site. 3. A word ends in a consonant; the next word starts with the same consonanr: big_girl. Say one long consonant. Do not say the consonant twice: bi{girt, nic{'smile. Fast-Speech Blends. Word blends result from rhe very close ioining of final and beginning sounds in adiacent sounds. thisheer (this year) lascheer (last year) wouldja (would you) They won't letcheMlhey won't letcha 0et you). impart (in part) I dombelieve it. (l don't belleve it)

58 2IHAPTER RhYthm Blends like tbislreer (this year) and dMia (did you) xe palatalizations, assimilations of one sound to a following palatal sound. In the examples aboYe, the palatal sound is /y/.8 The palatal soutTd /y/ i7 lear attacts the final /s,/ of tbis to the /y/ position, producing /[/ (the first sound of sl:zp). s + /- becomes 4/ I /grJa/ (guess you) know. -l + y- becomes /t/ Nice to meetchew (meet you). I wancha (want you) to know. -fs+/ becomes /t/ Thatcher book. (That's your book.) Whatcher name? (What's your name?) -d+ybecomes/d3l Didla? (D d you?) Wouldja? (Would you?) The nasal consonant ,/n/ also assimilates to the place of articulation of some following consonants (Avery and EhrlicF. 1992,4-D. I I karl I go. (l can go.) I camp believe you. (l can't believe you.) Many students learn words in their citation (word list) pronunciation and expect to hear them pronounced in the same wa1'. They need to be aware of how words sound when blended together, especially blends involving pllatalizatiorrs, which are common. It is not necessary to teach blends for production (i.e., for students to use in ordinary speaking). Like fast-speech reductions of function words (discussed below), blends are associated with high levels of fluency and accur:rcy (i e., with native English). Less proficient students may sound less clear if they use these blends than they would if they had used the unblended forms. For a recognition actiyity involving blentls, see the Activity section for Fast-Speech Reductions of Function words, page 84. 3 Palanl sounds, such as the lirsl sounds in j,01l end srf, arc produced $ hen the frcnt of the ton il e approachs the h ard laLate Mosl palataLizations involve assimilations of aheolarsounds likc /yor/s/ to the palatalsound (for alveolar consonants, see page 129)

2.HAPTER Rhythm 59 level Intermediate Wo*sheet Page 272. Tp Teach students to link the final consonant of a word to ihe beginning sound of the next word smoothly. Description This activity reviews compounds and practices linking final conso- nants to words starting with different consonants. The activity can provide a pronunciation focus for other lessons on jobs or employ- ment. ln the sample matching exercise on page 212, all of the final consonants are stop consonants (/p; b, t, d, k, el), a group of conso- nants that is among the most difficult for students to link in con- nected speech. This pronunciation topic can also be added to an activity on the stress patterns of compounds (see page 33). 1. lntroduce linking. On the board, write a work-related compound (e.g., work place, job seekers, job growth, job benefits, unemployment /lnes), underlining the final consonant of the first word. wort place iob seekers 2. Model the compounds. Students repeat. Direct students, attention to the final underlined consonants. Explain that final consonants must be pronounced but they are short. The next word follows immediately. @ 3. Students listen to the compounds in the matching exercise on Worksheet 2.4 and repeat them, paytng attention to the pronunciation of the final consonant. 4. Select several students to say one or two of the compounds individually, and provide feedback on the fjnal consonant; make sure that students pronounce the final consonants but keep them short. lf students separate the words with a vowel sound, tell them to say the second word immediately after the first. lVlodel the correct and incorrect pronunciations. 5. ln pairs, students match the phrases to the definitions. Then they create short dialogues using the model below. A: What's a B: IS 6. ln pairs or small groups, students answer the discussion questions on the handout. Students should focus on pronouncing final consonants but keep them short (not release them strongly). 7. After the pairlgroup work, ask several students to report on their group,s discussion. Provide feedback on final consonants.

60 2aHAPTER Rhvtllnl ffi Prepositional Phrases and rnfinitives What the Teacher Should Know The core rhl.thm pattern of a prepositional phrase is a weak (unstressed) beat on the preposition (e g., to, dt, in, on,.l-ot u'ith, ht, of, from) followed b-v a strong (stfessecl) beat on the noun. Infinitives havc the same pattern: unstressed ,o is follo$'ed by a stressed ve|b. The phrases below illustrxte the core Pattern. The rhythm pattern is isolated below each phrase. to scHoot at HoME in t0vE for JoHN from SPAIN dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA The noun object of the preposition may be separatcd from tlle preposition by other words, some stressed (strong), some unstressed (weak). in JUST a Mlnute on a Sultry, SUMmer DAY Although n.)alry prepositional phrases are themseh-es thought groups, short prepositional phrases like at bome might be part of a lar€ier thought 8roup, and long prepositional phrases like on a sultry, summer da!- mzy consist of more than one thought group. Prepositio al phrases consistin[i of a preposition followed by a personal pronoun, (e.g., to her) have no content words ln such cases, one of the two constituents receives more stress tllan the other (though neither receives healry stress); alternati\\''el)', one constituent is reduced while tlle other is not. The decision to stress the pfeposition or pronoun more heavily may clepend on the speaker's meanin€! or on the overall rhythm pattefn of the sentence. gave the book to her. lluwarl : to rece ves rnore stress than her 'gd/p h6 boo. Lo I - . /tahar/ : her rece ves nlore stress than 10 \\vhen pfepositions have clear meaning (e g, behteen, undenleatb, ouer), both the preposition and the noun rcceive sress: beTWEEN the LINES underNEATH the TAble Some sholt plepositions are reduced as well as unstressecl in connected speech: C tation pronunc ation Reduced pronunc atjon aI lall /aV I think he's /aV home. for lforl /farl John bought the ring /far/ N4ary. Tlre prepositions in /h't/?Lnd on /on/ arc sometines reduced to /arl/ (Celce-Murcia er al. t996.177).

2:HAPTER Rhythm 61 The prepositions of e;nd, to have two promrnciations, depending on whether the following word begins with a yowel or consonant. Students sometimes notice and ask about tlte two pronunciations of to. If the word following of or to beglns with a vowel, the final consonanr (the final /y/ of of /e-\"/, the fin l /w/ of to /t\\wf) links the two words togethef: a bag /avlapples (of apptes) nuM a movie (to 1-,a movie) 'When the following word begins with a consonant, ojf is pronounced /eyl or /a,/: a cup /av/ coflee a /kaper' coflee Before a consonant, to is pronounced /la/ (or may eyenbe reduced to an aspirated [th]:e Today l'm driving /ta/ school. When prepositions end a sentence (or are ,'stranded,,'not followed by a noun), they are unstressed but not reduced: Whar are you loo,rrng /el,/? The store I took my cornputer /tuM is on 4th Street. 'When teaching the rhl.thm pattern of prepositional phrases, choose phrases with short prepositions (e.g., to, at, in, on, ol by, fot uitlr, fron) followed by nouns (rather than pronouns). This pronunciation topic can be taught at all levels and included with the grammar of prepositions. The pedagogical focus should be the lack of stress ofl the preposition. The consonant and vowel reductions of prepositions can be taught for recognition. I Aclivity 2.5 Prcp os iti o n a I ph rases ; Sh oplp ing level High Begin ning Wotksheet N one Iip I Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases. Description This activity practices the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases, in the context of shopping. The activity can be easily changed to review other kinds of vocabulary and to reflect local businesses and shop- ping habits (e.g., on QVC, at Amazon.com, onLlNE, on Ebay). (contlnued on nact page) '\\atiye sp€alre$ sometimes use the morc ftduceilfom s ol of Va\\/) Md to (hel) even when fie following word begjns witli a yowel.

62 2CHAPTER Rhythm Actiai4) 2.5 contlnued 1. 0n the board, write a list of items the students in your class might need io buy and businesses where they can buy them. Write the preposition for in front of each item. Write the preposition to in front of the businesses, The items should be ones that fit naturally in the sentence f'ame l'm looking for a. . . . Head the list of items with \"l'm looking . . .\"; head the list of stores with \"Go . . . .\" 2. Add to the board a short dialogue, capitalizing the stressed syllables of mean ingfu I words. A: WHERE are you Going? B: SHOpping. l'm Looking for a DlCtionary. (l NEED to BUY some GROceries) A. GO to BARNES and NObIe. 3. Ask students to volunteer things they buy and stores where they shop and add them to the board. Write fot in front of items that fit naturally in the model dialogue frame l'm looking for . . . , capilaLzing the stressed syllable (these are usually singular count nouns). Your students may volunteer items that do noi sound natural in the sentence frame I'm looking for. . . in the model dialogue For example, I'm looking for food. fhe teacher can add a more natural- sounding sentence frame for these items (l need to buy [someJ food. Your students may also volunteer things that are not found in shops, such as a doctor or apartment. You can add other phrases to the board like Look on the lnternet, Look in the newspaper, and Ask the teacher, as these arise. l'm looking... l needtobuy... Go... for a SWEAter some FOOD to BARNES and NOBLE for a Dlctionary some FuRniture to BEST Buy for a comPUter some GRoceries to MAcy's for SHOES to lKEa for a TAble to for JEANS for a JAcket for 4. Model the lists on the board. Students repeat. Ask students whether the noun or preposition is stressed strongly in the forand lo phrases. Ask students what each store sells.

2:HAPTER Rhythn 63 Actiuity 2.5 conttnued 5. lVodel the dialogue on the board, lengthening stressed words and grouping words. Students repeat and then practjce the dialogues in pairs. 6. ln pairs, students create their own dialogues, replacing the underlined words on the handout with other words. Students read their dialogues to the class. Activity 2.6 Prepositional phrases: Good nanners level lntermediate/Advanced Worksheet Page 2I3 tip Teach students predictable rh!.thm patterns of phrases\" .Descripfion This activity practjces the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases and infinitives in the contexl of manners and courtesy. 1. Establish the context. Ask students to read the paragraph on table manners on Worksheet 2.6 to themselves and underline prepositronal phrases and infinitives. Students check their underlining with a classmate and then with the teacher, I2. Students listen to the paragraph, paying attention to the pronunciation of the prepositional phrases and infinitives. 3. Elicit from students and/or explain the pronunciation: The preposition is not stressed; the followrng noun (verb in infinitives) is stressed. The words in the phrase are grouped together. 84. Students listen to the prepositional phrases in the matchjng activity on Worksheel 2.6 and repeat them. 5. Ask students how they learned table manners-who taught them, how old they were. Ask students to give some examples of table manners that they learned (e.g., don't talk with your mouth full). 6. Paired matching activity. Direct students' attention to the matching activity on : the worksheet. ln pairs, students create a list of table manners by matching I do's/don'ts with an appropriate prepositional phrase. |: 7. Ask individual students to report some of the tabie manners to the class, giving feedback on prepositions that are pronounced too strongly. 8. To extend the activity, the class can also discuss which manners they think are universal and which are specifrc to a particular country or culture.

64 2:HAPTER Rhythm ffi a\"ti.r. + No'n What th€ Teacher Should Know The core rhlthm pattern of an article + noun is identical to that of a prepositional phrase:a weak beat (the article) followed by a strong beat (the noun) The article and noun are grouped together a B00K an EGG thE GIFT da 0A da DA da DA The definite afiicle tbe has two pronunciations, depending on the first sound of the following word. It is usually pronounced /6V before a vowel, and the glide en<hng /y/ linki the article closely to the following word lt is pronounced /da/ before a consonant.l o 6iy_air 6iy authol 6a3log 6a sun The indefinite article 4, pronounced /a/, is used before words beg rning with a consonant so lfird an, pronounced /3n/, is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. Students may choose the wrong form of the indefinite article before words union, fot beginning with the letter 4 or lr. In unit, unique, fuirnstiuseors'lintyl ,is^nthde consoflant example, the first letter of ttre wotd is a Yowel, but the tyt G.5., unit /\\'uwnetD. The article a is used before these words because they begin with a consonant sound Strldents need to understand that the choice betweenaandazdependsonthefirstsorrldoftheword,nottfi.]firstletterThe opposite problem occurs with words that begin with silent lJ (e g,honest, bono4 the article 4 rather than because the first niir hour). Students often choose a consonant tetter (b). The correct ?rt'i7c'l?e, however, is at', letter of the word is because the first sound of the word is a vowel (e.g., honor /onet/)' Teaching the rh''thm pattern of articles not only addresses rhlthm and reviews a very difficult area of English grammar, it is also an opportunity to reYiew to (e g the rlJ pronunciation (as in tbe) ttle joining of final consonants Yowels ' an-appIe). ^nd r0 Native speakers sometimes use /de/ b€forc words b€giiningwith voweLs ot consonants'

2CHAPTER Rhythn 65 2.7Activity Atticles: Food Level Beginn ing Worksheet Pages2l4-ZI5 Tip Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases. Description This information gap reviews food vocabulary and the use of the article a with first-mentioned singular count nouns. The activity reviews countable food nouns, container expressions (e-g., a box of\\ and utensil/d ish ware nouns (e.g., a gtass of). Students should be familiar with this vocabulary as well as with the expressions on the right and on the left. 11. 0n the board, draw two numbered boxes. Wrjte the question ,,What,s jn Box ?\" on the board. A Mft v \"What's in Box 1 ? 2. Choose a student to ask you about Box 1. Answer the question with ',an apple,\" and write the answer on the board, \"an\" and \"apple\"; mark stress on ,,apple.\" underlining the joining between Students repeat. aLiippte 3. Ask a student to come to the board and draw an apple in Box 1. 4. Cioose another student to ask you about Box 2. Answer the question with \"There's a c6rton of milk on the left. There's a p6ar on the right.,, Write the answer on the board, underlining noun phrases stressed syllables of \"cadon\" and ,,milk.', with a and marking the 5. Elicit (or explain) pron unciation: . The article is unstressed and the noun is stressed. . ,4n is used before a vowel sound. ,4n joins closely to the noun. 4 is used before a consonant. (continued on next page)

66 2]HAPTER Rhythn AcIiriA 2.7 conlinue.l 6. Put students in pairs. Give one member of each pair Grid A and the other member Grid B of Worksheet 2.7. Students ask each other about their empty boxes and draw the missing pictures. When their grids are complete, they compare them (and laugh at each other's drawings). 7. After the pair work, choose students to describe the pictures in the grid. Give leedback on p'onunc,ation. 8. Alternate versions. For high beginners or low intermediates, prepare two completely filled in grids, with some cells identical in both grids and some different (e.g., five identical cells and five different cells) For example, in Grid A, the first cell might have a banana on the righi and an apple on the left; in Grid B's first cell, the banana is on the left and the apple on the right. Students describe their grids to each other to find the different cells. E] r.tsontl rronouns what the Teacher Should Know Personal pronouns (1, mq J/ou, be, sbe, it, bim' beti ute' us, tbe!, tbem) alf'd loufpossessive adiectives (?tl.Jt, IJis, hef its, ou4 their) are usually unstressed in connected speech. v€rb + Obiect Pronoun. Verbs and obiect pronouns are almost always grouped together. The verb is stressed, and the object pronoun is unstressed Native speakers link pronouns very closely to the Yerb, pronouncing them as if they were an ending to the Yerb. !!ADj EtLIg UlgDth'ry Reductions of b Pronouns and Possessives. In connected speech, native speakers often drop f]ne /h/ of be, him, bis, and her ancl closely link wlrat remains of the pronoun to the preceding word. Whatser name? (What's her name?) Thatsrz otfice/ Thatsaz office. (That's his offlce ) I toldrm. (l told him.) What diddy do? (What did he do?) The same type of reduction occurs in the auxiliary verb s haue, IJas, and had (see pagc /b ). Jackad (lack had) already gone home.

2]HAPTER Rhythm 67 rJfhen , pfonouns begin a sentence or afe pfeceded by a pause, the /h/ is not dropped. He carne. (nol 'E came) Her sister is in Dallas. (not'Er sister is in Dal as) Reduction of Them. In connected speech, native speakers reduce tbem to either /6am/ or /am/. Let's ask /dam/. (Let's ask them.) l'lsendam the papers tomorrow. (l'll send them the papers tomorrow.) Reduction of fou. In connecte d speech, you is often pronounced /ya,/. Seeye tomorrow. (See you tomorrow.) Areya free tonight? (Are you free tonight?) V/tren common words encling in /t/ or /d/ (e.g., ubat, did) are followed by J)ou, the final /t/ or ,/d/ combines with the /y/ of you to produce a blended sound /t[/ ot /d3/ (.see also Fast-speech Reductions of Funcrion words, below). I'll leiJa know. (l'll lei you know) Did3a see the movie last night? (Did you see the movie last night?) Reductions of Pronoun Vowels befote 're and'll The contractions 're arrd 'll can alter the vowel quality of I /^y/, be /f]jii/, she /jy/, lou /]ruw/,ue /wiy/, and ttrey /6ey/. All of these pronouns end in a glide somd (/w/ ot /yD. When '/e or 7/ follows these pfonouns, they weaken the glide ending and the vowel (see also pages ss, tt, and uu). I think l'l go. (/7i sounds very close to \"all.\") We'll call you when we're ready. (14le7l sounds very close to \"will\" or /wall: we're sourds like /Mr/ or lwar/.) Pronoun vowel weakening before 're and 'll i.s of minor pedagogical importance, but native-English-speaking teachers should be aware that they may be using these reduced pronouns. Students should be aware of the reductions of 11 pronouns because they will encountef them in the connected speech of native speakers. Even beginners enjoy leaming about these reductions in common, leyel-appropriate contexts, for example, in questions like \"What diddy (did he) do?\" or \"Where diddy (did he) go?\" Indeed, through exposure to English, some students pick up these reductions in high-frequency expressions. Because the joining of ,less pronouns (lge, lsim, +is, +er) to the preceding word is mandatory, studcnts who lack the proficiency to join words together easily and smoothly are unlikely to be able to use these reductions in spontaneous speech.

68 2cuAPr[R Rhythm The teaching focus should be the de-sressing of pronouns, not their ,-less pronunciations. Taylor found that nonnatiYe speakers judged to have good pronunciation and rhlthm made appropriate length and stress distinctions between stressed and unstressed words but used few redr.rced pronunciations (1981). 2.8Activity Verb + qbject Prcnouns: Spofts Level Low lntermediate Worksheet None Tip Teach students predictable rh)'thm paiterns of phrases Description This activity praciices the rhythm pattern of verbs followed by ll in the context of sports. Student pairs lalk about what players are allowed to do with a ball in different sports (e.9., kick it, pass it, dribble it' ' head it, carry it). The activity can also be used to review the reduction of canj What can you do with a ball in basketball? You can pass it or dribble it, but you can't carry it. 0ptional: Before class, gather pictures from the lnternet of the sports you include in this activity. 1. On the board (or in a handout), write the question \"What can you do with a ball?\" Elicit answers from students, write them on the board, and add other verbs. Verbs like pitch or bounce are likely to be new vocabulary but are easily demonstrated. The verbs bel0w cover ball handling ln baseball, soccer, basketball, and American football. Write the pronoun ltafter the verb, mark stress on the verb, and underline the joining of the verb and lf. Ask the class if they know how to play any of these sports. Those who do can help demonstrate new vocabulary and serve as experts on the rules. Whai can you do wilh a ball? rhr6w lt kick it p6ss it hit it dribble it sh6oi it bfnt it c6rry it ciitch it h6ad it h6ld it itbr6unce dl6pkick ii dlink it pitch it Basketball Baseball Soccer Amelican lootball 2. Explain or demonstrate new vocabulary (pictures can help; so can students who know the sports). Ivlodel the verb phrases, lengthening the stressed syllables of the verbs and pronouncing lias an endlng to the verbs. Siudents repeat Tell students that pronouns like lt are unstressed and are pronounced like endings to the verbs. 3. Add the phrase \"in ?\" to the question on the board. What can you do with a ball in ? Explain the use of \"you\" to mean \"people\" if necessary

2:HAPTER Rhythn 69 Tctioi\\t 2.8 coninued 4. Demonstrate the activity. Choose two students. One selects a sport, and asks the other the question on the board. Repeat with another pair of students. 5. Students work in pairs. Each student chooses a sport and asks, ,,What can you do with a ball in (sport)?\" The partner answers the question with one of the verb phrases. The partners should make a list of legal and illegal ball actions for the sport. Note that for some sports a ball action might be illegal for some players, but not for others. For example, in soccer, the goalie can carry the ball, but other players can't. Circulate around the room and make sure the questjon includes the word \"ball\" so that the student answering the question can use it. Give feedback on pronunciation and help students with vocabulary. ffi rhrasal verbs What the Teacher Should Know In phrasal verbs like come on, figure out, ot pick r4A the preposition (also called the particle) has adverbial meanin€i and receives either primary of secondary stress (Celce-Murcia et 1996,112). Phrasal verbs can ^b1e. transitiye (separable), as lnpick it up, tut\"n it on, and. try tbem on, or intransitive (inseparable), as in come on, utatcb out, and get in.l t When separable verbs have pronoun objects and end a sentence, the preposition/particle is usually more heavily stressed than the verb. The same is true for intransilive phrasal verbs. try them 6n look it fp Watch 6ut! get in Native speakers link the words in phrasal verb phrases ll1tre pick it up closely. In many cases, the linking is between a final consonant and a beginning vowel. Pfonunciation wofk with phrasal verbs then also provides practice with consonant- yowel linking. picak i!_up try them on ask herJut (askef out) Phrasal verbs are grammatically more complex than single-word sy,nonyms and may not be semantically transparent (e.g., the meaning of put off as,,postpone ', of figure out as \"sol\\.e\"). Several studies have shown that students avoid plrrasal verbs in favor of simpler and clearer one-word synonyms (e.g., leaae instead of go out/aua!; enter instead. of come in; confuse instead of mix up). Howe\\ler, natiye speakers in large numbers pfefer phfasal yerbs over their one-wofd synonyms @agut and Laufer 1985, Hulstiin and Marchena 1989). pronunciation practice of phfasal verbs, therefore, also promotes the use of more natural, idiomatic English. rl Trarlsil.ilt !t$s hale dircct ohjects; s€pxrable !€rbs arc trlursitilc phra5alve s Intrensitive vebs do not have dircct obiecb.

70 2]HAPTER Rhythm Phrasal Verbs + Prepositions: Get au)aJ) lritb. Some phflsal Yerbs are followed by a true preposition that is unstressed. The true preposition has a noun obiect. He gr6t awSy with murdel! G6t 6ut of the taxi. Nouns Formed from Phrasal Verbs: a takeoff' Nouns and adjectives formed from phrasal verbs have primary stress on the flrst word and secondary stress on the second, the same stress-pitch pattem as compounds (e.g.,tlre tAkedfr, my md.keiQ). They can be included in a lesson on the word stress of compounds or as a contrast to phrasal verbs in a lesson on rhlthm. Activity 2,9 Phrasal verhs: Don't put off until tonortow what you can do today Level Advanced/High lntermed iate Worksheet Page 216 Tip Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases. Description This activity practices phrasal verbs in the context of procrastination, 1. Direct students' attention to the dialogue on Worksheet 2 9. Ask students to first read the dialogue silently. Then go over vocabulary as needed. &- 2. Students listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the pronunciation of the underlined phrasal verbs. Elicit pronunciation from students or explain it: Words in phrasal verbs are grouped together; prepositions receive stress. Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat it. 3. ln pairs, students practice the dialogue. 4. Write the phrasal verbs from the dialogue on the board. Tell the class something that you put off, the reason you put it off, and what the consequences arelwere; for example, \"l put off calling my parents because I don't have time. Then I end up/wind up feeling guilty.\" Choose two or three students and ask them what they put off, why they put those things off, and what the consequences arelwere. Encourage students to use phrasal verbs. Add other phrasal verbs to the board to describe the situations. 5. In small groups, students talk about things they put off, using phrasal verbs. 6. Afier the group work, ask several students to report on what their group said Provide feedback on stress and grouping words in phrasal verbs.

2cHAPrtR Rhvthn 71 ffi conjunctions What the Teacher Should Know In connected speech, conjunctions are not stressed, and some are also reduced. The coninnctions and or arc discussed below in Reductions of Function W'ords, page 72. Conrunctions ^anred usually grouped with the words they introduce. Ca I me w'en t-e package arr ves. Lee said that he's sick. ._7-> W.--e--'l>l -reschedule if it rains. Exercise rs as impodant as a healthy d et. Exerclse is more mportant than a healthy d et. Students may not group coniunctions in the same way that native speakers do. Bada found that Turkish ESL students gtouped tlrat more closely with the words preceding the coniunction than with the words following it, whereas the pattern for native speakers was the reverse (2006). Citation form Reduced (connected speech) when /wrn/ /wan/ Did someone come /wan/ you calLed? (someone and come when rhyme) lhal l6eIl l6all, l6aDl12 | don't belreve /6aV Tom would do that. I don'i belreve /daD/ Alan would do that. if hft lfl(lafl) | don't know /lfl (/af/) I can go. as l7zl lazl )o^n. 'azl h Jng(y lazl a bear. lhan l6anl /6an/ The subway rs faster /6an/ a bus. Like other reductions, reduced conjunctions must be linked closely to surrounding words in order to sound natural. Students should be aware of these reductions but should not be expected to use them in speaking. Learning to group and de-stress conjunctions propedy is more important. Since some conjunctions represent more advanced grammatical strllctures (e.g., conditionals, some noun clauses with tbat), the lcvel of grammar that students are able to use in connected speech should affect which con,unctions are chosen as pronunciation topics. u|rr D represents the flapped sound of / in z,4ler flapjng of a final I belbrc r,o$eh occuN in comnon \\\\,ords like a.'/ial and The svmboi as in trlhuddt thel uant? (Whdl da lhel tlant?). See page 129 lor flals.

72 21HAPTER Rhythm Activity 2.10 Noticing unstessed conjunctionst Medical ethics level Advanced/lntermediate Worksheet Page 277 Tip Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations of grammar words. Description This activity provides practice noticing unstressed conjunctions. ln the example below, students listen to a passage on medical ethics, fill in blanks with conjunctions, and then answer the questions posed in the passage. $ 1. Pass out Worksheet 2.10 to students. Students listen to the passage once or twice and fill in the blanks. They check their answers with classmates and then with the teacher. 2. Elicit or explain the pronunciation 0f conjunctions by modeling one of the sentences from the passage and directing students' attention to the conjunction. ls the conjunction grouped with preceding or following words? ls it stressed or unstressed? 3. Ask students to read the passage again, breaking longer sentences into thought groups. 4. Students read the passage to a partner. The partner checks for unstressed conjunctions and clear grouping of words. 5. The discussion questions can be answered as a whole class activity or in groups. Students' pronunciation focus for the discussion should be speaking as clearly as possible and grouping words together clearly and smoothly. lt ts difficult (if not impossible) for the teacher (or students) to monitor pronunciation of a potentially large sei of words like conjunctions. lf the teacher notices a heavily stressed or inappropriately grouped conjunction, she can give feedback on that. But she should explain that sometimes a speaker's meaning requires that a conjunction be stressed (for example, \"l think ihe doctor should tell the patient-lF the patient's family agrees\"). ffi n\"d.r.ttons of Function words what the Teach€r Should Know In natively spoken English, function words Grammar words lile t/re or at) arc unstressed. Some function words are also reduced: The function word Yowel is pfonounced /a/, and consonants may be lost. In the sentence 1 cdn slrim, said as a neutral statement about abilittl, can is pronounced /ken/ , so that I can rhymes with liken.Because of teductions of z/lll and he4 your logic u)ill persuade ber can sound almost the same 7s lour logical persuader

2clIAPTER Rhythm 73 The reductions covercd in this section are not colloquial; they are used in formal as well as inlbrmal speaking. Reductions r4rich are more colloqui.al or informal (e.g., pfonouncing the question Wbat did lou do? ,WhaJe do?',) are discussed below, in Fast-Speech Rcducriol.ts of Function Words. ^s When students learn about the reductions and blen(ls used by native speakers, they may try to speak faster than they are able to in order to sound more English like (Rine)', Takegi, and Inutsuka 2005). Teachers should advise sh.rdents not to race throu€ih the weak words, but rather to €iroup words and lengthen the stressed s)4lables of the strong word(s) in each group. There haye been few studies of nonnative speakers' abilities to reduce function words. They suggest that while proficient learners are able to pronounce ftrnction words with shorter length than content words (Trofimoyich and Baker 2006, Setter 2006), they rarely use reduced yowels in function words (Taflor 1981, Setter 2006). Studies of the reduction of unstressed vowels within words reveal similar findings. Proficient lcarners are able to make an appropriatc length distinction betwecn stressed and unstressed vowels, but vowel reduction to schwa is unlikely, especially for those who haYe learned English as adults and whose natiye language does not have vowel reduction (Tlege and Bohn 1989;Lee, Guion, and Handa 2006). Although these studies have not looked at the effect that pronunciation teaching mi€iht l.lave on students' abilities to pronounce rcductions, they suggest that function word reductions should be talrght primarily for recognition, as an aid to understanding natively spoken English, mther than as a goal for pronunciation. ESL teachers, however, would disagree with this conclusion for at least some function words. rwhen students fail to pronounce can with a reduced yowel, they are often misunderstood as having said \"can't \" In addition, some students \"pick up\" reductions of ancl and o/ in l.fgh-frequency phrases (such as \"milk'n sugar,\" and \"onear two,\" for one or h.uo , evcn at low le\\.cls of proficienc_v13 'When new grammar is taught, function words are introduced in their citation form (fcw teachefs will introduce a grammar lesson on czrx by saying,\"Today we 're going to stud)' /kn/\"). Thus, the first prollunciation rhat classroom students hear is the full, unrecluced fbrm. It is understandable that tltis is the pronunciation they continue to usc. In addition, although thc reduced form is modeled in the speech of native speakefs, it is difficult for students to notice how these short, unstressed words are pronounced.v4ren Iistenirrli to English, students pl'ocess speech semantically; they pick out the mcaningful (content) words,which are also acousticnlly salient because they are stressed (Swain 1!85). Using these words, they are able to undersand the message without attending to tlte le ss meaningful, less clear ftlnction words, which are difficr t to notice (Van Patten 1990). At lower levels of proficiency, understanding is effortftll, and students have little time to notice the subtler meanings and modalities that function words carry when listening for meaning.As rr Thcsc urightbe learned er |hythm idio[]s, $herc dre pronunci^tim ol th€ phmse as a \\r,hole is hx red

74 2]HAPTER Rhythm proficiency increases, understanding becomes easief, and more adyanced students are better able to notice some of the \"details\" they missed earlier Special efforts are often necessary to help students notice reductions. Pairing single words that students can pronounce (for example, bacon) with a phrase contaifliflg the reduced flrnction word (for example, Mr Bay can cook bacon) is an effective way of helping students notice how the reduction sounds. Lane refers to pairs like Bea can ligbt 'ttrd bedcon liglrt as \"l.romophrases\" and uses them in awareness actiyities (2005b, 2005c). The sections below discuss the reduced pronunciations ot and, or:, alfd can, followed by contractions and reductions of auxiliary verbs. Reductions of prepositions, pronouns, and some conjunctions are coYered on pages 60,66, and 71. And, or Reductions of and and or can be taught to beginning level students for comprehension. Some students may already be using them in common phrases. Citation lorm Reduced lorm Noticing AND lendl lanl black 'n white (blacken white) OR lo larl -el endings (big or small = bigger small) Cary C&n't. In connected speech, can is reduced to Aanl when a verb follows. Sue can /kan/ come. It is not reduced when a verb does not follow. Yes, I can /kan/. f can / kan/, I'l come. The negative can't, like other negatives, is stressed and pronounced with a full vowel: /krnt/. I can't /kanv come. The reduction of can should be taught at the beginning level, simply because there is so much confusion as to whether a student has said can ot cdn't.The natiYe listener's most important cue for detemining whether the positive or negatiYe has been said is the vowel. lf the vowel is reducetl Ua/),lhe listener hears can; tf the yowel is ,/r/, the listener hears can 7 Thus, when students pronounce caz with the full vowel /rl the listener is likely to hear can't; the negatiYe Ycrb, however, doesn't make sense in the context, and the listener may ask,\"Did you satt can ot can't?\"-a question all too familiar to students. Because of this con{ilsion, students sometimes use the lrncontracted cannot ]l]-f'te dof can't. The use of cannot does not solve the problem, howe!'er, because the problem lies with the pronunciation of &zz. Aftef teaching the reduction of can, students may not be able to use it at first in connected speech, but they will be better able to understand sentences where it

, d \\t tt R 2 Rh,,thrr' 75 is reduced, the teacher will have an easier time drawing attention to confusing pronunciations, and students will be better able to self-cofrect. form formCitation Connected speech Noticing CAN lkanl /kan/, (even /kn, May can cook !A!!!. CAN'T lkanv lkanV (no reduction) Cofltractions and Reductions of Auxiliary Vertrs. Contractions are extreme cases of feductions and are especially common after pronouns. Contracted verbs are reduced to a consonant (e g., I'm, He's, WdD. Contractions of not (n't) Te pronounced as a final consonant cluster (e.g., don't, uon'' aren't) or a.s a separate syllable /ent/ (e.9., doesn't, basn't, sbouldn't).In negatiye auxiliaries, the anxiliary yerb is stressed (e.g., [sn't, bAsn't), caftylng the stress that the negative normally does. Students should be encouraged to use contractions after pronouns in the tenses they know and are accustomed to using. Contractions may be avoided because they creaie difficult final consonant clusters, or because students think they will sound clearer if the full forms are used (and sometimes they do). Students who have been taught not to use contractions in writing may extend this admonition to speaking. Howeve! contractions are important in casual spoken English. Native speakers may fesort to uncontracted fofms when they want to cfeate clistance in a convefsation, to asseft authoriry of to show displeasure. Considef the diffefence in tone between the two sentences below. The use of uncontracted r/o ,1ot sounds like an order or warning. Don't come late. Do not come late. After nouns, some auxiliary verbs lose their initial consonants and are reduced to a syllable, which is pronounced like an ending on the preceding noun. For exarnple, tn I think Nick tuill go, the underlincd words are likely to be pronounced like \"nickel.\" The auxiliary u)ill has lost the initial /W, its yowel has been reduced to /a/, and what remains ioins closely to the preceding word, like the -el ending in nickelIn Tbe land bad been used as a park, the \\nde ined words are likely to be pronounced like \"Ianded\": bad loses the i tial /h/ and is pronouncecl like zn -ed enrJing on land. Be I'm He'YShe's lt's You're We're They're layml lhiyzll[iyzl fttY lyvrl lwhl l6trl The contractions I'm and be's/she's,/it's are used eady by students, including beginning level students. Contractions of are (you're, Lue're, thq)'re) are avoided, possibly because /r/ is a difficult sound.

76 2.HAt'rtR Rhythm Native speakers contfact ls after nouns, just as they do after pronouns. If a noun ends in a sibilant (see page 131),like/osr, rose, or judge, r's is pronounced like a long plural: here.Josh's The rose is beautiful. The judge is wise. Joshaz roses judges After nouns ending in consonants, ,1re is pronounced like an -er ending. Bill and John are here. Some !!U&l!S_aIC absent. \"Johner\" \"studentser\" Hate He's She's lt's I've You've We've They've lhiyzl ftyzt lxsl layYl lyuwvl lwiyvl lleyul Studcnts avoid contracting the present perfect auxiliary verbs baue and has. This may reflect the grammatical difficulty of the present pcrfect tense as well as its relative infrequency, compared to the pfesent tenses. Howevef, students should be encouraged to use the contracted forms of baue ?.nd rds witll pronouns. Natiye speakers contract r,rs after nouns iust as they do after pronouns After nouns ending in sibilants (s-like sounds, see Coflsonants) like Josb, rotgr or judge, ,ds is pronounced like a long plural:The initial /h,/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a/, and what remains joins to the preceding noun: gone.Josh has The rcSg-h3! glown a lot. The iudge has left. Joshaz ]osez judgaz Tbe a\\xiliary baue is also reduced after nouns: The iflitial /h/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a,/, and what remains joins closely to the preceding word. The reduced pronunc iatiot]' of baue sounds identical to the Pronunciation of of /aY/. The students have linished. Where have you been? \"studentsav\" \"wherav\" Stndents should be aware of the reduced pronunciltlon of baue after nouns In modal perfect constructions, natiYe speakers almost never prono\\tace baue in its full form. It is re duced to /av/ and ioins Yery closely to the preceding word. I gh!U[L!i!g known. You could have come. \"shouldav\" \"couldav\" The reduction of baae may be caffied even ftlrther with the loss of fi|Lal /v/. This pronunciation is sometimes written, \" shoulda, coulda, wouldal' lshould have known. You could have come. \"shoulda known\" \"could3 come\"

24\"Ptt.R Rh\\|hm 77 Because the reduced pronunciation is virtually always used in speaking, it is the only natural pronunciatiott of haue in this construction. Furthermore, with modal perfects, students can linl< the reduced pronunciation of baue to a small number of preceding words-tDould, could, sbould, ,nustr and might-Lnd, ttre reduction can be learned as a unit with the modal Learning to reduce ,l, aue after this small set of words is easier than learning to reduce it in the present perfect, whete the possible number of words preceding baue is yast. Advanced students who use modal perfects spontaneously and have practiced the reduction are able ro use the reduced pronunciation spontaneously with some modals, especially in sbould baue (possibly because sbould haue is practiced extcnsively, in the context of regrets or seconcl thoughts). The same feductiofi of baae occurs aftef negative modals. lshouldn't have done it. He couldn't have seen it. \"sh6uldantev\" \"c6uldantav\" Students should be aware of the reduction of baue after negative modals but should not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking. Hacl, Would The past perfect auxiliary rad and the modal ulould are contracted to fin l /d./ pronouns: ^ ^ft.ff I'd already done it. I'd like coffee. You'd better study. Because the past perfect is a difficult and advanced terise, students do not make much use of it and rafely use contfactions when they do. ln the expression ,I:ad bette4 which is used spontaneously by some students ,lr.td Is also ruely contractecl. Part of the reluctance to contmct ,a d in bad better may be the difficr t cluster that arises at the boundary of the rwo wotds (baAl^effer). Alrhough this cluster will be present whether bad is contracted or not, students might feel their speech will be clearer if they use the full form of bad. In the expression utould. like, common at all levels, students also avoid contfacting uould. Again, as with. bad betteli a difficult cluster arises at the boundary of uoukl and, like (/d/ + M. I3ecause uould like is a cofirmon conyefsational form, students should be encouraged to use the contraction with 1 in Id like, for example. Students will need practice linking the final /d/ to the following word. The negative contractions lJadn't and xuouldn't are not used frequently by students. Higher priority should be giyen to the contmction of utould, especially after the pronoun 1, than to hadn't ancl, ttouldn't. After nouns ending in consonants, Edd is pronounced as a syllable,like the ,ed ending in started. The if:'iti^l th/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a/, and what reo]' ins of bad joins closely to the preceding word: Rick had already graduated. Ed had edited it. \"Rickad already graduated\" \"Edad\" edited it.

78 2)HAPTER Rhythm Students should be aware of this reduction but not expected to use it in spontaneous speaking. wiry Won't Students are reluctant to use contracted //, perhaps because they do not hear it cleady. In English,t}j'e frnal A/ of 1rll/ is a \"dark l\" (see page 741) an<l may sound unfamiliar to students. In connected speech, the dark I of contllcted u)ill alters the vowel of the preceding pronoun, weakening the glide ending of the vowels in pronouns. Consider the pronunciation of the contractions in the following sentences, spoken normally: Cal me and ljl come. (sounds close to \"all\") Te I me if he'l be there. (sounds close to \"hii \") Let me know when they ll come. ' (rhymes with \"shell\") It is not necessary to teach these pronoun alterations to students. The contraction taon't is also avoided by students. Students may use a Yery similar pfonunciarion for uon't and u)ant, which can be confrrsing to a listener Students should be taught to round their lips tightly fot uon't and to use the vowel i7 fatber fot uant. of ll uon'L because of Consider the two the It is important for students to use the contractions can ^fld forceful meaning that uncontracted uill and u.till nol haYe. sentences below;the second sentence has the feel of an emphatic refusal. I won't go. I will not go. Students should be aware that they may sound imperious or rude when they use uncontracted forms of loill a1J.d uill not. After nouns endiflg in consonants, z/i// is reduced to the syllable /ay, $/hich joins closely to the preceding word; it is pronounced like an -al, -le, or -el ending on the preceding wofd. Native speakers pronounce the two sentences below neady the same. The cat will drink water. = The cattle drink water. Students should be aware ofthe reduced pronunciation of ?r/// after nouns, but should not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking. Like other negatiyes, the negative contractions d6n't, d6esn't, and dldn't are stressed. The contracted forms don't and didn't are more common in student speech than doesn '/, perhaps because ofthe third-person singular present -s ending, which is frequently omitted by students. Students shottld be encouraged to use negative contractions of the simple present and past tenses.

2cHAPrtR Rhythm 79 Activily 2. 1 1 Reduction of and: Foods that go together level H igh Beginning/Low lntermediate Worksheet None Tip Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations of grammar words. Descriplion This activity is from Focus on pronunciation I (Lane 2OO5a, 12L-122).lt provides practice noiicing and pronouncing the reduced pronunciation of and 1. Read aloud these words for some foods that often go together. Repeat the phrases. Pronounce and as [an]. Join it to the first word. a. surf and turf f. salt and pepper stuffingb. turkey_and g. cake and ice cream mjikc. cookjes_and h. chipq,and dip d. bacon and eggs i. fish and chips e. bread_and water j. rice and beans 2. Choose three phrases from Part 1 and write them on the lines. Your phrases: 3. Work with a partner. Read your phrases to your partner. your partner will write what you say. Then listen to your partner's phrases. Wrjte them on the lines. Partner's phrases: 4. Work in small groups. The foods in Part 1 are eaten by different groups of people or in different situations. Complete the sentences with ihe foods in part l. it'sa. ln the caribbean, rice and beans b. For breakfast, it's .. In priso4 ir tl-e o'o days, il was d. At beach restaurants, it's e. For a children's snack, it's f. For dessert, it's g. At a party, it's (cortinue.l on next page)

B0 2cHAPr[R Rhythnl Actiuit! 2.1 1 cuttinued h. For Thanksgiving, it's i. These spices make food taste better: 1. ln England, it's 5. Write down other foods that go together. Then te I your group about foods thai often go together ln your country. We eat a lot of shrimp and vegetables. Activity 2.12 Can and can'|. What difference can an individaal nake? level Intermed iale/Advanced Worksheet None Tip Teach the reduced pronunciation of can to help students pronounce the difference between can and can't. Descliption This activity can be integrated with other materials on environmental problems. lt praciices the unstressed pronunciation of can and the stressed pronuncialion ot can't, in the coniext of how an individual can help the environment. 1. Introduce the topic of environmental problems. Ask students what environmental problems they are concerned about. l\\4ake a list on the board. 2. lntroduce the pronunciation oI can and can't. Wrile the J.EK. quote, beiow, on the board, leavlng out can.1a Read the quote and ask students to listen to how the words in the blanks are pronounced. Ask students whether can is stressed or unstressed. countrylVy fellow Americans, ask not what your do for you. Ask what you do for your coLntry. 3, Show the reduced pronunciation of canon the board: Dlrectly after \"country\" and \"you,\" write \"kan,\" in the blanks, leaving no space between \"kan\" and the preceding word (this shows that can is pronounced like an ending). lvlark the stressed syllable of \"country,\" and put a stress mark over \"you.\" Model cduntrykan and y1ukan seuen tlmes. Students repeat, 4. Ask several students to read the J.F.K. quote. Give feedback on the pronunciation of can. Ask students to paraphrase J.F.K.'s quote, ra lhis quote is fron John n Kennedl s iraugural add.css ir Jarllrari i961.

2CHAPTER Rhythn 81 ActiuiU' 2. I 2 co.ntinued 5. Write the sentence below on the board. Ask students how they think J.F.K. would complete this quote. Ask students how they would complete the quote. Each student should say the quote so that it reflects his own opjnjon. Explain that the negattve can'f is always stressed. An Individual do a lot to help the envjronment. (can/\"an l) 6. Ask students what an individuai can do to help the environment. Elicit a few answers with can and monitor pronunciation (e.g., you can walk to school or work, you can use a fan instead of an air conditioner). Write the suggestions on the board as verb phrases (e.g., walk to work, use a fan instead of an air cond itioner). 7. Students work in pairs, continuing the list of things a person can do to help the environment. Ask students to write sentences starting with ,,you can.,, Circulate among the pairs, helping them with vocabulary or giving suggestions (e.g., recycle, vote for \"green\" candidates, reuse empty coniainers). 8. When students have written several sentences on their lists, ask the pairs to read their sentences and add new ones io the list on the board. Help students with pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. 9. Choose a suggestion from the list on the board (e.g., ,,walk to school\") and ask a student, \"Sonia, can you walk to school?,' Sonia should answer for herse'f, \"No I can't because I live too far away.,' provjde feedback on the pronunciation of can and can't. lf students use short positjve answers (e.g., ,,yes, I can',), write the short answer on the board and tell students that can isn,t reduced in short answers. ERROR C0RRECTI0I{: Your sJudents pfonorLrce can $ke canl. After students have learned the feduced promrnciation of can, provide feedback on mispronutciations: Ask,,Can or Can't?,, ffi n^t-sp\"ech Reductions of Function words What the Teacher Should Know The reductions described aboye reflect pfonunciations that occur in fofmal as well as infomal speech. Other reductions,like Wy'rajd do? for wbat did you do? or Wbatcba been doing? fot WlJat baue you been doing? are associated with fast, casual speech. A natiye speaker deliyering a fomal presentation at a conference would be unlikely to use these forms. Since native speakers speak informally far

82 2.HAPTLR Rhythm more often than they do formally, our students should be aware of the informal reductions they will undoubtedly hear. Fast-speech reductions should be taught for recognition rather than production. Indeed, there may be a \"style clash\" if students attemPt to use fast- speech reductions when they lack fluency: The use of gor1r1a, for example, by a student with little fluency, can sound incongruous. In addition, less proficient students who use gonna m?y 2:dd to (.e .g.,I'm gonna to do it) or \\rse utanna when the subiect is rels be/it (e.g.,She utanna do /t), errors that heighten the style clash. On the other hand, through exposure to spoken English, some students do pick up some fast-speech reductions on their own and use them accumtely. If the reduction sounds natural, the student should not be discouraged from using it. Some fast-speech reductions should probably be viewecl as a continuum of reductions, rather than as discrete fixed forms; the continuum involves a blending together of more and ntore wotds and a loss of phonetic material that can be extreme. Reductio trs of be Soing to are an example Years ago, my father planted the seeds that later set me to listening for these reductions when he chided me for saying \"Imanal\"'Imana?\" he asked.\"Whafs Imane?l\" Since then,I have heard the full range of reductions shown below, in my own speech, in my father's speech, and in the speech of other native speakers. l'm going to go to the bookstore after class today. I'm gonna go to the bookstore after class today. lmana go to the bookstore after class today. lrnna go to the bookstore after class today. lma go to the bookstore after class today. Althougtr native speakers may not be aware tllat they are making these extreme reductions, they all occur in the informal English of educated native spcakers The following fast-speech reducdons are presented in many pronunciation textbooks (Dauer 1993, Hewings and Goldstein 1998, Lane 2005c).\\feinstein (2000), 1n wlJaful.aya sd.l1r, has developed nonstandard spellings of these reductions, which also appear in dialogue in novels and plays. Although the first two entries in the list below, baue tonJas to afld used to, are usually presented as fast-speech reductions' the reducecl or blended pronunciation is used in formal as well as informal English. Citation form Fast-speech spellings and pronunciation have to, has to hafta lhaftal, hasta Aastey' used to /yuwsta /yuwstuMl5 going to gonna /ganJ lt The last vo$el ol mel lo (/a/ or /u\\t), depends on the iint sound of the following $ord. Thc /ury' pronunciation occuN beforc \\o\\\\, d ,'\"' r.s'.010. pag' (l to pnjq lrp 0 '. 'ahu ^eo

21HAPTER Rhythn 83 have got to gotta /goDe/6 want to wanna /tvoney' ought to ought to 6Der' don't know dunno /den6v out of outta /awDd could have coulda /kuDey' would have woulda AvuDey' should have shoulda 4uDoy' must iave musta /mesta/ The reduction of going to to goww occurs only when going to is used as the futufe auxiliary, not s/hen it is the main verb of a sentence alrd to is follov/ed by a noun. l'm gonna study. (l'm going to study.) NOT: l'm gonna school. (l'm going to school.) The reduction zr)anna. is .used, with the subject pronouns I, you, ue, ot tbq) rc repl ce uant to or uant a, b1ot not u,ant tbe, I wanna study. (l want to study.) I wanna book. (l want a book.) NOT: I wanna book(s). (l want the bookls].) Other fast-speech feductions arise when certain sounds come in contact, producing blended sounds (e.g.,\"Whaia\" for \"What did you\"). Fast-speech blends are discussed in Linking Adiacent Words, above. The auxiliaries d.o md d.id. and the pronoun Wu undergo some extfeme reductions, especially in questions. The vowel in da is ofien feduced to /a/ Z;nd |dre nitial /d/ naybe flapped (phonetic symbolD) aftet Wbat? (see Consonaffs,page 129). Whaddaya /waDaya/ think? (What do you think?) Howdaya /hawDaya/ know? (How do you know?) The atx:hary did may be reduced to a single consonant /d/ .lI you follows did., the sing]e consonant is /dy. Wherd they go? (Where did they go?) Whaja do? (What did you do?) 16'lhe synrbol D repruents the flapped sound of /, ,s i n water (w page 129).

84 2LHAPTER Rhvthm Aclivity 2.13 Reductions, Recognizing do and did Level I ntermed iate/Advanced Worksheet Page 218 Tip Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations of grammar words. 0escription This activity helps students recognize da, did, and you in their fast- speech pronunciations. Students listen to sentences and wriie ihe full forms of the sentences in the blanks. G 1. Students listen to the sentences on the handout. 2. Students work together to write the standard spellings of the questions and sentences. 3. Tell students that they do not need to use these reductions ln their own speaking but ihey shou d be abLe to recognize them. 4. Ask students to share their experiences with \"fast English\" other reductlons they've heard or difficulties they have had understandlng colloquial or dialectal English. CONCLUSION Most classroom topics involving Englisli dlthm larget the linking or grouping of worcls or the dillerence in length and loudness between stressed (content) words and unstressed (function) words. Research shows that these aspects of English pronunciation can be learned by students. It also sl]ows that native listeners of English rely as heavil]', and possibly morc heavil]', on rhlthmic cues as they do on appropriately pronounced consonants and vowcls Therefbre, as students gain skill with the lbatures of r\\thm, they inProve thc conlpre he nsibiliry of their own speech.At the same time, their comprehension of native speakers impfoves as the]- gain familiarity with how words are altcrcd or emphasized in connected speech.

CHAPTER INTONATION sabotHsoabepweielodailcsauteltvktoh$Neectwa.mrhcothearehnd.irsad.ocs.ctx.t'ahtl\"econje.hTusIbashwccnatenegssfdreiksanewriiodsuadafhdnies(ncdetlonafdhaiostn:insHsil,sosiirnosiohentoekcavnredocf.evdti-sIciiroepenlantwooan.nr.wIontsmsoeche;bov.eeetnoolKdcinheollauvanrleddlctyd)ea,msr,drn,,aeyyqietwsdhusqt,hua.e.uHcitcseblheethsuniftstisotwoauilananicn)s.atblsoA'sptw.nhttfaetraateretdt;sr.rri,esoip[,d.ednh,rhaa.rd.carht.Hdhsaaseseednarayislole?rahtftdhihIadwneomnrnthr-he_l,aga,foltehtltuce,rlar,rl c(ghrdeIicnnmancrittagigloedlnpeantir'isiirgponmnIcIeelrng-ogkenmlatsunot)tltareonos0noptptaeifutoarit.dc'isnrbodiipctnMsetiiec]eorttt,oiaeuwqnfskntcllrhcdaearaoyeeirrutss.onifio)c.misbnonihtrinehtuenoeafirscdnosintrtesacasripnnnmtteimaeotgoimaffaufcnii]ketnat.eceissn.npturniitsvani(saneeegtnrtt,.ep(codgefrolgft.xn.llprn,igrsIsttaic.aett.mctekniao1hnnrmtrrteooe.,iraosnru,tncf)ciabriconanarUaammctcllowlanhmamm.otiat1rrioaoetogd,innato.n.ah)o)nngwcriftefnbrrrrpiso,ir-to,hehmectmrf,lal,osterpedsnntc,eadqivtrrIs,breiuesatlcrecititfscsehofrsealnuenrtctaceilttotarodrasi.irncnrbt.tlesasaurishteltutom(serdeltusIseu!ee..cgnsLvastt.uononc,lrtuasilnocZt.nnhgIsow:dnser.,f DEFINITIONS p'wPIf)hruiootetc(mslhoei\"nndooheonc.ncctptaouiatrwrcn\"dhooaenhsrsditgdh.ththeeElaimgvrseltrorart1esr..etlssiIsm,nnveoldpltathoibsceryltec,;dlralinaisbabtllslyoeipnsgohf'okeiogerfmhnbwceawl.rtooioiorrt.nqhtrlsmlaiontohpxsaaa.tcrtsrtstitciphatuheieglaaahnksrtipfr<loseera,yrwwfekrolae..urro.drfwciprraa=lhnlncisgtDiswnher(tfiaorgohtnrmot,orettt\"ehhkr)ece.. it cfut^/ltde. sttt!.t. tt)ttic st lloble. .tenlet tLi slras aid tr;lrzr'.vr,,i B5

86 3]HAPTER lntonation question \"If/hat's your day Like?\" High pitch,length, and loudness combine to draw the listener's attention to this word. Ar What's your day I ke? B: L'm going to the DOQtor this afternoon. In the example aboye, pitch \"steps down\" from the srressed syllable of \"doctor\" to the following unstressed syllable. Pitch \"glides down\" on single-syllable stressed words and in words stressed on the last syllable. Glide patterns are more difficult for learners to hear than step patterns because the pitch change occurs over a single syllable. It's H0T. aGREE. Low pitch on an important word is also sometimes used to make it salient In the exchange below, \"don't\" is pronounced with low pitch. In this case, the speakef is correcting or contradicting preYious information (Pierrehumberl and Hirschberg 1990). Ar I thought you wanted steak. B: \\I _DON,'T,-w-a-n'/t stdak. English intonation is traditionally presented as having three or four levels of pitch: low, mid, high, and a fourth level of extra high pitch, used to shoY/ strong emotions such as disbelief or (?ike 1972, Prator and Robinett 1985,]ifong 1987' Beisbier 1995, Celce-Murcia 'eoty al. 1996). Following Levis's suggestion (.1999), a simpler two-term system for describing pitch leYel, ltiglt/higber or lou,4oLuer' is recornrnended.z In pmctice, classroom teachers often end up with a two-level system an)'way, using terms like /,€her or lou)er eYen if the textbook presents thfee or four levels of pitch. Ifltoflation cofltoufs. (]tterances are stretches of speech set off by silence. In a quick exchange, they can be as short as a word; in extended discourse, they can be several sentences long. Longer utterances are broken into shorter units of information (thought groups), each of which has its own intonation contour (melody or tune). Most speakers would break the sentence below into two thought groups, shown by underlines. ryTIgAfrorn the start 2 The two-tenn rysten also rcfl€ch llnguistic descdltions olinlonation (Pienchumbert 1980,0ha1a 1983, Boling€r 1998, Cusshoven 2004) . In addition, higli or Low pitch is not a lixed level A pitch is heard ,i h jgh or low onlr in rclation t0 local adjdcent pitches, not in rcLation to ,rn xbsoiute.

3CHA?TER lltonati)n 87 These units of information are referred to by vafious n ames.. intonation units, intonational pbrases, inteftnediate phfases, tone group' tone units, tlJougbt groups, cbunks, and,pbrase groups.3 In this book the term',thought groups,,is us;d. Each unit contains at least one prominent word, has its own intonation contour, and pl often constitutes a grammatical (for example, a short clause or prepositional phrase). In the dialogue below, the \"sseentence',I think consists of two it went well,,' thought groups, each with its own intonation contour, At the end of the fust clause, intonation does not fall to a low note, signaling that,,I think,, is not the end of the utterance and should be understood with \\shat follows. In the second thought goup, pitch rises o\\'er the highlighted word \"well\" and then falls to the bottom of the speaker's range, showing that the utterance is complete. A: How was your interview? B: In rot sL,e. =- ,_1=64n, *\"N athink RESEARCH ON INTONAIION Final Intonation Patterns and Pitch Final falling and final rising intonation patterns in English are traditionally linked with diflerent rypes of sentences: Declamtive sentences and information questions tlpically end with falling intonation, yes-no questions end with rising intonation. The dialogue below illustrates the three sentence types and their typical intonations. A: What are you doing tonight? (information question, fall ng intonatlon) B: I thlnk l'll just watch TV. (dec arative statrnent, falling intonation) Do you want to see a m--o-v'i,e.? (yes no question, ristng intonation) The same intonation patterns are used with the same sentence types in most languages (Cruttenden 1986). Because of this similariry Kenworthy maintains that \"teachers can assume faidy safely that in many cases learners will use intonation in English appropriately\" (1987, 85). The use of salient pitch to make information prominent is also found in many languages. J In Pienehumbefi and Hi$chberg, mtonational phrdJes corcspond rou$ll to sentence length ultermces; thought groups $ithin the intonational phrases arc refeffed t0 as \"intennediate phrases' (1!!0,277).

88 3aHAPTER lntonation On the other hand, languages also djffer in the ways in which pitch and intonation are used, ancl these differences can be difficult fof students to learn. For example, although both English and Portugnese use pitcl.t to highlight important information, in Portuguese, the prominent word occupies the fi11al position in an intonation phrase. In English, the prominent word is usually the last content word (stressed word) in an intonation phrase but can also occupy nonlinal positions, as in the following example (Cruz-Ferreim l9tl7, 105): (She gave dog brscuits to someone.) She gave her dog (She gave brscuits to her dog.) In Portuguese, the differcnce between tltese two sentences would not be expressed through pitch but through difTerent grammatical constructions or lex- ical items. Gumperz reports on a misunderstanding befween Inclian cafeteria workers and their British customers that involvcd intonatior.r patterns with Ps-n o questions (1982).Vhen the Indian workers oflered grary to their customers, they used falling intonation, their native language pattern, rathef than the risin€i intonation expected in English. Gravy? Their British customers interpreted this intonation as rudeness, an indication that the workers didn't care if the customers wanted gravy or not. Pitch Range and Ievel Range of Pitclr, the difference between the highest and lowest notes produced in ilrl lrttennce, can also dillbr from language to language. Stlrdies of l)utch and Spanish learners of English showed tl.nt the lezLrnels used a narrower pitch range compared to native English speakers, closer to that of thejr native languages @ackman 1979, Willems 1982). The transfer of a narrower pitch range into Eng.lish could contribute to the \"flat\" intonation used by many ESL students (as could lack of confidence). It is not always easy to convince students to use a wider range of pitch. In my own classrooms. when I ask \"flat talkers\" to \"use their voices more,\" the results usually sound good to me (sometimes students use a range of intonation tllat is oYel the top and we all have a good laugh). Some students welcome my comments and make clear efforts to apply them in speaking. Other students, howevet say they feel foolish or silly. While textbooks that encourage students to sound \"enthusiastic\" in English have been criticized (Ranalli 2002), we owe it to students who use patterns that make them sound rude or uninterested to inform them of the impression they

3a HApIER tntonation 89 may be creating The fact that some students $ ill not take our advice does not mcan that we shor d not make tlte effort. In othcr cases, speakers of languages \\vith a wider pitch range than En1;lish, tor example, Sweclish learners, ma1. speak English with a sinEi_song intonarion (Cclcc_ Murcie et al. 1996, 185). Langua€ies differ not oni. in rnn€ie of pitch bur also in average leuet (t pitch. Natiyc Geman speakcrs of English, for exaLmple. arc regartlccl as speaking wirh a rather low flat intonation that mal' souncl ot erly serious or pedantic to a Nortl.l American English listener; the rangc of pitch in German is also nafrower than in English (Trinrm 1988, as quoted in Mennen 2006). A study of the level ancl range of pitch used bv aclvancecl Gernnn spcakers of Englisl] showed higher average level of pitch in Engrisl] (closer to the Engrish tnhoamt wr),hrilheeymcoosnt t'isneudeda to use a narrower rxnge of pitch, (closer to the nom for Gernun), sufiElesting that level ofpitch ma)' be more casily learned than range ofpitch (Mennen 2006). Studies of Second Language (L2) Learners, Intonation Therc haye been few stlldies of how L2 learncfs t-lse it.rtonation in Enlalish. Most have looked at the intonation of intemecliate to aclr'ancccl learners and show that. as with other areas of pronunciation, intonation is inf'luenced b,y tlte nadve language system. They :rlso reveal problcnntic areas of English intonation lbf learners: the usc of pitch to make important words pronlinent, in pafticulaf, the use of contrastive stress (e.9., This is YOtlRS. not MINE); a difficuln usinli rising intonarion with uttefances othef than :le.s-r?o questions, antl a corresponding oYeruse of fallin€l intonatioll. Most studies that include lcarners at dirlerent proficiency le,,els report that morc proficient learners use intonation more accurately than less,proficient learners, evidencc that featurcs of intonation are learnable Cruz-Ferreira strr(lie.l h()q/ Poftuliuese learners of English interpreted English intonation, ancl how English learners of portuguese interprctecl portuguese intonation (1987). Shc found that whcn both languagcs used rhe same inronation pattcrn to expfess the same meaning, the lcarners intelpreted intonation tlte same way that nntive listeners do. \\Vhen both lang,ages usccl the same intonation feature but used it to express diflerent rncanings, learners intcrpretcd intonation as the.I. would in their nati\\.e languages. Finallv, when a target language intonation pattern did not have a counterpart in the nati\\.e language, learners either ignorccl intonation, basing interpretations on the lexical content of the Lltterance. or intcrpreted mcaninla randomly. Pennington and Ellis studied the ability of aclr.anced Cantonese EFL learners to distinguish pairs of sentences which diflbrecl only in prosody (rh1,thm ancl intonation): for examplc,ls be driuing tbe BUS vs.Is HE (lriulng tlre bus;TtJe fight is ouer lired vs. Tlte fight is oter Fred (2000). Thel fbund that with explicir traininti, learners were bener able to notice prosodic difTerences, especially diffcrences in the placement of highlighted words.'Ihcy conclutlecl that there is a need for cxplicit instftrction in thc form of intonational features and their functions.

90 ]HAPTER 3 ,Intonation ln a study of intermediatc Spanish, Japanese, and Thai ESI- learners, wennerstrom (1994) found that learners did i.Iot always use pitch to signal contrasts where native speakers would. wennerstrom (1998) compared the use of four intonational features b-v Mandarin Chinese international teaching assistants (I'IAs) and native-Enlilish teaching assistants (TAs).'I'he ITAs ranged from intermediate to low-adYanced levels of proficiency. Ms.Irennerstrom found dlat all learners, including those with lower proficiency, were able to use hitaher pitch with new content words (stressed words) ancl lower pitch with function words (unstressed words; ' Lower-proticiency learners had difficulty producing an appropriate contrast between words presenting new information ancl words referring to old information She also tbund that ITAS unclerused paratone, the wiclening of pitch range when a new topic is introcluced. In general, her study showed that hillher-proficiency ITAS usecl intonation more lppfopriately thnn lower-proficiency ITAS. Since all ofthe iTAs had had some instrlrction in pronunciation, she concludetl that at least some aspects of intonation can be taught and learned, although, as in most stLldies of pronunciadon learning, there was indiviclual variation Pickering studied the use of falling and risirlg intonation by Chinese lTAs (2001). She found that rhe ITAS undefuscd fising intonation at utterance boundaries comparecl to natiye-English TAs. The preponderance of falling and level intonation usedbythelTAscreated..aflatmonotonicpitchstructufeunfamiliartoflative hearers\" (2001,249). Ueyama andJun studied the intonation of;les-zo questions in E1.I€ilish by native speakers of Korean and Japanese (1998) In all three langualies' intonation typically 7es-n o questions. However, in English, the rise :rfter the focus rises at the end of is continuoLts, whereas in Korean and (highlighted) worcl Japanese, it is not The intonation used by the more-pfoficient lelfncfs was nlofe Englishlike than that of less-proficient learncrs. CONCERNS ABOUT TT,ACHING INTONATION Dalton and Seidlhofer describe intonation as the \"problem child\" of pronurciation teaching (1994,73). Teachers cxpress a variety of concerns about teaching intonation: One concern is that intonetion is hard to \"pin down\"; a giYen sentence can be pronounced with different intonation patterns, sometimes, but not always, creating a clear diflerence in meaning' This problen can usually be avoicled by presenting and practicing intonation in context, rather than in isolated sentences (Bolinger, 199{3). Context sharply redlrces the number of intonation choices. slftrss el]clitics (unstressed larticles thet join closelr to surtoutlding 'ronls).

3(HA?TER lntonation 9\"1 Another difficutty is that intonation is hard to hear, and even trained transcribers disagree on how certain examples should be transcdbed (Brazil 1994a, 6). This difficulty can be avoide<l by focusing classroom work on features of intonation like the use of pitch to make information prominent or the use of pitch at the ends of utterances (final intonation patterns). prominent words are not difficult to hear, and the pause at the end of an utterance makes final intonation easier to hear Minimal dialogues (one-word exchanges), lite the one below, are useftil for focusing students' attention on final intonation patterns (.\\(/ong 19g7,62). Minimal dialogues are also natural: In casual conversations especially, we do not always speak in complete sentences. '''.- A: Finished? B: Almost. A: Five m inutes? B: No. A: When? B: Later. The difficulty of hearing whether the yoice is rising or falling can also be reduced by replacing words with nonsense syllables to isolate the tune. For example, in the dialogue above, students may have difficulty hearing the falling intonation on \"When?\" because the fall is rapid, occurring over a single syllable. (Students may also be confused by the question mark.) However, when a nonsense sllable is used in place of\"When?\" the fall in inronation is much easier to hear. H Speech visualization technology can also be an aid to teaching intonation (Chun 1998, Levis and Pickering 200|. The technology allows learners to see their orlm intonation and tlnt of models, displayed as a waye pattern, which helps compensate for some of the difficulty in hearing intonation. Some speech yisualization proglirms can be downloaded ftee: WASP (Iluckvale 2OO7) .and PR4,4T (Boersma and Weenick 2009). Others are available commercially: for example , Visi-pitclJ 1Il (KayElemetfics 2004). Both Chun and I.el.is and Pickering fecofirmend using visual clisplays of

92 3]HAPTER lntonatian authentic discourse as models, wl.rich are a better feflection of actual intonation use than scripted, isolated sentences. To reduce the complexity of intonation, teachers can combine both geneml and specific approaches. Ta-vlor suggests that teachers shoultl focus on \"broad geneml principles, mastery of which will have a high pay-off for leerners and teachers\" (7993, 2). For example, a general rneaning of final rising intonation is uncertainty or lack of finality or completeness. This explains its common lrse in JLle.t- no questions (uncertainty), its use in \"holding the floor\" in conversation (lack of finality-the speaker is not finished yet), its use in lists of infomation (lack of finality-there's more to follow in the list;see Listing Intonetion, below), and its use in discourse to signal that what came before is to be interpreted with what follows (the preceding is unfinished).' Each of these rtses of final rising intonation can be practiced in separate lessons with a specific communicative fuflction. APPROACHES TO TEACHING INTONAIION Traditional In many textbooks, intonation patterns are linked to different types of sentences or phrases. yes-zo questions, for example, end in risin!! intonation, while declarative statements and inforrnation questions end in falling intonation. A: Did yo- wa., h lto 1ci{ tor gnll (},es no qJesl o.li B: I wasn't hoib. (declarativel wfrat r,fien-dl (inforrnat on question) Another rule states that items occurrinfa in the beginning of a list are pronounced with rising intonation;the last item ofthe list is pronounced with falling intonation if the list is complete, or with rising intonation if the list could continue. ---'/J red, white, and b ue .-'-/._--...-/._-/ red, wh te, b ue, green (. . .) General meanings ofintonation patterns are usually presented. Rising intonation, for example, indicates uncertalltF or lack of finality/completeness. The association of intonation patterns with grammatical structllres (sentence types, phrase rypes) is both teachable and learnable. The intonation-structure associations reflect the intuitions of natiYe speakers and may also reflect the most frequent intonation pattern used with a particulaf structure (e.g , falling intonation with declaratives). The traditional approach to teaching intonation, however, has been criticized as overly simplistic and inadequate because the rules it presents are not always 5 The nreanings of \"uncefainq and \" lack ol cotnplcteness are xrgueblv rclabd. Il a spelker ols a co rvorket lor extuDpl€, 'tut the

3(HAprER tntonation 93 reflected in natural speech (see, for example, Cauldwell and Hewings 1996, Levis and Pickering 20o1)-rn addition, the use of isolated sentences does not reveal the coffmunicatiye role that intonation plavs in connected speech. Levis and pickering conpared natiye speakers' intonation on sentences fead first in isolation. ordered so the sentences were unrelated to each other (200,1). The final intonation on these sentences, mostly declamtives, was falling, conforminli to the tmditional rules (i.c., most declaratives end in falling intonation). Howevef, wlten the same scntences were reordercd to cfeate a coherent paragraph, the native speakers used more rising intonation, even where the rules would predict falling intonation. pickering (2001, cliscussed above) found sinflar results in her comparison of the intonation used by natiye-English TAs and ITAS when deliverinFi a lecture. pickering sug€iests that rhe native-English lAs'use of rising intonation when deliyering new inlbrmation (where the expected pattem would be falling intonation) allowed them to ayoid sounding as if they were alwa)'s infofming rheir students (2001). Discourse Intoflatiofr A more recent alternadve for teachin[i intonation is discourse intonation. Discourse intonation has irs roots in the work of Halliday (1973) and, as a pedaliogical approach, is most associated with the work of Brazil (1991a,7994b). Brazil's framework was developed to introduce advancecl students to the role of intonation in structuring discourse. The outline that follows is a simpliJication of discourse intonation; interested readers should see Brazil 1994a,1991b. The basic building block of discourse is rhe ton€ unit (an intonational phrase or thought group). There are three malor features ofintonation that speakers choose within tone units: prominence, proclaiming/referring tones (final intonation patterns), and high and low key (changes in pitch level at tlte first pfominent word of a tone unit).6 In the example below the tone units of a message are indicated by thc s) mbol //. //the bus stopped//we'd got to the termlnus//and everyone got ouvl Tone units have at least one ptomineitt word (shown below in capitals), and the last prominent word (underlined) is defined as having tonic stress. Speakers decide which words to highlighr (make prominent) as a means of guiding the listener to the most important information. //WC'd GOT tO thE TERN4INUS/i Intonation patterns (tones) that end a rone unit (thought gror-rp) are chosen accordinli to wherher the speaker believes the information in the tone unit is new or shared.T When tlte speaker believes the information is shared, a rising tone ib,ro llo,' rredke$ nlake lrolher piLh leveL choice, cnlled tennin ation. at the begin njn g or e d ol a tone Llnit wh ich rcLafts t0 ke! choices ol -...1r.''np \\,al D-r/ ,cou^pLou(coerlrorco,pt tr't. i .,rt.o D.. l(\\(.rl^r a - lrliels about shared information rlepend on sharerJ a$arcr€\\s,rj t rc Jng!age, nf$hxi hxs bcensaidbefore, antlolprll and locaL : .rrs (Chapman 2001).

94 3.HAPTER lntonation (.liiinnrtseofftoofe-efrminmrrrea,ia*nrtitigoiSonnpp.t,o,eobinansilekitltsoe)i.oricnss\"liTcsiunchhsoeoetuodl.irnrssesteeodR.nfIinaasisctliiltnooihnginiigrstecoethxonaa(nenmhesgapsesalelo(mspcboroceourilnoecrdwslati,ocoimaBnstieutanhsygete)hstloaaoasrtntfeitasphslrleio)onmftgsfoepintreoieinannngkettreohwordenhoulorptcdhldeetiosnnnttteehhhwweee tone unit and extends to the end of the tone unit' A: Was there any mall? B, //a LOT of BILLS// Lt-uia*i,no,-renirdl-iyir!'nflti-!eic,ntivlaUwlf.e\",ttnn.eo:h.htsn\".li\"]ciepmipwoh,fsp\".t.hs.\".oae.ertycu,r.lt.,e,fcharp't.uet.\"uisurp.mrs6shkeaerQteeehocldsrwcetno'teaswnocutschhlspbphteheeeoei(tainaolctnotikshhrkwrteesihesrs,tf(eaetflfp1iahebs1sireensrtlopeebomeevinptrx.aecttisihnatklr\"tcsereeolnhtprnftipkp)n*rtinlsotefiIwto\"omn'curwolhsmtitenorih'ndtaetlehhgtstnoaiehotsslftoaneewkatwnnheigoettneyoeturhrdnaQtl])ahaecg'rtseoeiegtuft-.hthnc'ttoOhh'elianetmauseitsTnriLtufohilliso'sanenrosfienmotrtperuilcaismtoxlnctatiweuihostFxsln)ap\"'or'fniienndociencaerxttyxohettt)hthrid'sFieFsnr(wreiatidtodeooafandnrayydesel\"'l --- l--L-Our last class//NEXT FRIDAY//wlll be a party tone utoflist hisIon\"wftihfttehhx\"etxBtahmsiaspvlsientflobliesfmlotoawnt,ieoBn'lsiroicsuoiprnreeoxcnptioeanchteigochfle.Ar'H-tthhigaehnf-ikursestuyapilsrolecmvoiemnlefolnrfotpnwitcwohrhde(ainnhttihhgeeh key) tone group presents a contrast or coffection' A: The fourth daY? B: //the FIFTH of MAY// raaich1strtnehhnalhen9atpadoaada9dsetrnrins6etpiaaanirBp,coiodRragttlrenincondeooahmawzoegncrnilaplhlxnic'suacotsemehiisitfnultwafiyahen2aegtn.teht0rpgegasscr0epareuuai2Yrn€siaagnuo,;cllatghCsttlaioolddoectuncmfnsiwnasbaahtsebacnerppptluctutwmheltiolteseoaeasasitaannsteecintncnesrihhrdgvn'icaiAg2ieslincHihosiwoslnghittrc\"ceshtgihpmnotliioeniyoiuigolnntuafrrrosPglsagrd;tnpfeas\"taiheasci;rIlrtalioctl(giinioicnt1koomdhtigewuntpoemt9erharnnsas(rwuneat'nree)minttdridsoftiyacuaihoinniisniadnlnnnaltdteedogitwfvtliocinehRo'etacrhetimanadiomiseetdnefieeninouiseennietnnrwlstgaulatsitcoso-utgui(dwiefnndro2rrnckovihoea0nelinoem0ettsi'insislt2movthEr'e)edc(neexelaphsiipsarssncrcauomccohtlhglroiohlpsemtegoduuefltreneiorerclscisasssngrlneetemisetdisni'tnunnhiiagdsfngdpcaftittistrlupi(tcuooewtH'cdluodennoymaioleemautdrdaytswrdthletnsiiedhoasoeiendyn';sefrftl s Then: are hvo othet comple{ tones:The lall Lise tone is efolher rcl€rdng toneilhe rist hlLlone is xioth€r lloclainillg tone'

3aHAPTER lntonation 95 use of rishg intonation on comprehension checks (e.g.,Rigtnn and the use of rising intonation to hold the floor some of these are addressed in nondiscourse intonation textbooks. chapman also recorimends that students listen for tone units (thought groups) and prominent words in recordinlas of natural discourse in order to develop a \"realistic and generalized view', of the communicative use of intonation (2OO7, rct. TIPS FOR TEACHING INTONATION The tips described in this chapter are listed below They provide some specific suggestions for how to help students improve their intonation. ffi rtps The remainder of this chapter presents specific features of intonation. The tips are further explained in the context of these features and activities suggested to practice them. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF INTONATION 1. Highlighting 2. Contrastiye stress 3. Final intonation patterns 4. Comprehension checks and tag questions 5. Intonation with lists, choice questions, nonfinal intonation pattems 6. Appositives and parentheticals 7. Intonation, emotions, and attitudes We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics and proyide suEigestions for teaching them.

96 3cIAPTER lntonation El \"isr'righ.i\"g V/hat the Teacher Should Know The following conversation between my claughter and me took place in our living room, as I was reading the newspaper: Son a (walkine n, exasperated, accusing): can't find my GLASSeS. lvlom (not I stening, still reading), What about your g asses? Sonia (bitterly, since t's l\\4orn's fau t): 've LOST them. Even though I wasn't paying attentioll to what my daughter said,I was able to pick out the word \"glasses\" because shc made that word prominent. She replied to my abscntminded question, highlighting \"lost,\" the information she wanted me to know about her glasses. After tl.rat, wc got up, did a searcll of the apartment, and, as usual, I found her glasses. Highliglrting involves the use of salient pitch (usually high, but not always), together with length and loudness (drlthmic prominence), on the stressed syllable of a word that the speaker considers to be more important than surroLrnding words. Highl.ighting is also referred to as informatioll tbcus, sentence stress, primary stress, pitch accent, nuclear stress, and toric stress.'l'his usc of pitch (as well as length and loudness) provides \"a funning conmentary on the newswofthiness of the various items of infomation\" (Maidme nt 1990,22).Daltofl and Seidlhofer describe prominence (highlighting) as \"the most important function of intonation, and alnost certainly the most teachable one\" (1994, 81; see also W'ennerstrom 1998,Jenkins 2000, Hahn 2004). Highlighted words are often the last content word of a sentence, where new information is wpically pfi: I bougbt a neut CAR, I'd like some COFFEE. In discourse, highlighted words prcsent new, foregroundcd, or contrasting information Ttre example below shows the role of Prominence in signaling new information. Speaker B first gives prominence to \"partlt'new information that answers speaker A s question. In the seconcl part of speaker B's answe! the new information is \"loud\"; \"party\" is now olcl information and is pronounced with a lowered pitch A: Why do you look so tired? B: There was a PARTY in the bu dlng last nlght, a very LOUD parly. Highlighted words also presertt information that contrasts with previously mentioned information. In the following dialogue, speaker B is contrasting information about his new car (see ContrastiYe stress, below): A' How do you like your new car? B: lt gets better GAS mileage, but it's not as FAST. The fact that highlighted words are often the last content worcl in a phrase provides a straightforward approach to teaching this intonation lbature to beginning students. There are also general, teachable exceptions to the last-content-word rule

3CH^prER Intonatian 97 (Cruttenden 1990). Nouns tend to be focused more often than verbs, acliectives, or advefbs. In presentational sentences, the noun following tbere is/are tencls to be focused eyen if there arc otlter following nouns which also present new infomation. There was a PARTY in my bui/ding. Final adverbs are not usually focused, unless they present contfasting information or the speaker wants to emphasize the specific meaning of the aclverb. I'm going to B0ST0N, fortunatety. I finished the BOOK yesterday. The tendency for highlighted words to be the last content word of an utterance is not a rule, nor clo all exceptions fall into the general exceptions described above. Intermediate and ndvanced sttrdents need to be aware that the speaker can focus potentially any word, regardless of its position. In the first line of the dialogue belov', the word \"pictures,', the last content word of the sentence and the new Lformation, is highligl.lted. In the second line,,,back,,is highlighted, while \"yet;'an adyerb, is de-emphasized, one of the general exceptions to the last_content_ word rule.In the third line,\"yesterda).\" and \"today\" are cortrasted and so are fbcused. In the fourth line, the manager highlights the words ,,who,, and ,,I,llr.,, words in contfast, but also \"have;' to emphasize the lack of ',existence,, of the particulaf service. The highlighting of\"have\" neither follows the last-content-word rule, nor is it one of the general exceptions to the rule, described above. Customer (handing a slip to the store ernployee): I want to p ck up some PICTURES. Employee (checks and returns empty handed): Sorry. They're not BACK yet. Customer: I brought them ln YESTERDAY. I was told they'd be ready TODAy. Employee: Sorry. I don't know WHO you spoke to. l'M the manager and we don't HAVE next day service. Activity 3.1 Highlighting: Breakfast in the rcal world Level Beginning, ESL Settings Wolksheet Page 2I9 Tip Teach highlighting of key words to help students make their meaning clearer. Description Students practice ordering breakfast in a restaurant, highlighting new information (the breakfast choices they order). This activity can also be integrated with other work centering on the topic of food (count and mass nounsr for example, are often presented with food vocabulary). Classroom practice can be followed by a t.ip to a restaurant. (continLla.al on ne$ page)