Sciences Subject (BS 21001)

101 Answer key to exercise 4: Topic Plant and Animals’ way of Living 1. a 2 a 3c 4c 5b 6. c 7 b 8d 9 d 10 d 11 c 12 d 13 c 14 b 15 c

102 Chapter 5 Ecosystem Essence The relations of various living things in the ecosystem, energy transitions, food web, water cycle, and carbon cycle. Expected Learning Outcome 1. Able to explain about the relation of various living things in local ecosystem and energy transitions. 2. Able to explain and write food web charts of the local ecosystem. 3. Able to explain water and carboncycle. Scope of Content Topic 1 The relations of various living things in the ecosystem. Topic 2 Energy Transition Topic 3 Food Web Topic 4 Water Cycle Topic 5 Carbon Cycle

103 Topic 1 The relations of various living things in the ecosystem What is the ecosystem? Ecosystem is the name to call group of living things and the element of environment for some areas stressing on the relations between living things and environment and is the most significant unit to exchange matters, minerals, and energy with the environment passing through food chain. This is because the ecosystem comprises the relations between various living things and the relations of living things and the environment they live with. The environment is various conditions around us such as temperature, humidity, height land, rocks, and dirts, etc. These conditions are being consumed madrigally which make substances and elements circulate in the system and become cycles. The largest ecosystem in the world is called the world of the living things. The structure of our earth consists of seas, islands, and continents and also has several weather conditions. By this, the similar ecosystem is called ‚bioecology‛ There are 2 significant differences between bioecologies in each place which are the variety of biological or various races of the living things and the biomass or the quantity of organic per unit area. The most perfect biome is thick forest which has both various biological and high biomass. Various biosystem on earth Both small or big biosystem are diferent. The only thing it is like is the natural place for plants and animals spending lives together in groups and influencing each other. This happens in fresh water, on beaches, or underground caves. Our earth has only 0.04 percents of fresh water of all water on earth ( another 2.4 percents of fresh water are freezing) There is less salt solution in fresh water than sea water; most of it is from the rain falling on the continent. Ecosystem ( underground caves – coast – mangrove forest ) Principal living things in the fresh water are seaweed, multi – cellular plants, and animal like crustacean, flies, fish, and the variety types of amphibians, mamal which live on water and build nests beneath the rivers like bevers and otters. Wetland is the source of most various animal races because it is integrated biosystem between on land and in water.

104 Caves are lightless ecosystems( light is a factor of creating an organic matter) where there is high humidity and stable temperature all year round. The organic matter necessary for living is able to get into the caves by underground water or by animals so the main group of animals living in the caves are insects, some kinds of fish, amphibian especially bats and the bats’ feces are the important basic components of organic matters. Coasts are special ecosystems which are overlapped between dryland and the sea. In some places, sea water can get into dryland by the water rout of hills or iceberg and create mangrove forest, some are rivers running down to the sea which can create delta, some create lakes by seawater running into some parts of dryland. There is more salt in some lakes than in the sea. The living things are thus different depending on each place. Picture showing the coast area of King Mongkut’s scientifice National Park, at Warko District, Prachuabkirikan Province Mangrove Forests are a coastal ecosystem and found only in tropical areas. These forests are sources of trees and bushes which can be adapted to their environment. Trees in the mangrove forests have roots to stick with the soil surface and can be sources for living things around to live with. Caterpilla of the variety living things cannot grow up without these kinds of roots to protect them. There will be aerial roots above water which help respiration. Seeds will be bred within theirown stems which will not fall down to the ground until gaining enough weight to embed themselves in the ground. This process is to prevent themselves from floating along the stream and getting lost.

105 Picture showing mangrove forest in the area of Kokekam canel, Samutsakorn Province (Mangrove trees grow in Mangrove forest areas) Change and replacement the Ecology Most of the agricultural areas used to be forests in the former days and if they have been neglected for a period of time , they become forest again. Grasses and weeds grow up to cover the ground and bushes and saplings appear all over the grassland. Then large trees spread their branches all over which can finally make all grasses die down by their shades. The process of large trees making the area become forests again is called ‚ Change and Replacement in the Ecology‛ In common nature, change and replacement can occure everywhere both in the ground and in water. We can see various plants all over the pond and crowded with their roots. These roots stick to the soil and decayed leaves and slowly get shallow and finally become wet lowland. Water plants then gradually disappear and are replaced with small plants and the wet lowland finally become wet forests. Classes of the Living Things Most dominant features of the planet earth is that there are living things living on the tiny surface which cover the earth . Lives originated on earth 3,500 years ago which was long enough for the evolution of varieties of races of the living things.

106 Our earth has several surroundings and climates which are called ‚ Biological Diversity‛, but the living things on earth must depend on energy sources from outside the earth, energy from sun light.This energy makes appropriate temperature for earth for creating organic matters from photo synthesis process. There are 2 ways of studying the living things. The first one is the study by species; for example, the botanists study plants or the zoologists study animals. The other one is the holistic study by studying all kinds of the living things of the selected areas along with the relationships among them. This study is called ‚ Ecology‛, the study of the living things as ecosystem. Classification of biosphere Biosphere, EcosystBemiol,oagnicdalhCablaistsaitfiicoantion Bioecology Ecology1 Ecology2 Ecology Environmental Community Community Population A Bio Population B sph Population C ere Population Living Things Non-living Organs and things Tissue Cells Molecule

107 ‚Biosphere‛ is the total living things on earth. Each part of the biosphere is related to the others in one way or another. All of the biosphere is complicate and its boundary is so huge that cannot be brought to study at the same time. The ecologists divided the biosphere into small parts which can be covered only plants and animals; for examples, tropical forest, drought forests, or north temperate pine forests and we call each of these units, ecology system. The ecology system is very huge. Some parts of the earth with the same type of forest may be hundreds or thousands square kilometers wide. Surveying the phenomena of each ecosystem, the ecologists consider only the section with important species living in. The section of the ecosystem then is called ‚ habitation‛ Rain forests, Tropical forests Rain forests or tropical forests are around the tropical areas. They are the most diversified biology on earth because there are so many species of plants and animals. The surrounding of the forests greatly help support living things. Plants fight for areas by spreading roots and branches for getting the sunlight. By this, there are so many kinds of trees covering 3 levels of the area like men living in the condo. Some kinds of grasses and bushes can adjust themselves growing up on trees’ branches, trunks or even chang themselves to be climbers climbing around other trees. Rain forests in Asia are called monsoon forests which differ from other rain forests because there is no rain all year like the ones in Asia. It rains only in season. The rainy season of these forests will be moist depending on the monsoon wind bringing a lot of the rain in the summer and drought wind in the winter. Picture showing Taphraya National Park, Srakaew Province.

108 Rain forests are the lung of earth because they produce huge oxygen to earth. Destroying forests by men is never ending and can make many kinds of animals extinct. Ocean The most important factor which makes the earth differ from other planets in the universe or universal is perfect water resources covering 2/3 of the earth’s surface area so the climate on earth is influenced from the ocean which can gradually absorb and distribute the sunlight energy. If there is no ocean, the climate will utterly be different as 250 degree celcious between day and night time. The first age of the living things spent more time moving from the water to live on the wetland which is full of deadly ultraviolet radiation. This means that the ozone occured 500 million years ago and has made living things can adjust themselves to the surrounding on the continent. There are mountain ridges and deep grooves as the landscape under the ocean. The mountain ridges under the sea are the mountain ranges which are longer than those on the ground. The deep grooves under the sea are the deep chasms which cause huge earthquake on the ground. Ocean Topography Continent Continent Continental Shelf Continental Shelf Slope OceanTrenches Seamounts Coral rings island Island Ocean flat bottom Ocean Ridges Components of the Ecosystem The ecosystem can be classified into 2 basic components: abiotic and biotic. 1. Abiotic component 1.1 Organic compounds such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin will be used circulately in the ecosystem which is called a biogeochemical cycle.

109 1.2 Inorganic compounds such as carbondioxide, water,etc. and an abiotic environment such as temperature, light, pressure, energy, matters, area and environment, solar energy, electrical energy, nuclear power, humus,etc. All these are the significant factors for the cells the living things. 2. Biotic components from plants and animals, whether can be seen or cannot be seen, can be divided as follows.- 2.1 Producer or Autotrophic is the living things which are able to produce their own food from inorganic substances. Most of them are chlorophyll plants. Picture of plants: the source of food for living things 2.2 Consumer are living things which cannot produce food by themselves( Heterotroph) They have to consume other living things to be their diet. These kinds of animals are huge, so they are called Macro consumers and can be divided by consuming behaviors into 4 groups such as  Consuming plants like cattles  Consuming animals such as lions or tigers  Consuming both plants and animals such as human or chicken  Consuming animals remain such as vultures orants

110 A monitor lizard: this living creature is in a consumer group 2.3 Decomposer, saprotroph, osmotroph or micro consumers are all bacteria. They are the tiny living things which cannot produce their own food such as bacteria, mushroom, and fungi. Actinomycete decomposes the dead body from big molecules to be smaller in the form of nutrients for to be reused by the producer again.

111 Picture: Mushroom http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/16cm05/1116/16ecosys.htm

112 Topic 2 Energy transfering Energy transfering in the biosystem is very important. Energy transferring in food web has a limitted in length and ended at the consumers. The details are as follows. Food pyramid 1. Pyramid of number  Each step shows the number of the living things in the food web in each procedure per area unit or capacity. The living things on the top of the pyramid are supported by many living things. 2. Pyramid of biomass  This one is similar to the pyramid of number, but the size of each steps tells the amount or biomass of the living things in each step of the food web.

113 3. Pyramid of energy  Showing energy level in each unit of living things. Each unit is equal to kilocalorie/squre meter/year.

114 Topic 3: Food web Food chain Plants and animals need to get energy for their living. Plants get energy from the sun by using chlorophyll to absorb light for producing food such as glucose, starch, fat, protein,etc. Plants are the producers and are the first living things in transmitting food web to animals or the living things which cannot produce their own food. They need energy from consuming other living things. Animal then are the consumers which can be divided as follows.-  Primary consumer means animals which consume producers.  Secondary consumer means animals which consume consumers. In a group of animals, food chains do not proceed independently but each of them may have a relation to the others in very complicated ways. For example, one living thing in a food chain might be a food for another living thing in another food chain. We call the characteristic of the multi food chain which have a complicated relation, a food web. If any of the food webs of living things are complicated, it indicates that the consumers number 2 and number 3 have alternatives to eat in various ways and can affect their livings to be more and more stable. Top consumer means the animals at the far end of the food chain which no other living things can consume them. They may be called the last order of the consumers.

115 Topic 4: Water cycle Water cycle or the scienctific name, ‚Hydrologic cycle‛, means changing status of water among liquid, solid, and gas. Water cycle will be changed from one status to another status continually and endlessly within the hydrosphere; for examples, the changing among the atmosphere, water, surface,water surface, underground water, and plants. Changing the status of water is the autonomous natural phenomenon. It begins from various sources such as sea, ocean, river, canal,pond, lake, transpiration, excretion, and any activities for the existing of the living things. When water from those sources when evaporates to the atmosphere and hit with the cold atmosphere, it evaporates to drizzle and gather together to be clouds and if it is heavy enough, it becomes rain or hails and falls down to the ground and finally flows to the sea. This natural phenomenon will be circulated continuously. This changing procedure can be divided into 4 types; evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff. Evaporation is the shanging condition of water on the surface to the atmosphere both are directly from evaporation and from transpiration, which are called ‚evapotranspiration‛ Precipitation is the falling of water from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. Water spreads in the atmosphere will be assembled and become clouds and finally condensed to be rain and falls down to the earth’s surface. This includes snow and hail.

116 Infiltration is a process of water from the soil surface soak into underground. The rate of soaking depends on the type of dirt, rock, or any causes. The underground water moves very slow and might flow back to the soil surface or has been kept under the bedrock for many thousand years. Normally, underground water can invert to low soil surface water except the artisian well. Runoff is the water flowing from soil surface to the ocean by passing through the rivers and then to the ocean. It might be temporarily blocked in the ponds or lakes before flowing to the ocean. Some parts of it evaporates before flowing back to the ocean. Factors causing the water rotation. 1. The heat from the sun makes water molecule split and evaporate to the atmosphere. 2. The wind makes water evaporate faster. 3. The excretion of human and animals in the forms of sweat and breath and change to vapour in the atmosphere. 4. The roots of plants similar to sponge can absorb water from underground and keep it in some pf their parts like on the top, branches flowers, leaves, fruits, and trunks and transpirate to the atmosphere. This vapour will be condensed and add up to be clouds and finally rain.The quantity of the evaporated water from the ocean is 85%, in the ground surface 16%, and that of the rain over the ocean is 77% and on the ground surface 23%

117 Topic 5 The Carbon Cycle ผูย้ ่อยสลาย เช่น ราและแบคทีเรีย จะย่อยสลายคาร์บอนเหลา่ นี้ ใหก้ ลายเปน็ แก๊ส คาร์บอนไดออกไซด์ Picture from http://student.nkw.ac.th/ Carbon is a substance which can be seen in the compound of every organic chemistry. So the carbon cycle is the heart of all living things. Carbon is related to the other substance cycles such as in the form of carbondioxide in the air for the geosystem and in the form of bicarbonate in water. The majority producers which are plants will use carbondioxide for photosynthesis and release oxygen back to the air or water by respiratory system. Plants keep carbon in the form of organic matter and transmit it to the consumers by food chain. Animals release carbondioxide to the air by the respiration process. After plants or animals are dead, we can see carbon accumulated there. Carbon in the form of some humus or fossil will not be decayed and when it is kept for many hundred million years, all these humus and fossil will become substances which give energy. They can be coal, crude oil, gass, which can be used for fuels. After burning processes, they become carbondioxide and are finally released into the air.

118 Worksheet Topic: Ecosystem 1. What is Ecosystem ? Answer 2. Give 5 examples of the conditions around us. Answer 3. What is the biome ? Answer 4. How much fresh water is there in every sources on earth? Answer 5. Describe the characteristic of a cave in brief. Answer 6. Why is the coast the special ecosystem? Answer 7. What area can we see the mangrove forest and why? Answer 8. How many ways can we study about living things? Answer…การศกึ ษาส่ิงมชี วี ิตทาได้ 2 วธิ ศึกษาโดยองคร์ วม …. 9. In rearranging the classes of biosphere, what living things are at the lowest level? Answer 10. Describe the characteristics of the rain forest in Asia Answer 11. Why is the ocean important to the planet earth? Answer 12. Describe the components of the ecosystem briefly. Answer มีองคป์ ระกอบ 2 แบบ คือรโิ ภค และผู้ยอ่ ยสลาย…12 13. How many forms of the biotic components are there from plants and animals and what are they? Answer…3 แบบ คือองผผู้ ลติ ….

119 14. What kind of the energy is being sent to all biosystem on earth? Answer 15. Describe the characteristics of the cell respiration. Answerแตกตัวออกเป็น CO2และ 16. What is water cycle and what is its characteristic? Answerการเปลีย่ นแปลงสถานะภาพของน้า มี 3 แบบ คอื 17. What is Carbon Cycle and what is its characteristic? Answer

120 Worksheet Topic: The Ecosystem 1.What is the Ecosystem? Answer…a groups of the living things is inhabited in a certain area and have related to one other through food chain and other living things together with the physical condition. 2.Give 5 examples of the conditions aroud us. Answer…..temperature, humidity, soil, levels of housing. 3.Whay is ‚ biome‛?‚ Answer…the ecosystems which are similar to one another. 4.How much fresh water in various sources on earth? Answer……0.04 % 5.Tell the character of the ‚ cave‛ in brief Answer…..The cave has no light with high humidity, and stable temperatue all year round. 6.Why are the coasts the special geosystem? Answer…..That’s because the ecosystem has high biological varieties. 7.In what area on earth which we can see ‚ mangrove forest‛? Answer ....On the coast of the tropical ares. 8.How many methods can we study the living things and what are they? Answer…..There are 2 methods of studying living things which are studying. 1.Species 2. All components 9.In sorting the biological classes, what are the lowest living things ? Answer……cells 10.Tell the character of the rainforests in Asia. Answer……The rain forests in Asia is monsoon forest with seasonal rainfall. 11.Why are the oceans important to the earth planet? Answer…..the oceans affect the earth’s climate. If there are no oceans, the climates on earth will be different: the day time will have extremely different temperatures from the night.

121 12.What are the factors of the biosystem? Explain in brief. Answer…..There are 2 components which are 1.Abiotic such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamin,etc, all of which are organic substances, but for inorganic substances are water, carbondioxide including physical environments such as light, temperature, pressure, various forms of energy,etc. 2.Biotic consists of 3 types which are producers, consumers, and decomposers. 13.How many types of the Biotic components from plants and animals? Answer….There are 3 types. 1.Producers are plants and seaweeds 2.Consumers are vegetarians and carnivores. 3.Decomposers are those who decompose plants and animals remains for the producers’ food 14.What kind of the energy which send to all the biosystem on earth? Answer….from the sunlight 15.Explain the aspect of cells respiration? Answer…..Cells’ respiration is to split the molecules of organic substance to be CO2 and H2O by the help of microorganism that digests organic substances from the plants and animals’ remain as well as wastes. 16.What is ‚ water cycle‛ and what is its aspect? Answer…..Water status can be changed into 3 types which are. 1. Liquids 2.Solids 3.Gasses All these are like an endless circle. 17.What is the ‚Carbon Cycle‛ and what is its aspect? Answer…..It is the synthesis of plants, seaweeds, pranktons, and bacteria by using CO2 and produce carbohydrate in form of sugar and CO2 from the respiration of living things: both human beings and animals.

122 Exercise for lesson 5 X on the letter a,b,c or d. Choose the correct answer and mark. 1. What does the geosystem mean? a. The ralations of the various living things with the living things’ environment and transmitting it in sequence. b. Sequent consuming starting from the producers, plants’ consumers, and animals’ consumers. d. The energy from sunshine. 2. How many units of the geosystem structures are there? a. 2 units, non-living things and the decomposers b. 2 units, non-living things and living things c. 3 units, non-living things, living things,and consumers. d. 3 units, non-living things, producers, and consumers. 3. Which living things can change inorganic substances to be organic substances? a. Green plants b. Herbivorous animals c. Carnivore d. Decomposers 4. Which one is the food chain a. hawk – plant- butterfly - bird b. hawk – bird – butterfly - plant c. bird – hawk – plant - butterfly d. butterfly – plant – bird - hawk 5. What type of the relationship is the orchid sticking itself on a big tree? a. The condition of coexistence b. The condition of prey c. The condition of parasite d. The condition of symbiosis

123 6. What type of the relationship is it when cooties bite dogs and mosquitoes bite men? a. The state of coexistence b. The state of prey c. The state of parasite d. The state of symbiosis 7. What are caused from cutting trees and destroying the forest? a. Cataract flow and all the living things are dead b. Earthquake and volcanic eruption c. Tsunami and all the living things are dead d. Greenhouse effect. 8. What is the correct order of biological form high to low levels? ก. Biosystem-geosystem-community-population ข. Biosystem- population -community- geosystem ค. Geosystem- biosystem- community-population ง. Geosystem - biosystem- population -community 9. Which one is the correct answer? a. Carbohydrate is the organic substance which is a component of living things b. Carbohydrate is the inorganic substance which is a component of living things c. Carbohydrate is the organic substance which is a component of living things d. Carbohydrate is the inorganic substance which is a component of living things 10. Which one is the correct answer? a. Cellular respiration is the process of making the molecule of the organic substance split b. Cellular respiration is the process of making the molecule of inorganic substance split c. Cellular respiration is the process of making the molecule of organic substance split and get CO2 d. Cellular respiration is the process of making H2O in the molecule of the organic substance split

124 Key to exercise chapter 5 : Ecology 1. a 2. b 3. a 4. b 5. c 6. c 7. a 8. a 9. d 10. a

125 Lesson 6 Earth, Atmosphere Natural Phenomena, Environment, and Natural Resources Essence Earth, atmosphere, natural phenomena, natural resources, and environment Expected Learning Outcome 1. Being able to tell the composition and the method of dividing the earth’s layers. 2. Being able to explain the chang of the earth crust. 3. Being able to tell the elements and classification of the atmosphere’s layer 4. Being able to tell the meaning and the importanceof temperature, moisture, and air pressure 5. Being able to explain the relationship of temperature, moisture, and air pressure to ways of living 6. Being able to tell the types of wind 7. Being able to explain the influence of the wind to human and the environment 8. Being able to tell the ways to protect ourselves from natural phenomena 9. Being able to tell the usefulness of weather forcast 10. Being able to explain the conditions, and problems of using and the improvement of the local environment and the country 11. Being able to explain, summarize the concepts in keeping the balance of geosystem the environmental conservation, and the sustainable use of natural resources Scope of contents Topic 1 Earth Topic 2 Atmosphere Topic 3 Natural Phenomena Topic 4 Natural Resources and Environment

126 Topic 1 Earth The origin of the Earth Many Scientists had tried to explain the origin of the earth since 1609 and one of them was Galileo. He looked through his telescope at the dimples of the other planets and he found out that there were so many of the dimples. He mentioned that these dimples were caused from the meteorites hitting and then gathered together to become a plant which was bigger and bigger. Scientists believed that univeres occurred 10,000 million years ago while the eart existed only 4,600 million years ago. The origin of the earth began from the phenomenon of dust and gass spreading in the universe and were integrated to be a ring of gass with very high temperature and enormous density. The very high temperature made the dust and gass explode called ‚ big bang‛, a strong explosion. This explosion made all the masses spread out. .The hottest center is the sun ( the diameter is 1,400,000 kilometres and the temperature is 15 million degree censius) The other masses were still spreading but began to be cool ( the steam began to be condensed and become drops of water) and became hundred millions of planets moving randomly within the universe. Some of them crashed each other and some of them move slowly and some move fast. Finally there is a change , some of the planets increase their own mass after crashing many times.When they are bigger, they keep more and more energy. Earth, Mercury and Venus occure by these ways. The Earth is full of craters at the early age because it has been crashed so many times which can be compared to the Moon about which we are studying now. The Orbit of the Earth The earth moves around the sun; one as an orbit takes 365.25 days. There are 365 days in a calendar year which means there is 1/4 day left each year. By this, there are special 366 days in every 4 years when there are 29 days in February instead of 28 days as usual. The orbit of the earth is not round. The earth moves nearer the sun in December than in June which is the farthest from the sun. The earth is askew to its axis. In June, the Northern hemisphere is askew to the sun so the Northern hemisphere will be summer and the Southern hemisphere will be winter. In December, the North hemisphere is askew away from the sun then it becomes winter and the Southern hemisphere becomes summer. Between March and September, both hemispheres are not askew so the length of the time of days and nights is equal. In March, Northern hemisphere will be spring and the Southern hemisphere will be fall but in September it is opposite.

127 Picture: The earth orbits the sun Earth’s age is about 4,700 million years. Its shape is not actually round and the length of the equator perimeter is 40,077 kilometres( 24,903 miles) and from the pole is 40,009 kilometres( 24,861 miles) and a moon is as a satellite which moving around in every 27 days and 8 hours. The shape of the earth is an oval with the vertical diameter is 12,711 kilometres and the horizon is 12,755 kilometres, 44 kilometres difference. There are 3 parts of water or 71 % and 1 part of land or 29%.The earth’s axis is tilted 23.5 degrees. Parts of the earth 1.Water part is composed of brooks, canals, swamps, seas, oceans,underground water, and polar ice. 2.Ground part is a hard part which cover the earth. The thickness of the crust under the sea is 5 kilometers and the most thickness is the mountainous part with 70 kilometres. 3. Stratum( Atmosphere level) is important level because it make various natural phenomena such as water cycle,and ion which is necessary for communications. 4. Living things

128 Earth Structure Picture : Inner structures Crust Crust is the outermost part of the earth; its thickness is about 60 – 70 kilometres. This part is the most thinnest if compared to other parts which are simillar to the eggshell or onion shell. The crust is composed of land and water and the thinnest crust is under the ocean. The thickest crust is the part supporting the continent with highest mountain ranges. Moreover, the crust can be divided into 2 classes as follows.- Picture : The earth’s components

129 - First layer: Sial is the upper crust which is composed of geyserite and alumina which are a kind of granite. The area of the surface of this layer will be sedimentary rock. There will be sial layer only at the crust of the continent but there is not this kind of layer at the crust under the sea or the ocean. - Second layer: Sima is the crust under the sial layer and most of it is basalt which is composed of geyserite, ferric oxide, and magnesium. Sima layer wraps all the area of the sea and the ocean which is different from the sial layer which covers only the continent and has less density than the sima. Mantle Mantle or Earth's mantle is the layer between the crust and the core of the earth and is about 3,000 kilometers thick. Some parts of them are melted and have very high temperature, which is called magma. The temperature in the mantle layer is about 800 – 4300 degrees celsius. It is composed of igneous rock such as ultrabasic rock and peridotite rock. Earth Core The density of the earth core is approximately is 5,515 kilograms/cubic metres, which makes it most dense planet in the solar system. However, if mesured only at the earth surface, it is only 3,000 kilograms/cubic metres. The composition of the earth core is 80 percent of iron including nickel and lighter substance such as lead and uranium, etc. The earth core can be divided into 2 layers as follows.- - Outer core is 2,900 – 5,000 kilometres thick from the earth surface. It is composed of iron and nickel in the melted form. This core is in the liquid condition and its temperature is about 6,200 – 6,400 degree celsious and the specific gravity is 12.0 - Inner core is at the center of the earth with a radius about 1,000 kilometres and temperature is about 4,300 – 6,200 degrees celsious. Its pressure is enormous so this makes the area in solid condition full of iron and nickel. The specific gravity is 17.0 Tectonic Plates Tectonic Plates is the outmost structure of the earth and is composed of 2 layers. The outer layer is lithosphere( hard soil) and under the lithosophere is aethenosphere (soft soil) which is less flexible and is not strong and moveable like liquid. The deep mantle under the aethenosphere is harder because of high pressure.

130 The lithosphere will be dissolved and become earth plates. For our earth, there are 7 large plates and most of them are small. These plates can be moved over the aethenosphere which is related to the other plates. This movement can be divided to 3 boundaries as follows.- 1. Bumping or converging boundary 2. Breaking up or dispersing boundary 3. Converting boundary The geology phenomena such as earthquake, volcano eruption out, diagenesis of mountain, and the coincidence of the ocean abyss occurring at the same time of the land boundary changing. The speed of land sideway movement is 0.66 to 8.50 centimetres a year. Picture: the earth’s crust Large plates are.-  African Plates: Cover all African Continents. It’s a continental plate.  Arctic Plates: Cover all Antartican Continents. It’s a continental plate.  Australian Plates: Cover Australia ( used to be connected with the Indian Plates 50 -55 million years ago) It’s a continental plate  Urasian Plates: Cover Asia and Europe Continents. It’s a continental plate.

131  North American Plate: Cover North American Continent and North Eastern of Siberia. It’s a continental plate.  South American Plates: Cover South American Continent. It’s a continental plate.  Pacific Plates: Cover Pacific Ocean. It’s an ocean plate. Besides, there are smaller plates such as Indian Plate, Arabian Plate, Caribian Plate, Juan de Fuca Plate, Nazca Plate, Filipin Plate, and Scotia Plate. The movement of the plates cause by the aggregation and disintegration of the continents; when the time passed and the aggregation of the great continents by gathering all continents together. The great continent ‚ Rodinia‛ existed about the 1,000 milion years ago and covered most of the land on earth. After that, there was a disintegration to be 8 continents again 600 millon years ago. All 8 continents then were aggregated to be great continents again called ‚ Pangaea‛. Finally, Pangaea is disintegrated again to be Laurasia continent which becomes North American and Urasian continent as well as Gondwanan continent and may become another continent aparting from the ones mentioned above. The movement of the plates Picture : The movement of the plates

132 Topic 2 Atmosphere Atmosphere is the air wrapping around our earth which is about 1,000 kilometres high from the sea level. The area near the ground will be more dense and decreasing when going up higher from the ground level. The temperature of the earth is 15 degree celsius in average. Picture: The Earth Atmosphere Stratum The climate of the earth is mantled by a stratum consisting of 5 levels as follows: 1. Troposphere starts from 0 – 10 kilometres from the earth’s surface. There are steam and cloud in this level there is a lot of densen and the air is changed all the time. 2. Stratosphere starts from 10 – 35 kilometres from the earth’s surface. The atmosphere in this level is not changed much from troposphere, only a little more dust. 3. Mesosphere starts from 35 – 80 kilometres from the earth’s surface. The atmosphere in this level will have a lot of ozone which helps prevent a lot of the ultra violet( UV ) from the sun reaching to the earth. 4. Ionosphere starts from 80 – 600 kilometres from the earth’s surface. The oxygen in this level is very thin and unfit for human. 5. Ectosphere starts from more than 600 kilometres from the earth’s surface. The oxygen in this level is very thin and there is a lot of helium and hydrogen. This level is beneath the airspace.

133 The importance of the Atmosphere Atmosphere is very important for living things which can. 1. Help adjust the temperature on the earth’s surface, not being too high or too low. 2.Help protect the danger from the rays or the various particles from outside the earth such as absorbing ultraviolet not to reach the earth too much. Help make the metiorite from the space come toward the earth by the earth’s gravity, burning or even smaller before reaching to the earth’s surface. Insighted light Gamma ray Ultraviolet Infrared X- ray Radio wave Thermosphere Earth Ozone layer Mesophere Startosphere Troposphere Picture: the atmosphere layers The Composition of the Atmosphere

134 Atmosphere or weather is a compound of various gasses such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbondioxide, argon, dust, and other gasses,etc. Picture: the composition of atmosphere There are 2 major gasses which are related to the atmosphere which are. Ozone is important to human because it helps absorb ultraviolet ray from the sun fall down to earth too much. If there is no ozone, too much of the ultraviolet ray can burn our skin. If there is too much of ozone, too little ultraviolet will fall down to earth and cause us to be in lack of vitamin D CFC ( Chlorofluorocarbon ) is a kind of gass which is composed of carbon, fluorine, and chlorine and we can use them for some industries such as plastic, or foam,etc. CFC is a very light gass so which is released to the atmosphere especially to the stratosphere, CFC will collide with the ultraviolet and then split immediately and will produce the atom of free chlorine. This kind of atom will react to ozone and can get the monoxide compound of chlorine and oxygen. After this, the monoxide compound will be combined with free atom of oxygen to produce oxygen and atom of chlorine. This reaction will be the continually endless chain and 1 atom of free chlorine can destroy 100,000 molecules of ozon out of the atmosphere. Temperature Temperature is physical characteristic of the system using for indicating the thermal energy level. This can be indicated from the feeling like, ‚hot‛ and ‚cold‛. The higher the temperature is, the hotter the weather is. The SI unit of the temperature is called kelvin.

135 Measurement Freezing Boiling point Principal measurements are. point 100 Thai English 0 212 32 373 องศาเซลเซยี ส Celsius (℃) 273 80 องศาฟาเรนไฮต์ Fahrenheit (℉) 0 เคลวนิ Kelvin (K) องศาโรเมอร์ Réaumur (°R) Changing Unit Formular are.- Tides and Global Temperature Tides in the ocean are the movement of water in the ocean which is the same as flowing streams moving regularly and continuously to the same direction. There are 2 types of tides which are Gulf Stream and Cold Stream. The Gulf Stream is the stream from the low latitude area ( the area near the equator from Tropic of Cancer to Tropic of Capricon) flowing to the pole. This stream has higher temperature than the stream around it. When it flows past an area, it makes that area warmer and moist.

136 Picture: Flowing directions of warm-cold stream or thermohaline around th earth If cold Stream flows past any area, it will bring the cold and dry air to that area. Cold stream is the stream flowing from the high latitude ( the area between Arctic Circle to the North pole and the Antarctic Circle to the South pole) to the warm and hot area, which can make the water around it cooler. area around cooler. The Gulf Sream and Cold Stream will bring hot and cold air which make the season change by nature. If there are no such tides, the weather will be unusual and uncertain; it may be too hot and too cold and can cause the plants to stop producing fruits or getting severe rain strom and others? Besides, it will cause moisture in the air and the wind blows past the Gulf Stream to the cold continent which can make the area get more moisture. The rain with the wind blow past the Cold Stream to the warm continent, making the area dry. The coast is sometimes dry and some areas become a desert but if the Gulf Stream converge with the Cold Stream, there will be fog. If there are no two streams, the weather will not be changed. The stream might not affect some areas because there are no Gulf Stream and Cold Stream flowing past such as in Thailand. When the ice at the pole melts, the sea will be attenuated and can make the Gulf Stream and the Cold Stream stop flowing. If the two streams stop flowing, it means nothing can control the earth temperature and our earth will go back to the Ice Age again or there will be floods all over.

137 The Characteristic of Air 1. The Density of the Air The density of the air means the ratio between mass and the air volume. 1.1 If altitude from the sea level is different, the density of the air will be different. 1.2 If the altitude from the sea level increases, the density of the air will decrease. 1.3 The density of the air is changed by the air volume; the less volume of the air is, the less density is it. 1.4 The air near the earth surface will have more density than the air at the hight altitude. This happens because there are thick layers of the air pressing the earth surface than the other level including the earth glavity to the masses near the earth surface. 2. The Pressure of the Air The pressure of the air or the pressure of the atmosphere means the rate of the air pressure action on the area per one unit. - The instrument for measuring the air pressure is called Barometer. - The instrument for measuring the altitude is called Altimeter The relations between the air pressure and the altitude from the sea leve are summarized as follows.- 1. At the sea level, the normal air pressure is equal to the air pressure which can press the barometer to 76 cm or 760 mm or 30 inches. 2. If the altitude increases, the air pressure will be decreased in every altitude of 11 metre and 1 mm decreasing of the barometer. 3. The Air Temperature. The change of the temperature by the altitude in the atmosphere can make the temperature decrease by 6.5 degree celsious on average. 4.The Air Humidity Air Humidity is the amount of the steam mixed in the air. When the air is full of steam and cannot get more steam, it is called saturated air. There are 2 ways to indicate the air humidity, which are. 1.Absolute Humidity is the ratio between the mass of steam in the air and the volume of the air at that time.

138 2. Relative Humidity is the comparing volume between the existing mass of the steam in the air at that time and the mass of the saturated steam at the same temperature and volume which is measured in percent per unit. The instrument for measuring the relative humidity is called hygrometer. There are 2 types of the hygrometers popularly in use which are. 1. Wet and Dry bulb Hygrometer 2. Hair Hygrometer Clouds 1.1 Cloud and Cloud Formation Cloud is water in the high air level in the form of drops and ice crystals and might include the particles of solid in the form of smoke and dust driftivy in the air. 1.2 The Types of Clouds How to observe the types of clouds There are 5 word groups describing the cloud types of clouds which are. CIRRO High altitude clouds ALTO Medium altitude clouds CUMULUS Mass Clouds STRATUS Layers of Clouds NUMBUS Clouds causing rain Metiorologist divided the cloud into 4 types which are. 1. High altitude clouds are the clouds at the altitude of over 6500 metres Most of them are composed of ice crystals and are divided into 3 types: -Cerocumulus - Cerus -Cerostratus

139 Pivture : Different types of clouds 2. Medium altitude clouds are divided into - Altostratus - Altocumulus 3. Low altitude clouds are composed of - Stratus -Stratocumulus - Nimbostratus 4. Vertical cloud formations consist of -Cumulus - Cumulonimbus

140 Precipitation Precipitation means water in the solid or liquid status falling down to the earth surface. Fog occurs near the earth surface cloud and happen at night or at dawn. Dew is the condensed steam sticking at the surface when the temperature is under the dew point at that time. Dew Point is the temperature point when the steam in the air condenses into spray. Frost is the steam in the air which has lower dew point than the freezing point and then condenses into ice crystals; it happens only at night or atdawn. Snow is the steam condensing into ice crystals when there is an air saturation and the temperature is under freezing point. Hail is the ice crystal which is frequently blown back and passes the cold air. The steam becomes frozen and enlarged in the size before dropping down to the earth. Rain caused from the spray in the cold cloud and the steam condense into heavy spray and cannot float before falling down to the earh by the gravity. Picture: Rain occurring Process Rainfall means the depth level of the rain in the rain gauge.

141 Topic 3 Natural Phenomenon Wind is air mass moving along the holizon and the air flow moves along the verticle. How to name the wind depends on the wind direction such as if blowing from the North , it is called North Wind and if blowing from the South, it is called South Wind,etc. We cannot measure the wind speed at the low latitude but we can measure it if it is in the high latitude. Wind Occurance The causes of the wind occurance depend on 1. Temperature differnce 2. Air pressure difference Pressure areas - High Pressure means the area with higher pressure than the near area. Use the letter H symbal. - Low Pressure means the area which have low pressure than the near by area. The letter L is used as a symbol. Types of wind. Wind can be divided into many types as follows. - Annual Wind or Regional Wind such as Trade Wind. - Seasoning Wind such as Summer Monsoon Wind and Winter Monsoon Wind. - Daily Wind such as Land Breeze and Sea Breeze - Wind occurs from the storm or various storms such as thunder storm and Tropical Cyclone. Surface Winds Surface Winds is the wind blowing from the surface to about 1 kilometre high above the ground. It is the area of the mixed air and there is a friction force from striking with barrier. In lower level, the steep force and the horizontal air pressure will not provide good balance with coriolis force. Friction reduces the speed of the wind causing coriolis force to decrease. The surface wind does not flow parallelly to Isobar, but it will flow across it from high pressure to low pressure and angle towards isobar. To make an angle depending on the roughness of the ground surface. If it is a calm sea, it will angle towards 10 to 20 or 20 to 40 on the ground. However, in dense forests, it may angle towards the isobar at 10 meters height above the ground. If the height is more than 10 meters friction decreases, but the speed of the wind will increase, so its angle towards

142 the isobar will be smaller, but at the height near 1 kolimeter, there is almost not any friction, so the wind flows parallel to the isobar. Jet Stream is the strong wind in the area of Tropopause ( the borderline between Troposphere and Stratosphere) which is the West wind with the length of many thousand kilometres, many hudred kilometres wide but only 2-3 kilometres thick. Normally, the Jet Stream will be at the altitude of 10 -15 kilometres but may be higher or lower. At the wind will be narrow at the core but it is very strong. Next to the core, the windspeed is decreasing. The windspeed of the Jet Stream is about 150 – 300 kilometres an hour and the high altitude near 12 kilometres, the windspeed is up to 400 kilometres an hour while the airspeed of other West wind is only 50 – 100 kilometres an hour Monsoon comes from the Arabian word ‚ Mausim‛ which means the wind changes the direction by the season such as in the summer, the wind blow at one direction and changes to the opposite direction in the winter. It was first time in the Arabian Sea at the direction of Northeast for 6 months and another 6 months at the direction of Southwest. In other parts of the world, the monsoon of the East and South Asia are most clearly seen. Local Wind is the wind occuring in the local area because of the influence of the terrain and the changing of the air pressure. Local wind can be divided into 7 types as follows. 1. Land breeze and Sea breeze are the winds caused by the different temperatures of land and sea; they occur daily. Picture: the occurance of sea breeze and land breeze

143  Sea Breeze occures in the summer along the coast at day time when the land gets heat from the sun with higher temperature than in the sea. The air over the land will float up because of the heat and the cooler air over the sea will flow instead. So the wind from the sea blows to the coast at the distance of 16 -48 kilometres from the coast. The speed of the wind will decrease when reaching the coast.  Land Breeze occures at night when the land is in the exothermic process which is faster than the sea so the temperature is lower than the sea as well. The air above the sea is warmer and rises up then the air over the land which is cooler, flows to replace it. This causes the wind to flow from the land to the sea. The speed of the land breeze is not as fast as the sea breeze so the distance of blowing to the sea is just only 8 – 10 kilometres. 2. Valley Breeze is the daily wind like land and sea breeze. Valley breeze occurs at day time when the air on the mountain and its slope is warm because of extreme heat from the sun. The air at the lower slope of the hill is cooler so it flows to replace it. By this process, the cool air from the lower slope flows to the higher slope which is called ‚ Valley Breeze‛ Day time Night time Hot Hot cool cool valley breeze mountain wind Picture: the occurrence of valley breeze and mountain wind 3. Katabatic Wind is the wind blowing from the hillside to the valley. This type of wind looks similar to the Mountain Wind but it is stronger. It occurs because the cold wind which is more heavier moves down from the top of the mountain to the bottom under the earth gravity, and most of them occure at night when the land releases the heat.In the winter, there is a lot of snow at the highland in the continent and the air at the ground is cold causing the high pressure in the area so the colder air from the top of the mountain flows down to the lowland and the ground. Sometimes it is called ‚ Drainage Wind‛. This type of wind is called differently depending on the

144 various locations; for examples, Bora Wind which is a cold and dry wind originating in Russia blows across mountains to the coast of the Adreatic Sea to Yugoslavia in the winter. It occurs both at day and at night time but it often occurs at night with a very strong wind. Another one is Mistrsa wind which is a cold and dry wind like Bora wind but it is not as strong as Bora. This type of wind blows from the West mountains to the valley of Rhone in the southern part of France. wind flows cold wind high pressure low pressure snow high pressure Picture: the wind flows down the slope of mountains 4. Chinook is a type of wind occurring behind the mountains. It’s a hot and dry wind and its speed is like medium to strong wind. The movement of the wind is a result from the different air pressure from the different sides of the mountain. The side which against the wind gets higher air pressure and will float up to the mountaintop and then blow down to the foothill at the other side of the mountain. While the air flow is lower, the temperature is gradually higher by the ratio of Adreabatic temperature changing Adreabatic. This type of the wind is hot and dry and when blowing down to the other side of the Rocky mountains, it is called Chinook. The area of the wind is narrow, only 200 -300 kilometres width and spreads from the Northeast of New Mexico of the US and up North to Canada. The Chinook wind occurs when the strong upper level West wind blows across the North and Southern mountains, the Rocky and the Casket Mountains . The air at the mountains facing to the wind will be forced to float with low temperature but when floating down to the other side of the mountain, the air will be pressed and the temperature is higher. If the wind is the same nature as the Chinook but blows to the slope of the Alps in Europe, it is called the Foehn and if it occurs in Argentina, it is called the Zonta.

145 windy Picture: the occurrence of chinook 5. Santa Anna is a warm and dry wind blowing from the East or Eastwest to the South of California. This wind blows past the desert and mountains, so it is warm and dry. It occurs in the area of high pressure of the Great Basin Area and if it blows past any area, it will cause damage to plants around it especially in the Spring. The area it blows past will be warmer; for example, when it approachs to the South of California, the temperature is higher than other areas. 6. Desert Wind is the local wind occurring in the desert. When it occurs, it comes with the dust stroms or sand stroms called Haboob, which is from the Arabian word ‚Hebbec‛ meaning ‚wind‛. When Haboob when occurs, it will carry the sand and dust with it. It always occures in Sudan , Africa for approximately 24 times a year and in the Southwest of the USA especially in the Southern part of Arizona. 7. Ta Pao and Waw Winds are the local winds in Thailand. Ta Pao wind blows from the South to the North or from the Gulf of Thailand to the Lower Central part between February to April at the time when the Northeast Monsoon is changing to the Southwest Monsoon. This type of wind brings the humidity to the Lower Central part. In the ancient times this wind help the barqes sailing coming for trades along the Chao Phraya River and blowing at the period of Southwest Monsoon changing to the Northeast Monsoon. We may call this wind, Khao Bow because it comes at the time of the Khao Bow Rice producing grains. The Instrument for measuring the speed of the wind The instrument for measuring the speed of the wind is called Anemometer. There are many types of the Anemometer such as those in convergence bag shape, or half sphere cup shape, ( 3 -4 cups) for measuring the speed of the wind by noticing the lifting up of the bags or counting the rounds of the rotating cups in a unit of time.

146 The instrument for checking the direction of the wind which is called the arrow wind. Most of them are in the shape of the arrow with a large tail. The arrow wind will rotate in the horizontal direction and parallel to the wind’s direction. When there is a wind blow, the arrow tail which is larger than the head will be pushed by the wind, the head of the arrow then points to the direction of the wind. The instruments using for measuring the windspeed are. 1. Wind arrow 2. Animometer 3. Aerovan Picture : Anemometer The Effect of the Phenomenon of the Weather on Human and Environment The Useful of the phenomenon of the weather 1. The occurrence of the wind helps the atmosphere circulation 2. Creating trade wind 3. Creating clouds and rain 4. Creating daily wind The Effect and the Hazard 1. The effect from the influence of the monsoon such as flooding and flash flooding 2. The effect from the influence of the strom such as fallen trees or high waves in the sea. Natural Phenomenon is the natural changing is both a short and a long period of time. The environment of the earth changes according to the period of time both system atically and nonsystem. The natural phenomenon is around us and can affect living things in the nature. Some of the change seriously affect the living things; for examples, we can see the rain, thunder, thunderclap, strom and some situations rarely seen such as warm earth, and solar ecripse.

147 Greenhouse Effect caused from the pollution of gass at the atmosphere to prevent the heat from transpiring to the space at night. The result is the earth temperature is higher which is called increasing temperature of the earth surface. The gass creating the greenhouse effect is. Air mass Air mass means the nature of the air in a very large mass with similar humidity and equal parts of the air. It can occurred if the air is immovable and touching the earth surface which might be either on land or at the sea for a long time until it has similar status as the part of the earth surface in that area, called ‚the genesis‛. Whan there is an air mass, it will move to other places and affect the weather aroud that area to be changed because of the new environment. The air mass can move for a long distance and still keep its nature. We can classify the air mass into 2 types by using the nature of the temperature as a criterion and ‚the genesis‛ as a criterion to be considered, as shown in the following.- 2.1Classification the Air of Mass by Using the Temperature as a Criterion. 2.1.1. Warm Air Mass is an air mass of which its temperature is higher than the surface temperature at the area it moves past. The route of the movement is always from low latitude to hight latitude. We use the letter ‚W‛ as its symbal.

148 2.1.2 Cold Air mass is an air mass of which its temperature is lower than the surface temperature at the area it moves past. It moves from high latitude to low latitude. We use the letter ‚ K‛ as its symbal which comes from German letter meaning cold. 2.2 Classification the Air of Mass by Using the Genesis as a Criterion. 2.2.1 Polar Air-mass 2.2.1.1 Marine Polar Air mass This type of the air mass originates in the ocean and when it moves down to low latitude, it brings cool and humid air to the area passing. The origin of this kind of air mass is in the North Pacific ocean area near the Bering Strait and move to strike the sea coast of the USA. This causes cold weather and rain. On the contrary, if this air mass moves to high latitude it will become warm air mass called ‚Marine Polar Air mass‛ which is warm and humid. 2.2.1.2 Continental Polar Air mass This type of the air mass originates in the continent in low latitude area. When it moves past any area, it brings cold and dryness to the area. Thailand gets the influence of this type of the air mass from Siberia between November and January which will make the area cold and dry in the winter. 2.2.2 Tropical Air mass 2.2.2.1. Continental Tropical Air mass It originates in the continent and moves from low to high latitude. This type of the air mass will be hot and dry so it makes the area it moves past hot and dry. We call this type of the air mass ‚ Continental Topical Air mass‛. This type of the air mass originates in the North Mexico or in the Southwest of the USA and if it moves to low latitude, it will make the temperature of the air mass lower than the temperature at the air surface it passes. In this area, the air mass is called ‚ Continental Tropical Cold Air mass‛. This type of air mass is cold and dry. 2.2.2.2. Marine Tropical Air mass This type of the air mass originates in the sea so it brings humidity and rain to the place where it passes. If moving to high latitude, it will make the air warmer; for example, if this type of the air mass moves from the Indian Ocean to the Indochina Peninsula, it causes heavy rain or becomes rainy season. We call this type, ‚ Marine Tropical Air mass‛. On the other hand, if this type of the air mass moves to lower latitude area it will cause the temperature to decrease and humidity. This

149 type of the air mass is called ‚ Marine Tropical Cold Air mass‛. Besides, there are masses from other from other sources like those in the north pole; there is mass from the Arctic. Ocean moving to the north of American continent. Moreover, there is also a mass from the south pole which is cold and moves very fast. 3. Air Front or the Air mass Resistance Air Front or Air mass Resistance are caused from different weather conditions. It is because of the different temperature and the humidity meet once another but are not mixed. The shape of the front air mass will be changed. The warmer air mass will be pushed up above the cold air mass because the warm air mass is less dense than the cold one. The formation of the air mass splitting is called the Air Front. Generally, around the air front or the Air mass Resistance, the weather is variable. We can classify the air front or air resistance into 4 types as follows. 3.1 Warm Front The warm Front caused from the warm air mass moves into the cooler air mass area. The cool air mass is still beneath the ground, the warm air mass will float up. The formation of warm air will have less slope than the formation of the cool air. The resistance of such warm air is in the stable state but if the warm air floating up vertically( steep slope), it will cause heavy rain and thunder stroms. We can notice from the occurring of the Nimbostratus cloud or sudden rain called Elephant chasing rain. 3.2 Cold Front When the cool air mass moves into low latitude area, it is heavy and moving beneath the ground and will push warm air mass which has less density,floating up on the slope. The slope is at1:80 steep which will create much variable weather.Warm air mass will be pushed to float up similar to the formation of the Cumulonimbus cloud with dark sky and very severe thunder strom. We call this state, a Sequall Line. 3.3 Occluded Front When cold air mass moves horizontally close to the ground, it will push warm mass near the earth surface to float higher. Since cold mass moves faster, it causes the warm mass to be cold which is called ‚the closing mass‛, and the phenomenon causes the cloud called ‚cumulonimbus‛ which may cause rain or storms.

150 3.4 Stationary Front Besides the occluded Front mentioned before, there is also ‚stationary Front‛ which is caused from the movement of warm air mass towards the cold air mass; there is a balance of the force because they have equal pushing force. However, this happens once in a while since when the pushing force changes, it will become other types of ‚Front‛. 4. Cyclone Cyclone caused from the wind with high pressure moves into the center of low pressure at the same time as the wind at low pressure floats up and cools down by the Adiabatic ratio( temperature decreases when the altitude increases) and creates cloud and precipitation. The Cyclone will be severe or not depending on the rate of the decreasing of the air pressure. If the rate of the air pressure decreases a lot, the strom will be severe. We can divide the Cyclone into 3 groups as follows. 4.1. Cyclone outside the Tropical Area The Cyclone outside the Tropical Area means the Cyclone occures in the central and the upper latitude zone. The air mass at these zone is cold, which is from the pole or the Arctic Ocean; it moves up to the warm air mass from the semi tropical zone. The nature of the two air masses are different. There is a change in the air starting to be a curve like waves. The warm air floats up over the cold air and the cold air moves to replace the warm one. This process makes the air merge and causes the precipitation. If the warm air stops pushing up, the strom is disintegrated. However while there is a Cyclone, it occures the center of the air pressure, the low pressure. The wind blows into the center( the high pressure moves to the center of the low pressure )and if it happens in the Northern part of the Earth, the wind will be in an anticlockwise direction and if happens at the Southern part , the direction of the wind will be clockwise. This is because of the Earth’s rotation. 4.2 Tornado Tornado is the most severe small strom. It usually occurs in the US or in Australia. This strom is caused from the wind moving into the center of the low pressure immediately. The strom looks like a black chimney hanging down from the Cumulonimbus clouds. There are steam and dust together with virious matterials which float up because the wind flowing at the speed of 400 kilometres/hour. When the strom moves to any direction, its base will sweep everything on the ground with it causing a lot of high damages. Tornado occurs in the Spring or in Summer because the air mass at the polar Oceanic moves and encounters with The Tropical Oceanic air mass. If it occurs above the water, it’s called Waterspout.