قواعد اللغة الإنجليزية للطلاب

Negative form: is used with \"let\" + Subject or Pronoun + not + theV) 4.:JL... ~ infini tive without \"to\".Negative Form: ~I + ~I } j<-WI + \"let\" rl..G.:..,.1, ~ .\"To\" 0)~ ~l )...1...,.:2..- + \"'.}\" me- Let not out. Let's not go (nlet us golf is usually contracted to: let's go). c: 0:ih.iI JI?,I I;Jlio Let us ~j; ''1 ~; - .(Le!'s go :Jèl y.:J1 J;. p i ) j.T\" , Let them no' drink a' ail :J)(l,)'1 Js- Iy..r'; '1 r-I'\" - Remark: This form is Jess used, and we prefer to say: w. ::u..-:Jyill j.;.;; '-'\" J\"J Jl....;..,.)'1J,li .h..!I1 l.i.o ~ C.f\"i 0i J>- ~ ~ - - 1 mustn', go out - We mustn' t go. y~..ul l:.);:. ~ '.} - 'J -- They mus'n', drink a' ail il~! y l).!1 ~ ..,...,.,Usage:The imperative is used to tell or, ask somebody (usually a cmld) to door not to do something in a very direct and familiar way../'1J\"-' r~ } j..A, (\;,..0 I;Jlio) \.. ~ cJl, Ji )y.)' ~ ~ .~\"li..J i';'t,. <A,j>, ,.;-The imperative is used also for formai public notices.J;..........-JI ~I{'I\":.1 .:,,1; .:\"Ci')~U1 .!Jj.i5' .7\"'•lI ~ ~Or for asking permission or ordering a permission with ficst or tmrdperson ..r--\" } ,Pl F I .r--\" c: u:\"\"'.? \".i } 0;1 ..,.JJJ ~ } . y'WI ,99,

Examples, - - - - - - - - [~}~J ;r~ ... '-'Î_J-----------, !~!) JW -• Come and si t dawn!. Don't go near the electric power! !J~.:PJ! J\.iJ! fl;;Î ..;...;l; 'ï - c::::.::>L::..l'>tJi)- Oon'( walk on the grass! .....)JJ ':J !~\ J.>- J.l '1 -- Dan't smoke! r ,- !.,:r=-JJ '1 -- Dan't use your mobile phone! !J~\ o.-iü4JI J-.=-7 ~'l - ~';;Ji0)l ~~- Let her Come with me ta revîse together.- Let me help you ta solve your problems. e--•1;... L..)~, I) <,?\"\" <lb- ~, - .-!lli'w... jJ- !l-lo1..,3 ci'\" - - 100-

J[ The GERUNDS (ING).., ~..JI ~WI \,\",\",,1Definition: A gerund is a verb used as a noun, it is called verbal noun.r-I ~ ~) r-I' ~ .Y' (ING) ~ Ji)1 \",,\.ill r-I :,-,,'pl .•.;.; r-I.A· Form: :c.P\ -ÎGerunds are formed exactly like the present participle by adding\"ingl1 to the infinitive without \"to\".\"'.J. LiA) l:1..i Jyuill } \",,\.ill r-I J'- (ing) -! Ji)1 JAAlI r-I Cl~ .\"To\" Cl)\"\" JAAlI J.i..d (ing)- Infinitive: To run, to work, to tell, to write, to be, to read , to fish, to teach, to film ,..- Gerunds: Running, Working, Telling, WrÎting. being, rcading, ..fishing, Teaching, filming. ~~ ~ '<??,(.fy,/J.,; ,~ :(ING) ~ .~ h!..l-J\ w) 1.JAAl I,r.,iL#.....~I ... ~ ~~ ~} 'ô~\} \"r')l.!')f \B· USE cJy..:....J,.>\ -c:.J --+ as the subject of the sentence.A Gerund can be used: _ ACter prepositions. --+ AfteT certain verbs. --+ ln compound nouns. <L,JJ \"\"L.;5\" <- )-~ J)? ..Vu <--\"('.,,n,\",g),-,~,.,-..:J\"'y\"'),...I..J..AAl=,...lr\"::;-1 h,JI....;;...I .JW>'I ~ 1..; <- .;j)1 ,L.....':il = <-1- As a subjecl of a sentence:- We use the gerund as a subject of a sentence, when the action isbeing considered in a general sense, this implies that the speaker hashad a personal experience of it. . JO 1 .

Js. ~ J--ill j\5' 1;1 '.L,..lI -ylA> (ing) ~ Ji)1 J--ill r i ~ - *\".J--ill I~ '\"\"l>- ;,fi \",.Il .:-J....,ll 5i ci\"< I.e.) 'rWI ....eg * Speaking English is easier than speaking-French. .<,....;...-JI ~ Cr' ~i ;,;,l.f)'1 ~ :JI!..- Or when the action is being considered as a habit one. .;,1..5\" :rl J--ill j\5' 1;1 } -eg * Fishing is my favorite pastime. .\",.u ~I ~I cl' .!J...-jl i,- :JI!.. 2· A{ter prepositions:- Wc use the gerund Corm when the verb is placed immediately aCter apreposition.\"')r- J..; \1..,.:0Y J--ill j ~ \..= (ing) ~ Ji)1 J--ill r i ~ - .;.;.1.,. }-I'\" J am thînking of emigrating. ,\" ,li;...'\" 1 am sorry for keeping yOll waiting.'\" He insisted on seeing her. .;~I .j .,s::;i d - .)kl d .!.Js:\") J...-ï d • - 4-:;jj Js. (:li -'\" cao yOll touch yOUf toes wÎthout bending your knees? Jo • .~~ <-f J Y .!JJ.\".~ ë--\"! ;r F '1 \W~\ ! ~ ..uu -33- A[ter certain verbs:These are common verbs which .~ ~}L-' ~,:,\s. Jwi oh, -could be followed by gerunds: es:(ing) -i Ji/' j..J r~ jl\"admit, anticipate, avoid, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dread,enjoy, excuse, fancy, finish, forgive, hate, imagine, involve, keep(continue), like, mind (object) miss, pardon, prevent, postpolle,Recollect, Resent, Resist, Risk, save (save oneself the trouble 00,stop, suggest, understand,\" - 102 -

\",1> '(Jk;) }-1 ,y1 ,fol ,..;. f~ ,(~l) ..;.,.- ,(Jy-..ù4) e--ij?; 'Oii.) ~ ,(~jj;) E-'--l ,(f) ~ '(''?) ..;:.;;1 J:;i)w.J.;.I) ,(1)) ) ~ 'J) '~; ',(\"- ;') .j ,vJ.) ,~1 ,(~Ji).E' ~, ,(\"\"';1) ~, . ' ?l) J-j ,& 1 , ~l)'o.t?) Wc IW-I ,(,l,..:.'J4 , \",1-,;._._,(:,kt;.) '-'j li- ,(J....;.) f)ti 'Cr' i~ 'On):?.li ,(li-!I) y..1 ,(JI» f, _'0 < ..• 'cp),_, • ~ ,-».)1 ,(~) .i.iolego * she hates getting up early. .. .I~~ ..f>~I ô~ :JI;..• 1 like reading before sleeping. .~jO, l J\";i -iil~1 ~I!* IF we buy plenty of food DOW, it will save shopping again this week.1.1> J~ ~I Cr' ~ ,,,'JI ~~'11 .;J\"' ~I ~r j • ·t...,...•.~14- ln Compound IIOU\"S: :A..S J I f.k'91 ~- NounsConsislingofaCombination ~ ~111 ~ 1.$# ~I..-I - pi}• A driving lesson - A driving J;jL::Jl 4...a.>j - ~~l r..fJ) -- A Swimming pool. - A Living Room. J~~\ ~.f - ~~j ~.J. -- A bird wa tching. - A washing machine.- A dry d eaning. - A pu.blic speaking. j.:-.J\ ~i - ~..,;.ll · }l.k - ,4,.~1 ~ - j~1 ~I - , 103 -

CHAPTEDB ~1Adjectives 1An adjecth'e is a word used to qualify a noun. . ~_/.~, ,j.....,j ~ 4IS' 4i.AIIEx: Wc ncver forgel great men ,-L...1.,.J\ J~)I \~i ~ ':} :J:.-Adjectives add to the mcaning of oouos but limit their application. . ~ ,J' ~ ~J <I....}~I <?\" ,J' \"<.J .:\"Li....oJIEx: The pen. , ..\.ill :cPThe IlCW pen.The new blue pen. r-W' -....\,!JJ.-\The small new blue pen. •The more adject ives we addthe morc limitations wc impose .-,<-,-*-I J Jj'il r-lill - .~' -'<-'-*-, JJ}\" r-lil' - \" j l..J5' ..;:,li...> ,J' ~Î l..J5' -'<~ ,J' r-)l1 JI- \"';'.1\" \..Adjectives arc invariable for numbcr, gcndcr, person or case. aJ~1 JÎ ~I ,~I \" .WJ I.i.,l> .:\"I..i..<>ll ;:i<J 'iA green dress. .r\"-'\"• yiGreen trces. .<'r\"-\" J J.\"...;.ÎGreen ink. .r\"-\"Î ~Green pens ,Ir\"-\" t)liÎGreen grass • r\"-'\" ~How 10 lise adjectioes \",,\.i...aJ \ 1 I~' ~Attributively PredicativelyBelore the noun As a complement to the verbHappy drcams i~ r)6..i Thal sounds good ~)~LuA Beautiful nower ~ &,J)J Vou seem happy 1..L...oo...- ) .J....>-.:...;Î • 104 •

He did useless efforts i,iJ.:o:v ~ .;..b~ r\j His thoughts are quick ~~~)~iThal is 3 grcal idca ~~;:.:. o.l...t. His friends are few Jl~ .j\i.c..iPoor fellow ~~ She looks preHy u.-- . ) .J.,.,;Kinds o[Adjectives: E9û\i..aJ11 - Proper Adjectives ~.;:..L<.,.2 - Descriptive Adjectives c...; ..,:..I...L,.,3 - Quantitative Adjectives <,S.;:..L<.,.4 - N umeral Adjectives ~.:l~\":\"'~5 - Demonstrative Adjectives ;;).:..l..,:..~6 .. Interroga tive Adjectives ..,..~I .;:..L<.,.7 - Distributive Adjectives ~..:...~8 .. Possessive Adjectives ~ .;:..L<.,. 1 .. Propcr Adjecthes ~ .;:..Li...>- 1The Aigerian people.The Arab league. .<.,>JI.f.- 1 ..,......:J 1The British embassy . .<.\".rJ1w~1 .<,;11,.)1 i }\":..JIThe Roman an tiquities . .<';l..))1 )U'JIThe Turkish delight. .~)I <S}>-2 - Descriptive Adjectives «~\"\"JI ~ \":\"'~-2... To explain the quality or the state: ;;J~I )i Cyll ~.fI •C Adj + NOim ~\ + ~~;.,;.:;,JI c1ri r ' .\II ~Js-:,' .<..,.. f-\"II W11,. ~)J' 1 - \"\" \"::i .b-)\., .An awkward situation C? \"';';yFresh news «~..\;>o.» ;;.À:!~ j~iThe Pllplic opinion tWI <.,>1•)1 - 105 -

The cold war ;,}.,JI y.J-1 Big powers A populated area ,,15:..J,~I cSyi\1 Mutual understanding <l.o.i <Ak;.. Peaceful co-existencePeaceful relations J,G r-\"li;A brutal aggressionFaise allega tions ~.c1 .r<' WFair meansDecisive decisiol1s 6..!~) ..:...ü-::u.A republic decreeThe diplomatic corps ~) ,'-~IEconomie blockadeCultural Exchange ~~IS' 0\'\"t?~\Legislative authorityA general assembly ~)r-- yl.)Military alliancesSpecial occasions ~l>. ..,:...\)}Modern conceptsForeign capital c?)~ )}National struggleThe middle East Ir\"1...,J,.ùl .!.lUIPostal exhibitionArmed forces c?,L,.,:;1 )l.a>-Human rightsInternational peace Jlii J,t,; ~- ~,- i.bL ~t?~ ,,~ j)\,..Î ~ l>- ..:...1.:---\..:... ~-\"- ,.,.1.;.. ~'< JI.. < <fI) .;k) CliS\" h..}11 JrJl -,<.), uP/\" <...L 01} \"Le'>'1 Jyi>- Jl<o (;}... - 106 -

The broad tines ~.rll .1.#1Conerete proofThe red cross e:1\i J,I'The national spiritFalse promises ~}•lI~1Armed interventionInternai affairs ~}I O}Positive neutrality ~::,IS' :JYJ d-' J>-X U-ocb J ).y' Il\",,1 ,\,>-Economie planning <.f,WI .b,k;..;Agrarian reform </,IJj C\")lpl3 ~ Quantitative Adjectives ..•..,.- \":;'\A.p -3Much / Sorne .J-; Any .,siLittle 'iAli j.,J; No Enough JI5\" ~ ~ Half Sufficient .j\~ C Adj + Noun J__1\"\"\"\"\ + ll..oMuch work pJ-> Sorne water ,UI .J-; Sorne foodMuch food /rW. Sorne rnoney rw.J1 .J-; Little moneyMuch pleasure ..$ J)r Little hope ,.,;.JI .J-; Liltle knowledgeAny work .J-> • Ali the tÎme j.,J; JI.. <.fI The whole book H a l f t Îme j.,J; J-ÎAny lime -~ (.$\ ) U)j4j.\"... \" ~. '.J,; 'iU 'No smoking \"-R'-,\"I \"'-'}IJ'Ali the money 'yiJl J' y~lJ'SufficÎent rest ~IS' ;\",..\) \"'-'.,II\"';\"\";Half solution J>-J...; - 107 -

Much cry little wool. .l>.1 ,,) 'J) ~ e:-iTs there any diffic ulty?There is no harm done. 1\"r--' <.fi ~Lo J.-Have you gO! any money? .\",i <.fi -.:,_ r.IThat does not make any sense. 1,.,;.; <.fi .;J.... J;; J.- 4 - Numeral Adjectives .~ <.fi 1-4J cr-lFor countable nounsA - Dcfinite numeral adjectiws OJ~ ~JJS. ~1.A.,p -1Cardinals , Ordinals ~;~ \ ...Is-i ~J ~ \...Is-I Firs! J}!I <.1·\:11Ze ro ./'-\" Seco nd000 Third -'.J\:IITwo -'>-1) FourthTh ree Etc ... c,l)!Etc ... .:>lOl '.r'ï Ji ~)I.; '.r'ï JiB - lndefinite Itumeral adjectivesAli cl' Several \",,,\" Plenty of i f . ; ?,Sorne Any ofNo \"\"\"'i F,w t..>..wh J.=l.i Any if <.fI,Many Sorne of <.fIMany of p.) Enough --.ilS\" ifJ\"; ifp.) A lot of ifp.) Examples: lFour eyes see more than two. \"f...G-I}I ,If. '! L. Jlé'!lOf two evils, choose the least.Ali people afe mortal. .J).rAJ1 J>.Î ?,INo success withou t tiredness. .Jo ~ if cl' ...,...; J)-'-' Cl>.' 'J - 108 -

Some people like to be great. .'\"~ If~ 0i 0~ dU! ~Life has many ups and downs.He has made few mistakes. .J6- Js- ~..ù! .;::...-; \"Y .,\"\.b.:.\r\ if ~ ~) .J.AjSeveral subjects must he tackled. .W~ ~ ;-\!js;. ...:..\s..\"....,.rWe have enough troubles. .~I.:l\ i f ~ ~ ~JJThey have bought a lot of things. .i.r.S ' L,.!.i 1)';':'1 .cilHe ha s much money and little sense J.,ll .!lIA.! .r.S J\.. ..,.0• A few (means a small numher) ~ \)js;. ~ A few 0-Few (means a sma ll numher Ji cfJ) ~ b.l<- <.j'Ü Fewbut less than (a few) (a Few) i fWe have a few friends. .Cl},li ,~-w>i \;,.01 have read few books though t'-~ ~I if ~ ..c-i) .cilr am free. 'é.:P J;Iln comparison with the free time t / c:\é.iJ1 AlI ..:..i}1 ~~I.:il.~in my possession, The number of books1 have read is small . ~I '\"\": :,~ ,';jY\" .I.e.,. J.,ll .cA) .}IMany cooks and fe w eaters. .#'11 if J.,ll) i4kJ1 if .r.SA few of my friends Iike footbaH. .r.cill i.? iJY\" Iim.......1• i f J,Lil1A lot of my frieods Iike footbaH. .r.cill i.? iJY\" lim.......i i f ~\.......Many of my friends Iike football. ·r.cill i.? iJY\" J~ i if ~IMany = a great number ..r-$' ,:,js;. ~ ' Many.A great deal = much = \"a large grea t\" ;..r-$' ~ ~A large quantity Ji~ ~ ,:,js;. ~ lA 10 l of) <J..;..I J 4Jt......:...\ ..,..... ir-? . 109 .

5 - Demonstrative adj'ett/'\les .,...,;.0 ! 'J.. This W These c::\"\" That ThoseSuch The otherThe same Another Examples: -\"\";C!-I Js- .r--\" ;fi ~iJ1 saw a cow walking on the other ·tJl.:J1 if J\"-'\IIside of the street.Such crazy persons sometimes ~I v\"~:,rl ,'Yy. J-surprise you. .~\.,>-1• .!.1frli,1 know tha t place very weil.He has won a prize and is looking .I~ \"t5:.l1 .!.li; j fifor another one.Do not talk with such a fool. ..-.)Those flowers are for you. ~) ;)k- r;<J -Cil1 do not like the other one..1 will meel you at the same place. .<5J\"-1 Js- J~I1hope you will come al the same time .~I Li.. t: \":\"..I.>..:i 'Y 6 - Interrogative adjectives ..!.li ..... J1')I .!.lli .<5J\"-:,rl .,.....i 'Y . ..\"t5:.l1 ..,-i' .~}I ..,-i' ,j ,..JjI;.!,.,l1WJLoi- ....1fA:..o1 .:..\A.;> -6 What WhichWhat towns have you seen? ~~I•J •Whic~ book are you going to buy? .. \"..\lI ,,1 ~\"I';' -\"<J y\5 ,,1 - 110 -

Whal an illluck? ~'-'\"\"\" .b- if J ~What do you prefer?Which time suits you? ~J.,;,.i; .....IJ \",i • 7 - Distributive adjectives kj~ t;, ..:...iJ '\"1 ;;, .,.,:;.; .:.,,\.Q..,p -7 Each Every Either Neither1 ga ve a pen 10 each one. ......IJ j5J Wi ~iEach one has rus own hobby . .......\.;1..1 \"\"1..........IJ j5JEvcryone should stay at his place.Neither bail appeals to him. .\"lS:,. ci ~ Ji ..,..\"., .....IJ J>Eithcr one will suit me.Pupils have a rest every .J ,jJ) .:r,;.fjl if ; .....IJ 'iJ ..;.....IJ J\"\"L. \..Jo1.....l ~*-- J> ....1.;--1 Js. Jy......... ..\,.o)\:)1two hours. .0>\"'L.. 8 - Possessive adjectives <..s:.t. .;..u;\",., -8Subject Possessive adj Adj + Noun My My umbrellaWe Our Our dreamsyou Your Your activitiesHe His His son ~\She Her Her daughter \pl1. los <j;WI .r-\"!l Its hair o\"\"\":\"'}1.A~They Their Their will t\"i',IJlExamples: ~ Ito\Il is your desire. '~J 4'1Old people always lose their ways. 'i*\")o J ~ ;,\;0 .;,-II JLfMalice drinks its poison. .•.......;; J:.i< .ûJ.1. ,,,..... ....IJ 'i . III .

Let us cali up our old days. .ylll t:..\"i .f.i:.....; ~,We vîsited him at his offi ce.Don't eat yOUf words. ..p... J ,CJj .cilHis heart was in his mouth. ...!.J..')1.5\" J t:\"'\"1.;' '1 . j yL1 .l,!.L:. .)15' • Nouns used as adJectives \",,\.<..aS .k~1 , 11&-=11<A noun may he uscd to qualify ....u} 1'\"\"\"1 JI..A:....I ~another noun -.1\"ï 1'\"\"\"1Examples: •Dog days i.!:-- r~i Constan tine bridge ~r\"\" Security counei lWorld news ,JWI )I.,>-i Social diseases ,:r';1 ~ Football fan s ~4' '-\"\".t\"iGold ring ~.iJI d (\..:. (..\.iI1 ôj\" JI..!..Population explosion Jts::..... J~lT he nouos uscd as an adjective precede the qualified noun and any changeof position changes the meaniog in return.,:r .fi ~). ~ ,,1) ,jJ4'}.1 1'\"\"\"'11 ..;,...; .;;,\.i..,oS' '1..\" 11 ,'-'~I .~I .r-'< ,.,;!l.'-'~I~ c--<J1jA>- School boy :$ Boy schoolCornfield Ji'-I~ Love righ ts ;..,..J.J.,o l:-oJ.iField eorn Jl,.- .)i...=- Rights love .i.:--')1.; ;..,..J.MRace horse j,J-1 Jl,.- JI J....,.Horse race J#-I _• Adjectives used as f10uns ~~t5 ;i\ .... p 11 \"\"Li...all 1<The rich ,,,,'•11 The poor ,lj..iIl The happyThe wise ,w:J-1 The sick t.I...u..!J\ The oldThe blind .)L,...JI ,-,\",,)1 ':'plThe brave ,:,t..,...:.J1 - 11 2 -

Using the present particlple js.W\ 1':\"\"'\ J~\ .6.i..a5 (verb + ing)as an adjectiveThe dreaming boy. ,.J\.J..I ~ILet sleeping dogs lie. .W\.i dl t:lA drowning man will catch a straw. -~~ ~ J:!jJIHe used to tell us amusing stories ~ ...:...~~ l:J J~ 0Î :lb.1The smiling girl. .~I ôl:.AJI Uslng the past participfe as an ! le-Ü1 1\"=\"'\ ! l~\ adjecli,. :ü..a5Opened doors encourage the thieves. -if.,..JII ~ ~.,:.il.! ~IJ\"!~IMarried men respect their wives. .~\.:.:-)j 0.r~ 0y.-J;ll Jl:.:-)ISatisfied people accept what J. ~..I.:!Î 4\" J ~ 0yUl;.1\ c.J\"I.:JIthey have. .J':~J ..l.Ï ,j~\ ..u}\The kidnapped boy was found.My friend is a gifted person. r r. y ~ ~J...,:;Broken hearts will never forgive \~i C:\"\"L..; J ôJJ-'s:'U y}illA fixed priee. .:l~ ./\"\"\"\"Only registered persons areallowed to enter. ~ ..h..ü 0~\ if~•\"il Comparisoll or adjectives .Jy:-..u4 ~ ùli..a.l\ ~)\.i..There are three degrees of comparison ;,;)Lt....U ..:..L.:-):. .!..o'j.; ~f1 - The positive degree ,.u\ -4k.-:Jl ~,)W\ ii,,; 1The positive degree denotes the simple quality and it is thus the simple formof the adjective .l..i..& ïJ.._.....JI iJ..r\"-\"' .!lJj\". </,J ïJ.._.....JI ~I ~.- - ..-,\.JI ....J.Ill - 11 3 -

Ha ppy ~ R ic h ,? NiceLucky J;,~ Weak ~Strong 9} ~1 have a lucky friend. J.J;~ ..J.!~1 will be a rich man.He gave me a nice story. .~ k ) ~L .~ ~ J~i• The positive degree is uscd ~AA::...:; ~, W1 ;;\",.):il1 •to express equality in quality ~I .j ôlJWI 4r .\",dl As + Adjective + as ,He is as strong as a lion. ..c..)l1S' <?.; \"1She is as beaut iful as a fl ower. .\" )}IS' a,...\". ~lIt is as plain as daylight.His face is as black as coal. .)4-J1 ,~ e-P1) \"1He is as stupid as his brother.As white as snow. ,...AlIS' ,yi ~) .\"'\"ts- ~ \"1 .cBlS' \"\"\"iNegative (orm: ~I~C ____ Not as + Adjective + as_ _ ~ ,Today is not ascold as yesterday. .<f\"')l1S' I,)~ crd r.\"llYou are not as happy as the others. 'J..?':Jl,S\"\" !~ ...:.-J ...:....iÎShe is not as polite as her sister. ..lf:..>lS\"\" 4.:4- ...:-..-:J ~1They are not as clever as ,\"\.?~i !.r--:l ~1the other class. ,?':J\ ~lS\"\"2 .. The comparative degrec ~W.I ;;\",. >' - 2• The comparative degree denotes ~)~.:J:.:i J.l.j,\Â\.1 ~)~ •a higher or /ower degree of the quality ï..i..A1J u',i Ji .;.i -114 -

Il is rormed as rollows:A - By adding 11er\" to the positive adjective ifit ends in a consonant JL.. ..,)r-; ~ ..:...lI$' I;'! ;u\",..,J1 u...J1 J! \"er\" ~w.~-IPosithe Adjectives ~ Comparative Adjectives , \"-.w.W,\ ,.;...I.i....\" ~,I\"~I ..:..\i...a.lt\" c:-\"IJ e - \"J 1 Greater Great J» Clearer J»I, Clear Taller TaU }>- Sweeter ~I Sweet OIder Old .:r-' Thinner L. .\",1 Thin ~ ~iB - By adding \"r\" to the positive adjective cnding in \"e\" .J!.\"e\" ..,)r-; ~ ..:...ll$',,! ;u\",..,J1 u...J1 \"r\" ~w. ~ -..\"Brave t~ Brave r ,Simple .h,..., Si mpler c:-'1 <bL, piRipe ~'0 Ri pe r t.,...;.; piFine Y-' /~ Finer 1.......... pi/.:,-->iC - By changing lIy\" into \"i\" and adding lIerll when the positive adjectiveends in \"y\" preceded by a consonantJ! -r~;u\",..,J1 u...J1 ..:...lI$' I;'! 'erl~W.!J IiI Iyl ..,)f JW\"'! .JL.. ..,)f ~ Iyl ..,)r-;Happy ..,..... Happier ,DirtyEa,y ) .ii Dirtier -,-,-1UglyEarly J<- Easier , C:'\" Uglier J.ii,l .f,.. Earlier J+.-I, 1::\"\"\ ;:'1 - 115 -

If the lIyll is preceded by a vowel, the \"y\" remains as it is ...... W- ~ 4J~ \"& .j.r-\" :J-\"\"'\"\" .j.T\". ;ijJ:--' \"y\" ..:..ilS\" I,! Gay GayerD - By using \"more\" with a positil'e adjecth'c in case of adjectives of morethan two syllablesfo J,;r iJ .;J1..:;.,\A..all ;U1>- l.b.,....,Il l.A..aJ1(:: \"more\" ~1AA;;.., ~ -, .~,;r jS\"ÎBeautiful J,->c More beautifu! 'lk,- ..$ÎInteresting J--/.;0 More interesting li,r\" ..$iSple ndid More sp!endid '-<)) ..$Î cll)E - By using \"lcss'! to express ,a lower degree. \"Iess' J'-\"-'~ -.A .:r p:.},~I \"\")J.l1Intelli ge nt J~ Less intelligent ,lS\"; yiCharming Less charming lép/I.r-- yiCarefu! Less careful )1;.. Jil* The comparativc degree expresses m)~ ;J.;.\A1I ;\"'J' superiority or inferiority .iJ\.;.)1 Î J.P\.i::ll .:r1 - Supe\";oritv J.P \.i::ll -1She is more intelligent than her husband ~)j .y ,15\"; ..$i ~lHe is richer than his brother ...\"..i .y c?Î, \"1He is taller than me <i' J}>I \"1 2 - In{erioritv \"\";,~I\" iJ\.;.)1 ill -2Her husband is Jess intelligent than her. , .~ ,15\"; Jil ~)jHe is less careful than his friend. .'-'<..,l.p .y ;Jo.;, J,iÎ \"!She is Jess happy than her sister. .\pl .y i,1...,. Jil ~! - 116 -

\"l'han\" is usually used with Ihe comparative degree, howe\'er il may nOI be used..J--l ':1 .Ii .!.Il; t;') l.i) 1.AI.1 ;.\".) ' t;' i,~ J--l \"Th. n\" • -~,)':ll ')fb. ~I\" ....:...il ~Are you better now?Are yOlI lookîng for a betler job? ~~i ~J .:..r ~ ~It is hotter lhis day. 'i..,J1 ,.e. ;).\". pi -.;1Keep your town clean. .~ .!.8.Co J-e-l ..!.8.Co ;,;\k; ~ j;;l,..3 - The superlative degree ,•..!.dl .... )' -3* The superlative degree denotes the highcst degree of the quality. .ll..oJ1 .;:,b,.) ' ,j' ;.\".) ' ~i ~ J.u .....81 ;.\".) ' •* It ;s IIset! when we compaJ'e one ,IIit'g 1:,.-\" ,,;Ii.; \.o~ J-:--' •w;,11 ail otJœl' tJrillgs of the sam ekiml. ,j' .,.=l'l -S.t\"'Jl ,t,:..'J1J5:., ·uJl ..,...;;Ali is the tallest boy in the class. ....---<JI J .uJ J}>i Y' J'- \";'}J\"\" ë\"\" ,j' J}>I~,)fo• The superlative degree îs formed by using: :JL....o.:.....~ ifl:dl ~J~.\"est'\" \"st\", \"iest!! or \"most\" in accordancc with the same rules applicd tothe comparative degree.J yi.U,.;:,\lI.1 ~),) 4lb- U:hll ~ 1.\".aJ1 ~ t,a;J IImostll lIiest\", \"st'\ lIestllPosi tive degree Comparati ve degree Superlalive degreeFol J~ F a li er ~I\"\" ?i The falles t ~I\"\" ?'IISmall Sm aller ~'JISimple .J\"'-' ~i The smallestEmptyUgly .J..,..., Simp ler .L.,i The simples! i1L., ?'J, IExpensive é.,Jü ~ Emptier 1<1) ?i The empt iest 1<1) ?'I, I Uglie r ~-i The ugliest ~','11 .;u.\/J\" More expensive cFi The mosi expensive cF'Il - 11 7 -

Irregular compar;son A djec ti ve Comparat ive Superlative '\ u.,;\"Wl ~;.:l \"-\"II ....81 ;,...J,Bad \"r.?.:l; Worse •b) The worst o\"b; ?~•,III Wo rseGood JoV Setter L.;,.,. ;>i The worst L.;,.,. ;>'11Little LessMuch ~ More .:ly.-Î The best .:ly.-•~,Many MoreOld J,li Older/Elder cYi The least cY•'jlfne Far ther Il> ;>i The most ~Ip.> Il> ;>'11 ,..\JI p.> 1,-,- ;>i The most b-,- ;>'11 .•:r-•' l... ;>i The oldest/Eldest l... ;>~I \"\"'\" ~Î The farchest .J.A}il - 11 8 -

IAdverbslAn adverb is a word which describes aDy part of speech other than a DOUDor a prODoun...,..,...:.:JI JI l'''''''~I I~ l.,l ~~I ~ .7- <$1 ..;.....J'. ~.;; WS\" J~IThcrefore, the adverb may describe verbs, adjectives, adverbs, participles,prepositions, conjunctions, phrases, and sentences.,~ I..ill .t......1 ,J I.r~1 ,..;..\A..aJ1 ,J W~I ~ <JI JWJ .;.., ~J .J...*-IJ ..;..I},.JI , ~IJ)I ,';'-1 .jJ.r ,Jr'il fURetions of adverbs Jly~I ...:.;\l;, 1 - To describe verbs: :JW~I \"-'-\") - 1- 1 was absen t yesterday. ,- That deeply concerns me. .cr''11; t,:l? .::.-5 -- Let us speak frankly. .I.e,. ~ 1.iJ. -- Keep quiet.- 1 sincerely wish you good luck. .;\"'1\"...\" ~ \"'\" - .,)-4l1 t)l - .I~ iJ;.,.. .!..ll \",,1 c.J\")\.>.1 ~ -2 - To describe adjectives: ..;..\UJI \"-'-\") - 2Thal is very kind of you. .~ .!,l. t.? 1.iJ.,1 feel much better (his morning. 'C~I 1.iJ. ~ cr\"\"'! r'-IIs he still fast asleep? ~trll .j \;~ Jlj '11Are you quÎtc sure? ~~Ii .\5\"b d Jo>>'He is strong enough to challenge a bear. y' <$..c,.,J \"u>J1 .,; I.e ~ \"1 :Jly~I~ - 33 - To describc adverbs:- You play perfectly weil . .\.Ii .;..\". .-.....J; .:11, -- He drives too fa st. . 119 .

- He works very hard. ,.l.>,- J5:, Jo.-< .c! -- Thank you sa much.A You spend tao lavishly. .I~ .!lJ 1;:\":' - 4 A To describe participles: ,fl\":'<\" ' ,L>......,. ~-\"-. !.J.;I - < :J\"..<ll) J&LiII ,l.,..,Î ...u) - 4- You look rather confused. , I.l.>,,- tS:.,; f )J,...:i.!.J.;1• -A This result is very promising. .L~o~~lo~ -- He is tired out. ..\..l>' .~,j,jl-- 1 am mostly honoured to mect you.- He lold us an exceedingly amusingstory. .~L;Jj Y--- ~ LI Jü -5 A To describe prepositions: J-r';'-1 ..j ....A..;J - 5- He arrived long before the rime. .J):- ...:..j.J\"! ..J..?\"ll ~ j..PJ -- They came just in time .- The bullet passed exactly over his head. J -. ;)~\ ...:..j}1 \)~ .0\..,.01.; ~ vL,.,:.)1 ~./' J....oij -- Your ability is certainly above the average. ..k.....pl J} 4W4 ~).û JI-6 A To desctibe conjunctions: ~IJ)I ....A..;J - 6ft- 1hale him simply because he is not hones!. .~.r- ~I ~ \",;Î ;) oU.fi -- 1 feel happy only when 1 work hard. .~ ~I \.,...J...:.? o;)~ r:-Î -ft .;.\".- They respect him merely because he is rich.. ~ ,j,jÎ ;) ~ ~l -- He ca me to himself shortly artel' Ji~ ~ o..t,;.) ;)U:. J..A.l -a fcw minutes. .JJÜ;) • ~.r.=-L•..-- 1 will tell you precisely \Vhat to do. J\ .4ui; ~ \...s. J.:i..t:.l4 7 - 1'0 dcscribe phrases: :\"':\"'I)~I ....A..;J - 7Let us gct right to the point.They live exactly at the corner .0';\"1.:-- tr\"\"ll J J>-..l.i \,.:s.;)of the main st reet. J~)\j ~l:o J ~ ~1You are not right with me. .~)I t)L:J\ . ~ b...!.r'\" ...:.....J - 120 -

8 - To dcscribe scntcnces: : ~I J..;) - 8Luckdy. they came late.Fortunately, we have not missed much. 'J..r'L I)jle- r-t'i YI .;r-!-Indeed. 1 <lm a t your disposaI. ..r.SJ1 ~ r.I d ..b:l\ .:..r-> ..:.rm_.Obviously, they were not in the r.I . -· .!..t}·!.l ~) dl ,~ Js- 1.,,;J-~ ~I L\"\"'I}\ ..:.r .~~ • TI.. kÙ,ds of ad\"\"bs J I\".'il1 t\"i 1< •1 - Simple adverb,: <k,-.,JI Jly'Jl _ 12 - Interrogative adverbs ~~\":JI Jly-~I _ 23 - Conjunctive adverb, •....okJI Jlyi. <.6,1)1 Jly:Y1 _ 3 t - Simple advcrbs ~I J 'F~I - 1A - Adverb, oftime and frequency. >\"'\",';:'1.;' \".;ll) ';'I.oJI Jly; (i)Before .P Ago ~. W_Since Now J~ITh eil b ACter .Nu, ~~Immed iately I)j Early 1;:\"Late I.r'l:•.o Soon 'Jl>-Presemly l,Il>- Instantly JlJ-I.jOaîly Tod ayYesterday .\'-JI Always r.\"JIEver AlreadyRecently u-'I Tomo rrow WbNext ~/ ..:..1) - Wb NeverACterwards Lately J'ifShor tly 1.:;-1>- Still ..!.1b -lA: 1-\" 1->,1• ~l...;.t 1~'1• \..-..,1- Jlj'J - 121 -

Frequently lJ/\" Once ' / ..:...1.)Ton ight ~Wl1hSeldom \".fiVot , -\"•iGenerally lJ.:IliHardly Repealedly \"cS.r'i -\"i 0/1jl \"Conlinuou sly Lor\"Conslanlly ,IS' Lo Onen l,l\i. Sometimes }r:-~ Occasionall y , rl)..ul J-- ~l,>-I ~l,>-I• Scarcely IJ.:IliRare ly lJ.:Ili Regula rly r\k;~ ExolIIl!Jes: • 1\" QiVou have 10 finish Ihis work right now.1 haven't seen this man before. .\"Y\.;... J-JI L.lA ~ JÎ .!.J.#. .j.:i if ~)I 1.1.A ) ~They always make fun of him . .\"Woo (j)~ Wb ~1Sometimes we watch the late film.Do you know what will happen next? . o~1 ~ ,uL:..; lil:>-ÎVou wi ll never unders1and me. ~~.1.b ~ ~ \... j..,-; .]A J.\..I..:>Î ~ ~1They hard ly paid their debts. .~~ ~J:!.) I)$..L.,..He ,eldo m gelS up early. . (I:f~) lM ~;: ! Lo IJ'~ <ilb - Ad\'crbs of place 01.S:.1I J 1.ri - ~Abroad Ul!!-I J Above J;Afar -\"id\" Across :ft.Anywhere Along J.,k ~Ashore JI.(. <,St Around8ack Away Jy8elow '.)oL!J1 = 8ehindDownSlairs Down 1...,.,Hence ,IJJIi J! F\" ....Al>- Ji-i y--i/J .)'-JI J)..u~ 1...,., W,if 122 -

Hithc r Loo Hcre LooNca r ~) ln Il0\", NowherePas! 0\"\" On JI>:.. \",4 ~Th ithc r 0\" \",.,.il\" SomewhereTh ere Together .PUnder !iL. Throug hUpslai rs !.lL. Up \.. Jt5:.<Wilhout J Within 'r'.J:>l>-. J Examl!Jes: \",}.JI JJ-\"4 te) '>\" 0)..l..! J} J>'b J ; Itoi- Our troops gathered behind ~ ~ ;;,,}:-.JI li-c>-) - the mountain . .JJ-I- You will und me here. .l:.AI J~- There are roses everywhere. .JLS:... Jf ~ J~j ~j. Go . head.- She will travel abroad with her family. c:.j.P,I) - ~I - rJ..i; -; .4Jr i C.J~ )L...:......;S- The train went out leaving me behind . .\.Q.L;...,;:,. j) }.6Â.JI ~- Please, come nearer. .~ if y p l C - Ad\'erbs of number: Again ~..uJ1 Jlyi --:?; NeverAlways ,Once cS? 1 •.;\", 1...,1Sometimes Seldom I),~Twice Thrice c:A.;\" ~~Examples: l It 01A fau!t once denied istwice commi tted . - 123 -

- 1 never play cards. .l.iI..bo J)}\ ~Î \"Y -- They always find the right answers.. ~I~.r.'JI J)~ Wb ~I-- Do not leave me ever again. .L~i ~\j ...sS.? 'j -- He somelimes goes to the shore. .~~l.!J\ Ji ~~ -\..;~i 4..il -- He always lega lizes the sin . r'i l}-\ Wb 4..il -- Let us say lhis again. .iS?! 0/ ..:D~ Ji.:.! -d-Adverbsofquantity,extentordegree: :~)\",\,H )ÎI..5.û\ ,~\ J\yÎ -~Too 1.J.e- Quite \..liEnough AlmOS I L.,.T.'.Rather ~l5' ~J~ Very 1.J.e-Li ttle \.. l>y. A linle ')lJ;Partly MuchSomewhal ':>\,li Half 1-\"\"Loss Whollymore \;.r- Hardly ~Scarcely LeastNearly .\.. l>y. So (\}5\") <,l5\"Ail Abundantly ,\5' \..Really Jil CompletelyDistinctly Enlirely Ji'•llExactl y ;s-i AbsolulelyEnormou sly Greatly \"WJ1.J.e-Extremely IJ':'\..; J ust o) \~.Sli ghlly Equally \..liPerfectl y \...,.T.'. Practically lli'Utterly Dceply ~~I <,JS\" ~ ~J..l:> lb- .L;,J~ CY\"'Y \..li \")~ ~)..l:> <1:\" ~J~ \\"l..< 1.J.e- ':>\,li ~ \..li <,JS\" - 124 -

S um cientl y ~l5' ~)..lt Thoroughly t..LëCo nstantl y r l).ul ~ 1 Especially L....r\"'\"\"Examples: • 1t Qi- This work is not so bad. .1-\",\" u,.... ...,...,J J.-JI Il,.- Are yO ll quite sure? Yt..Lë .t5'l:.. .:..,;Î J>· He is halC mad . .0~ ~..;1- 1 mect him almost everyday.- He did not drink much milk. .\,;,;; rY- J5' ~üÎ jl· We have nearly finished .(..,..,u.I) .:JJI 0\" Ir.> ~A r-l ail the programme. C~I J5' l,,';; 4iÎ ..Li!- We drink coffee especially .(C\"~)1) rJ L....r\"'\"\" i\"..<J1 ~ .:r'\" in the morning. ·C\.,..4J1· 1 feel rather tired. .t.. ~j ..,....d, \"...:.Î- 1 will give yOll a very good piece oC advice.. L~ ô~ ~ ..!.U (..ûL·1 am ab~olutely sure that he is the thief. .(J)UI) ~I r ~~ t..Lë .IS\"\;. ~i. J.~ .r'•YI ~· Think deeply of the matter- We really don't understand you. .~ )1 ~ ~E - Advcrbs of orderlsequencers ~..rH Jlyt -~Firs( -;) Firstly 1.r->Î }Next 1'\"• ..;r-\"..,}I Il,. Js- ...,...). \"\", 'J} - Then .ri;, .A ~,;>;Î \"i ~ I.r-\"i-- First, let us do this exercise.- Lastly, 1 must remind yOllof an important matter. - 125 -

- Who spoke last? ~I.r.>'i ~ \",.ill 0' -- Last but not least. .'.r:-ï ~) Ip>-i -. Firstly, we are going to solve this prob lem. .4.lS:..!J.\ ok ~ 'Y} -F- Adverbsof Affirmation and Negation: ~IJ ~~'J\ J1ri - JPerhaps 4; Really Li.-TrulyCe rtainl y );-,-, y\" r-'\"Proba bly Indeed 4hJL Obviously Li.-Sm' }Surely , Jd'-10' Na turall y .:,i e:-\"I}I if\"ObvÎously .J.S\"Ji 1 i f \"Quite \...,1May he '.;.1:\"/Cr\"JiEntirel y No 'iPreci sely \..li Poss ibly ~10' 4; '-'\"'\"No. 1-'11• l.\i - <,15\" Never Lol..ë - ~~ W illingly j. \.>. -,...,k cr Examples: ï. Are you satisfied? ~.~. 1) ...-....'...i v1. _Certainly.- Do you agree with him? ...s-'Wc.Sure. ~wly J> -- Could they gel you?Yeso ·.!Sr- Do you accept my invitation?Most wiUingly. ~!lr-f' J> -- 1 did not expect that. 'r-'\" ~..;y' JZ Jo - .(;).r') yI..-; .;.s:, ..!.lb é yi r-l - - 126 -

Are you indeed in love with her?Perhaps they will ring me upat six o'dock.G - Adverbs or mannerBadly (0,1,fi) L:,... Slowly ,.k\"Wisely ~ Weil 1..\",.Carefully ~~ Care1essly Ju~Foolishly ;;~ Boldly ~~sadly 0~ Cleverly ;)4-<Li ghtly ~ Heavily ';;1.::,Co rrectly ~ \"';\" Weakly ~St rongly o~ Clearly Cr-Y-Polilely ~~y~~ Severely ,.r-'ino isily ~ ,~w.~ Sharply o~Proudly Silently ,~~ ;;~Decently ;J.;,\; \"';\" Wickedly oj:!j-!. \",j>,Simply <J,L.; Finnly t?'iSecretly Calmly ,)-41Rapid ly (\".ri) Ir Sudden ly o• ~Urgently Strongly ~r. o• ~ ;.l.-t.\",;\" Promptly I.J\";You should not behave badly. .\!,- \5'.,L .!..ll.-; 'J ;;1• ~It is raining hard. .o)~ )d lti!He did it cleverly. .o.J4-ç 1A\~i ...wWe solve our problems wisely. .(J-.iJ~) ~~ un.:'\" j,..; ~The number of the inhabitants is increasing rapidly. .4&-r. ~\?- ~lS:...J\ .)Js:. . 127 .

He answered me sharply. .\"o~ ..,F·\....Î.lilThey behaved proudly. .ç.~~ 'j~ ..L4JThey answered ail the cxercises clearly. 'CrPJ'! ~JL...:.U § ~ ''y~i J.4.l1 will gladly accepl yOU f oiTer. .J)r ~ ~f j.:.iLVou will not find yOuf way easily. .;j.ri--< .!JA,}> ~ JWeil done. , . 1, \" ~I , ~ ~H - Sentence adn~rbs: ~4 a..\" J! r .rI Jlyt;1 -.JOTheo 0)1 Indeed li>Hellee 1\"• .y) Therefore .!-Il..iJSo BesidesYet ..!JJ~) Thu s I.u -,..;1..,- J! .!-Il; c:) .:.U~)Howevcr J' c:) Perhaps l<JNevertheless .!-Il; c:) OlherwiseM o reover COllsequently >'lJ .!-Il; .:r 'j..,;ù .!-Il..iJ ~ Accordingly ~.lb ~ ç.~In addition to this. Ji. ~~ ~w,)I~Added to this. ,Therefore, 1 do n't agree with you. Ji..!.U~ ~\ .~ J.iji ':J ~..uPerhaps. he docs not descrvc Ihis trcalment. .~WI\"..lA ~ )1 ~JHence, 1considcr him as a bad persan Ç-t.?' ~ 41 }.d t.f~ ~ d JJ r::)However, this can't la st very long. .'>\!.,1I.:i) ~ Li,A J~ ..:J.l~r+Thus, he drew dust in Iheir cyes. . I~J.>. ' r. .j ~\...)! j) ..w ~-4JThen, drop the mask. .<el.;;J1 eyl) .!.l.:.i,.i.. J<- RI,);! , 128 '

Com pllrison w ith adve rbs: I l Il e ~I ~)\i..... The compar;sOl. with adverbs is simital' l.f<L..:.o J IY ~1 ;.;J La. • to ,/lat of adjectb'es: :.:\"LUlI ;';}.il t.,.,.. Fast Fas ter Fas tes t Loud Louder Loudestc:'r \"'~ Rap idly More rapid ly Most rapidly ~~(\"'\"\") .:r'\" We il Betler Best Muc h More Most 'r.>'Ho w ro use Adverbs: _JI,..')1JJr:;.-1 4.\"i,5A - Attributivelv: ~ >1)1 ws:J4 or\'- J~I J~4 -iHe is ext remely intelligent ~I.AU J~ <\.ilBetter be silent than speak ill ~\ } \..r:>- JiB . Predicat ively: J...i1l ~ J~I iJh) r=i.t.:,l.l e - yDo not be long :>\,)0 ~ 'JYo u are not ou t yetThe game is over I~ ..:Jj \.: <,.ill ~I ..\.ilAd\'erbial Parlides: : ;Y~I ...;,J}-IThey are like prepositions in form but not in function . ......,.,JI .} '+il\;.; ~J 4'J-\"'\" .} )-1 ...;,JY 4,-!J 4'!About .!ll.» l.> ,j Y. Forw:ud • Ji r\...'JIAcross .;>-'1 ~I..:- .:/ ,:;s- In JJ>-I.ulAlong • OffAround rl.,.'Y I Ji \....û On 1\",,\", J,.. W\i ,J,,; ,L...ûAway \~ Out Jt\",.JI.>- 'OI.;!..IBehind JI>. Over J,,; \".{. - 129 -

Between Pa st r\..Î RoundBy Jy-Down Through J>-b,j Up .jji ,~Î jl* Most of the adverbial particles have the same form as their correspondingprepositions. ..rl ..jJ~ '\" 4l<~ \.. iJr\" ..,...<; 4l J~I ..jJ~ ~ •- However, the following criterion helps .l?~ JL::.II )~I J~ .!JJ~ t:)a great deal to distinguish between them. ~ ~\ J.>- 1.r.=5'- A preposition is closely attached lbW) ~.;:! «)--1 ~j.r- »to the no un it modifies \"y~ 4 } r\"'i~ li})- An adverb particle is c10sely .k.,;.1- Il J\.J..I cJ.rI, attached to the verb il modifies. .....\".<.,?..\JI <.'1-\"\"'\" l,.L•W) \1.L..;)1They are sitting in the room. J.II? cJ? \"')JI J~ ~lCome in , please. .IIJl> cJ? ~ if J>-,IHe put hisjacket on the chair. .II?\" cJ? \",}JI J\";';.;-~)He put on his jacket.1 followed him up the hill. .«Jl>- ...j.r-D IÜ;:--- lSJ.j) .ûJ1get up early in the morning. .'? cJ?, J'lI ~Î JI \"\",1 .\.il* = An Adrerbial pal·tiele is .'Jl> JcJ? , Cl,.-all l.fl, ~Î placed as follows: :..}. W- J~I ..j}-I C=\"Y- •A - Immcdiately anef the verb, when the sentence contains no direct object: .?l,- J.,.... .;s. ~1 <.,?~ ':1 \...(:; i?l,- J-Ali ~ _Î ego They got in at once. J.J\.J..I ,}>-,.\.il :$B· After apronoun ,grect object: i;-\"'...fol,. 'JyJ.o dlyl ~I ;.., Y eg: Take il off ~1 : $ Bring them in ~.>i • 130 .

C - After the verb or after the direct object if it is a noun. 01..-01il\S\" I;! -,\",,\.,lI J yuil.1 ~ } J-Ali ~ -i:eg: Ta ke off yo ur clo thes &\~')4... o :$ Take your c10thes offD - ACter the verb, when the direct object is long. o'J.i.y. -,\",,\.,lI J yuil.1 il\S\" I;! J-Ali ~ - ~eg: Look up ail the difficult J ~I ..:.,..L.J.5.JI ..:.r ~I :$words in the dictionary rJ'-\",LillLook the word up in the dictionary J. J\"-,,\"Lill ~I Y ~I• A preposition precedes its object r.l)))?I , .J~ r~ 1 j.r .Look up the tower C.)I J.>Î J! p lLoo k up it .~Î p l• Prepositions and Adverbial particlesmay be used to fo rm compound r..y1J-1 J ))-1) 1 .j).r • JW~I J..~ 4--\J.~..\ J..fverb,. y)1 ,verb + Preposition Verb + Adverbial particles .r; + ?Jj\" .r; + Jl.- J j\"Come up ~fo.. Blow up '-o -\"• \"'\"-Give in CryoucGo in r-'-'-< Go away J>-JIKeep on Go onLock up J>-o, Leave off .r'--<Pay back Make outPlay about .r'-< .:r~ Pick up J.i.i, 1.i;Ï! /~r+\" 'JI .o.:,i~ ,\\";\"\"I -*' - I3 1 -

IConjunctionsl I~'-'..J\IConjunctlons are used to join:Phrdses WordsSentences C lauses• Conjunctions are subdivided r-=~. .J' .0>--\"' JI.• 61.))1\".\"ioto tWQ main classes: 01 - Coordinaling conjunctions w}1 .hel))! \" 12 - Subordinating conjunctions ..,WI .hel))! \"2t - Coordinating conjunctions: :<.ai}1 .hel))!' 1Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases ôr sentences of co-ordinaleor cqual rank (of similar functional value).J...,.).111 l,:;\S:;. J-. } ~IN ,~ws- .hef. :<.ai}1 .he1))1 ~;; 0 .(c.i,l;) .Jbi J .....~I ,J' \"'\"'\" \p JS' ~ <,fi)* ln tbis case, none of the sentences is dependent on the othee. nor cntersinta its construction.J-'oIJ 'JJ <>.r'i ~ ....~ ~I ,J' <,fi i.Jfo 'J ~~I •.l.o JJ 0 <1.\"_.<J'\"' . \i~1An eye ror an eye and a IOOlh ror a IOOlh. ..:r-J~ .:r-JI) ~~ ~IFiee is a good servant but . ~ .J.;...o 4-SJ.J ~ i.)\\">' )UIa bad master.Neither a borrower nor a lender he. .Wb ':/.) ~J.,.. ~ ':/The book is nol worlh .~p 'J 1-4J ,i,I.;J~ fi~ .r-i' \",~Ircading, 50, don't buy il. \" 132 \"

Coordinélfin~ conjunctions con tain four mail) eroups:a ~ The \"ANOu group:T he conjunctions of this group suggest addition: 4lW,~1 J Î ...AbJ1 .l,oil ~~ l ,,:,.,. ..b.,1J) Not only .. . But also w.,i J.IJ ... ~ ..,..,1And .. a tso L..::.!Î • . J J--Fu rlhermore .'JJ; i)':J.>-80th .. andAs weil as w.)IS' .. J Besides .'JJ; ,y- ~Moreover w.,ÎJ J'S Likewise , J't',) .!.lI; Ji \"L.;,~, Again JI l.S L,a,1)Men and wornen arc equal in front ofGod.Jn i\...Î ~I.,...... ,-WI) J~)I -80th you and your ~.l..\"o J--) ~ ~ r}ll -friend are to blame. . L.5')1.5'He is a poli te perso n,furthermore he is of a noble famil y. Js- O)\"':N- '-:\"\"-4--- ~ <\.il -She as weil as her husband .\"4...f llil.&- if ~ -!..U.> J \~ )1.$' L...a.!Î 4t.)j) ~ -are very old (JJ\"'--').:rJ1Thal is out o f question,mo reover. il mea ns nOlhing to us. .:.r,t~)1 C).~· Li..t. 0} -Hi slorical leaders and their .,-.? J ~ \"Y 4.i~ ,.!.m Ji 4j'-\"\"Y4followers did the impossible. ~) ....:2.iÎ) 0~).::l\ o.)W\ .j:.-:-J.\ \~b ~ The \"BUT\" group \"~L:i\\" .!l1)'.I.:,.,,~1 ~\J) :\s.~ -~The conjunctions of Ihis group suggesl contrasl. .l...alUI JÎ .!ll)\",,-,~ 1 .l,oil ~~l ,,:,.,. ..b.,1J)BUI J.lJ However JI> 4)/J> t:)Yot ,.!•.lb ~J NeverlheJess - 133 -

Still On the contrary ~I ,}>-Whereas While L.c.\"/0Î Cr.>- Jonly , *cf!) <.5Jkü J-i, J..iJ- He has done his best, .<.ilt..., r! C.t..J1but it did Ilot work.- 1 am not bored, on the ,~I J ,l.i;~ .:......Jcontrary, 1 am very pleased. .I.e.,. J).r-' .J~- Fathers want ta keep uptheir traditions. whereas sons, r-\"..c)\.i; ,}>- .l;L;,L10)\"\"\".r- ,~'II • • I~ 01 0)\"\"\".r- ,\':''JI L.c.\"waot to live the modern lire .. .,,~I ilf-I- He gave her everything, .!.lJ; c:) \"<? Y -t..~Î J..iJsti ll she docsll't love him. ....,i. 'J 4'~- He is a wicked persan , JI 0:>- J '.l-r- ~ .!\"jlwhite his brother is good hearted. .~I ~ ~J L...LJi- 1will forgive you, only, tell me the truth . . ~I ~..kM ,,-~..J._..Many people ' pend their .r.>~L;- 0.r\"-f J'WI J'life gathering money, 'J .!.lJ; c:) '.,.;JI ~ Jnevertheless, they don 't enjoy il. .41 J~ c - The 1Ior1l group -c.)~\"l l ~IJ) ;is.~The conjunctions of this group suggest choice (alternative). .:u..)\,?-~I .y; ~.,...fl • .1:,1))Or ii ~ Ji Neither ... Nor \"j) - \"jEither ... Or Or elseOtherwise .- ~J!-'-\" tÎ )~Enemy o r fr iend ? I)...a>' ,:.kJI 'J) , 'J)'JI 'JNeither boys nor girlsgOI good marks. .i~ .l.li; ,}>- - 134 -

- You must respect the laws, 'J 'lU ~I.r'll r~ \"i ...,..\".. otherwise, you will no t be_ .\"i5:.l1 l.i.o JJ\"\"\" .!-IJ e-< a Uowed to ente r this place ..,.J.I y';'•l 'J) .:r',•1 'J C•l- 1 neit her smoke nor drink.,.uEither peace or war wi ll solve Ihis problem. .I,.r- } I..L 1..1 ~ ~I d - The \"50\" group ~I .1:,1)) ~.,..... ->T he conjunctions of Ihis group suggest consequence. .u..~I .;\".ii ~~I • .1:,1)) •So ~\ ~lt ,.!Jj.i! HenceThus 1-41) AccordînglyThen. Thcrefore .!.ll.iJ Consequently ~.u ~.J- He respects ail people. .w .!-IJ.iJ û UI J5' rr-< -.;1accord ingly, he lives in peace. ·r\"Y-- ci ~ if ~) .>.il\" Ib-:;I P lYou have done a 101 or mistakes, Ihererore, .i.r.> lblZ '-'.r->- J..ij .!.ll.iJ,yo u have lost many marks.- She does not like you, so, if ~J :>Ii ,~ 'J 4-'1 do n' t disturb her a nymo rc. , .L>?i\f'P ..- 1did nOlhing wrong, hence why blaming me? ,t,b:. \~l..ü ,' r-'~! 0} 2 - 5 ubordinating conjunctions: ~I.::JI ~'J)I _ 2Subordinate conjunctions are used 10 introduce noun and adverbial clauses. ' . r\"\"'\").,)1.>-1) ;;\".....~I ~I 'l,:.ol ~l:ll .1:,1))1 .~a - wilh oouo clau$Cs:Th\" Whet her e -b - \Vilh adverbial clauses of place ~lSll 4~1 ~I ol:-!li yWhere (as) Wherever - 135 -

e - \Vi th adverbial cla uses of lime .,..)1 ;y1>-1 J..!-I •t,;.i (;:' - \"\"When t.= Whene ver L$ AsWhile t..\" J• d.~ ,\.CIAfler Berore j.,; lill\"\"\"Since ...- As saon as \"W - c?- ,.r.-'Unt il c?-As long as Now ~'YI ~lkOnce No sooner c?- - .D:,~ ;if ,,:A,;, 1°f tha nd - \Vith adl'erbial clauses of cause ~:;~ ~ Il ~~ I ~, o~l ~ _ ...:JBecause SinceAs ;y1>-1 J..!-I •t,;.i (;:' _ .:- e - \Vith adverbial clauses of purpose .)>.,oJ1Js. lJl.!llThal ./J-c?- Sa Ihal u.i..,-r\"ln order Iha tFor fea r Iha t ~i..»c\" Lest 'J ..'r- /~i ~- 01 d ij~ In case \<.,lif - \Vith adverbial clauses c.lJl.!l1;y1>-1 J..!-I •t,;.i (;:' -of result ~1Js.Thal .!.U.iJ Sa Iha t ..»c~Sa .. thal Sa as 10 ..»c~Such . thal 01 \"-:o:-)..u .)i \"-:o:-)..uThe wa ter was so cold ~ d <.-).!l b), ,lll ~I>tha t we cou ldn' l swim ,--LJI d'-'-'g - With adverbial clauses ;y1>-1 J..!-I •t,;.i (;:' - tof contrast .,Wdl. :w.lW,1 Js. lJl.!l1Al th ough Tho ugh ~i cr r')\"Even though Even i fJthough (b!)}) c?- - 136-

. A, WhoeverWhal eve r H owever '1 ii .. 1'>1~ Ir Whether. or not 4 ~\)-\"Wheneve r No matter howNo matler whethcr . Or nol ~ ri .. bJ ~I\"....h - With ad\'crbial clauses ;y1>-1 J.o.>-I '1.,.'>i t' - ,of manner ;.,.;,sJ1 Js- ;UI.IJ1A, As ;[ }W' HowA s though ~in Ihati - With ad\"crbial clauses ;Yl>-I J.o.>-I ,w.i t' ~ l.l)\.ill Js- ;UI.IJIof comparisonAs .. As ~ Such as J:.-Not as .. as J!-o ~ Not '0 .. As J'S ..,..,1Th'n ,~.• '~. ...w.lLJJ.,J! The .. the WS' . . \..J.S\"- The more you forgive. ~i 1.$ pi 0~ 1.$the grealer yOll arc ~pij - \Vith ad\"crbial clauses of condition .,.,ri1 ;y1>-1 J.o.>-I '1.,.'>i t' - 'If bj ,} Unless ,J b! ' ,J }Whclher Provided thal 'J )i r . L!.\ .Ji J,.A SupposÎng Ihat HJÎ \...p} On condition Ihal (.Ji ~.r- Js As lo~g as u.u..• You may go OUI 011 condition Ihat ,yS .)i .l.ri CJ)-I .!.-L\5:,.~yOll are back by tcn o'clock. .ifi-WI j;i- You will have nothing ..!J:.$ r~ r-! 1;1 I!,.:. J.,cÎ; Junless you keep yOuf word. r= '1 1;\\ ,~ .!.-Li \\\1.As long as yOll are in love \Vith herwhy don't yOll ask ror her hand? ~t\".\"\" .,.JhJ - 137 -

Use of sorne clauses with exarnples - 138 -

[ Time clal/ses ]IAsl al used with \"just\" to express an interrupted action .J-i t \l:.i;1 ..,.. pd \"\.1<\" ~ J--Î liexamples: *1 / Just as 1 was watching the match on TV set, the light came off. .;,:.81 J>- <LWI ..v.L:.i .::..c.5' \...u L:1< '\"} )JlI .w ,*2/ Ju st as she. was rcading the paper the phone rang. .0) \"\"\"411 ,o-,<}-I e::'-\"\" u\5\" 1...:\", L:li ./2bl used to express two actions that accnT at the same rime. J..;..i}1 .,...<; ~ .!.»J.>. ..,.. pd J..o:.-l 1yexamples: *1 / She eut her finger, as she was preparing lunch. .,I..wl ~ u\5\" \...u ~l G->-? Il .\"'2/ 1 dropped my gla sses, as 1 stood JuPk-.: ,\" , .1/2 .-:..E) \...u J b;IWhonl al used to express (wo act;olts when -olle follows the othe,.. f\"J l tfi J.>.ljl \fi J:\"!\:::o ~ ..,.. ~ J..o:.-l liexamplc: .. when he pressed the button , the machine stopped. , .(<J'JI) <S'lIl -:..Ef )jJl J>- ~ .u • hl used to express Iwo actions that occu,. together. •1Â.o UJ.>. ~ ..,.. ~ J..o:.-l 1yexamples: • when 1 came home, shc was having a bath. .r \" u\5\" ~I .:...L.) \...u • '\" she was an intelligent girl, when she was fifteen . ci.O? .......i:l-I 0'\"' u\5\" \...u '-?;, ~ u\5\" • .J:A:-ll J J..o:.-l 1(. cl lIsed ;11 future clauses * 1'11 do my bed, when l've fini shed reading the book. , . , ,.....! • ·<f.l-r ~)L. ,\"\",1;.>,)1 0,1) 0' csPl \...u • dl IIsed to express an ùtferl'Ilpted action. - (..JJ' \fi) J.i t \l:.i;1 ..,.. ~ J..o:.-l l'eg: * 1 \Vas watching the film, when the light came off. • 139 -

IWhilel al used to express an interrupted action. .(..;Îj \",i) J...i t \k.ill ~ .,.\"..w J-.J licg: ... While 1 was watching the film, the light came off. w•, \"..-'..1.1 JY. ,~,. ~,1 ,\" .l>L:.Î ~ -. hl used to express two actions tha. Geeor together. .,;..i}1 ..,...;.; J .;:.,W .;.,)\"\"\" ~ .,.\"..w J-.J 1\"\"cg: ... While 1 \Vas watering thë flowers. he \Vas repairing his car . .ô).,:..]1 ~ y J\5' 'Jy}ll .j--Î ~ ~ . Je.. cl \"whilell cali IUcan \"but\" l \"\",hereas\" to emplaize contrast. (an opposing clause)..:•1-L..:; c1<r.·...I..!3J\"~· cs.'\" l \"...CrI'\"..r.\"\" '\" i '.\"C\"\"- \"W. )i~.;.\";.;}\"1_}_. ..cg: '\" 1 wo rk eight hO,ufs a duy, while she works only six . .~ )/1 J-.-i <./' .:fJ \"'\"\?L.. J L..: j.-?Î l;Î .Je.. '\" While our country has plenty of oil, others have none .J JJs.ôh.\"?~I JI.uJ1 oC> ,.;- ..c,.Ji '1 ,.6J1 J l;.u, '\"J\"\". 0»- .Je..IBetorel as a conjunction used to join twc actions \Vhen olle happened berGre the second. ..1'':/1 Jj ~ ~I) .;.,)~ J§.,. 1,.\",\" .;:.,W J.,) J..:.-' ~ ,jA -\"\"FTERI as a conjunction, used to join two succeeded actions. ..;,)b .;:.,W J.,) J--' ,~ ,j.rS -cg: ... Aner he had left. 1 arrived . .i l i j 'J;\? J!I,. • Il oéJ,t;.,. -\"'! ~j .Je.. '\" He examined him. aftef he had taken the temperatu re..~ ~)? ~)~ ..l>.i Ji L. Il ~J~ 4.:.:-J~ ..L.:.\ L..~ ~ <tJl:.o ... 110st my watch. aner 1 had left the meeting. _'tke-~I \"'\"J,l? J) \.. // t ke-{\l JJ't;.,. -\"'! \f\"'L.. -:\"\"\"';'Î .J~ '\f\"'L.. ~I - 140 .

trill LUntill means: \"up to\", used to join rime clauses. (here are used as conjunctions);u..- • ;U~I •.:u. Jl .\"\",]1 J..!-I J.,} J.--J ,'-< t.~! ~I -i'\" • .(~ J.r-S\"cg: >1< l'm Ilot going till j untill get my money. ?'u-\"IJ> .i>-ÏI ..,....;1 J .J~ JI . J.iy~~1 -->1< He won't came till j uutil he -is invited. ' \" Cs'l, .J~ .J .J,.f JI>1< 1 won't go out till j until the rain stops -, - - .).ll .fir. J>- c.r'i J .J~ISincel as a conjunction, used in general with perCect tenses. It means: After a past rime..lA! :-i'\" <i') (......111 Jl ~Sl Jo<ill &; C;' ..\0 J.--J ,~ J .r-S\" .~ci)eg: >1< Since being in Aigiers, we've visited \"MAKAM. ECHAHID\" . .'.......,WI )1)-4 \"-\"clf -'-'\"' .~I rLi... \"J) .J~cg: >1< Since you can't answer the question, 1 shall ask sorne one else. • • ~M\"1 l<...\",...\".,\"\"\".....,.;/~ J>- J1J-l1 ''-!l,,-)'1e:k'-' .J\.\0 C»1..... 'JlAS SOON Asi - used for time clauses. (l,,;jyll \"\",)1 J..\"Jl J.--J -cg: >1< 1 shall see hirn as soon as he comes. A~L J-\"< Il\.,... IJ-\"< Il\.,... •.WL .J~>1< 1'11 inforrn you as soon as 1 have a sign. 1 .(i).:'!) J), J>- ~ JI l,. ~L .J~Iwheneverl- used (or rime clauses. It means: At any time.eg: >1< Phone me whenever yOll want. , , d.ù» c::..j) <,>1 ~\,o. .J~>1< This is rny car, you can use it whenever you like. - -- J...:..\"..-i c::..j) <,>1 4lt.....:...,.1 ~ ,jJ~ •.:u. .J~ - \4\ -

[ Place ciaust!!~_(.:J~L~i1I~1 ~IWh_r_v_rI • used to express place clauses, il means: at BOy place at ail. (~i) \"IS:. ~i J :.rJ <l.,;1S:. ~ .r ~ ~ -cg: ... wherever he goes, he faces the problems. .j>l.!ll .\".1-\" ..,...,.; ~Î • :JI:.. ... Sit wherever you like. (\"\",) ..:...\"..Î ,,\5:.. <?i J ..,..te.1 • :JI:.. ... He will be Beneficiai wherever he works . .J.--< L..:,Î 1...,... ,,~ • :JI:.. [ R_~Q~on] Callse c/a'!.....ses ,,_,.:..11 ~1 JI ]IB.eaus.1 Sine.1 Asi - used in the same \",ay to express causes! Reasonscg: ... 1 can't help you because 1Sincel As l'm late.' :JI:.. • . F I \",..r'1':.-. ~: \", .!J;~L....• She stayed at home becausel Sincel As it nined a lot. .op., .kil...; )01.1 :,~ ~I d \" ,i, :JI:.. •... Because/ Sincel As it raind a lot, she stayed at home. - - .' <op.,.~I J ~ .kil...; )01.1 \"..,IB\"eause ofl Froml- (Tllese are prepositions, used onlv \",;th nouns,pronouns or gerunds to express causesl Reasom') The same as \"Because\" .W)I ~\.ill ,l...-i) ) w.J1\"l...-~I ~ ~! ~ J\" ..:JJ? •.i.o) - .\"[/'1\" ~ .,.Ai J.N (yl,..o'il ,:r .,.,....;u (lNG) -!cg: ... He died from smoking. . 142 .

'\" She rerurns back because of the snow. 'CfiJl ~ ~ ~ ~J :JI;.. . '\" From his aCtÎvity, we wouldn't think he was aged . .(:;,..... .;i JI.\" W~ 'il ..:,...; .Ji .f.;,; 'i J.~ ~ :JI;.. • [ Jrn -used to express condition clauses. J-:--l - .'Jo)JI ~I .;r p It means: supposing that 1on condition that. &i j,r< l \"i J>?J :\",ro -eg: '\" If yOll poor oil on water, it floats. .,\ll ~ ~I)! ;J\.,.. ci \"\",,)JI yi.b, .JI;.. If 1 were yOll, 1 wOllld accept. - - - ..!.1l5:.. J.{i \"i ,l,.r- ~L / ..:.J.,AJ .!.1l5:.. Ji w.pl } .JI;.. '\" If yOll heat ice, lt melts. .~ <k,';' ~I y).i, :JI;.. •IWHETHERI - It means: nIf.....or not\" \"sed to show a choice between possibilities. 1 ..:\"~I..>! i~ .J:>! .ft)~l \"I.,,::l J-:--l \"(~) ~ ri \" ..}\" :\",ro -eg: '\" He asked me wherher she was coming. ...\"i ..:..;\5\" .)1 .}L :JI;.. •eg: '\" 1 do ,not know whether is true. ?'(l:\"\"\"\") Y' bl j.ri ~ •IUNLEssl - It meaRS nIf not\", \"exc.ep,t if' . .\"I;! ~r \"~ &1 ,~l.\" \",ro -eg: '\" He will do nothîng unless you ask him . -.\"'-' ~ bl 'il,\";' J..i< J :JI;.. •cg: '\" Oon't leave the building unless 1 tell yop to. cr.l~ J • ~ ..!.JJ.i, ~1 ~ l,. 1 J>\;.; 'i •eg: '\" 1 shall go to the party unless she phones. .\;iil. ~ ~ 01 <W.I Jl -,...;1.•..- • - 143 .

t lCHAPTED;,8[ /F- COND/T/ONAL ~)JI } ] iF clause* Condition:.1 sentences have '\Va parts t Rcsult clause. (main clause) \"F\"IF\"~}~ Jl4>~1 jJ.-I r-\"i (i,-))llW-I) lW-1 t li ., ...-k , The Fi,st conditional ),)1\ j.fJ\ te(Result clause) 'a.J..I(IF clause) \"}\" \"IF\" u..\"IF + Present simple + shall/will + infinitive (simple future).} + .?l!-I ;;.,.... + \"shall! will\" + ).L.o11 (.k,-,)I J.,.i:-ll)- IF it Rains r shall get wet)dl .hA......, jl j,;L- JF yOll hurry. yOll will cat,ch the train. ~.,..Î ~ .) 11.iI1,, ~The first conditional is used for a direct or immediate possibilitv aprobable condition. ..~ Jo';' :,;.\.,.0 JL..:\"..I Joel if ~ Li.• J)\"'JI J-\".!JI Possible variations of the tClIses rules JW~' 6-'\" ,.I$I..t'l ~, ..:.t'~1IF + simple present + simple presentIF yOll pour oil on water It floats (Natural 10\\'5)(<......'k 0>''1\".') ..?l!-I, ;;.,.... + .?l!-I ;;.,.... + } • yik; ,UI J;. .:.\"jJI \" :: \" } •IF yOll heat ice It tUfilS water (Natural Laws)(y.\"k \"\"I}) ,\... ~•'J ~I~}- IF [ say \"yes\" He says \"No\" (Habitua i Reaction),'J,;).;,,~! ~ J-\", 'r ' ~ } , 144 .

.uscd for Natural laws and habituai Reactions. , ,<;>~! JL.;I »») ~I ';\";I?J ~IF + Simple present + IMPERATIVE .T.,E..N\".S, E//M,/U•'11ST+/SH,...O;,LUl-lID/~OUGH+T}O ,())I•1 /......y)1 /- IF you see him Tell him to return back- IF he comes again \"\"i) } - you must prevent him I)W,~ ~-- IF she phones you you ought toI should inform her ,l»Y') ~ I}I.y -!.b;l> } - uscd for gh'ing ad\'ice or command ,-!.b;l> } \,0,)L>.) ~ I}I .y 0 IF + Sim ple present .,...\"i Ji ~\.a; .\ks.~ J ..'; ,,; ;y\5:...)'1 Ji i.,IL.,.. )'1 + Mayor can + ,...;,Ll-I ~ + (1;) }- IF you hurry you may catch the train. ~.r'i } .\JkiJ.~ .!.Li li.'.J Compare with :-1 J}i- IF you !lUrry you will catch ,the train -\kiJ~ d:;.i ~ ),- IF you are out of cash .!.L.!.'..;.r\"'1).01 -!.L. ~l.;:; (1;1) } you c;m gh'e me a cheque 1,(., J\W) ~used to lalk, about something to happen or to ask for permission P,C#; } .);) c,JkJ } 0-'>- ,..;:. ~ J...:..JIF + Present Perfeel 1Present Continions + Simple fnture ,.h,-.,JI J,.i:-ll ~ + r-=--JI ,...;,Ll-I ~ /(!:JI ,...;,Ll-I + }- lF you have finished your meal 1 shall give you some desserl ~) ~i } ~I ~ .!.t,w.L:.- IF you are still learning english 1 shall show you Illy new grammar book, - 145 -

\"fl)'1 ~ ~jl,. yi , j .,.;,JI) y.3l ...,.c!-I \"\",\5 ,j>- ~Lfor direct, immediate, certain possibility. ·.JS\"YJ <$)} ,';'y-used Jl.=-'J ~,The second conditional ..;~\ <.;.-1~\lF clause --+ (j~) (~, ~)_ Result clause-IF + simple past (past subjunctire) + would + Infinith'e (present conditional)J\"-\"-' + ,1)'\"1 J>;WI ......~I + (J>;WI ......~I) ..6.,-,J1 \"...~I ...,.., + yi .(J>).ll ?~I) J-.ill- IF it rained 1 would get wct- IF you hurried you would catch the train .).6.iJ~ .!.l-l j r ~ GJj-!-i yi- IF 1 \Vere rich 1 would buy a s peed cart..r' i).\"... \",-<pl GS j.,....J \?- GS yiThe second conditional is used for a less likelv possibilitv. ..:f.l Jl.:.>-I j;~ .,.;WI J>j-ÎJI J--l* Note that the tcuse used in the \"IF clause\" ius't the simple past butit's the past subjunctive, that's why in the third example wc say (1\Vere) and Dot (1 \Vas). But, as bath tellses han the sante Carm, Itdoesn't matter to use the simple past, except \Vith \"Ta Be\", we use(were) instead of (was).\"..6.,-,J1 I?\"'\ll J .:-.,J ...,.., Ji .b-'Y • ..,...,lil d ~J.\"1 was\" ..,..,JJ \"Iwere\" .\"-\"rDl 4 , j .1 ••- li J-.,ill J.,;; .!.JWI Jl:tl J) 1.i.,J ,,,,,:,.'JIJ..\"\"-' Ji ~l,. 'JJ v\"~ 'Y ,Pl ~ 4<-\" JW\t1 ~ Ji lr~ , P .(was) JtS:.. J (were) J..\"\"-' ,\"Tobe\" ,c=...~ ..6.,-,J1.,,-\"~IPossible variatiolls of ,Ile tellse ru/es JW~I &\"\" JS.\ ~ 4L.:$:1 ..;.J1.z:A:l1 IF + Simple past + Might 1Could(I?'\"\lI J) ..\"~)'1Ji ;.,J1..;.-)'1+ J.,-,ll I?'\"~1+ yiIF you hurried yOD might catch the train - 146 -

) \kAlI,. .::...C..i ..:..5 lé. )Compare \Vith: -! IJ)WIF you hurried you would catch the train) \kAlI,. .!.Li ..:..5 j r.-'1 ..::..<-.r'i }IF it stopped snowing yOll could go out.U}-I .!.1LS:..~ JlSJ ~I j,y<.- JiJi )uscd about possible rcsult and about abilitv or permission. .~~ JÎ J.1~ ,;)J.QJ ,iJ...:>,.. ~ J, --Î ...:J\.:J\ ,:,J:;..FJ\THE THIRD CONDlTlNAL } u..\". (IF Clause) ......' ;\",..,:; (Result clause)IF + Past Perreet + Would + Have + Past ParticipleJuill ~\"\"\"\" + .c.UI Juill + j Y' + r~1I .\".-\"111 + jlIF it had rained 1 would have stayed ho~me .-::..,J, ~ ..:..5 j r i 0 j.:i jÎIF you had hurried You would have got the tr:Jin..) \kAlI,. ~i ..:...s j ..r--1 ..::..<-.r'i jÎ'* The third conditional is used for a past possibilitv, \",hich didn'thappe\": impossible condition. .~ j,';' :..:.\"\"\" r.l JI..\".-'J ..:JWI Jo)J1 ~Possible variations of the tcuse rules. .Jw~1 ~ ~1.;iJ u..:,:1 .:,,1.-*11lF + past perfeet + would + infinitiveIF you had listened my ad vice yo u would be at university now ..J'Yi ......V-I .} ..:..5 j ri ~ ~! }'* used wlle\" the action in \"IF clause\" is a past acÏion, and the actionin \"Result clause\" is a present one..} Juill) ,1;..;>1.. )W \"<,).,;.JI }\" u..\". J Juill j ~ 1..= ~ • - . i.J,.1 . \"a.J-I ~· .!' '.1\"\"<1 .- - 147 -

IDirect and Indirect speechl l'':'I:JI~... \"\":\"I:JI <:'..YI1l11A - Direct speech: .rWI (,,~I _iThe very words used by the speaker are quoted without any change. .J..w <?Î i.» • .;,obdl ~I <?.\JI ~~I ..,.;.; .fJ.;• She said \"1 am tired todaylt . r\"r-\"JI Il. <.p ~ .cJ0 •• He said \"We are not JoW ci> 'l'WoI L..J- \;;1\" Jo.kids 10 be treated like that\" \"<.i,pl •.i;,Direct words arc always \"\" Wb t:\"'J' ;.rt,l.l -:..W5JI •put between brackets ..:F.>\"! '.\"~' . ~.~ 0l--.i'Indirect speech: .rWI.d' ()\~I -Y '- The words of the speaker are reported with sorne changes in construction. .-.,..f.rll .j .:..I~I ,;.., ';'I.I>-! t' .;..obdl .:..WS' .fj.;• She said that she was lired that day. .r.r.ll .:J,I.> ~ ...:,.j\5' 4-i~ ...:.JI,; 0• He sa id that they are not • r-i'•~kids to be treated like that. ci> 1\"....,1 Jo • 'l'WoI .~....,6J\ ~ \j.-~forms of Indirect Speech pWI ;;f r~1 J\S:..!.i1 . Indirect statements r-w,\ ~ ~\ . 12 - Indirect questions .rt,l.l .ri- JIJ-l1 - 23 - Indirect commands or requests ;;.w,\ ~ ,,1...:-)l)•I./''•:J\. 34 - Indirect exclamations .;.w,\ ~ ~\ -41 - Indirect statements: ,;.W\ cf J-I. 1General Rules: ....\s. Js..\,iTo change from direct to indirect speech, we must apply the followinggeneral rules: - 148 -