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Fitness Function We are entering a new age of robotics.Robotics are no longer slaves to our precisecommands. Robots can now learn, robots cannow adapt. Of course limits exist, but the futureof industry will require working with smartrobots who can build, assemble, and serve. One of the vital breakthroughs inartificial intelligence is machine learning.Machines learn by performing a taskrepetitively until it succeeds. Each repetitionthereafter will continue to improve theproductivity of the task, searching for the peakperformance, or fitness as defined by thefitness function. “Fitness Function” is a campus forrobotics development that provides co-working spaces for individuals and teams ofresearchers. The campus contains a publicplaza that travels under the building revealingthat the entirety of the interior is transparent,providing the public with views into the entirespace. Despite this, the research isn’t entirelyout in the open. The reflective, refractive, andabsorptive nature of the glass creates toomuch visual interference to truly understandwhat is happening inside of the building. Theseemingly random floor plans amplify thisinterference by not allowing the viewer topredict where the rooms are actually locatedfrom below. This allows the researchers toprovide the appearance of total transparencywhile affording them intellectual privacy. 161

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Luigi Moretti and the Origins of Parametric Architecture (History of Theory)170

Parametric architecture has become his design intent. Many years later in the earlysomething of a fashion in architecture of the 21st 20th century, the works of Hans Isler, Frei Otto,century. With advanced computational abilities and Felix Candela expanded the early analogueavailable to anyone with a computer and some parametric form-finding studies of Gaudi into thebasic scripting knowledge, the idea of quantifying 3rd dimension with membrane studies that woulddesign in order to justify design has influenced later result in their signature thin-shell concrete andthe way all young working architects think about cable structures.the design process on some level. Even those who Between the time of the invention of themight otherwise resist parametrics cannot help but computer and the later invention of Sketchpad,be influenced by the parametric design process now there was one particular architect who hademployed by every major structural engineering begun to consider the impact of the computerconsultant in order to optimize and tailor structure and mathematics in architecture as a means ofto the architects design vision. Though digital informing design. In 1957 Luigi Moretti foundedcomputing has existed at some level since the 1940’s the Istituto Nazionale per la Ricera Matematica eit took a great deal of time before architects truly Operativa per l’Urbanistica, or National Institue forembraced it as a design tool. The first drafting Mathematical and Operative Research for Urbanismprogram was invented in 1963 with the release of (IRMOU) with the intent to study the possibilitiesSketchpad, but it wasn’t until the advent of the of the computer in architecture. By the means of anaffordable personal computer and AutoCAD’s IBM 610 Auto-Point Computer, which was notablyrelease in 1982 that computer aided drafting began limited to only 180 units and was priced at $55,000,to take hold in the architecture industry. The placing such computational power well beyond theearliest versions of AutoCAD contained a built-in means of the architect public, Moretti spent thescripting language, now giving architects the tools next three years developing what would be the firstfor computational parametric design. Even then, computationally designed parametric architecture.it took many years for the strength of scripted In 1960 Moretti presented his work andgeometry to become apparent in architecture. theory on parametric architecture at the 12th MilanIt is worth recognizing that parametric design Triennale, with the most notable work being ahad existed long before the personal computer, range of stadium and theater designs based on abut until the late 1950’s it had been limited to set of 9 parameters and 10 sub-parameters thatform-finding in structural engineering. Antoni were quantified and mapped, generating designsGaudi is likely the earliest known architect to use intended to seat people in the areas in whichanalogue parametrics to aid form finding in his each parameter was most valuable. Following theweighted chain studies of the Sagrada Família. success of the exhibition, Moretti again publishedGaudi understood that by using gravity and loading his theory of Parametric Architecture in 1965.conditions as constants, he could inversely simulate After a perceived lack of interest from his fellowthe funicular shape of an arch in compression by Italians and the closure of the IRMOU due to a lackstudying chains in tension. This allowed him to of funding, Moretti expanded on his theory andthen manipulate the parameters of the width of published it once again in 1971 in an attempt tothe arch at its base and the length along the curve bolster his argument.of the arch to find the most efficient form for Moretti had actually coined the term 171

“Parametric Architecture” well before the first human experiences can be precisely measured bypublication of his article of the same name. In 1952 suggesting that traditional phenomena should beMoretti published the article “Structure as Form” examined as objective fact. Such a provision leavesas criticism of the two prevailing and competing room in the theory for empirical decisions thatschools of thought at the time: Formalism and have become common by tradition or style to takeModernism. He argued that neither form creating root in the theory. This provision seems to givestructure nor structure creating form is correct. In Moretti some flexibility in his arguments as thehis opinion the truth was somewhere in between alternative rejection of non-measurable parametersand that architecture is a simultaneous negotiation likely would have resulted in an overly restrictiveof structure and form in which each are driven by and rigid set of rules. Additionally, Morettieach other as well as by a set of value parameters declares that the architect is still at liberty to makedefined by programmatic needs of the building decisions freely as long as it does not interfere withand the design intent of the architect. The value objective analysis. He appears to realize that notparameters could be conscious or unconscious every architectural element can be optimized orconsiderations, and thus all architecture should be controlled by a parameter or is otherwise unableapproached as Parametric Architecture. to completely let go of his own artistic license as In “Parametric Architecture”, Moretti explains an architect. With the two provisions maintainingthat architecture and urbanism are still driven traditional elements of the design process, Morettiby empirical thought and ignore the possibilities is unable to fully bring architecture to the sameof scientific thought. Modern architecture is strictly principled state of the other sciences as hedriven by form and as a result it dictates how one earlier intends, though it could be said Moretti wasshould behave in and experience a space. Instead, instead aware that architecture is not a hard sciencearchitecture and urbanism should stop pursuing and allows for expression where a purely scientificthe literary or temporal narrative and be driven approach leaves gaps in the design process.by examining objective facts. The role of the With the analysis process in mind, thedesigner in Parametric Architecture is to evaluate architect is then responsible for predicting,and prioritize the values of a structure in order identifying, and imposing what parameters can beto create a clearer architecture. Mathematics and measured, their relationships, and the hierarchy ofcomputation are not central to Moretti’s theory, but importance while sculpting the remaining form thatare critical to the practical realization of Parametric cannot be quantified. Once the desired parametersArchitecture. Through the embrace of the scientific have been identified, the architect must continuallytheory, Moretti believes that by pushing architecture research, re-evaluate, and refine the design totowards a measurable, parametric maximum, the approach perfection as dictated by the parametersexactness of the relationship between structure being analyzed. Moretti argues that this processand form or experience can be made clear, thus is far more rigorous and intellectually challengingelevating architecture to the level of the sciences. than the traditional design process in order to Despite the seemingly extreme rebellion counter criticism that parametrics remove theagainst pure form and empirical arguments, architect’s knowledge by automating decisions andMoretti introduces a degree of uncertainty into that the architect must obtain a degree of humilityhis own theory. He acknowledges that not all to accept measured information that is not in-line172

with the architect’s vision. be determined that the seats in the middle of theMoretti’s writing on Parametric Architecture stadium located exactly 79 meters from each goalis unique as it approaches the theory less like are the best available seats.a philosophical argument and more like as In order to then determine the values of thescientific paper, using his own tests as supporting other seats, Moretti selects a function to give valueevidence for the theory with a heavy reliance on to the remaining seats based on the distance the seatthe mathematics to fortify his theory rather than is away from the optimal 79 meters from the twowritten explanations and arguments addressing goal areas, specifically given asthe finer points of his argument. It could “W=d1ke-kd1+d2ke-kd2” with d1 and d2 being thebe interpreted that Moretti believed that his distance inputs, W being the desirability rating,mathematical approach to architecture required and k being a constant value of 10. The function isa traditional mathematical means of explanation, presented with little explanation of rationale, andyet this approach only makes the details more discovering the true nature of the function can onlydifficult to interpret as the initial assumptions and be found by graphing. It appears that the functionmathematical relationships of his parameters are was used for its sine-like curve that starts at 0 whenhidden under a layer of complexity that requires a d1 and d2 equal 0, peak when they equal 1, and thenrather sophisticated understanding of mathematics. more gradually decrease back towards 0 as d1 and d2 increase beyond 1. The desirability result in itself The most prominent example of the influence does not appear to have any unit of measure and isof parametrics on architectural form that Morettiuses are his stadium design studies. In the soccer purely a value ranking system. The most egregiousstadium, parameters define the values of every of Moretti’s crimes of ambiguity is the completepossible seating location within the stadium lack of explanation of inputs. Based on the littlebowl. In one study, which Moretti names the “M” information given and the mathematical naturestadium, priority given to visibility of the entire of the function, d1 and d2 cannot simply be thevenue, followed by proximity to areas of high distances from the centers of each area of interestinterest located near the goals. Ultimately, though as Moretti explains, but instead must be ratios ofMoretti claims to give priority to visibility of the the distances over the ideal distance given that aentire venue, proximity to the areas of interest drive distance of 1 gives the greatest result.the equation and final stadium design. Though Using the given equation, Moretti thenthe parameters are rational, Moretti proceeds determines where the lines of constant desirabilityto obfuscate his process with poorly explained occur in a horizontal plane. With this determined,mathematical processes and equations. What can he maps the line onto the stadium bowl andbe determined from what Moretti gives is that he removes all seats that do not meet a certaindefines the areas of heightened interest as 50 meter undefined desirability criteria. This simple removaldiameter circles with their centers located 15 meters of the bowl outside of the last acceptable desirabilityfrom the goal lines. He defines the optimal distance line results in a particularly unique stadium shapefrom each area as the location in which the areas that is perfectly efficient under Moretti’s criteria.perfectly fill a 35° view cone, which, as Moretti With the same process, Moretti explainsfails to explain, is simply 79 meters away from the parametric nature of several other stadiumsthe centers of each circle. By this metric, it can valuing different criteria or different programmatic 173

types. For example, a swimming-pool stadium size to determine the population each can support,may allow for a larger visual field as the pace of then zoning the town based on travel time to thethe sport is slower and more predictable, while the school while maintaining mathematical accuracy soareas of interest favor the side of the pool in which that each student travels no more than necessary.the swimmers start and finish their races. Again, The second use is the analysis of traffic patterns towhile the parameters are quite rational, Moretti parametrically determine the timing of traffic lightsonce again poorly explains the mathematical in cities and to drive new road construction. Therelationships of the parameters, leaving the exact last proposal for parametric town planning is therational impenetrable to anyone but those with coordination of city services and investments in theparticular experience in mathematics. Regardless, community by population size. By putting a valuethe result is what one might expect from the given on each investment in the community, a city couldparameters. On the side of the pool in which the parametrically determine how to best serve itsstart and end of the races would be located, more citizens in each district.seats have been placed with the stadium bowl Interestingly, much of what Moretti wasgradually tapering towards the far end with fewer envisioning with regards to town planning is nowand fewer seats. Unfortunately the poorly explained in use in urban planning in various forms. Trafficmathematics continue on to the other examples of engineers now track traffic flows throughout thea theater design and tennis court design, though day and time signals accordingly, though not alwaysall the examples given follow similar themes of in real-time, while the prevalence of personalweighting areas by their distance and angle to computers has given everyone access to excel tocritical points of interest. easily sort through and manage government funds, Though the examples and studies on accomplishing virtually the same task as Moretti’sparametric architecture were mostly focused on parametric investment distribution processes.stadium designs, Moretti also saw his theory as One perceived disconnect between thebeing of use beyond traditional architecture. He theory and practice of Moretti’s theory throughbriefly cites human engineering as a means of his examples is that the examples are not trulyemploying the general methods of parametric objective. Even though the results have aarchitecture to another field. Through parametrics, mathematical basis, Moretti is the one creatingMoretti believed that human controlled devices the parameters and weighting the parameterscould be ergonomically designed in most all aspects through his own constructed algorithms. Theseto better fit the spatial needs of the human operator. algorithms is not based on empirical evidence, In addition, Moretti presents a series of rather it is his own interpretation of humanideas on the use of parametric thinking in urban perception and comfort driving the relationships.planning. Though more in depth than the short In the example of the soccer stadium, the zones ofsegment on human engineering, it does not benefit interest are positioned where Moretti believes thefrom the same in-depth studies as the stadium most important action occurs, and the 35° viewstudies. Instead, he presents a series of specific cone is a mathematical construct with little basisuses for parametric thinking in urban planning. in fact. While the end result is perfectly efficientThe first use is the division of towns into school to Moretti’s standards, if he were to later find thatdistricts using mathematical analyses of school people enjoy being closer and don’t mind a 60°174

viewing area, the entire stadium would have to be publications were often of limited distributionre-designed. Instead, he recognizes this potential and lacked continuity and his writing style tendedflaw and sees this as where the architect is most towards the brief and matter-of-fact despite theimportant, and where the true design happens in a clear density of his arguments. His theory ofparametric process. Parametric Architecture in particular was victimAs stated earlier, Moretti believes that to his own tendency to attempt to justify his theoryin Parametric Architecture, it is the architect’s through dense mathematical examples of his theoryresponsibility to identify and prioritize the values in practice without adequately explaining theof the design and continuously re-design when new relationships of parameters in any manner outsideinformation is discovered or the initial studies do of the algebraic formulas themselves, forcing thenot turn out correct. The benefit of a parametric reader to interpret the formulas themselves in orderprocess is that the re-design process can be to discover the assumptions and mathematicalshortened significantly if the initial parameters are relations used to arrive at a solution. Morettirobust enough. It may only take a recalculation himself even lamented the lack of attention thatof the original formula with new constants and his theory was receiving as expressed in a letterassumptions to recreate and tweak every design. to the editor of Moebius 1 before the publicationUnfortunately, the poorly explained and dense of the last draft of his theory. Despite the lack ofmathematics obstruct Moretti’s final argument. As attention, it is clear that Moretti cared deeply aboutthe reader struggles to decipher the assumptions his theory of Parametric Architecture, as the finaland relationships of the parameters, it becomes version published in Moebius 1 was substantiallydifficult to understand exactly why each stadium expanded and refined from his initial publication atcomes to their conclusions of desirability, leaving the 12th Milan Triennale.the reader to either unconditionally trust Moretti, Though Moretti seemed enamored withor more likely become skeptical of the validity of Parametric Architecture, the evidence of itshis design process. Regardless, there is clearly a influence on his later works is limited at best. Insophistication to Moretti’s process that is very much his Watergate Residential Complex built in 1971,intuitive and recognizes the importance of the Moretti is noted to have not wanted geometricallyvalue judgment of the architect. In fact, among the constructed lines, rather he wanted the lines ofstadium projects it could be said that the only thing the building to resemble “the action of an angryMoretti was truly designing were as parameters, thumb.” Moretti passed away only 2 years afterwhich produced a result designed through thought the final publication of Paramectric Architecture,alone. By setting up a sophisticated, if opaque set so it will never be known how he may have laterof parameters, he was able to create a wide variety incorporated parametric design into his builtof sophisticated results that do not seem trite or projects, but the theory has now become a verypredictable. relevant footnote in architecture theory withUltimately, Moretti’s theory was not widely parametrics and computational design now onaccepted nor influential to his peers at the time. the leading edge of many design contemporaryThis was both due in part to the underdeveloped practices.Italian architectural culture and the manner Moretti’s pre-CAD parametrics arein which Moretti published his works. His remarkably sophisticated and forward- 175

thinking, avoiding many of the pit-falls of more the architecture itself. It is unclear if Schumachercontemporary parametric design. Parametrics in believes in the power of a parametric approach torecent years have taken on an image of generative provide reasons why a continuous differentiationform for the sake of form, and even confused with should occur, as he only recognizes parametrics’the sweeping, rounded forms sculpted in software the ability to create such differentiation in hisrather than driven by external parameters, as seen manifesto, but as such parametric styles of formin Patrick Schumacher’s “Parametricist Manifesto”. creation and patterning have become less novel,Schumacher’s manifesto stands in stark contrast to there has been a rising critical backlash amongMoretti’s values-driven approach as Schumacher contemporary architects to parametrics for the sakeembraces parametrics as a means to a stylistic of style.end, the end being an architecture of continuousdifferentiation. In many ways Moretti’s theory Moretti’s value-driven approach aligns withstands in direct opposition to Schumacher as some of the stronger, lasting results of the presentMoretti believes parametrics should come before trends in parametrics, and though his inability toform, and form should only act as a response to entirely objectify the design process may seem like athe results of the parametrics studies. In some flaw in his theory, it is actually a critical insight thatcases, such as his writings on urban planning, avoids the crippling rigidity seen in explorations ofMoretti’s theory has no influence on the form of fully automated architecture.176

Fig 1-3: Luigi Moretti, “M” Soccer Stadium. 1960. From: Luigi Moretti, Exhibition of Parametric Architecture andof Mathematical and Operational Research in Town-Planning (Milan: Arts’ Place, 1960)Fig 4-6: Luigi Moretti, “A” Swimming Pool Stadium. 1960. From: Luigi Moretti, Exhibition of ParametricArchitecture and of Mathematical and Operational Research in Town-Planning (Milan: Arts’ Place, 1960) 177

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Artifact Storage LibraryCLIENT: a system of requests and retrievals. TheAmerican Museum of Natural History Division public can research artifacts by browsing aof Anthropology digital library of 3D scanned items or a more traditional reference library. The items that theISSUE: individual is interested can then be requestedThe division owns an archive of 500,000 and automatically delivered to the individualobjects of cultural significance, but the by kiva robot on the top floor where a librarianmuseum itself only has room to display a will show them the requested object. Manysmall amount, leaving the rest to be stored objects can be requested at once and as thein discreet storage facilities in the New York entire rack that each object is on is carried toCity area, which cannot be easily accessed the viewing desk. Because the objects areor studied by the public and non-associated located with like objects, the individual canscholars. see the other related objects in storage and ask to view those as well in the same way asproposal: one might discover a new book in a traditionalWith new developments in 3D scanning library.and 3D printing technology, archiving andreproduction of hyper-precise 3D models REVEALS:reduces the need for such strict storage and Subtle reveals breach the interior walls of theconservation methods, giving the opportunity building, creating a visual bridge between theto open up storage spaces to the public. The public space and object space. The revealsnew storage model would blend the concept vary in openness and clarity, creating momentsof a storage facility with a public library while of curiosity to draw the viewer through theoperating similar to rare book libraries. building.Program:To maximize environmental control over thespace for objects and minimize the space theyuse, the objects and public are kept separateuntil the moment in when they are requestedfrom the nearest librarian.KIVA ROBOTS:In order to further express the dichotomybetween the human and object spaces, andto keep in line with current developmentsin storage technology, the building usesautomated storage and retrieval robots callKIVA robots.ITEM REQUESTS:The Artifact Storage Library operates on 179

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Site INTREPID MUSEUM135’ 95’ 40’ AMERICAN MUSEUM OF W 47th ST NATURAL HISTORY 12th AVENUEW 46th ST 11th AVENUE MAXIMUM ENVELOPE: M2-4 SPECIAL CLINTON DISTRICT (CL) MAXIMUM HEIGHT BEFORE SETBACK: 95’ MINIMUM HEIGHT BEFORE SETBACK: 50’ MAXIMUM TOTAL HEIGHT: 135’ NO SKYPLANE MINIMUM SETBACK AT WIDE STREET: 15’ MINIMUM SETBACK AT NARROW STREET: 20’ MAXIMUM FAR: 5.0182

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Kiva Robots ProgramAutomated, Robotic Storage Parallel Procession ofSystems which allow for public and storageeasy retrieval of objects N(PEUGBALTIICVESSPAPACCEE) PU&BPLRICOCPERSOSGIORANM REQUESTS (OBMJEACSTSSINPGACE) BOOK STACKS BUILDING ENVELOPE COMPUTERS LOBBY EXHIBITIONS184

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Receiving Archiving Amphitheater Lobby 1ST FLOOR 4TH FLOOR Cafe 2ND FLOOR 5TH FLOOR 3RD FLOOR 6TH FLOOR188

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Who is Avery? Social Intelligence Indoor Location Tracking (Post-Parametric)194

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