The English version of the Cambridge Philosophical History 1870-1945

Biobibliographical appendix 787 Secondary literature is collected in Paulson, S. L. and Paulson, B. L. (eds.) (1998), Normativity and Norms,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Koffka, Kurt (1886–1941). Koffka obtained a PhD in psychology in 1908 in Berlin under Carl Stumpf, and served as second subject in Wertheimer’s experiments on apparent motion, the starting point of the Gestalt movement. Shortly before the Nazi seizure of power, Koffka emigrated to the United States, taking a professorship at Smith College. Koffka was noted for his numerous articles on Gestalt psychology and for applying it to developmental psychology. His major work was a general psychology text written from the Gestalt perspective, Principles of Gestalt Psychology (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1935). K ¨ ohler, Wolfgang (1887–1967).K ¨ ohler obtained a PhD in psychology in 1909 in Berlin under Carl Stumpf, and served as first subject in Wertheimer’s experiments on apparent motion, the starting point of the Gestalt movement. After futilely resisting the Nazis, K¨ ohler emigrated to the United States, teaching at Dartmouth and Swarthmore Colleges, and was President of the American Psychological Association (1959). The leading theorist of the group, K¨ ohler also extended Gestalt psychology to behaviour in Intelligenzpr¨ ufen an Menschenaffen (The Mentality of Apes,NewYork:Liveright, 1927). Of his several books, the most important was Gestalt Psychology (New York: Liveright, 1947). Kolmogorov,Andrei (1903–87). A Russian mathematician who became the leading prob- ability theorist of the twentieth century. His main work was Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeits- rechnung (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1933). He developed the axiomatisation of probability as part of mathematical measure theory. In the interpretation of probability he followed the frequentist ideas of Richard von Mises; but he was very careful not to express philosophical commitments in his work, possibly because of the incompatibility of probabilistic ideas with the official So- viet philosophy of the 1930s. In logic and foundations of mathematics he followed the Dutch intuitionist L. Brouwer. In 1925 he invented a way of interpreting classical logic in intuitionistic logic, and in 1932 a way of interpreting the latter as a calculus of problems. Secondary literature: von Plato, J. (1994), Creating Modern Probability: Its Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy in Historical Perspective,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kotarbi ´ nski, Tadeusz (1886–1981). Born in Warsaw, he studied architecture in Darmstadt and classical languages and philosophy at the University of Lvov under Twardowski. From 1918 until 1957 he taught at Warsaw University. Kotarbi´ nski is known primarily as a defender of reism and as the founding father of the science of praxiology. His works include ‘Zagadnienie istnienia przysz´ so´ sci’ (1913), ‘Sprawa istnienia przedmiot´ ow idealnych’ (1920), Elementy teorii poznania, logiki formalnej i metodologii nauk (Lvov: Ossolineum, 1929), Traktat o dobrej robocie (Warsaw: PWN, 1955), ‘Fazy rozwoju konkretyzmu’ (Studia Filozoficzne 4, 11 (7)(1958), 3–13). Secondary literature: Wole´ nski (ed.) 1990, Smith, B. (1994), Austrian Philosophy,Chicago: Open Court; Wole´ nski, J. (1989), Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School,Dordrecht: Kluwer; Wole ´ nski, J. (ed.) (1990), Kotarbi´ nski: Logic, Semantics and Ontology,Dordrecht: Kluwer. Lange, Friedrich Albert (1828–75). German philosopher and writer, born in 1828 near Solingen. His father became a well-known professor at Zurich. Lange began studies at Zurich butgraduated from Bonn in 1851.Hebegan his main work Geschichte des Materialismus in 1857 butitwas not published until 1866 (Iserlohn and Leipzig: von Baedeker). In the meantime he published newspapers and was active in political and social questions. Seriously ill with cancer, he worked on a much revised second edition (1873–75). He moved to Marburg in 1872 and died in 1875. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

788 Biobibliographical appendix Secondary literature: Stack, G. J. (1983), Lange and Nietzsche,Berlin and New York: De Gruyter. Lask, Emil (1875–1915). Born in Poland in 1875 he moved to Germany to study law and then philosophy. In the middle 1890sheattended lectures by both Rickert and Weber. He did his doctorate under Rickert’s direction at Freiburg but Windelband was the nominal director of his Habilitationsschrift (Weber’s influence is also clear). Lask taught at Heidelberg for a number of years but left to join the army and was killed in battle in 1915.During his Heidelberg years he was a member of the Max Weber Circle but he always respected what he had learned from Windelband and Rickert. Rickert provides an introduction to Lask’s Gesammelte Schriften (T¨ ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1924). Secondary literature: Wilk, K. (1950), The Legal Philosophies of Lask, Radbruch, and Dabin,Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lavrov, P ¨ etr Lavrovich (1823–1900). Lavrov was born the son of a rich landowner and educated in St Petersburg. He embarked upon a successful military career, becoming a colonel at only thirty-five. In 1860,hepublished Ocherki voprosov prakticheskogo filosofii (Essays on Questions of Practical Philosophy) (St Petersburg: Glazunov), which advanced a form of anthropologism that drew sympathtic criticism from Nikolai Chernyshevsky. Associated with the first ‘Land and Free- dom’ organisation, Lavrov was exiled in 1866. His Istoricheskie pis’ma (Historical Letters) (Geneva: 1891)was enormously influential, becoming the definitive voice of Russian populism. In 1870 Lavrov escaped abroad, joining the International Workingmen’s Association and participating in the Paris Commune. He became friends with Marx and Engels. From 1873 to 1876,Lavrov published the journal Vpered (Forward) from Zurich and London, attacking ‘Jacobinism’ within the populist movement and defending his agrarian socialism. When populism lost momentum, Lavrov devoted himself to scholarship. He died in Paris in 1900.Atwo-volume edition of Lavrov’s selected works, Filosofiia i sotsiologiia: izbrannye proizvedeniia,was published in Russian in 1965. Secondary literature: Walicki, A. (1980), A History of Russian Thought from Enlightement to Marx- ism,trans. H. Andrews-Rusiecka, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ch. 12,isafine short treat- ment of Lavrov’s life and thought. The best history of Russian populism is Venturi, F. (1960), Roots of Russian Populism: A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth-century Russia,trans. F. Haskell, New York: Knopf. L
e´ sniewski, Stanislaw (1886–1939). Born in Serpukhovo (near Moscow) into a Polish family, he studied philosophy in Munich under Hans Cornelius and in Lvov under Twardowski. While in Lvov he also studied mathematics under Sierpinski and Puzyna. His early philosophical works criticise theories of universals and the Whitehead-Russell theory of types proposing instead aHusserl-inspired doctrine of semantic categories. During the First World War L
e´ sniewski taught mathematics in a Polish grammar school in Moscow, where he prepared his first outline of mereology published as Podstawy og´ olnej teor¨ u mnogo´ sci (Moscow: Drakarnia Poplawskiego 1916). From 1919 until 1939 he was professor of mathematics at the University of Warsaw. His writings include: ‘Czy prawda jest tylko wieczna, czy te˙ zwieczna i odwieczna?’ (1913), ‘Krytyka logicznej zasady wylaczonego srodka’ (1913), Podstawy og´ olnej teorii mnogo´ sci (1916), ‘O podstawach matematyki’ (1927). His major writings are translated in his Gollected Works (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1992). Secondary literature: Srzednicki, J. T. J., Rickey, V. F., and Czelakowski, J. (eds.) (1984), Le´ sniewski’s Systems: Ontology and Mereology,TheHague: Nijhoff and Wrocl
aw: Ossolinenm; Wole ´ nski, J. (1989), Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School,Dordrecht: Kluwer. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 789 Lewes, George Henry (1817–78). Born in London, Lewes was a literary critic and inde- pendent scholar who worked on topics in philosophy, psychology, physiology, and biology. He tried his hand at acting, but from 1840 to 1850 earned his living as a literary critic, and published two novels. In 1850 he co-founded the Leader, serving as literary editor. From 1854 he lived with George Eliot (Marian Evans). His major works include Biographical History of Philosophy (London: Parker and Son, 1857,originally published in 1845–6)andthefivevolumes of Problems of Life and Mind (Boston: Osgood, 1874, 1877, 1879, 1880). Secondary literature: Tjoa, H. G. (1977), George Henry Lewes: A Victorian Mind,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Rylance, R. (2000), Victorian Psychology and British Culture,Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lewin, Kurt (1890–1947). Lewin received a PhD in psychology in Berlin under Carl Stumpf. Under Stumpf’s successor, Wolfgang K¨ ohler, Lewin developed applications of Gestalt ideas. He emigrated to the United States in 1932, teaching at the State University of Iowa, MIT, and the University of Michigan. Lewin proposed a topological psychology (Principles of Topological Psychology,New Yo rk: McGraw Hill, 1936), applying Gestalt field-concepts to the explanation of behaviour, and conducted research in personality, child development, and group dynamics. By re-orientinghis psychology away from consciousness and towards group and individual behaviour, Lewin became the most influential Gestalt psychologist in the United States. Secondary literature: Marrow, A. J. (1969), The Practical Theorist: The Life and Work of Kurt Lewin, New York: Basic Books. Lewis, Clarence Irving (1883–1964). Lewis is now largely remembered for his work in logic, but he was an important philosopher in his own right, combining American pragmatism with elements of Kant’s philosophy and the logico-analytic programme. He studied at Harvard and taught in California (1911–20)andHarvard (1920–53). Lewis’s first book, A Survey of Symbolic Logic (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1918), provides a lucid account of the field, notable for its emphasis on the algebraic tradition. In his second logic book, Symbolic Logic (New Yo r k : T he Century Co., 1932), Lewis develops his criticisms of Russell’s extensional conception of ‘implication’ and sets out his systems of ‘strict implication’ and modal logic. In Mind and World Order (New York: C. Scribner’s, 1929)Lewis set out his conception of the ‘pragmatic a priori’ which is articulated in the context of an original analytical programme and a Neo-Kantian epistemology. In his later writings Lewis turned increasingly to moral philosophy. Secondary literature: Kucklick, B. (1977), The Rise of American Philosophy, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1860–1930,New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Lotze, Rudolph Hermann (1817–81). Lotze was an important figure in the development of German philosophy, helping to connect the Hegelian tradition to later Neo-Kantians. He was much admired in Britain at the end of the nineteenth century. His academic career was based at G¨ ottingen, where he became a professor in 1844. Lotze’s early work is, in part, a philosophy of biology: he argues that although organisms provide a distinctive domain for teleological explanations, this does not imply that distinct ‘vital’ forces are required to explain biological phenomena. His main work builds around two further themes: (i) the is/ought distinction, which he applies to epistemology, arguing that psychological enquiries cannot provide epistemological justifications; (ii) the distinction between ‘validity’ and metaphysical realism, which leads Lotze to hold that the validity of a priori truths does not bring with it a commitment to a Platonist metaphysics. His main works were: Medzinische Psychologie, oder Physiologie der Seele (Leipzig: Weidmann, 1852); Mikrokosmus: Ideen zur Naturgeschichte und Geschichte der Menschen (3 vols., Leipzig; trans. 1885 E. Hamilton and E. Jones, Microcosmus: An Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

790 Biobibliographical appendix Essay Concerning Man and his Relation to the World, 2 vols., Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark); Logik (2 vols., Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1874,trans.1884–8 B. Bosanquet, Oxford: Clarendon Press). Secondary literature: Woodward, W. R. (1999), From Mechanism to Value. Hermann Lotze: Physi- cian, Philosopher, Psychologist 1817–1881,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Luk ´ acs, Georg (1885–1971). Born in Budapest, the son of a leading Hungarian Jewish banker, Luk´ acs was educated in Germany and was influenced by Kierkegaard, Max Weber, and the novels of Dostoyevsky before turning suddenly to Marxism in December 1918.Forafew months in 1919 he was commissar for education in B´ ela Kun’s government, then fled to Vienna, Berlin, and Moscow; he was briefly arrested as a Trotskyist agent, in 1941.HewasloyaltoLenin and Stalin until the latter’s death, but returned to Hungary in 1945 and became Minister of Culture in Imre Nagy’s short-lived government (1956). He wrote a major work on Hegel and polemicised against literary modernism, but his best works remain his early ones: Soul and Form (1910), Theory of the Novel (1920), and History and Class Consciousness (1923). Secondary literature: Arato, A. and Breines, P. (1979), The Young Luk´ acs and the Origins of West- ern Marxism,London:Pluto; Gluck, M. (1985), George Luk´ acs and his Generation 1900–1918, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Jay, M. (1973), The Dialectical Imagination,London: Heinemann; Kadarkay, A. (1991), George Luk´ acs: Life, Thought and Politics,Oxford, Blackwell; L¨ owy, M. (1979), George Luk´ acs – From Romanticism to Bolshevism,London: Verso; Stedman Jones, G. (1972), ‘The Marxism of the Early Luk´ acs’, New Left Review 70: 27–64. L
ukasiewicz, Jan (1879–1956). Born in Lvov, he studied law and philosophy under Twar- dowski at the University of Lvov. From 1911 to 1915 he was a professor in Lvov, and between 1915 and 1944 professor of philosophy in Warsaw. From 1946 he was professor of logic in Dublin. His students included Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz and Alfred Tarski. L
ukasiewicz is renowned for his studies of Aristotle and for his discovery of many-valued logic and of the so-called Polish notation for propositional calculi. His writings include: ‘Logika a psychologia’ (1907), ‘O praw- dopodobie´ nstwie wniosk´ ow indukcyjnych’ (1909), O zasadzie sprzeczno´ sci u Arystotelesa (Cra- cow: PAU, 1910), Die logischen Grundlagen der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung (Cracow: PAU, 1913), ‘O logice tr´ owarto´ sciowej’ (1920), ‘O determini´ smie’ (1922), ‘Interpretacja liczbowa teorii zdas’ (1923), ‘Untersuchungen ber den Aussagenkalk¨ ul’ (1930, with Alfred Tarski), Aristotle’s Syllogistic from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951). Many of his papers are translated in his Selected Works (Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1970). Secondary literature: Wole´ nski, J. (1989). Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School, Dordrecht: Kluwer. Mach, Ernst (1838–1916). Mach was born at Chirlitz-Tura in Moravia. His father was a gentleman farmer of wide interests, both literary and scientific. His mother was artistically in- clined. Young Ernst was educated at home by his father until he was fourteen. By 1855 he was at the University of Vienna studying mathematics, physics, and philosophy. From 1860 he was Privatdozent giving very popular lectures and researching into the propagation of energy. He turned to research in physiology and the psychology of perception, and gradually abandoned the molecular point of view for a sensationalist metaphysics. From 1864 he was at Graz, mov- ing toPraguein1867,the year he married. In 1895 he took up the chair of philosophy in Vienna. Despite a stroke in 1897 he continued active work all his life. He died at Vaterstatten in Germany in 1916. His main works were: Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung historisch-critisch Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 791 dargestellt (Prague, 1883,trans.1893 T. McCormack, The Science of Mechanics,Chicago: Open Court). Popul¨ arwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen (Leipzig, 1894,trans.1894 T. J. McCormack, Popular Scientific Lectures,Chicago: Open Court). Die Ananlyse der Empfindungen (Jena, 1906,trans.1914 C. Williams, Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, Chicago: Open Court). Secondary literature: Cohen, R. and Seeger, R. (eds.) (1970), ‘Ernst Mach, Physicist and Philoso- pher’, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 6,Dordrecht: Reidel. McTaggart, John McTaggart Ellis (1866–1925). McTaggart was one of the last of the ‘British idealists’, now remembered primarily for his arguments for the unreality of time. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and made his academic career there. His first works were critical studies of Hegel’s philosophy, but in 1908 he published his famous argument for the unreality of time (‘The Unreality of Time’, Mind 1908). He devoted the later part of his life to writing The Nature of Existence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921, 1927), in which he argues that there are three a priori conditions which substances have to satisfy, and that the only things which satisfy them are the loving perceptions of a community of selves. Secondary literature: Geach, P. T. (1979), Truth, Love and Immorality,London:Hutchinson. Maine, Henry Sumner (1822–88). Born in Kelso, Roxburghshire, Scotland, on 15 August 1822,Maine was sent to Christ’s Hospital School and from there to Pembroke College, Cam- bridge, where he excelled in classics. His academic career began with a tutorship at Trinity Hall, where he commenced his study of early law and legal systems. As a lad of twenty-five he was appointed to the Regius Professorship of Civil Law. He was called to the bar in 1850 and became in 1852 the first reader on Roman law at the Inns of Court. From 1862 to 1869 he served as legal member of the Viceroy’s council in India and as Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, thereby acquiring the knowledge of India that he used to such good advantage in his writings. Upon his return to England, he held a professorship first at Oxford and then at Cambridge. Maine died in Cannes on 3 February 1888. His main works were: Ancient Law (London: J. Murray, 1861); Village Communities in East and West (London: J. Murray, 1871); Lectures on the Early History of Institutions (London: J.Murray,1875); Dissertations on Early Law and Custom (London: J. Murray, 1883); Popular Government (London: J. Murray, 1885). Secondary literature: Stein, P. (1980), Legal Evolution: The Story of an Idea,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Malinowski, B. (1884–1942). Malinowski gained his PhD from Cracow in 1908 and his DSc from the London School of Economics in 1913 and was especially famous for his fieldwork among the Trobriand Islanders (Argonauts of the Western Pacific, 1922). He attained the rank of professor of social anthropology at the University of London in 1927.Asaleading exponent of one version of functionalism, he trained many students in Great Britain, and in the United States, where he was visiting professor of anthropology at Yale from 1939 until his death. Secondary literature: Firth, R. (ed.) (1957), Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bromislaw Malinowski,London: Routledge. Mannheim, Karl (1893–1947). Born in Budapest, of Jewish parents, Mannheim studied at Budapest, Berlin, and Freiburg universities. From 1915 to 1918 he was involved in the Luk´ acs circle in Budapest. He taught at Budapest University under the Soviet Republic, and was there- fore forced to flee to Germany in 1920 from the counterrevolutionary reaction under Admiral Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

792 Biobibliographical appendix Horthy. From 1921 to 1926 he was a private scholar in Heidelberg and in 1926 was licensed as Privatdozent (university teacher) at Heidelberg. From 1930 to 1933 he was professor of sociology at Frankfurt University, and from 1933 to 1945 lecturer in sociology at the London School of Economics. In the period 1945 to 1947 he was professor of the sociology and philosophy of education at the Institute of Education, University of London. His main works were Ideologie und Utopie (Bonn: Friedrich Cohen, trans. 1936 L. Wirth and E. Shils, Ideology and Utopia,London: Routledge); and Konservatismus (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1984,trans.1986 D. Kettler, V. Meja, and E. R. King: Conservatism,London: Routledge). Secondary literature: Kettler, D., Meja, V., and Stehr, N. (1984), Karl Mannheim,London: Tavistock. Marcel, Gabriel (1889–1973). Marcel was born in Paris on 7 December 1889.In1929, at Mauriac’s urging, he converted to Catholicism. After his agr´ egation in 1910,hetaughtat secondary level until 1923,then devoted himself to a career as a playwright and essayist which wasinseparable from his vocation as a philosopher. He edited the ‘Feux Crois´ es’ collection for Plon. In 1934,hemet P` ere Fessard. From 1936 onwards he held his famous ‘vendredis’ at 21 ruedeTournon in Paris; these ‘Friday meetings’ brought together a number of philosophers and students. His influence continued to grow after 1944.Hegave lectures in Aberdeen and Harvard. By the time he died, on 8 October 1973,hehadwonnumeroushonours, including the Grand Prix de litt´ erature de l’Acad´ emie franc¸aise in 1948 and his election to the Acad´ emie des sciences morales et politiques in 1973. His main works were: Journal m´ etaphysique (Paris: Gallimard, 1927); Etre et avoir (Paris: Aubier, 1935); Du Refus ` a l’invocation (Paris: Gallimard, 1940); Homo viator (Paris: Aubier, 1945); La m´ etaphysique de Royce (Paris: Aubier, 1945). Secondary literature: Fessard, G. (1938), Th´ eˆ atre et myst` ere: introduction ` a Gabriel Marcel,Paris: Tequi; Hersch, J., Levinas, E., Ricoeur, P., and Tilliette, X. (1976), Jean Wahl et Gabriel Marcel, Paris: Beauchesne; Lapointe, F. H. and C. (1977), Gabriel Marcel and His Critics, International Bibliography (1928–76), New York and London; Lubac, H. de, Rougier, M., and Sales, M. (1985), Gabriel Marcel et Gaston Fessard, Correspondence,Paris: Beauchesne; Plourde, S. (1985), Vocabulaire philosophique de Gabriel Marcel,Paris: Cerf; Ricoeur, P. (1948), Gabriel Marcel et Karl Jaspers, deux maitres de l’existentialisme,Paris: Temps present; Sacquin, M. (ed.) (1988), Colloque Gabriel Marcel,Paris: Biblioth` eque nationale; and Schilp, P. A. and Hahn, L. E. (eds.) (1984), The Philosophy of Gabriel Marcel, La Salle, IL: Library of living philosophers. Maritain, Jacques (1882–1973). Maritain was born in Paris on 18 November 1882.He wasbrought up in an atmosphere of liberal Protestantism. While a student at the Sorbonne he followed P´ eguy’s advice and attended courses given by Bergson at the Coll` ege deFrance. After an initial period as Bergson’s disciple, he converted to Catholicism in 1906,asdidhiswife Ra¨ ıssa. From 1906 to 1908 he lived in Germany, where he studied biology with Hans Driesch, and discovered Thomas Aquinas. In 1923 he became a founder member of the Soci´ et´ ethomiste. In 1933 he started Plon’s ‘Roseau d’or’ collection. From 1933 to 1944 he taught at the Institut catholique in Paris, at the Pontifical Institute for Medieval Studies in Toronto, at Princeton, and at Columbia; he also presided over the Institut des hautes ´ etudes franc¸aises in New York. He died in 1973 after a brilliant career as a diplomat, during which he continued to publish. His main works were: La philosophie bergsonienne: ´ etudes critiques (Paris: Marcel Rivi` ere, 1914); Art et scolastique (Paris: Art Catholique, 1920); Le Docteur ang´ elique (Paris: Descl´ ee de Brouwer, 1930); De la philosophie chr´ etienne (Milan: Rivista de Neo-scolastica, 1932); Les degr` es du savoir: distinguer pour unir (Paris: Descl´ ee de Brouwer, 1932); Sept lec¸ons sur l’Etre et les premiers principes Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 793 de la raison sp´ eculative (Paris: T´ equi, 1934); L’Humanisme int´ egral (Paris: Aubier, 1936); Quatre essais sur l’esprit dans sa condition charnelle (Paris: Descl´ ee de Brouwer, 1939); Saint Thomas and the Problem of Evil (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1942); De Bergson ` a Thomas d’Aquin (New York: Editions de le Maison Franc¸a¨ ıse, 1944). Secondary literature: Bars, H. (1959), Maritain en notre temps,Paris: Grasset and (1962), La Politique selon Jacques Maritain,Paris: Editions ouvri` eres; Doering, B. E. (1983), J. Maritain and the French Catholic Intellectuals,Notre Dame; Fecher, C. A. (1953), The Philosophy of J. Maritain,Westminster: Newman Press; Maritain, R. (1949), Les Grandes amiti´ es,Paris: Descl´ ee de Brouwer; Smith, B. W. (1976), J. Maritain: Anti-modern or Ultramodern? An Historical Analysis of His Critics, His Thought and His Life,New Yo rk and Amsterdam. Marty, Anton (1847–1914). Born in Schwyz (Switzerland), Marty studied in W¨ urzburg with Brentano. He was a professor in Czernowitz and Prague. His works include: ‘ ¨ Uber subjektlose S¨ atze und das Verh¨ altnis der Grammatik zu Logik und Psychologie’ (1884), Untersuchungen zur Grundlegung der allgemeinen Grammatik und Sprachphilosophie (Halle: Max Niemayr, 1908); Zur Sprache. Die ‘logische’, ‘lokalistische’, und andere Kasustheorien (Halle: Max Niemayr, 1910); Raum und Zeit (Halle: Max Niemayr, 1916). Secondary literature: Mulligan (ed.) 1990, Mind, Meaning and Metaphysics: The Philosophy and Theory of Language of Anton Marty,Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1990. Marx, Karl Heinrich (1818–83). Born in Trier to a secularised Jewish family, Marx studied law and then philosophy at Bonn and Berlin universities. He was editor-in-chief of the liberal Rheinische Zeitung from 1842 to 1843,movedto Paris in 1843 and to Brussels in 1845. From 1847 to 1850 he was leader of the communist League and editor-in-chief of the Neue Rheinische Zeitung during the revolutions of 1848.In1849,after the revolutions’ defeat, he went into exile in London, where he spent the rest of his life, often in great poverty. During that time he composed his great work, Capital (only the first volume of which was published during his lifetime, in 1867). He was the founder and leader of the International Working Men’s Association (the First International) from 1864 to 1872. Secondary literature: Callinicos, A. (1985), Marxism and Philosophy,Oxford: Oxford University Press; Cohen, G. A. (1978), Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defence,Oxford: Oxford University Press; Wood, A. (1981), Karl Marx,London: Routledge. Mead, George Herbert (1863–1931). Mead is in many respects one of the founders of social psychology, focusing his work on the role of communication and the emergence of the self as a social agent. Like Dewey he was also a leading public intellectual, especially in his participation in the Progressive Movement. His account of the sociality of thought and the role of communication led him to orient his form of pragmatism towards the emerging social sciences, which he thought would have direct social consequences in the emergence of a more rational and democratic form of society. His major works were all published posthumously, the most important of which is Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1934) with its discussion of linguistic symbols and communication. His essays and lectures on morality emphasise an intersubjective and dialogical form of Kantian ethics, with a test procedure for maxims in dialogue of all those affected. H. Joas’s G. H. Mead: A Contemporary Reexamination of his Thought (1985)andG.A. Cook’s George Herbert Mead: The Making of a Social Pragmatist Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

794 Biobibliographical appendix (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1993)provide comprehensive treatments of all aspects of Mead’s pragmatism. Meinong, Alexius(1853–1920). Meinong was born in Lvov, at this time capital of the Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia. Between 1870 and 1874 he studied history in Vienna. Forthe next two years he studied philosophy under Brentano. From 1878 to 1882 he taught philosophy at the University of Vienna. In 1882 he was appointed to the University of Graz (Austria), where he founded the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Austria and established the so-called Graz School of philosophy. He is the author of, among other writings, Psychologisch- ethische Untersuchungen zur Werttheorie (Graz: Leuschner and Lubensky, 1894), ‘ ¨ Uber Gegenst¨ ande h¨ oherer Ordnung und deren Verh¨ altnis zur inneren Wahrnehmung’ (Zeitschrift f¨ ur Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, 21 (1899), 182–72), ¨ Uber Annahmen (Leipzig: Barth, 1902), ‘ ¨ Uber Gegenstandstheorie’ (1904), Uber M¨ oglichkeit und Wahrscheinlichkeit (Leipzig: Barth, 1915), ‘ ¨ Uber emotionale Pr¨ asentationen’ (1917). Secondary literature: Findlay, J. N. (1963), Meinong’s Theory of Objects and Values,Oxford: Claren- don Press; Grossmann, R. (1974), Meinong,London: Routledge; Routley, R. (1980), Exploring Meinong’s Jungle and Beyond,Canberra: Australian National University. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1908–1961). Educated at the Ecole normale sup´ erieure, he took his agr´ egation de philosophie in 1930.Hewas a member of the resistance during the Second World War. He was a professor at the University of Lyon from 1948 to 1949;aprofessor for child psychology and pedagogy at the Sorbonne, Paris, from 1949 to 1952.Hewas professor of phi- losophy at the Coll` ege deFrancefrom1952 to 1961.Merleau-Ponty’s main philosophical works are La Structure du comportement (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1942); Ph´ enom´ enologie de la perception (Paris: Gallimard, 1945), and Les Aventures de la dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1955). Secondary literature: Matthews, E. (2002), The Philosophy of Merleau-Ponty,Chesham: Acumen. Meyerson,Emile(1859–1933). Born in Russia, trained and educated in Germany, with advanced work in chemistry under Bunsen, Meyerson emigrated to Paris in 1882.After a brief exposure to industrial chemistry, he spent the rest of his life working as an editor and administrator. Meyerson never held a university position. However, his erudition, especially in the history and philosophy of the sciences, was enormous, well known, and universally respected. It led both to his being surrounded by a circle of prot´ eg´ es (including, e.g., Koyr´ eand Metzger) and to the writing of his metaphysically anti-positivist, epistemologically Neo-Kantian historico- philosophical masterpieces: Identit´ eetr ´ ealit´ e (Paris: Alcan, 1908), De l’Explication dans les sciences (Paris: Payot, 1921), La Deduction r´ elativiste (Paris: Payot, 1925), and Du Cheminement de la pens´ ee (Paris: Alcan, 1931). Secondary literature: Boas, G. (1930), ACritical Analysis of the Philosophy of Emile Meyerson, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Mikhailovskii, Nikolai Konstantinovich (1842–1904). One of the principal theo- rists of Russian populism, Mikhailovskii was born in Kaluga into the family of an impoverished landowner. After the death of his parents in 1855 he was educated at the St Petersburg Mining Institute. He became a student activist and was expelled in 1861.In1869,hetookoverthe journal Otchestvennye zapiski (Annals of the Fatherland),inwhich he published all his major works. Influenced by Mill, Proudhon, and Lavrov, Mikhailovskii was a champion of radical causes, including the rights of women. A tireless critic of scientism, Mikhailovskii stressed how the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 795 Russian word for truth, pravda,refers not just to objective representation, but to moral truth and justice. He attacked the positivism of Comte and Spencer, defended ‘subjective’ methods in history and sociology, and upheld the supreme value of the individual. Towards the end of his life, Mikhailovskii was a critic of Russian Marxism. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he remained in Russia for his entire career, somehow managing to escape serious persecution. An edition of Mikhailovskii’s complete works was published in Russia (1906–15). Translation of extracts from his works, including part of his famous article ‘Chto takoe progress?’ (1869) (reprinted in Sochineniya N. K. Mikhailovskovo,vol. I, St Petersburg), appeared in J. M. Edie, J. P. Scanlan, and M.-B. Zeldin (1965), Russian Philosophy,vol.II,Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books. J. H. Billington (1958), Mikhailovkii and Russian Populism,Oxford: Clarendon Press, is the sole monograph in English on Mikhailkovskii. A. Walicki, A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism,trans. Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka, Oxford: Oxford University Press, is a fine short account. Moore, George Edward (1873–1958). Moore was one of the most important British philosophers of the twentieth century, an early critic of both idealism and psychologism and a defender of the irreducibility of ethical values and of the irreplaceability of common-sense belief. He studied at Cambridge and, having obtained a position there in 1911,remained there for most of his academic career. Moore’s early writings, especially his book Principia Ethica (1903), are a sustained critique of idealism and reductive empiricism (‘naturalism’), especially in ethics. He then turned his attention to questions concerning perception and knowledge. He developed a ‘sense-datum’ theory of perception and elaborated a defence of ‘common sense’ against scepticism. In these writings he paid careful attention to insights gained from Russell’s work in logic and he was an early supporter of ‘philosophical analysis’ as a method of applying logic to philosophy; in his later writings the emphasis on logic is combined with careful attention to ordinary language. His main works were ‘The Refutation of Idealism’ (Mind 12 (1903), 433–53); Principia Ethica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903;revised ed. 1993); ‘A Defence of Common Sense’ (in J. H. Muirhead, Contemporary British Philosophy,London: George Allen and Unwin); and ‘Proof of an External World’ (Proceedings of the British Academy 25 (1939), 273–300). His main non-ethical writings are collected in his Selected Writings (ed. T. Baldwin, London: Routledge, 1993). Secondary literature: Baldwin, T. (1990), G. E. Moore,London: Routledge. Morgan,L.H.(1818–81). Morgan practised law in Rochester, New York, and saw the need to record changing Indian cultures before they disappeared. His League of the Ho-d´ e-no-sau-nee, or Iroquois (1851)offered a very early scientific account of a native American tribe. His Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (Washington, DC: The Smithsonian Institution, 1870)inspired Engels’s The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884). His Ancient Society (1877) elaborated Tylor’s evolutionary scheme of savagery, barbarism, and civilisation, and offered diagnostic characteristics for each stage. Secondary literature: Fortes, M. (1969), Kinship and the Social Order,Chicago: Archae. Morris,C.W.(1901–79). An American pragmatist who facilitated the constructive interaction of pragmatism with logical positivism at the University of Chicago. He was instrumental in founding The Encyclopedia of Unified Science.Among his major works were Logical Positivism, Pragmatism and Scientific Empiricism (Paris: Hermann, 1937)andSigns, Language and Behavior (New York: Prentice Hall, 1946). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

796 Biobibliographical appendix Natorp, Paul (1854–1924). A German philosopher born in 1854 in D¨ usseldorf, his early interests were in mathematics and music; he went to Strasburg in 1874 to pursue studies in music, but he turned to philosophy. He moved to Marburg to continue work on Kant, but his Habilitationsschrift wasonDescartes. He became close friends with Cohen, his interests ranging from pedagogy to Plato. His most important work was Platons Ideenlehre (1903). He died in 1924. Secondary literature: Holzhey, H. (1986), Cohen und Natorp,Basle: Schwabe; K¨ ohnke, K. C. (1986), Entstehung und Aufstieg des Neu-Kantianismus,Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, trans. R. J. Holling- dale as The Rise of Neo-Kantianism,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Neurath, Otto (1882–1945). Trained as an economic historian and a committed socialist, who participated in the 1918 Bavarian Revolution as its Economic Minister, Neurath was a founding member of the Vienna Circle and a leading member of the Unity of Science Movement. His public and political activities included an emphasis on the dissemination of knowledge in museums and organising the project of an Encyclopedia for Unified Science.Inhisearly work Neurath argued for a politically engaged empirical social science. His later work moves in the direction of methodological pluralism, seeing the unity of science as a social project rather than an abstract unification based on methodological proscriptions. His main works were Philosophical Papers 1913–1946,trans.anded. 1983 R. Cohen and M. Neurath (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1913–46) and Foundations of the Social Sciences (Chicago: University of Chicago University Press, 1944). Current research significantly revises older one-sided interpretations of his positivism, as in Philosophy Between Science and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)byN. Cartwright, J. Cat, B. Fleck, and T. Uebel, and T. Uebel, Overcoming Logical Positivism From Within (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1992). Newman, John Henry (1801–90). Newman was born in London and entered Trinity College, Oxford in 1817.Hebecame a Fellow of Oriel College in 1822 and vicar of St Mary’s, Oxford in 1828.Asaleader of the Oxford Movement, Newman had a profound influence on the Church of England. He later came to have doubts about Anglicanism’s claim to be the via media between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, and in 1845 he was received intothe Roman Catholic Church. His influential work on religious belief, An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent, appeared in 1870 (London: Burns, Oates). In 1879 Newman was made a Cardinal by Pope Leo XIII. Among his other influential works are J. H. Newman (1843), Sermons, Chiefly on the Theory of Religious Belief Preached before the University of Oxford (London and Oxford: Rivington and Park); Apologia Pro Vita Sua (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1864), and The Idea of a University (London: Pickering, 1873). Secondary literature: Ian Ker, John Henry Newman: A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); A. J. Boekraad, The Personal Conquest of Truth (Louvain: Editions Nauwelaerts, 1955); M. Jaime Ferreira, Doubt and Religious Commitment: The Role of the Will in Newman’s Thought (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990); H. H. Price, Belief (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969); E. J. Sillem (ed.), The Philosophical Notebook of John Henry Newman, 2 vols., Introduction (Louvain: Nauwelaerts, 1969); and Thomas Vargish, The Contemplation of Mind (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970). Nietzsche, Friedrich (1844–1900). A brilliant scholar, Nietzsche was appointed Professor of Classical Languages at Basle in Switzerland at the age of twenty-four. Initially he was strongly influenced by the philosophy of Schopenhauer. He was a friend and great admirer of Richard Wagner until they had a falling out. He taught for about ten years, and then retired because of Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 797 ill health in 1879.Henever married. His philosophically most productive period came after his retirement from Basle and before his final mental collapse in 1889.Thereafter he lingered in a vegetative state until his death. His main works were: Die fr¨ ohliche Wissenschaft (Chemnitz: E. Schmeitzner, 1882,trans.1974 W. Kaufmann, The Gay Science,NewYork:Vintage); Also sprach Zarathustra (Chemnitz: E. Schmeitzner, 1883–5,trans. 1961 R. J. Hollingdale, Harmondsworth: Penguin); Jenseits von Gut und B¨ ose (Leipzig: C. G. Naumann, 1886,trans.1973 R. J. Hollingdale, Beyond Good and Evil, Harmondsworth: Penguin); Zur Genealogie der Moral (Leipzig: C. G. Naumann, trans. 1968 W. Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale, On the Genealogy of Morals,New Yo rk: Random House); G¨ otzen-D¨ ammerung (Leipzig: C. G. Naumann, 1889,trans.1968 R. J. Hollingdale, Twilight of the Idols, Harmondsworth: Penguin). Secondary literature: Clark, M. (1990), Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Danto, A. C. (1965), Nietzsche as Philosopher,New Yo rk: Macmillan; Heidegger, M. (1961), Nietzsche,Pfullingen: Verlag Gunter Neske, trans. 1979–82 D. Krell and others, San Franciso, CA: Harper and Row; Jaspers, K. (1936), Nietzsche: Einf¨ uhrung in das Verst¨ andnis seines Philosophierens,Berlin and Leipzig: de Gruyter, trans. 1965 C. F. Wallraff and F. J. Schmitz, Nietzsche: An Introduction to the Understanding of His Philosophical Activity,Tucson: University of Arizona Press; Kaufmann, W. (1974), Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist,Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Magnus, B. (1978), Nietzsche’s Existential Imperative,Bloomington: Indiana University Press; Nehamas, A. (1985), Nietzsche: Life as Literature,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Schacht, R. (1983), Nietzsche,London: Routledge; Sleinis, E. E. (1994), Nietzsche’s Revaluation of Values,Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press; Tanner, M. (1994), Nietzsche,Oxford: Oxford University Press; Young, J. (1992), Nietzsche’s Philosophy of Art,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nishida, Kitar ¯ o (1870–1945). The founder of the Kyoto School, Nishida was Japan’s most influential philosopher of the twentieth century. Nishida was the first philosopher to synthesise Western and traditionally East Asian ideas in a comprehensive manner. With a special student de- gree from Tokyo University, Nishida’s fame did not begin until the publication of his pioneering book Zen no kenky¯ u (An Inquiry into the Good) in 1911.Appointed to Kyoto University in 1910, he became the mentor to a number of outstanding philosophical students. He is most noted for his theories of ‘pure experience’ (giving William James’s notion a Zen Buddhist nuance) in Zen no kenky¯ u and his ‘logic of place’ (basho) as developed in such important books as Hataraku mono kara miru mono e (From the Acting to the Seeing,Tokyo:Iwarami shoten, 1927), Ippansha no jikakuteki taikei (The Self-Conscious System of the Universal,Tokyo:Iwarami shoten, 1929), and Tetsugaku no kompon mondai (Fundamental Problems of Philosophy,Tokyo: Sophia University Press, 1934). Secondary literature: Abe, Masao (1988), ‘Nishida’s Philosophy of Place’, International Philosoph- ical Quarterly 28: 355–71;Nishitani Keiji (1991), Nishida Kitavo,Barkeley CA: University of California Press. Ortega y Gasset, Jos (1883–1955). Born in Madrid after studies at a Jesuit college at M´ alaga and at the University of Madrid, a government grant in 1905 gave Ortega the opportunity to broaden his philosophical training in Germany. In 1910 he became professor of metaphysics in the University of Madrid. This was the beginning of twenty-five years of intellectual and political activity which was crowned with unparalleled success. He created his own system of thought, ratiovitalism, which he expounded in a series of books of increasing rigour and depth; meanwhile his political activity culminated in 1931 with the foundation of the Agrupaci´ on al Servicio de la Rep´ ublica (Group for the Service of Republic), which contributed to the fall Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

798 Biobibliographical appendix of monarchy and the arrival of the republic in Spain. The Spanish civil war of 1936 changed Ortega’s fate: he spent the next nine years in exile in Europe and South America, and remained isolated after his return to Spain in 1945.Nevertheless he devoted these years to writing his most ambitious works. Ortega died of cancer in Madrid in 1955. His main works were Meditaciones del Quijote (Madrid: Edicions de la Residencia de Estudi- antes, 1914,trans.1961 Meditations on Quixote,NewYork:Norton);El tema de nuestro tiempo (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1923,trans.1931 and 1933 The Modern Theme,London:C. W. Daniel and New York: Norton); and La rebeli´ on de las masas (Madrid: Revista de Occidente, 1929,trans. 1932 The Revolt of the Masses,London: George Allen and Unwin and New York, Norton). Secondary literature: Ferrater Mora, J. (1957), Ortega y Gasset: An Outline of His Philosophy, Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes and New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Mor´ an, G. (1998), El maestro en el erial: Ortega y Gasset y la cultura del franquismo (The Master in the Uncultivated Land: Ortega y Gasset and the Culture of Franquism), Barcelona: Tusquets; and Orringer, N. (1979), Ortega y sus fuentes germ´ anicas (Ortega and his German Sources), Madrid: Gredos. Ostwald, Wilhelm (1853–1932). A German chemist, born in Riga, educated in Estonia; Ostwald taught in Riga, then in Leipzig. He founded physical chemistry. His work on catalysis and on reaction velocities earned him the Nobel Prize in 1909.Ostwald defended a form of realism according to which scientists can directly induce laws from observed facts. He opposed atomism (atoms are unobservable) and espoused energetics: the universe consists of forms of energy which, though irreducibly different, can be converted into one another. After the experimental confirmation of the atomic hypothesis, Ostwald accepted atomism. His philosophical views are set out in his Grundriß der Naturphilosophie (Outline of Natural Philosophy, Leipzig: Reclam, 1908). Pearson, Karl (1857–1936). Pearson was born in London in 1857. His father was a lawyer. At Cambridge, Pearson did well in mathematics, but began a legal career. He was persuaded to return to mathematics and became professor of applied mathematics at University College, London, in 1884. His early interests in social matters led to his pioneering work in mathematical statistics, which in turn led to an interest in the management of populations. He was the first occupant of the chair of eugenics in 1911,and at the same time held the professorship of geometry at Gresham College, a post he used as a platform for popular science lectures. He married twice. His department became the world centre of statistical studies, and his influence therefrom was immense. He was a formidable character, admired, feared, and even hated by those who knew him. He died in 1936 at Coldharbour. His main work was The Grammer of Science (London: Walter Scott, 1892). Perry, RalphBarton (1876–1957). Perry was one of the leaders of the American ‘new real- ist’ movement and later developed an influential naturalist theory of value. Throughout his career he was based at Harvard. In the ‘new realist’ manifesto, Present Philosophical Tendencies (London: Longmans, Green, 1912), Perry gathered together a series of essays in which young American philosophers argued that the characteristic mistake of idealists and many other philosophers had been to interpose ‘ideas’ or some other representation between the mind and the world; and in place of this they argued for a ‘direct realist’ account of perception and knowledge. Perry combined this with a version of James’s neutral monism. Later Perry turned to ethics and in his General Theory of Value (New York: Longmans, Green, 1926)heargued that value attaches to any object that is of interest to anyone; moral value requires the harmonising of all interests. Secondary literature: Kucklick, B. (1977), The Rise of American Philosophy, Cambridge Massachusetts 1860–1930,New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 799 Peirce, Charles Sanders (1839–1914). Born in 1839,Peirce studied at Harvard and taught there briefly before becoming lecturer in logic at Johns Hopkins University in 1879 and working for the United States Coast Survey. A founder of pragmatism, he worked in formal logic and semiotic as well as developing an ambitious philosophical system. After 1885,heworked in isolation, giving occasional lectures around Harvard. Peirce died in 1914. His main works were:‘On a New List of Categories’ (Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 7 (1867): 287–98); The Journal of Speculative Philosophy series (1868–9); ‘Illustrations of the Logic of Science’ (Popular Science Monthly (1877–8); 12 and 13;TheMonist series on Metaphysics (1891–3); Reasoning and the Logic of Things (ed. K. L. Katner, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992,written in 1898) Harvard Lectures on Pragmatism (1934, delivered in 1903). Monist papers on Pragmaticism (The Monist 15: 161–81; 481–99, 1905–6). Secondary literature: Brent, J. (1993), Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life,Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press; Fisch, M. (1986), Peirce, Semiotic and Pragmatism: Essays by Max Fisch, ed. K. L. Ketner and C. J. W. Kloesel, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press; Hookway, C.J.(1985), Peirce,London: Routledge; Ketner, K. L. (1995), Peirce and Contemporary Thought,New Yo rk: Fordham University Press; Murphey, M. (1961), The Development of Peirce’s Philosophy,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Plekhanov, Georgi Valentinovich (1856–1918). Plekhanov trained as a mining engi- neer. Initially active in the Populist movement, he spent most of his life in exile in Switzerland where he formed the first Russian Marxist group, Emancipation of Labour, in 1883.Hewrote extensively on philosophy, aesthetics, and Russian history; broke with Lenin after the Russian Social-Democratic Party split between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in 1903;supported the First World War; and opposed the October 1917 Revolution. His main works are collected in G. V. Plekhanov, Selected Philosophical Works (5 vols., Moscow: Progress, 1977). Secondary literature: Walicki, A. (1979), A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism, Stanford: Stanford University Press and Marx and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom, Stanford: Stanford University Press. Poincar ´ e, Jules Henri (1854–1912). Although trained as a mining engineer, Poincar´ e’s autodidactic successes in mathematics led him first to the faculty of science at Caen (1879)and two years later to the Sorbonne. His philosophy of science deeply exhibits his formal propensities: theories form around differential equations themselves founded upon inductive generalisations from observations; differences between theories may result from different interpretations of the equations; theories change because their observational bases originate in selective choices made by the physicists. Prediction and not explanation is the goal of science. Among Poincar´ e’s voluminous list of publications, the most philosophically relevant are La Science et l’hypoth` ese (Paris: Flammarion, 1902), La Valeur de la science (Paris: Flammarion, 1905), and Science et m´ ethode (Paris: Flammarion, 1908). Secondary literature: Giedymin, J. (1982), Science and Convention,Oxford: Pergamon Press; Holton, G. (1974), The Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Torretti, R. (1984), Philosophy of Geometry from Riemann to Poincar´ e, Dordrecht: Reidel. Pound, Roscoe (1870–1964). Born in Lincoln, Nebraska, on 27 October 1870,Pound first specialised in botany, earning a doctorate in that field at the University of Nebraska. After studying law at Harvard, he was admitted to the bar in Nebraska. He practised law briefly and then served as a commissioner (auxiliary judge) of Nebraska’s Supreme Court. Beginning in Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

800 Biobibliographical appendix 1903,heserved on faculties of midwestern law schools before moving, in 1910,toHarvard Law School, where he served as Dean from 1916 to 1936.Pound died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 1 July 1964. His main works were: ‘The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence’ (The Green Bag, 19 (1907)); ‘Mechanical Jurisprudence’ (Columbia Law Review, 8 (1908)); ‘Liberty of Contract’ (Yale Law Journal, 18 (1908–9)); ‘The Scope and Purpose of Sociological Jurisprudence’ (Harvard Law Review, 24–5 (1910–12)); ‘Law in Books and Law in Action’ (American Law Review, 44 (1910)); An Introduction to the Philosophy of Law (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1922); Social Control through Law (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942); and Jurisprudence (5 vols., 1959,StPaul, MN: West Publishing Co.) Secondary literature: Summers, R. S. (1982), Instrumentalism and American Legal Theory,Ithaca, NY and London: Cornell University Press. Prichard, H. A. (1871–1947). Born in 1871, Harold Prichard studied at Oxford and taught there all his working life. He was Fellow of Hertford College (1894–8)and then Trinity College (1898–1924). He was elected to the White’s Professorship of Moral Philosophy in 1928,and retired in 1937.Hepublished little during his lifetime but had an enormous influence on the development of moral philosophy between the wars. He died in 1947. His main works were: ‘Does Moral Philosophy Rest on a Mistake?’ (Mind 21 (1912) 21–37); ‘Duty and Interest’ (inaugural lecture, 1928,repr:inPrichard, Moral Obligation,Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968); ‘Duty and Ignorance of Fact’ (Proceedings of the British Academy (1932), 67–92). His writings have recently been collected in Moral Writings (ed. J. MacAdam, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2003). Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1881–1955). Educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Radcliffe-Brown’s field work on the close-knit and isolated societies in the Andaman Islands provided material that supported his theory of structural-functionalism. During his long career, he held professorships at major universities in South Africa, Australia, North America, South America, Egypt, and China. He was professor of social anthropology at Oxford University from 1937 to 1946,and was succeeded in that chair by his student E. E. Evans-Pritchard (1902–73). His main works were: Structure and Function in Primitive Society (Glencoe, IL: The Free Press, 1952). Secondary literature: KuKlick, H. (1991), The Savage Within: The Social History of British Anthro- pology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Ramsey, Frank Plumpton (1903–30). Ramsey was the most gifted British philosopher of the 1920s, making important contributions in many areas of philosophy, despite his early death. He studied at Cambridge and his brief career was based there. His first work lay in the field of mathematical logic: he produced a simplified and much improved version of the logicist position of Whitehead and Russell. He then turned to probability, and developed a way of measuring both the strength of desire and the strength of belief, of which he took (subjective) probability to be a measure. This work connected with new positions concerning truth, belief, and knowledge: he developed a ‘deflationary’ conception of truth, which he combined with a pragmatist account of the content of belief and a reliabilist account of knowledge. In other papers he sketched out important new accounts of scientific theories, laws of nature, and causation. His main papers were collected in The Foundations of Mathematics (ed. R. B. Braithwaite, London: Kegan Paul, 1931). Secondary literature: Sahlin, N.-E. (1990), The Philosophy of F. P. Ramsey,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 801 Reinach, Adolf (1883–1917). Reinach born in Mainz (Germany). He entered the Uni- versity of Munich in 1901 where, with some interruptions, he remained until 1909, studying law and philosophy under Theodor Lipps. In 1905 he spent some time in G¨ ottingen, where he came into contact with Husserl. From 1909 until 1912 he was back inG ¨ ottingen, where he worked with Husserl as Privatdozent and served as mentor of many early phenomenologists including Roman Ingarden, Edith Stein, and Dietrich von Hildebrand. He died in battle in Flanders. His works include: ‘Zur Theorie des negativen Urteils’ (1911;reprinted in Reinach, S¨ amtliche Werke: Kritische Ausgabe mit Kammertar vol. I, Munich, 1989)and ‘Die apriorischen Grundlagen des b¨ urgerlichen Rechts’ in Jahrbuch f¨ ur Philosophie und ph¨ anomenologische Forschung, 1 (1913), 685–847. Secondary literature: Mulligan, K. (ed.) (1987), Speech Act and Sachervalt. Reinach and the Foun- dations of Realist Phenomenology,Dordrecht/Boston/Lancaster: M. Nijhoff. Reichenbach, Hans (1891–1953). Reichenbach made important contributions to the phi- losophy of physics and to the philosophy of science generally. He studied physics and in 1920 attended Einstein’s seminar on relativity in Berlin. With Einstein’s help he became professor of the philosophy of physics in Berlin in 1926;butin1933 he left Germany for Turkey. In 1938 he moved to the United States and taught at UCLA until his death in 1953. Reichenbach’s main early work (Philosophic der Raum-Zeit-Lehre,Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928)concerns space and time; against Kant and Kantians, he argued that theories of space and time are fundamentally empirical. In his next major work (Wahrscheinlichkeitslehre, Leiden: Sijthoff, 1935)hedeveloped and defended a frequentist account of probability. Both these works brought him into close contact with the work of the members of the Vienna Circle; but in Experience and Prediction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938)heargued from a fallibilist realist position against the standard ‘logical positivist’ account of scientist knowledge. Secondary literature: Salmon, W. C. (1979), Hans Reichenbach: Logical Empiricist,Dordrecht: Reidel. Rickert, Heinrich (1863–1936). A German philosopher born in 1863 at Danzig, he spent his early years in Berlin. He rejected an early interest in materialism and his emphasis on value is already apparent in his Habilitationsschrift. His most important work is Die Grenzen der naturwis- senschaftlichen Begriffsbildung (part one 1896, part two 1901,andwhole 1902; abridged and trans. Guy Oakes from 5th edn 1929 as The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). He was Alois Riehl’s successor at Freiburg in 1896 and then Windelband’s successor at Heidelberg in 1926.Heretired in 1934 and died two years later. He exerted considerable influence on, among others, Lask and Weber. Secondary literature: Oakes, G. (1988), Weber and Rickert,Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ritchie, David George (1853–1903). After graduating at Edinburgh University in 1875, Ritchie proceeded to Balliol College, Oxford, where his tutor was T. H. Green (1875–8). He was afellow of Jesus College, Oxford, from 1878,andtutor from 1881,until 1894,whenhebecame professor of logic and metaphysics at St Andrews University. He was President of the Aristotelian Society in 1898–9. His main works were: Darwinism and Politics (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1889); The Principles of State Interference (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1891); Darwin and Hegel (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1893); Natural Rights (London: Swan, Sonnenschein and New Yo rk: Macmillan, 1894); Studies in Political and Social Ethics (London: Swan Sonnenschein and New York: Macmillan, 1902); Philosophical Studies (ed. R. Latta, London and New York, 1905); Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

802 Biobibliographical appendix Miscellaneous Writings (Collected Works of D. G. Ritchie, ed. P. P. Nicholson, Bristol: Thoemmer Press, 1998). Secondary literature: Harris, F. P. (1944), The Neo-Idealist Political Theory: Its Continuity with the British Tradition,New Yo rk: King’s Crown Press; Latta, R. (ed.) (1905), ‘Memoir’ in Philosophical Studies by David George Ritchie,London and New York: Macmillan; Otter, S. den (1996), British Idealism and Social Explanation: A Study in Late Victorian Thought,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ross, W. D. (1877–1971). Sir David Ross was born in 1877.Hestudied at Edinburgh Uni- versity, and then held a fellowship at Merton College, Oxford, before moving to Oriel College, Oxford, where he spent the rest of his working life as fellow (1902–29)andthen as Provost (1929–47). He was Deputy White’s Professor from 1923 to 1928,but did not stand for election on Stewart’s retirement in the hope that Prichard would be elected. He was knighted in 1928. Towardsthe end of his career he served a term as Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, and was also President of the British Academy. In addition to his work on moral philosophy, he was the greatest Aristotelian scholar of his day and an active public servant. He died in 1971. His main works (on moral philosophy) were: The Right and The Good (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930); Foundations of Ethics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939). Secondary literature: McNaughton, D. (1996), ‘An Unconnected Heap of Duties?’ Philosophical Quarterly 46: 433–47;Urmson, J. (1975), ‘A Defence of Intuitionism’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 75: 111–19. Royce, Josiah (1855–1916). The youngest of four children of pioneer parents, Royce was born in Grass Valley, California, a mining camp. After his graduation at the University of California at Berkeley, financial support from local businessmen enabled Royce to study in Germany for two years. Royce then returned to the United States and earned his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1878.After teaching English for four years at the University of California at Berkeley, and spending three years teaching at Harvard on a temporary basis, Royce was appointed an assistant professor of philosophy at Harvard in 1885.Heremained at Harvard for the rest of his career where along with William James he was the mainstay of the philosophy department and a central figure in what has come to be called ‘the Golden Age in American Philosophy’. Royce married Katherine Head in 1880. His main works were: The Religious Aspect of Philosophy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1885); The Spirit of Modern Philosophy (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1892); The World and the Individual, First Series (1899); The World and the Individual, Second Series (New York: Macmillan, 1901); The Philosophy of Loyalty (New Yo rk: Macmillan, 1908); The Problem of Christianity (New York: Macmillan 1913). Secondary literature: Clendinning, J. (1985), The Life and Thought of Josiah Royce,Madison: University of Wisconsin Press; Fuss, P. (1965), The Morality of Josiah Royce,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Kuklick, B. (1972), Josiah Royce: An Intellectual Biography,Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill; Muirhead, J. H. (1931), The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Rozanov, Vasilii Vasil’evich (1856–1919). Born into a poor provincial family in Vetluga, Rozanov had a difficult childhood. His father died when he was five, his mother eight years later. He studied history and philology at Moscow University, and afterwards taught history in provincial schools. He entered a disastrous marriage with Dostoevsky’s former mis- tress, Apollinariia Suslova. She refused him a divorce when they separated in 1888 and in 1889 Rozanov secretly (and bigamously) married Varvara Rudneva. His first book, O ponimanii (On Understanding) appeared in 1886 but was largely ignored. In 1891,heproducedasignificant work Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 803 on Dostoevsky, serialised in Russkii vestnik.Thereafter Rozanov became a journalist, develop- ing his characteristically brilliant and impressionistic style, and publishing numerous influential articles, usually in the right-wing press. His writing was sarcastic, outrageous, and iconoclastic. He was sometimes guilty of anti-semitism. Many collections of his articles were published, in- cluding his two volumes on the metaphysics of Christianity, T¨ emnyi lik (Dark Face) and Liudi lunnogo sveta (People of the Moonlight) (St Petersburg: Merkushev 1911), Uedin¨ ennoe (In Solitude) (St Petersburg: Suvorin, 1912), and Opavshie list’ia (Fallen Leaves),published in two bundles (St Petersburg: Surovin, 1913, 1915). These works have been recently republished in a two- volume edition of Rozanov’s works (Moscow: Nauka, 1990). The principal theme of Rozanov’s work is the affirmation of life, which informs his metaphysics of sex, and his critique of the church, which in its preoccupation with death, and its denial of the flesh, had robbed Christianity of joy. He died in poverty in 1919. Russell, Bertrand (1872–1970). Bertrand Arthur William Russell studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. Although his earliest works were devoted to technical problems in logic and the philosophy of mathematics, he later wrote extensively and passionately on a vast range of subjects, including education, sex, morals, politics, economics, religion, literature, and history, in addition to works on philosophy. In 1916 he lost his post as lecturer in philosophy at Trinity College, and in 1918 he was imprisoned, because of his pacifist activities. He subse- quently held academic posts in Chicago and California, visited China and Russia, founded a progressive school, and was active in such organisations as Pugwash, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and the International War Crimes Tribunal. In 1950 he was awarded the Order of Merit and the Nobel Prize for Literature. He died at the age of ninety-eight, having de- voted his last years to establishing the Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation, and to protesting against the foreign policy of the United States, especially in Vietnam. His main works were: The Principles of Mathematics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903,repr. 1937,London: George Allen and Unwin); ‘On Denoting’ (Mind 14 (1905): 479–93,reprinted 1956 in B. A. W. Russell (ed. R. C. Marsh), Logic and Knowledge,London: George Allen and Unwin, 41–56); with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (3 vols., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910–1913); ‘Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description’ (Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 11 (1911): 108–28); Theory of Knowledge (1913,posthumously published 1984 in B. A. W. Russell (ed. E. R. Eames), The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell,vol.VII, Theory of Knowledge: The 1913 Manuscript,London: George Allen and Unwin); ‘On the Nature of Acquain- tance’ Monist 24 (1914): repr. 1956 in B. A. W. Russell (ed. R. C. Marsh) Logic and Knowledge (London: George Allen and Unwin, 127–74); Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1914); ‘The Philosophy of Logical Atomism’, Monist 28 (1918); repr. 1956 in B. A. W. Russell (ed. R. C. Marsh), Logic and Knowledge,London: George Allen and Unwin, 177–281); The Analysis of Mind (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1921); The Analysis of Matter (New York: Harcourt Brace and London: Kegan Paul, 1927); An Enquiry into Meaning and Truth (New York: Norton and London: George Allen and Unwin, 1940); Human Knowledge, its Scope and Limits (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1958). Secondary literature: Ayer, A. J. (1971), Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage,London: Macmillan and (1972), Russell,London: Fontana/Collins; Clark, R. W. (1975), The Life of Bertrand Russell,London: Jonathan Cape and Weidenfeld and Nicolson; Evans, G. (1982), The Var ieties of Reference,Oxford: Oxford University Press; Hylton, P. (1990), Russell, Idealism, and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy,Oxford: Clarendon Press; Kneale, W. C. and Kneale, M. (1962), The Development of Logic,Oxford: Oxford University Press; Orstertag, G. (ed.) (1998), Definite Descriptions. A Reader,Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; Pears, D. F. (1967), Bertrand Russell and the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

804 Biobibliographical appendix British Tradition in Philosophy,New Yo rk: Random House; Sainsbury, R. M. (1979), Russell, London: Routledge. Santayana, George (1863–1952). Santayana combined the aspiration to a systematic meta- physics characteristic of nineteenth-century idealism with a twentieth-century affirmation of realism and naturalism. He was born in Spain, but moved to the United States as a child. He studied at Harvard and became a professor of philosophy there; but he retired in 1912 and spent the rest of his life in Europe, mostly in Rome. In his first work, The Sense of Beauty (New York: C. Scribner’s, 1896), he criticised idealist aesthetic theories and argued for a naturalist account of aesthetic appreciation. In the five volumes of The Life of Reason (New York: C. Scribner’s, 1905–6)hegives a naturalist account of the place of reason and value in human life. His later writings, such as The Realms of Being (New York: C. Seribner’s, 1927–40), start from a ‘critical realist’ epistemology and then set out an ambitious ontology, based around a theory of essences and absolute truth. Secondary literature: Sprigge, T. L. S. (1995), Santayana,London: Routledge. Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905–80). Sartre was educated at the Ecole normale sup´ erieure and took first place at the agr´ egation de philosophie in 1929. His first novel was La Naus´ ee (Paris: Gallimard, 1938). A philosopher, novelist, playwright, political commentator, activist, biographer, in short, the ‘complete intellectual’ Sartre’s main philosophical works were L’ˆ etre et le n´ eant (Paris: Galli- mard, 1943), Critique de la raison dialectique (Paris: Gallimard, 1958–1960)andhis autobiography: Les Mots (Paris: Gallimard, 1964). Secondary literature: see The Cambridge Companion to Sartre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). Scheler, Max (1874–1928). Scheler gained his doctorate on logical and moral principles at Jena in 1899 and his Habilitation on transcendental and psychological method in 1900.Hewas Privatdozent at Jena from 1899 to 1906 and at Munich from 1906 to 1910,professor in Cologne from 1919 to 1928 and was appointed professor of philosophy and sociology at Frankfurt on Main, 1928.Scheler’s works are re-issued in the edition of the Gesammelte Werke (Berne: Francke, 1954–). Secondary literature: For a bibliography, see Frings, M. S. (ed.) (1974), Max Scheler (1874–1928) Centennial Essays,TheHague: Nijhoff. Schiller, F. C. S. (1864–1937). Born in 1864,Schiller studied at Cornell University and wasafellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He defended pragmatic humanism and was the most distinguished pragmatist outside the United States. He finished his career at the University of Southern California and died in 1937. His main works were Riddles of the Sphinx: A Study of the Philosophy of Evolution (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1891); Humanism (London: Macmillan, 1903); Logic for Use (London: G. Bell, 1929); Must Philosophers Disagree? (London: Macmillan, 1934). Secondary literature: Abel, R. (1955), The Pragmatic Humanism of F. C. S. Schiller,NewYork: King’s Crown Press; and Thayer, H. S. (1968), Meaning and Action: A Critical History of Pragmatism, Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Schlick, Friedrich Albert Moritz (1882–1936). Schlick was an important contribu- tor to logical empiricism and the convenor of the Vienna Circle. He began his academic career Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 805 as a physicist, but his work became increasingly philosophical and in 1922 he was appointed to the chair of ‘natural philosophy’ at Vienna, where he was assassinated in 1936. His first works were inspired by Einstein’s new theories of space and time. He then turned to the epistemology of natural science in his Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1918,trans.1974 A. Blumberg and H. Feigl as General Theory of Knowledge), where he used the notion of ‘implicit definition’ to refine a conventionalist position. In his later writings Schlick turned increasingly to the relationship between language, experience, and knowledge. He endorsed the verification principle and used it to denounce traditional metaphysics; but he argued strongly for a con- ception of ineffable private experience as the basis for verification and for a correspondence theory of truth grounded upon these experiences. Other main works were Raum und Zeit in der gegenw¨ artigen Physik (Berlin: Springer, 1917,trans.1979 P. Heath, ‘Space and Time in Contem- porary Physics’ in M. Schlick, Philosophical Papers,vol. I, Dordrecht: Reidel, 207–69); Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (Berlin: Springer, 1925,trans.of2nd edn 1974 A. Blumberg and H. Feigl, General Theory of Knowledge,LaSalle, IL: Open Court); ‘Die Wende der Philosophie’ (Erkenntnis I(1930): 4–11,trans.1979 P. Heath, ‘The Turning-Point in Philosophy’ in M. Schlick, Philosophical Papers, vol. II, Dordrecht: Reidel, 154–60); ‘ ¨ Uber das fundament der Erkenntnis’ (Erkenntnis 4 (1934): 79–99,trans.1979 P. Heath ‘On the Foundation of Knowledge’ in M. Schlick, Philosophical Papers,vol. II, Dordrecht: Reidel, 370–87). Secondary literature: Oberdan, T. (1993), Protocols, Truth and Convention,Amsterdam: Rodopi. Schmitt, Carl (1888–1985). Born at Plettenberg in the Sauerland, Schmitt was raised as a Catholic, involved himself in Munich expressionist circles in his youth, studied law, and served as a legal counsellor to the German Army in the First World War. After the war he became a pro- fessor of law first at Bonn, then Berlin, and also worked in government, though he was privately critical of the evolution of the Weimar Republic and joined the Nazis in 1933.Hewrote in- fluential political and historical studies. Among the former are Politische Theologie (Munich: Duncker and Humboldt, 1922, 2nd edn 1934;trans.1985 G. Schwab as Political Theology, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press). Among the latter are Politische Romantik (Munich: Dunker and Humboldt, 1919, 2nd edn 1925;trans.1986 G. Oates as Political Romanticism,Cambridge, MA: MIT Press); R¨ omischer Katholizmus und Politische Forme (Munich: Theatiner, 1925,trans. 1996 G. Ulmen as Roman Catholicism and Political Form,Westport, CT: Greenwood Press); Der Begriff der Politische (Berlin: Duncker and Humboldt, 1928, 2nd edn 1932,trans.1976 G. Schwab, The Concept of the Political,New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press). Important studies of him include J. Bendersky (1983), Carl Schmitt: Theorist for the Reich,Prince- ton: Princeton University Press; P. E. Gottfried (1990), Carl Schmitt: Politics and Theory,New Yo rk: Greenwood Press; and J. McCormick (1997), Carl Schmitt’s Critique of Liberalism: Against Politics as Technology,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sch ¨ utz, Alfred (1899–1959). Like the methodological work of Max Weber, by whom he was greatly influenced, Sch¨ utz provided a systematic phenomenological approach to the methodological integration of the social sciences. His major work, Der sinnhafte Aufbau der sozialen Welt (Vienna: Springer Verlag 1932), provided a phenomenological analysis of the structures of the everyday life-world of the social actor from his or her mundane perspective. After emigrating to the United States in 1938,Sch¨ utz also wrote phenomenological studies of various sorts, such as the analysis of ‘The Stranger’ and of democracy and scientific expertise in ‘The Well-Informed Citizen’ (Social Research, 3, 1952;repr. 1964 in Collected Papers,vol.II,120–34,TheHague: Nijhoff). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

806 Biobibliographical appendix Secondary literature: Helmut Wagner’s Alfred Sch¨ utz: An Intellectual Biography (Chicago: Chicago University Press. 1983)offers an overview of his work, while Maurice Natanson, Anonymity: A Study in the Philosophy of Alfred Sch¨ utz (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1986) examines his social phenomenology. Sellars, Roy Wood (1880–1973). An American critical realist and materialist who spent most of his life at the University of Michigan. He defended a version of scientific realism through the period when this was unfashionable and eventually passed the torch on to his son, Wilfrid, who was a very influential philosopher in his own right. Among his major works were Critical Realism (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1916), Evolutionary Naturalism (Chicago: Open Court, 1922), and The Philosophy of Physical Realism (New York: Macmillan, 1932). Secondary literature: Delaney, C. F. (1969), Mind and Nature: A Study of the Naturalistic Philosophies of Cohen, Woodbridge and Sellars,Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Sidgwick, Henry (1838–1900). Born in Skipton, Yorkshire, on 31 May 1838.Hewas educated at Cambridge University, where he took all the top prizes in classics. In 1859 he was elected a fellow of Trinity College and retained a close association with Cambridge for the rest of his life, although he resigned his fellowship of Trinity on conscientious grounds in 1869.He was elected professor of moral philosophy in 1889 and was active in promoting university reform and the admission of women to Cambridge. He died on 28 August 1900. His chief ethical work is The Methods of Ethics,firstpublished in 1874 (London: Macmillan, 7th edn 1907). Secondary literature: Schneewind, J. B. (1977), Sidgwick’s Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy, Oxford: Clarendon Press; Schultz, B. (1992), Essays on Henry Sidgwick,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skolem, Thoralf (1887–1963). Skolem contributed to several areas of mathematics, par- ticularly logic and number theory. His career was spent almost entirely at the University of Oslo, from which he received his doctorate in 1926. His name is attached to numerous the- orems and concepts in logic, including the L¨ owenheim-Skolem theorem, the Skolem para- dox, Skolem functions, and the Skolem normal form for satisfiability. Skolem came close to proving the completeness of first-order logic and was the first to establish the existence of non-isomorphic models of Peano arithmetic. His main works were: ‘Einige Bemerkungen zur axiomatischen Begr¨ undung der Mengenlehre’ (Matematikerkongressen I Helsingfors 4–7 Juli 1922, Den femte skandinaviska matematikerkongressen, Redogorelse, Helsinki: Akademiska Bokhandlen, 217–32,trans. S. Bauer-Mengelberg, ‘Some Remarks on Axiomatized Set Theory’, in van Heijenoort, From Frege to G¨ odel,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press); ‘ ¨ Uber die Unm¨ oglichkeit einer vollst¨ andigen Charakterisierung der Zahlenreihe mittels eines endlichen Axiomensystems’ (Norsk matematisk forenings skrifter 247 (1933): 730–82), reprinted in Selected Works in Logic (ed. J. Fenstad, Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 1970). Secondary literature: van Heijenoort, J. (1967), From Frege to G¨ odel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Soloviev, Vladimir Sergeevich (1853–1900). Soloviev’s father was a prominent liberal historian, his mother came from an aristocratic Polish family, and his paternal grandfather was an Orthodox priest, a circumstance that helps explain his commitments to ecumenicalism and liberalism. A materialist in his youth, Soloviev studied science at Moscow University, but by Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 807 1872 his Christian faith had returned. After defending his candidate’s thesis, Krizis zapadnoi filosofii: protiv pozitivistov (1874) (trans. 1996 B. Jakim The Crisis of Western Philosophy: Against the Positivists)(West Stockbridge, MA: Lindisfarne Press), he travelled to England and Egypt, where he experienced visions of Sophia. In 1878,helectured on Godmanhood in St Petersburg and defended his doctoral dissertation in 1880.Hewas then briefly an academic, but resigned after he gave a public lecture appealing to Alexander III to spare the lives of his father’s assassins. Thereafter, as an independent scholar, he wrote on the unity of the churches, on moral, legal, and political themes, on the nature of love, and on eschatology. He was an accomplished poet. Soloviev lived as a wandering scholar of no fixed abode. He is reputed to have had an otherworldly demeanour and was often taken for a priest. He had frequent visions and mystical experiences. Dostoevsky reputedly modelled Alyosha Karamazov on Soloviev. A twelve-volume Russian edition of Soloviev’s works was reprinted in 1966–70,and a two-volume selection in 1988. English sources include Lectures on Godmanhood (London: Dennis Dobson, 1948), The Meaning of Love (West Stockbridge, MA: Lindisfarne Press, 1985), The Crisis of Western Philosophy: Against the Positivists (West Stockbridge, MA: Lindisfarne Press, 1996), and the excellent A Solovyov Anthology (London: SCM Press, 1950), which includes ‘A Short Story of Antichrist’. E. N. Trubetskoi, Mirosozertsanie VI. S. Solov’¨ eva (Soloviev’s Worldview), Moscow: Medium, 1995 is the fullest account of Soloviev’s life and thought. S. L. Frank (‘Introduction’, A Solovyov Anthology, ed. S. Rank, trans. N. Duddington, London: SCM Press, 1950, 9–31), N. O. Lossky (History of Philosophy,New Yo rk: International Universities Press, 1951, 81–133), and A. Walicki (A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism,trans. Hilda Andrews-Rusiecka, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980,ch.12 and Legal Philosophies of Russian Liberalism,Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987,ch.3)offer fascinating short accounts. Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903). Spencer was born in Derby on 27 April 1820.After leaving school he worked as an engineer building the London-to-Birmingham railway; the fossils he found while doing so first interested him in what he later called ‘evolution’. In 1848 he moved to London and was a sub-editor on The Economist. In 1860 he set out the prospectus of his System of Synthetic Philosophy,and after this the rest of his life is mainly the story of his struggle to bring this enormous project to completion. Racked by ill-health and nervous troubles which prevented him from working, Spencer lived as a semi-recluse, dictating parts of the system between bouts of the violent activity he engaged in to circumvent his nervous troubles. The system was finally completed in 1896 and Spencer died on 8 December 1903,having consistently refused honours and academic appointments. Spencer’s chief ethical works are The Data of Ethics of 1879 and The Principles of Ethics (London: Williams and Norgate, 1897), a two-volume work, of which vol. I is a reissue of The Data of Ethics (1879). But his main achievement is his System of Synthetic Philosophy (6 vols., London: Williams and Norgate, 1862–96). Secondary literature: Peal, J. D. Y. (1971), Herbert Spencer, The Evolution of a Sociologist,London: Heinemann. Stephen,Leslie (1832–1904). Born in London on 28 November 1832. Stephen’s university education was at Trinity Hall in Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1854 as well as an Anglican clergyman. Both these positions he resigned from for conscientious reasons and after 1864 earned his living as a journalist and writer in London. He was editor of the Dictionary of National Biography.Akeen walker and climber, who made several first ascents in the Alps, Stephen died on 22 February 1904. His chief ethical work is The Science of Ethics (London: Smith, Elder, 1882). Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

808 Biobibliographical appendix Secondary literature: Annan, N. (1984), Leslie Stephen: The Godless Victorian,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Stevenson, C. L. (1908–79). Born in 1908, Stevenson studied at Yale University, majoring in English literature. He went on to Cambridge to continue in English, but was attracted to philosophy by Moore and Wittgenstein. He took a BA in philosophy at Cambridge before moving to Harvard for his doctoral work. He then taught at Harvard for a short while before moving to Yale in 1939 and then in 1946 to the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, where he spent the rest of his working life. His main works were: Ethics and Language (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1944); Facts and Values (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963). Secondary literature: Goldman, A. and Kim, J. (eds.) (1978), Values and Morals: Essays in Honor of William Frankena, Charles Stevenson, and Richard Brandt,Dordrecht: Reidel. Stout, George Frederick (1860–1944). Born in South Shields, Stout studied in Cam- bridge from 1879 onwards. In 1884 he was appointed University Lecturer in the Moral Sciences at Cambridge, where he remained until 1896.Amonghis students were G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell. Between 1891 and 1920 he was editor of Mind.From1896 to 1899 he taught in Aberdeen, and between 1903 and 1936 he was a professor in St Andrews. The last period of his life he spent in Sydney as professor in moral and political philosophy. His works include Analytic Psychology (London: Swan Sonnenschein, 1896), A Manual of Psychology (London and New York: University Correspondence College Press, 1899), Studies in Philosophy and Psychology (London: Macmillan, 1930), Mind and Matter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931). Secondary literature: Passmore, J. (1957), A Hundred Years of Philosophy,London: Duckworth; van der Schaar, M. (1991), G. F. Stout’s Theory of judgement and proposition, Leiden (no publisher). Stumpf, Carl (1848–1936). Born in Wiesentheid (Germany), Stumpf studied in W¨ urzburg under Brentano. From 1873 he was professor in W¨ urzburg and later, between 1879 and 1884 aprofessor in Prague. From 1884 to 1894 he was a professor in Halle (where his students in- cluded Husserl) and in Munich. From 1894 he was a professor in Berlin, where he established the renowned Institute of Psychology, and where his students Wolfgang K¨ ohler, Kurt Koffka, and Max Wertheimer founded the so-called Berlin school of Gestalt psychology. His writings include: ¨ Uber den psychologischen Ursprung der Raumvorstellung (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1873), Tonpsy- chologie (Leipzig, 1883), ‘Zur Einteilung der Wissenschaften’ (in Abhandhungen der K¨ oniglichen Preussischen Akademic der Wissenschaften,Phil.-hist. Kl., 4, 1907)andErkenntnistheorie (Leipzig: Barth 1939/40). Secondary literature: Smith, B. (ed.) (1988), Foundations of Gestalt Theory,Munich: Philosophia. Taine, Hippolyte-Adolphe (1828–93). He was born in Vouziers in 1828,intoaprovincial middle-class family. His father was a solicitor. His talents took him to Paris, where he attended the Ecole Normale Sup´ erieure, but despite his brilliance, failed the agr´ eg´ e examination because of his radical opinions. For several years he taught in provincial schools, travelling in Italy and especially England. His outspoken criticisms of both the revolutionaries and of the conservatives did not endear him to the authorities of the Second Empire. He left teaching for a life of private tutoring and journalism from 1852 to 1863.In1864 he became professor of aesthetics at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. But his clashes with the establishment continued and he was elected a member of the Acad´ emie Franc¸aise only in 1878. His writings were influential both on psychologists such as Pierre Janet, while his criticisms of the revolutionaries were admired by Catholic traditionalists. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 809 He died in Paris in 1893. His main works were: Le Positivism Anglais (Paris: Balliere, trans. 1896 J. Durand, Lectures on Art,New Yo rk: Holt); Philosophie de l’Art (21st edn, Paris: Hachette, 1865). Secondary literature: Charlton, D. G. (1959), Positivist Thought in France during the Second Empire: 1852–1870,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Tanabe, Hajime (1885–1962). A member of the Kyoto School, Tanabe was trained in Western logic, epistemology, and the philosophy of science. Appointed to Kyoto University in 1919, Tanabe spent 1922–3 studying with Alois Riehl and then Edmund Husserl in Germany. Critical of Nishida’s logic of place, Tanabe constructed his own logic of species. When applied to social thought, that philosophy gave special priority to cultural and ethnic identity. Tanabe later regretted the political implications of his theory and wrote a new philosophy in 1946,hisZanged¯ o to shite no tetsugaku (Tokyo: Iwanani Shoten, trans. 1988 Takauchi Yoshinori et al., Philosophy as Metanoetics,Berkeley, CA: University of California Press), in which he argued that philosophies should contain their own critical apparatus to prevent themselves from being absolutised. Tarski,Alfred (1901–83). Tarski was primarily a logician and developed the basic frame- work for model theory; his main importance for philosophy lies in his definition of truth. He was born in Warsaw, and studied mathematics at the University of Warsaw, where he was appointed a lecturer in 1926.In1939 he visited the United States, and stayed there for the rest of his life, holding a chair at Berkeley from 1942 until 1968. His definitions of truth (1933)and logical consequence (1936)provide the basis for contem- porary model theory. Although philosophers at the time regarded these papers as primarily of technical interest, they are now recognised as raising critical issues – for example, can truth be defined? What, if anything, is special about logical truth? His main works were: Poje¸cie prawdy w je¸zykach nauk dedukcyjnych (Prace Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego, 1933,wydial III, no. 34,trans.1956 J. H. Woodger, ‘The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages’, in A. Tarski, Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics. Papers from 1923–1938,Oxford: Clarendon Press); ‘¨ uber den Begriff der logischen Folgerung’ (1936;trans.1956 J. H. Woodger, ‘On the Concept of Logical Consequence’, in Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics); ‘The Semantic Conception of Truth’, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 4: 341–75, 1944). Secondary literature: Field, H. (1972), ‘Tarski’s Theory of Truth’, Journal of Philosophy 69, 347–75. Turing, Alan (1912–54). Turing was a seminal figure in the development of recursion theory and computer science, as well as a brilliant cryptanalyst who led the successful British assault on the German ‘Enigma’ cipher during the Second World War. His abstract model of a universal computing machine and his demonstration of the unsolvability of the halting problem provided a new and remarkably perspicuous perspective on the undecidability results of G¨ odel and Church, and led to the general acceptance of Church’s Thesis. Turing also contributed to the practi- cal design and construction of the two of the earliest general-purpose digital computers. His main work was: ‘On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem’ (Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42 (1937): 230–65;Correction 43: 544–6). Secondary literature: Herken, R. (1988), The Universal Turing Machine,Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press; Hodges, A. (1983), Alan Turing: The Enigma,New York: Simon and Schuster. Twardowski, Kazimierz (1866–1938)was born in Vienna into a Polish family. Between 1885 and 1889 he studied at the University of Vienna under Franz Brentano. Six years later, after his habilitation degree, he was appointed a professor in Lvov, where he remained until 1930 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

810 Biobibliographical appendix and where he established the Polish school of philosophy known as the Lvov-Warsaw School. His students, including Stanislaw Le´ sniewski, Jan L
ukasiewicz, Tadeusz Kotarbi´ nski, and Roman Ingarden, became professors of philosophy in almost all the Polish universities. Twardowski also founded the first Polish laboratory of experimental psychology (in 1907)and stimulated the development of scientific psychology in Poland. His main works include: Idee und Perzeption: eine Erkenntnis-theoretische Untersuchung aus Descartes (Dissertation, Vienna: W. Konogen, 1891), Zur Lehre vom Inhalt und Gegenstand der Vorstellungen: Eine Psychologische Untersuchung (Vienna: H¨ older, 1894), ‘O tak zwanych prawdach wzgle¸dnych’ (1900)and‘Oczynno´ sciach i wytworach’ (Lvov: Uniwersytat Lwowski, 1912). Secondary literature: Wole´ nski, J. (1989), Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School,Dor- drecht/Boston/Lancaster: Kluwer; Smith, B. (1994), Austrian Philosophy,Chicago: Open Court. Tylor, E. B. (1832–1917). Tylor’s definition of ‘culture’ as ‘the complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’ (Primitive Culture,London:Murray, 1871, 1)helped to earn him the title of ‘founder of modern anthropology’. He worked to establish anthropology as an academic discipline, serving as Keeper of Oxford’s university museum and later as a professor of anthropology in Oxford. His other main work was Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization (London, 1865). Unamuno (y Jugo), Miguel de (1864–1936). Unamuno was born in Bilbao and studied there and at the University of Madrid. In 1891 he became professor of Greek at the University of Salamanca; he was Rector of the University, first during the period from 1901 to 1914 and then after 1934.Because of his criticisms of both Primo de Rivera’s and Franco’s dictatorships, he was exiled to the Canary Islands in 1924 and then brutally humiliated by Franco a few months before his death in 1936.Unamuno mastered fourteen languages and published novels, plays, journalism, and poems as well as philosophy. His main works were: Vida de Don Quijote y Sancho (1905 trans.: Our Lord Don Quixote and Sancho with Related Essays,Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); Del sentimiento tr´ agico de la vida en los hombres y en los pueblos (Madrid: Renacimiento, 1913,trans.1921 J. E. Crawford-Flitch, The Tragic Sense of Life,London); La agon´ ıa del cristianismo (Madrid: Compania Ibero Americana de Publicaciones, 1925;trans.1974 A. Kerrigan, The Agony of Christianity and Essays of Faith,Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press); San Manuel Bueno, m´ artir (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1933,trans.1956 A. Kerrigan, ‘Saint Emmanuel the Good Martyr’, in Abel S´ anchez and Other Histories,Chicago: Regnery). Secondary literature: Nozick, M. (1971), Miguel de Unamuno,NewYork:Twayne. Vaihinger, Hans. (1852–1933). Hans Vaihinger was born near T¨ ubingen in 1852.Hebegan his original work Die Philosophie des Als-Ob in 1876 butitwas not published until 1911 (Aalen: Scientia Verlag). He published his massive and still useful Kommentar zur Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Aalen: Scientia Verlag) in 1881 and 1892;however,itcoversonlythefirst seventy-five pages of The Critique of Pure Reason.Vaihinger is also important for beginning Kant-Studien in 1897 and the Kant Gesellschaft in 1904.Hesuffered from a number of illnesses and had bad eyesight, but continued to work. He died in 1933. von Mises, Richard (1883–1953). A German-American applied mathematician and pos- itivist philosopher, von Mises’s philosophical career began around 1920 with the denial of the universal validity of classical mechanics on the ground that it lacks empirical content on the Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 811 microscopic level. To accommodate the ensuing indeterminism in a scientific world view he developed a statistical theory of probability. His main work was Wahrscheinlichkeit, Statistik und Wahrheit (Vienna: Springer, 1928,trans.1957 as Probability, Statistics and Truth,NewYork:Dover). Secondary source: von Plato, J. (1994), Creating Modern Probability. Its Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy in Historical Perspective,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watsuji, Tetsur ¯ o (1889–1960). After graduating from Tokyo University in 1912,Watsuji published books on Nietzsche, Kierkegaard, and Schopenhauer and then studied in Germany from 1927 to 1928.Critical of Heidegger for ignoring the cultural, social, and geographical aspects of philosophy, Watsuji turned his attention to the interface of culture and thought in both East and West, with such representative works as Fudo (Climate,Tokyo:Iwanami Shoten, 1935)andhis two-volume 1952 work Nihon rinri shis¯ oshi (A History of Japanese Ethical Thought, To kyo: Iwanami Shoten). Moving to Tokyo University from his position at Kyoto University in 1934,Watsuji focused his energies on developing a new theoretical model of ethics published in his three-volume Rinrigaku (Ethics,Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten) published in 1937, 1942,and1949. He argued for an understanding of human existence as a ‘betweenness’ between inherited social values and individual human autonomy. Secondary literature: Dilworth, D. A. (1974), ‘Watsuji Tetsur¯ o: Cultural Phenomenologist and Ethician’, Philosophy East and West 24. Weber, Max (1864–1920). Weber was the leading German sociologist of the pre-First World Warera, with diverse writings on economics, law, methodology, religion, and morality. His most systematic work is Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (T¨ ubingen: Mohr) (Economy and Society), published posthumously in 1922,inwhich he provides a macro-sociological explanation of the development of modern societies as a process of rationalisation. His methodological writings sought to unify interpretive and explanatory approaches and to develop causal and meaning adequacy as twin criteria of good social science. Weber was also a leading political figure of his age, defending a form of liberal nationalism that emerges not only in his political essays but in his understanding of science and politics as professions or vocations in modern societies (Gesammelte Aufs¨ atze zur Wissenschaftslehre,T¨ ubingin: Mohr, 1922). His other main works include Gesammelte Politische Schriften,M ¨ unich: Drei’ Masken Verlag, 1921. Secondary literature: In On the Logic of the Social Sciences (1967) Habermas shows the central importance of Weber’s pluralism in the later discussions of social science methodology. Regis Factor and Stephen Turner provide the context for Weber’s view of reason and the role of values in social science in Max Weber and the Dispute over Reason and Value (London: Routledge, 1984). Wertheimer, Max (1880–1943). Wertheimer was the founder and spiritual leader of the Gestalt psychology school. Gestalt psychology began with studies of apparent motion carried out by Wertheimer, with Wolfgang K¨ ohler and Kurt Koffka as subjects. He studied with Carl Stumpf in Berlin, but took his PhD with Oswald K¨ olpe at W¨ urzburg. He taught at various German universities, but left Germany in 1933 as the Nazis came to power, emigrating to the United States, taking a position at the New School for Social Research in New York. Though productive in ideas, Wertheimer published little, his major work being the posthumous Productive Thinking (New York: Harper and Row, 1945), a study of creativity and problem solving. Whitehead, Alfred North (1861–1947). Whitehead began his career in England. In 1884 he was appointed to Trinity College, Cambridge, to teach mathematics and in 1910 he Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

812 Biobibliographical appendix moved to London as a professor of applied mathematics. But in 1924 (aged sixty-three) he moved again, this time to the United States to take up a position at Harvard as professor of philosophy. He retired in 1937. Whitehead’s first work (ATreatise on Universal Algebra,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1898)was in the field of abstract algebra; logic was at this time closely allied to algebra, so it wasnosurprise that Russell turned to Whitehead as a collaborator for his logicist project Principia Mathematica (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910–13). Whitehead then turned to philosophy of science, applying mathematical logic to the construction of space and time in The Concept of Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920). His later work is dominated by Process and Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929,corrected edn, New Yo r k : T he Free Press, 1978)inwhich Whitehead sets out an idiosyncratic quasi-mathematical metaphysics of serial processes through which actual occasions are unified as apparent objects in accordance with various categories. Secondary literature: Lowe, V. (1966). Understanding Whitehead,Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Windelband, Wilhelm (1848–1915). A German philosopher and historian, Windelband wasborn in Potsdam in 1848.Hewas an important student of Kuno Fischer and was considered, along with Dilthey, the most important historian of philosophy in the nineteenth century. He taught at Zurich, Freiburg, Strasburg, and finally in 1903 he took Fischer’s chair of philosophy at Heidelberg. He is best remembered for his history of philosophy, written not in chronological order but by problems (1892, Geschichte der Philosophie,Friesburg and successive editions) and his Rector’s speech in Strasburg in 1894: Geschichte und Naturwissenschaft (in Pr¨ aludien,T ¨ ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1924). He died in 1915. Secondary literature: K¨ ohnke, K. C. (1986). Entstehung und Aufstieg des Neu-Kantianismus,Frank- furt: Suhrkamp, trans. 1991 by R. J. Hollingdale as The Rise of Neo-Kantianism,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann (1889–1951). By common consent the greatest philosopher of the twentieth century, Wittgenstein was born in Vienna; he studied with Russell in Cambridge from 1911 until 1914.After fighting with the Austro-Hungarian army, he became aschool-teacher. In 1927 he returned to Cambridge, where he became professor of philosophy in 1939.Hewithdrew and did hospital work during the Second World War. He returned to Cambridge in 1945 butretired in 1947.Hethen lived mainly in Ireland before returning finally to Cambridge, where he died in 1951.Wittgenstein’s first main work, written during the First World War while he was a soldier, is the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). It is an enquiry into the limits of sense, based in logic but supposedly also indicating a role for ethics, as that which cannot be ‘said’ but can only be ‘shown’ by the course of one’s life. His writings from the 1930sare distilled into his Philosophical Investigations (1953), in which he again explores the limits of language and seeks to show that philosophical problems characteristically arise from a failure to grasp the structure of our ordinary language-games. His main works were: ‘Logische-philosophische Abhundlung’ (Annalen der Naturphilosophie 1921,trans.1922 C. K. Ogden as Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus,London: Routledge; rev. trans. 1961 D. F. Pears and B. F. McGuiness, London: Routledge); Philosophische Untersuchungen (1953, ed. G. E. M. Anscombe and R. Rhees, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe as Philosophical Investigations,Oxford: Blackwell). Secondary literature: Anscombe, G. E. M. (1971), An Introduction to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, London: Hutchinson; Pears, D. F. (1987), The False Prison, 2 vols., Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Biobibliographical appendix 813 Woodbridge,F.J.E.(1867–1940). An American naturalist metaphysician in the tradition of Aristotle and Spinoza, who spent most of his academic years at Columbia. He was one of the founders of The Journal of Philosophy and among his works were The Realm of Mind (New York: Columbia University Press, 1926), Nature and Mind (New York: Columbia University Press, 1937), and An Essay on Nature (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940). Secondary literature: Delaney, C. F. (1969), Mind and Nature: A Study of the Naturalistic Philosophies of Cohen, Woodbridge and Sellars,Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Wundt, Wilhelm (1832–1920). Wundt studied physiology at Heidelberg (1852–56), with a semester in Berlin under Johannes M¨ uller and Emil Du Bois-Reymond. From 1858 to 1865 he was Helmholtz’s assistant in teaching laboratory physiology; he also taught courses in anthropology and ‘psychology as a natural science’, and published his Beitr¨ age zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (Leipzig: C. F. Winter’sche Verlagshandlung, 1862)andVorlesungen ber Menschen- und Thierseele (Leipzig: Voss, 1863). Appointed extraordinary professor at Heidelberg in 1872,in1874 he assumed the Zurich chair of ‘inductive philosophy’ and published Grundz¨ uge der physiologischen Psychologie (Leipzig: Engelmann, 1874). In 1875 he moved to Leipzig, where he taught as a psychologist and philosopher, retiring in 1917 at the age of eighty-five. He published many works in both fields. Secondary literature: Hatfield, G. (1997), ‘Wundt and Psychology as science: Disciplinary Trans- formations’, Perspectives on Science 5: 349–82. Zermelo, Ernst (1871–1953). Zermelo is best known for his recognition of the role of the axiom of choice in mathematical arguments, for his use of that axiom to prove that every set can be well ordered, and for his axiomatisation of set theory (later modified by Abraham Fraenkel). Zermelo earned his doctorate at the University of Berlin in 1894 and later taught in Zurich and Freiburg im Breisgau. Zermelo’s conception of quantifiers as infinitary connectives led him to criticise the works of Skolem and G¨ odel. His main works were: ‘Beweis, dass jede Menge wohlgeordnet werden kann’ (Mathematische Annalen 59 (1904): 514–16); ‘Untersuchungen ¨ uber die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I’ (Mathematische Annalen 65 (1908): 261–81). Secondary literature: Moore, G. (1982), Zermelo’s Axiom of Choice: Its Origins, Development and Influence,New Yo rk/Heidelberg/Berlin: Springer Verlag. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER 1 POSITIVIST THOUGHT IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Austeda, F. (1967). ‘Avenarius’, trans. A. E. Blumberg. In P. Edwards (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Avenarius, R. (1888–90). Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (Critique of Pure Experience), Leipzig: O.R. Reisland. Blackmore, J. T. (1995). Ludwig Boltzmann; his Later Life and Philosophy,Dordrecht and London: Kluwer. Cahan, D. (1993). Herman von Helmholtz and the Foundations of Nineteenth Century Science,Berkeley and London: University of California Press. Charlton, D. G. (1959). Positivist Thought in France during the Second Empire: 1852–1870,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Comte,A.(1830–42). Cours de Philosophie Positive,Paris: Bailli` ere. Trans. (in part) 1853 H. Martineau, The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte,London: Chapman. Comte,A.(1852). Cat´ echisme Pos` ıtiviste,Paris. Trans. 1858 R. Congreve, The Catechism of Positive Religion,London: Chapman. Haeckel, E. H. P. A. (1874). Anthropogenie oder Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen, Leipzig: W. Engelmann. Trans. 1905 J. McCabe, The Evolution of Man,London: Watts. Haeckel, E. H. P. A. (1899). Die Weltrathsel,Bonn: Strauss. Trans. 1900 J. McCabe, The Riddle of the Universe,London: Watts. Hegel, G. W. F. (1830). Enzyklop¨ adie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse,II:Natur- philosophie, Heidelberg: Winter. Trans. 1970 A. V. Miller, The Philosophy of Nature,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hertz, H. R. (1894). Die Prinzipien der Mechanik.Trans.1899 D. E. Jones and J. T. Whalley, The Principles of Mechanics,London: Macmillan. Huxley, T. H. (1863). Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,London: Williams and Norgate. Lenin, V.I.(1920). Materialism and Empirio-criticism,London:Martin Lawrence. Mach, E. (1883). Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung historisch-critisch dergestellt, Prague. Trans. 1893 T. J. McCormack, The Science of Mechanics,Chicago: Open Court. Mach, E. (1886 [1906]). Die Analyse der Empfindungen, 5th edn, Jena. Trans. 1914 C. M. Williams and J. Waterlow, The Analysis of Sensations,Chicago: Open Court. Mach, E. (1894). Popul¨ arwissenschaftliche Vorlesungen, Leipzig: J. A. Borth. Trans. 1894 T. J. McCormack, Popular Scientific Lectures,Chicago: Open Court. Mill, J. S. (1843). A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, 5th edn 1862,London: John Parker. Passmore, J. (1957). A Hundred Years of Philosophy,London: Duckworth. 814 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Bibliography 815 Paulsen, F. (1893). ‘Wesen und geschichtliche entwicklung der deutschen universitaten’ in W. Lexis (ed.), Die deutschen universitaten,Berlin: A. Asher. Trans. 1895 E. D. Perry, The German Universities: Their Character and Historical Development. Pearson, K. (1892). The Grammar of Science,London: Walter Scott. Peirce, C.S.(1892). Review of ‘The Grammar of Science’, Nation 55: 15. Spencer, H. (1862–96). System of Synthetic Philosophy vols. I–VI, London: Williams and Norgate. Spencer, H. (1862). First Principles,vol I of Spencer (1862–96). Repr. 1996,London: Routledge and Thoemmes. Taine, H. (1864). Le Positivisme Anglais,Paris: Bailli` ere. Trans. 1870 T. D. Haye, English Positivism, London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co. Taine, H. (1865). Philosophie de l’Art Paris: Bailli` ere. Trans. 1865,Taine, The Philosophy of Art, London: Bailli` ere. Tur ner,R.S.(1980). ‘Helmholtz’, Dictionary of Scientific Biography,vol.V,NewYork:Scribners, pp. 241–53. Whewell, W. (1847). The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, 2nd edn, London: J. W. Parker. Repr. 1967, ed. J. Herival, New York and London: Johnson Reprint Corporation. CHAPTER 2 NEO-KANTIANISM: THE GERMAN IDEALISM MOVEMENT Adair-Toteff, C. S. (1994). ‘The Neo-Kantian Raum Controversy’, The British Journal of the History of Philosophy 2,no.2: 131–48. Adair-Toteff, C. S. (1996). ‘Hans Vaihinger’s Kant-Studien’, Kant-Studien 87: 390–5. Arnoldt, E. (1870). Kants Transzendental Idealit¨ at des Raumes und der Zeit (Kant’s Transcendental Ideality of Space and Time),K ¨ onigsberg: Albert Rosbach. Beck, L.W.(1967). ‘Neo-Kantianism’, Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. P. Edwards, vol. V, 468–73. Cohen, H. (1870). ‘Zur Controverse zwischen Trendelenburg und Kuno Fischer’ (‘On the Controversy between Trendelenburg and Kuno Fischer’), Zeitschrift f¨ ur V¨ olkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft 7: 249–96. Cohen, H. (1871). Kants Theorie der Erfahrung (Kant’s Theory of Experience),Berlin: D¨ ummler, 2nd edn 1885, 3rd edn 1918. Cohen, H. (1877). Kants Begr¨ undung der Ethik (Kant’s Foundations of Ethics),Berlin: D¨ ummler. Cohen, H. (1889). Kants Begr¨ undung der Aesthetik (Kant’s Foundations of Aesthetics),Berlin: D¨ ummler. Cohen, H. (1902). Logik der reinen Erkenntnis (Logic of Pure Knowledge),Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. Cohen, H. (1904). Ethik des reinen Willens (Ethics of Pure Will),Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. Cohen, H. (1912). ¨ Asthetik des reinen Gef¨ uhls (Aesthetic of Pure Feeling),Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. Fischer, K. (1860a). Kants Leben und die Grundlagen seiner Lehre (Kant’s Life and the Foundations of his Teaching), Heidelberg: Carl Winter’s Universit¨ atsbuchhandlung. Fischer, K. (1860b). Geschichte der neuern Philosophie (History of Modern Philosophy), Heidelberg: Carl Winter’s Universit¨ atsbuchhandlung. Fischer, K. (1865). System der Logik und Metaphysik oder Wissenschaftslehre (System of Logic and Meta- physics or the Doctrine of Science), 2nd edn, Heidelberg: Verlagsbuchhandlung von Friedrich Bassermann. Fischer, K. (1870). Anti-Trendelenburg,Jena: Hermann Dabis. Grappengiesser, C. (1870). Kants Lehre von Raum und Zeit (Kant’s Doctrine of Space and Time), Jena: Friedrich Mauke. Holzhey, H. (1986). Cohen und Natorp,Basle and Stuttgart: Schwabe and Co. Ag. Verlag. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

816 Bibliography Kant, Immanuel (1781, 1787). Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. 1998 P. G u ye r a n d A. Wood. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. K¨ ohnke, K. C. (1986). Entstehung und Aufstieg des Neu-Kantianismus,trans.1991 R. J. Hollingdale as The Rise of Neo-Kantianism,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lange, F.A.(1865). Die Arbeiterfrage (The Question of the Worker),Winterthur: Bleuer-Hausheer, 3rd edn 1875. Lange, F.A.(1866 [1887]). Geschichte des Materialismus.Iserlohn und Leipzig: Verlag von J. Baedeker. Trans. 1925 E. C. Thomas, History of Materialism,Boston, MA: Osgood. Lask, E. (1924). Fichtes Idealismus und die Geschichte (Fichte’s Idealism and History). In Gesammelte Schriften,vol.I,ed.EugenHerrigel, T¨ ubingen: Verlag von J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck). Liebmann, O. (1865). Kant und die Epigonen (Kant and the Epigones), Stuttgart: Carl Schoben. Repr. 1965,Erlangen: Fischer. Natorp,P.(1902). Platons Ideenlehre (Plato’s Doctrine of Ideas). Leipzig: Felix Meiner. Natorp,P.(1912). ‘Kant und die Marburger Schule’ (‘Kant and the Marburg School’), Kant- Studien 17: 193–221. Oakes, G. (1988). Weber and Rickert,Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ollig, H.-L. (1979). Der neu-Kantianismus (Neo-Kantianism), Stuttgart: J. B. Metzlersche Verlags- buchhandlung. Orth, E. W.andHolzhey,H.(1994). Neu-Kantianismus (Neo-Kantianism),W ¨ urzburg: K¨ onighausen and Neumann. Rickert,H.(1902). Die Grenzen der Wissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung, 1st edn 1902.Abridged and translated 1986 by Guy Oakes from the 5th edn (1929), The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Simmel, G. (1904). Kant, Leipzig: S. Hirzel. Trendelenburg, F. A. (1840). Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations),Berlin: Gustav Bethge. Trendelenburg, F. A. (1867). ‘ ¨ Uber eine L¨ ucke in Kants Beweis der ausschliessenden Subjectivit¨ at des Raumes und der Zeit Ein kritisehes und anti-kritisches Blatt’ (‘On a Gap in Kant’s Proof of the Exclusive Subjectivity of Space and Time. A Critical and Anti-critical Page’), Historische Beitrag zur Philosophie 3: 214–76. Trendelenburg, F. A. (1869). Kuno Fischer und sein Kant (Kuno Fischer and his Kant), Leipzig: S. Hirzel. Troeltsch, E. (1922). Der Historismus und seine Probleme: Das logische Problem der Geschichtsphilosophie (Historicism and its Problems: The Logical Problem of the Philosophy of History),T ¨ ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr. Vaihinger, H. (1882–92). Kommentar zur Kants Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Commentary on Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason), 2 vols. Stuttgart. Repr. 1970 Aalen: Scientia Verlag. Vaihinger, H. (1902a). Die Deduktion der Kategorien (The Deduction of the Categories), Halle a.S.: Max Niemeyer. Vaihinger, H. (1902b). Nietzsche als Philosophe (Nietzsche as Philosopher), Halle a.S.: Max Niemeyer. Vaihinger, H. (1911). Die Philosophie des Als Ob. System der theoretischen, praktischen und religiosen Fiktionen der Menschheit auf Grund’eines idealistischen Positivismus. Mit einem Anhang ¨ uber Kant und Nietzsche, 3rd edn, Leipzig: F. Meiner, 1918.Trans.1924 C. Ogden, Philosophy of ‘As If’: A System of the Theoretical, Practical and Religious Fictions of Mankind,London: Routledge. Volkelt, J. (1879). Immanuel Kant’s Erkenntnistheorie (Immanuel Kant’s Theory of Cognition), Leipzig: Verlag von Leopold Voss. Willey, T. (1987). Back to Kant, Detroit: Wayne State University Press. Windelband, W. (1884). Pr¨ aludien (Preludes), 2 vols. T¨ ubingen: J. C. B. Mohr. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Bibliography 817 Zeller, E. (1862). ‘ ¨ Uber Bedeutung und Aufgabe der Erkenntnistheorie’ (‘On the Significance and Task of the Theory of Knowledge’), Heidelberg (Antrittsrede). Reprinted in Vortr¨ age und Abhandlungen, Leipzig: Fues, 1865–84. CHAPTER 3 IDEALISM IN BRITAIN AND THE UNITED STATES Allard, J. (1998). ‘The Essential Puzzle of Inference’, Bradley Studies 4: 61–81. Bosanquet, B. (1883). ‘Logic as the Science of Knowledge’ in A. Seth and R. B. Haldane (eds.), Essays in Philosophical Criticism,London:Longmans. 2nd edn 1928,corrected impression 1928. Bosanquet, B. (1888, 1911). Logic, or the Morphology of Knowledge,Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2nd edn 1911. Bosanquet, B. (1892). A History of Aesthetic,London:Swan Sonnenschein. Bosanquet, B. (1899). The Philosophical Theory of the State,London: Macmillan. 4th edn 1923, repr. 1965. Bosanquet, B. (1912). The Principle of Individuality and Value, The Gifford Lectures for 1911,London: Macmillan. Bosanquet, B. (1913). The Value and Destiny of the Individual, The Gifford Lectures for 1912.London: Macmillan. Bosanquet, B. (1920). Implication and Linear Inference,London: Macmillan. Bosanquet, B. (1927). Science and Philosophy and Other Essays, ed. J. H. Muirhead and R. C. Bosanquet, London: Macmillan. Bradley, F. H. (1876). Ethical Studies,Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2nd edn 1927. Bradley, F. H. (1883). The Principles of Logic,Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2nd edn 1922; 2nd edn corrected 1928. Bradley, F. H. (1893). Appearance and Reality,London:Swan Sonnenschein. 2nd edn 1897. Repr. 1930,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bradley, F. H. (1914). Essays on Truth and Reality,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Bradley, F. H. (1935). Collected Essays,Oxford: Clarendon Press. New edn 1969. Bradley, J. (1979). ‘Hegel in Britain: A Brief History of British Commentary and Attitudes’, Heythrop Journal 20: 1–24; 163–82. Caird, E. (1877). ACritical Account of the Philosophy of Kant, Glasgow: Maclehose. Caird, E. (1889). The Critical Philosophy of Kant, Glasgow: Maclehose. Caird, E. (1893). The Evolution of Religion, Glasgow: Maclehose. Caird, J. (1880). Philosophy of Religion, Glasgow: Maclehose. Candlish, S. (1989). ‘The Truth about F. H. Bradley’, Mind 98: 331–48. Clendenning, J. (1985). The Life and Thought of Josiah Royce,Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Cunningham, G. W. (1933). The Idealistic Argument in Recent British and American Philosophy,New Yo rk: Century Company. Den Otter, S. M. (1996). British Idealism and Social Explanation: A Study in Late Victorian Theory, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Eliot, T. S. (1964). Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy of F. H. Bradley,London: Faber and Faber. Freeden, M. (1996). Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fuss, P. (1965). The Moral Philosophy of Josiah Royce,Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Green, T.H.(1868). ‘Popular Philosophy in Relation to Life’, North British Review, 45, 133–62. Repr. in Green (1885–9), vol. III, 92–125. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

818 Bibliography Green, T.H.(1874). ‘General Introduction to Vol. I’ and ‘Introduction to Moral Part of the Treatise’ in D. Hume, Treatise of Human Nature (ed. T. H. Green and T. H. Grose), London. Repr. in Green (1885–9), vol. I, 1–371. Green, T.H.(1880). ‘Review of J. Caird: Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion’, Academy 18: 28–30. Repr. in Green 1885–9,vol.III,138–46. Green, T. H. (1881). Liberal Legislation and Freedom of Contract: A Lecture,OxfordandLondon: Slatter and Rose; Simpkin, Marshall. Repr. 1986 in P. Harris and J. Morrow (eds.), T. H . Green: Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation and Other Writings,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 194–212. Green, T.H.(1883a). Prolegomena to Ethics,Oxford: Clarendon Press. 5th edn 1907,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Green, T.H.(1883b[1888]). Witness of God and Faith: Two Lay Sermons (ed. A. Toynbee), London: Longmans, Green. Green, T.H.(1885–9). Works of Thomas Hill Green, ed. R. Nettleship, 3 vols. London: Longmans, Green. Green, T. H. (1886). Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation in R. L. Nettleship (ed.), The Works of Thomas Hill Green,vol.II(1888), London: Longmans, Green. Repr. 1986 in P. Harris and J. Morrow (eds.), Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation and Other Writings,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Greengarten, I. M. (1981). Thomas Hill Green and the Development of Liberal-Democratic Thought, To ronto: University of Toronto Press. Hylton, P. (1990). Russell, idealism, and the Emergence of Analytic Philosophy,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ingardia, R. (ed.) (1991). Bradley: A Research Bibliography,Bowling Green: Philosophy Docu- mentation Center. Kempe, A. B. (1889–90). ‘On the Relation between the Logical Theory of Classes and the Geometrical Theory of Points’, Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 21: 147–82. Kuklick, B. (1972). Josiah Royce: An Intellectual Biography,Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. McBriar,A.M.(1987). An Edwardian Mixed Doubles: The Bosanquets and the Webbs,Oxford: Clarendon Press. MacNiven, D. (1987). Bradley’s Moral Psychology,Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Mander,W.J.(1994). An Introduction to Bradley’s Metaphysics,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Mansel, H. L. (1856). A Lecture on the Philosophy of Kant,London: John Henry and James Parker. Reprinted 1873 in H. L. Mansel (ed. H. W. Chandler), Letters, Lectures and Reviews,London: John Murray. Manser,A.(1982). Bradley’s Logic,Totowa,NJ:BarnesandNoble. Manser, A. and Stock, G. (eds.) (1984). The Philosophy of F. H. Bradley,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Marcel, G. (1945). La M´ etaphysique de Royce,Paris: Aubier, Editions Montaigne. Trans. 1956 V. Ringer and G. Ringer, Royce’s Metaphysics,Chicago:H.Regnery. Masson, D. (1865). Recent British Philosophy,London: Macmillan. 3rd edn 1877. Milne, A. J. M. (1962). The Social Philosophy of English Idealism,London: George Allen and Unwin. Muirhead, J. H. (1931). The Platonic Tradition in Anglo-Saxon Philosophy,London: George Allen and Unwin and New York: Macmillan. Nettleship, R. L. (1888). ‘Memoir’ in T. H. Green (ed. R. L. Nettleship), The Works of Thomas Hill Green,vol. III, London: Longmans, Green, xi–clxi. Nicholson, P. P. (1978). ‘A Bibliography of the Writings of Bernard Bosanquet (1848–1923)’, Idealistic Studies, 8: 261–80. Nicholson, P. P. (1990). The Political Philosophy of the British Idealists,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

Bibliography 819 Richter, M. (1964). The Politics of Conscience,London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Royce, J. (1885). The Religious Aspect of Philosophy,Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Royce, J. (1892). The Spirit of Modern Philosophy,Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Royce, J. (1899). The World and the Individual, First Series,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Royce, J. (1901). The World and the Individual, Second Series,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Royce, J. (1905). ‘The Relation of the Principles of Logic to the Foundations of Geometry’, Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 24: 353–415. Reprinted in 1951 J. Royce (D. S. Robinson, ed.), Royce’s Logical Essays,Dubuque:WmC.Brown. Royce, J. (1908). The Philosophy of Loyalty,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Royce, J. (1913). The Problem of Christianity,New Yo rk: Macmillan. Reprinted 1968,Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Royce, J. (1970). The Letters of Josiah Royce (ed. J. Clendenning), Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Seth, A. (1887). Hegelianism and Personality, Edinburgh: Blackwood. Sprigge, T. L. S. (1993). James and Bradley: American Truth and British Reality,Chicago and La Salle, IL: Open Court. Stirling, J. H. (1865). The Secret of Hegel,London:Longmans, Green. Second edn 1898, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Stock,G.(1985). ‘Negation: Bradley and Wittgenstein’, Philosophy 60: 465–76. Stock, G. (ed.) (1998). Appearance Versus Reality,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sweet, W. (1997). Idealism and Rights: The Social Ontology of Human Rights in the Political Thought of Bernard Bosanquet, Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Thomas, G. (1987). The Moral Philosophy of T. H. Green,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Vincent, A. (ed.) (1986). The Philosophy of T. H. Green,Aldershot: Gower. Wallace, W. (1874). The Logic of Hegel translated from The Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences with Prolegomena,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Second edition (2 titles): 1892, The Logic of Hegel translated from The Encyclopaedia of Philosophical Sciences,Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1894, Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel’s Philosophy,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Walsh, W. H. (1986). ‘Green’s Criticism of Hume’ in A. Vincent (ed.), The Philosophy of T. H. Green,Aldershot: Gower. Wollheim, R. (1959). F. H. Bradley,Baltimore: Penguin Books. 2nd edn 1969. CHAPTER 4 IDEALISM IN RUSSIA Berdiaev, N. A. (1901). Sub”ektivizm i individualizm v obshchestvennoi filosofii. Kriticheskii etiud o N. K. Mikhailovskom (Subjectivism and Individualism in Social Philosophy. A Critical Study of N. K. Mikhailovskii),StPetersburg: Popova. Berdiaev, N. A. (1916). Smysl tvorchestva. Opyt opravdaniia cheloveka, Moscow: Leman and Sakharov. Trans. D. A. Lowrie 1955, The Meaning of the Creative Act,NewYork:Harper and Bros. Berdiaev, N. A. (1923). Smysl istorii. Opyt filosofii chelovechekoi sud’by,Berlin: Obelisk. Trans. G. Reavey 1936, The Meaning of History,London: Geoffrey Bles. Berdiaev, N. A. (1939). Orabstve i svobode cheloveka. Opyt personalistickeskoi filosofii,Paris: YMCA Press. Trans R. M. French 1943, Slavery and Freedom,London: Geoffrey Bles. Billington, J. H. (1958). Mikhailovskii and Russian Populism,Oxford: Clarendon Press. Fateev, V. A. (ed.) (1995). V. V. Rozanov: Pro et Contra,StPetersburg: Izdatel’stvo russkogo Khristianskogo gumanitarnogo instituta, 2 vols. Frank, S. L. (1950). ‘Introduction’ to Soloviev 1950, 9–31. Lavrov,P.I.(1965). Filosofiia i sotsiologiia: izbrannye proizvedeniia (Philosophy and Sociology: Selected Writings).Moscow: Mysl’, 2 vols. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008

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