Psychology---Class-12

Psychology TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS XII 2019-20

First Edition ISBN 81-7450-660-8 January 2007 Magha 1928 Reprinted ALL RIGHTS RESERVED October 2007 Kartika 1929 January 2009 Pausa 1930 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system December 2009 Agrahayana 1931 or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, December 2010 Kartika 1932 photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the January 2012 Magha 1933 publisher. November 2013 Kartika 1935 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, December 2015 Pausa 1937 be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s February 2017 Magha 1938 consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is December 2017 Pausa 1939 published. December 2018 Agrahayana 1940 PD 60T BS The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other © National Council of Educational means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. Research and Training, 2007 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION ` 140.00 DIVISION, NCERT Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT NCERT Campus Phone : 011-26562708 watermark Sri Aurobindo Marg Published at the Publication Division by New Delhi 110 016 the Secretary, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri 108, 100 Feet Road Phone : 080-26725740 Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016 and Hosdakere Halli Extension printed at Saraswati Offset Printers Banashankari III Stage (P.) Ltd., A-5, Naraina Industrial Area, Bengaluru 560 085 Phase-II, Naraina, New Delhi-110 028 Navjivan Trust Building Phone : 079-27541446 P.O.Navjivan Phone : 033-25530454 Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 0361-2674869 CWC Campus Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Publication Team Head, Publication : M. Siraj Anwar Division Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal Chief Business : Gautam Ganguly Manager Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer Editor : Bijnan Sutar Production Assistant : Sunil Kumar Cover and Illustrations Nidhi Wadhwa 2019-20

FOREWORD The National Curriculum Framework, 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group of Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan (Department of History, Calcutta University, Kolkata) and the Chief Advisor for this textbook, Professor R.C. Tripathi (Director, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad) for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the 2019-20

iv Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to the systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. New Delhi Director 20 November 2006 National Council of Educational Research and Training 2019-20

PREFACE Psychology is one of the youngest sciences but one of the fastest growing. There are many who believe that the 21st century is going to be the century of biological sciences along with psychological sciences. Development in the fields of neurosciences, as well as physical sciences have opened new doors to solve the mysteries of mind and human behaviour. There is no human endeavour which is going to remain unaffected by this new knowledge which is getting created. One only hopes that it will enable people to live their lives more meaningfully and to organise human systems better. In fact, as a consequence, a large number of new job opportunities have surfaced. Psychology already has made inroads into many new domains. The writing of this textbook has been truly a collective effort. It has benefitted from the inputs received from various subject experts in various forms, from college and school teachers, and also students. In writing this textbook, we have tried to address some of the concerns raised by the evaluators of the previous edition of this textbook, while also making use of some portions of it. The textbook follows the National Curriculum Framework-2005. In keeping with the general guidelines, we have tried to reduce the load and attempted to make it more comprehensible for the students. In doing so, we have tried to relate psychological concepts with everyday human behaviour and also with various life experiences. How far one has succeeded in this, is left for the teachers and students to judge. One major challenge which teachers of psychology face is to make their students analyse human behaviour in a scientific manner and to use explanations which are not commonsensical. More than any other scientific discipline, psychology runs the risk of trivialisation. It is our hope that students who go through this course will develop a proper scientific attitude for analysing others and their own behaviour and use it for personal growth. We take great pleasure in placing this textbook in the hands of students and teachers and also express our gratitude to all who have provided their unstinted support in its writing and production. 2019-20

THE LITTLE FISH “Excuse me,” said an ocean fish, “You are older than I so can you tell me where to find this thing they call the Ocean?” “The Ocean,” said the older fish, “is the thing you are in now.” “Oh, this? But this is water. What I’m seeking is the Ocean,” said the disappointed fish as he swam away to search elsewhere. Source : “The Song of the Bird” Anthony de Mello, S.J. (Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash) 1987 2019-20

TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE CHIEF ADVISOR R.C. Tripathi, Professor and Director, G.B. Pant Social Science Institute, Jhusi, Allahabad TEAM MEMBERS Anand Prakash, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Delhi, Delhi Anuradha Bhandari, Professor, Department of Psychology, Panjab University, Chandigarh Damodar Suar, Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, Kharagpur Komila Thapa, Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad Lilavati Krishnan, Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, Kanpur Neelam Srivastava, former PGT, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi Poornima Singh, Professor, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, IIT, New Delhi R.C. Mishra, Professor, Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Shobini L. Rao, Professor, National Brain Research Centre, Gurgaon Sunita Arora, Senior Counsellor, Govt. Girls Sr. Sec. School No.1, Roop Nagar, Delhi Sushma Gulati, Professor, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi U.N. Dash, Professor, Department of Psychology, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar MEMBER-COORDINATORS Anjum Sibia, Reader, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi Prabhat K. Mishra, Lecturer, DEPFE, NCERT, New Delhi 2019-20

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi thanks Professor Sushma Gulati, Head, Department of Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education for her support during the various stages of textbook development. Acknowledgements are due to Dr. Shakuntla S. Jaiman, Principal, CSKM School, Satbari, Chattarpur, New Delhi; Rimjhim Jairath, Vasant Valley School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi; Alka Kumar, Ryan International School, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi; Anuradha Narayan, DAV Public School, Pitampura, Delhi; Cimran Kher, Modern School, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi; Lovika Jain, DPS, Mathura Road, New Delhi; and Usha Anand, St. Thomas Girls Sr. Sec. School, Mandir Marg, New Delhi for their contributions during workshops at different stages of textbook development. The suggestions given by Dr. Prachi Ghildyal, Lecturer, NERIE, Shillong in finalising two chapters of this textbook are also acknowledged. Acknowledgements are also due to Professor C.B. Dwivedi (Retired), Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for content editing the chapters and to Professor Sagar Sharma (Retired), H.P. University, Shimla for his valuable feedback and suggestions in finalising the textbook. Special thanks are due to Vandana Singh, Consultant Editor, for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes. The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contributions of Pavnesh Verma and Neelam Walecha, DTP Operators; Rakesh Kumar, Proof Reader; Sumant Thapliyal, Incharge, Computer Station; and Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor, in shaping this textbook. Last but not the least, the efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT are also duly acknowledged. 2019-20

NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS As a teacher, one is always concerned about students’ learning and enhancing their understanding over and above what is in the textbook. The existing classroom practices largely focus on imparting knowledge and information. It is, however, important for us to reflect on what it means to teach, how we teach, and the carryover value of our teaching. Research shows that pedagogical practices are influenced by the nature and contents of the subject or discipline. The subject of psychology, which deals with human mind, behaviour and human relationship, can most appropriately lend itself to teaching with humanistic perspective. Such a perspective aims at enriching students’ knowledge as well as inspiring and awakening their curiosity, positive feelings, desire to learn, openness, exploration of self and others, etc. Such an approach is also conducive to their personal development and inculcation of positive attitude and love for the subject. This textbook has been so designed as to provide ample scope to build on the previous knowledge and experiences of the students. Meaningful contexts have been provided to relate the subject matter with day-to-day life. We suggest you to use interactive approach to engage the students, and to sustain their interest and enthusiasm in order to make the teaching-learning process joyful. Strategies like stories, discussions, examples, questioning, analogies, problem-solving situations, role play, etc. are in-built part of the text. It will be good if students bring in their own stories and examples. Special effort has been made to reduce the density of information to provide time and space to help students to relate knowledge gained in the classroom to their individual experiences as well as to their physical, social, political and economic environments. The transaction of the subject matter, therefore, should facilitate reflection among students to explore the applicability of knowledge to their own contexts. We suggest that you may encourage your students to maintain a record of interesting events/episodes in which they may have been involved personally or which they may have observed. They may try to make sense of these episodes using their learning from this textbook. This may be called a LEARNING DIARY. It would be important to dwell on the potential of the subject for Class XII students, its value in daily life and various career possibilities. Students, it is expected, will be made aware of the empirical nature of the discipline and the importance of adopting scientific approach in studying human behaviour. This textbook consists of nine chapters on topics considered essential for an introductory course in psychology. Each chapter begins with learning objectives. An outline of the major contents to be covered give an overall view of the chapter. The introduction at the beginning of each chapter provides an informative and challenging start to build on the students’ previous knowledge. The main content in each chapter is interspersed with examples, illustrations, tables, activities and boxes to facilitate better understanding of the concepts. These are integral part of the textbook and should be used. The summary at the end of each chapter helps to reinforce and consolidate what has been read or taught. Before you begin a particular chapter you should encourage the students to read the summary of the chapter. 2019-20

x The chapter-end review questions cater to the areas of understanding, application and skill, intended to promote higher order thinking. The project ideas given at the end of each chapter are aimed at engaging students in fieldwork and gaining hands-on experience. This also brings them to understand abstract concepts more meaningfully by relating these to their everyday life happenings. We hope that these will be appropriately used by you to create new learning opportunities. Although the contents of the textbook have been organised under different headings, like variations in psychological attributes, personality, attitude, psychological disorders, group processes etc., efforts have been made to provide linkages across and within the chapters to maintain continuity and holistic perspective. The activities given in the textbook have been carefully chosen to maximise students’ participation in the class. Most activities suggested are easy to carry out and require no special material. These can be conducted in the classroom situation or given as part of home assignments. While some of the activities are group-oriented, some of these are individual in nature. Group activities are important for team building, to experience the joy of sharing and to develop respect for each others’ viewpoint. While conducting activity sessions, particular care should be taken in building a classroom climate that is conducive to mutual respect, confidence and cooperation. Since every class is different and every teacher is different, these activities can be adapted according to the varied requirements and the contexts. The two new features of this textbook are the pedagogical hints and weblinks. Pedagogical hints are given at the end of each chapter with the aim to help teachers transact the contents in a manner to evoke students’ interest and curiosity, and provide scope for better interaction in the class. Weblinks related to each chapter would facilitate further exploration on the topics to know about the latest developments made in the area of psychology. It is critical that in teaching this course, we must strive to maintain balance between scientific and experiential approaches. 2019-20

NOTE FOR THE STUDENTS This textbook has been prepared to introduce you to the fundamentals of psychology. Besides providing basic disciplinary knowledge, it focuses on enhancing your curiosity and understanding of people’s behaviour and that of your own. The interactive nature of the textbook will help you understand psychology as a discipline as well as the practical applications of psychology in day-to-day life. For this it is required that you participate in the classroom activities fully and also reflect on them. To begin with, you must get familiar with the subject contents which will give you an idea of the topics to be covered and the sequence of chapters. Each chapter has objectives and the content outline. The objectives inform you what all you should be able to know after you have gone through the chapter. The chapters begin with an introduction which will give you a brief overview of what lies ahead. The contents also include boxes and activities. These boxes contain information relating to the latest theories and experiments that have been conducted and its applications to everyday situations. They are integral to the book and you are required to read them to widen your horizon and to develop a quest for knowledge. Examples given in the textbook relate to real-life events and experiences. To consolidate all that has been taught and understood, you will find a summary after each chapter. This is then followed by review questions. These questions are likely to generate critical thinking and develop in you the power to question and reason. We encourage you to attempt these questions. Your responses to these questions will indicate both the degree of your mastery of the concepts taught and the depth of your knowledge. It is important that you learn the key terms given at the end of each chapter and their definitions. The glossary at the end of the textbook will prove to be an excellent aid to clarify and brush-up the fundamentals of the subject. Now let us focus on the activities and project ideas mentioned in each chapter. These are intended to promote experiential learning. Your experience while taking up these activities will help you to know more about yourself and others. These will also help you to relate taught concepts in the class to real-life situations. Try to involve in as many activities as you can as this will facilitate your understanding of psychological concepts better. The project ideas also emphasise learning by doing. You may have to move out of your classroom to interview people or to gather information. It may not be possible for you to carry out all the projects but choose the ones you find interesting. Weblinks provided at the end of each chapter would help you to find out additional information on the related concepts covered in this textbook. You are going to embark on a journey towards exploring different realms of the subject. As you go along, the text will help you to explore your ‘self ’ and the world of which you are a part. The doorway to psychology is open, make the best of it. 2019-20

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CONTENTS iii v Foreword 1 Preface Chapter 1 23 Variations in Psychological Attributes Chapter 2 50 Self and Personality Chapter 3 69 Meeting Life Challenges Chapter 4 89 Psychological Disorders Chapter 5 106 Therapeutic Approaches Chapter 6 129 Attitude and Social Cognition Chapter 7 152 Social Influence and Group Processes Chapter 8 177 Psychology and Life 196 Chapter 9 200 Developing Psychological Skills 209 Guidelines for Practicals in Psychology Glossary Suggested Readings 2019-20

CONSTITUTION OF INDIA Part III (Articles 12 – 35) (Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions and reasonable restrictions) guarantees these Fundamental Rights Right to Equality • before law and equal protection of laws; • irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth; • of opportunity in public employment; • by abolition of untouchability and titles. Right to Freedom • of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession; • of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences; • of protection of life and personal liberty; • of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years; • of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases. Right against Exploitation • for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour; • for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs. Right to Freedom of Religion • freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion; • freedom to manage religious affairs; • freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion; • freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational institutions wholly maintained by the State. Cultural and Educational Rights • for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture; • for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Right to Constitutional Remedies • by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights. 2019-20

VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other, learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes, explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour, learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged and gifted individuals, understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude. CONTENTS Introduction Individual Differences in Human Functioning Assessment of Psychological Attributes Key Terms Intelligence Summary Theories of Intelligence Review Questions Project Ideas Theory of Multiple Intelligences Weblinks Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Pedagogical Hints Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence Individual Differences in Intelligence Variations of Intelligence Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1) Culture and Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons (Box 1.2) Special Abilities Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Creativity Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 1 2019-20

Introduction If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious. In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ, what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual differences. One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN exemplifies a typical combination of FUNCTIONING various traits. The question which you may like to pose is how and why people differ. Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the and across all species. Variations add study of individual differences. For colour and beauty to nature. For a psychologists, individual differences refer to moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among where each and every object is of the same people’s characteristics and behaviour colour, say red or blue or green. How would patterns. the world appear to you? Certainly not a beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in While many psychologists believe that such a world? In all likelihood, your our behaviours are influenced by our answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too personal traits, some others hold the view possess different combinations of traits. that our behaviours are influenced more by situational factors. This latter view is Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence one’s behaviour. A such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour relatively more as a result sense, each one of us is unique as s/he of influence of external factors. 2 Psychology 2019-20

ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL her/his family and neighbourhood, we ATTRIBUTES may consider assessing her/his personality characteristics. For a poorly Psychological attributes are involved in motivated person, we may assess her/his very simple phenomena like in time taken interests and preferences. Psychological to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, assessment uses systematic testing and also in highly global concepts like procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, happiness. It is difficult to count and and personal qualities of individuals. specify the number of psychological attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological Assessment is the first step in Attributes understanding a psychological attribute. Assessment refers to the measurement of Psychological attributes are not linear or psychological attributes of individuals and unidimensional. They are complex and their evaluation, often using multiple expressed in terms of dimensions. A line methods in terms of certain standards of is a mere aggregate of many points. A point comparison. Any attribute will be said to occupies no space. But think of a box. It exist in a person only if it can be measured occupies space. It can be described only in by using scientific procedures. For terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, example, when we say, “Harish is width, and height. Similar is the case with dominant”, we are referring to the degree psychological attributes. They are usually of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is multi-dimensional. If you want to have a based on our own assessment of complete assessment of a person, you will ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may need to assess how s/he functions in be informal or formal. Formal assessment various domains or areas, such as is objective, standardised, and organised. cognitive, emotional, social, etc. On the other hand, informal assessment varies from case to case and from one We will discuss in this chapter some assessor to another and, therefore, is open important attributes that are of interest to to subjective interpretations. Psychologists psychologists. These attributes are are trained in making formal assessment categorised on the basis of varieties of tests of psychological attributes. used in psychological literature. 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to Once assessment is done, we can use this information to predict how Harish will understand the world, think rationally, probably behave in future. We may predict and use available resources effectively that Harish, if given a chance to lead a when faced with challenges. Intelligence team, will most likely be an authoritarian tests provide a global measure of a leader. If the predicted consequence is not person’s general cognitive competence what we want, we may want to intervene including the ability to profit from to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. schooling. Generally, students having The attribute chosen for assessment low intelligence are not likely to do so depends upon our purpose. In order to well in school-related examinations, but help a weak student perform well in their success in life is not associated examinations, we may assess her/his only with their intelligence test scores. intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If 2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s a person fails to adjust with members of underlying potential for acquiring skills. Aptitude tests are used to predict what an individual will be able to do if given Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 3 2019-20

proper environment and training. A used for the purposes of clinical person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training. can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of 3. Interest is an individual’s preference for personality. You will learn about them engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2. activities relative to others. Assessment • Interview involves seeking information of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps salesperson makes a door-to-door us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects 4. Personality refers to relatively enduring employees for her/his organisation, or a characteristics of a person that make journalist interviews important people her or him distinct from others. on issues of national and international Personality tests try to assess an importance. individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. • Case Study is an in-depth study of the whether one is dominant or submissive, individual in terms of her/his outgoing or withdrawn, moody or psychological attributes, psychological emotionally stable, etc. Personality history in the context of her/his assessment helps us to explain an psychosocial and physical environment. individual’s behaviour and predict how Case studies are widely used by she/he will behave in future. clinical psychologists. Case analyses of 5. Values are enduring beliefs about an the lives of great people can also be ideal mode of behaviour. A person highly illuminating for those willing to having a value sets a standard for learn from their life experiences. guiding her/his actions in life and also Case studies are based on data for judging others. In value assessment, generated by different methods, e.g. we try to determine the dominant interview, observation, questionnaire, values of a person (e.g., political, psychological tests, etc. religious, social or economic). • Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective Assessment Methods procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real Several methods are used for psychological time. Certain phenomena such as assessment. You have learnt about some mother-child interactions can be easily of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall studied through observation. The major their key features. problems with observational methods • Psychological Test is an objective are that the observer has little control over the situation and the reports may and standardised measure of an suffer from subjective interpretations of individual’s mental and/or behavioural the observer. characteristics. Objective tests have • Self-Report is a method in which a been developed to measure all the person provides factual information dimensions of psychological attributes about herself/himself and/or opinions, (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) described above. These tests are widely 4 Psychology 2019-20

beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such we discuss some important theories of information may be obtained by intelligence. using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test, or Discovering the Attributes of Activity a personal diary. Intelligent Persons 1.1 INTELLIGENCE 1. Who is the most intelligent of your classmates? Think of her/him in Intelligence is a key construct employed to your mind’s eye, and write down know how individuals differ from one a few words/phrases describing another. It also provides an understanding that person. of how people adapt their behaviour according to the environment they live in. 2. Think of 3 other persons in your In this section, you will read about immediate environment, whom intelligence in its various forms. you consider intelligent, and write down a few words/phrases Psychological notion of intelligence is describing the attributes of each. quite different from the common sensical notion of intelligence. If you watch an 3. Judge the newer additions with intelligent person, you are likely to see in reference to what you wrote in item her/him attributes like mental alertness, no. 1. ready wit, quickness in learning, and ability to understand relationships. The 4. Make a list of all the attributes you Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as consider as manifestations of the power of perceiving, learning, intelligent behaviours. Using these understanding, and knowing. Early attributes, try to frame a definition. intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred 5. Discuss your report with your Binet was one of the first psychologists classmates and the teacher. who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, 6. Compare it with what the understand well, and reason well. researchers have to say about Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most ‘intelligence’. widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE adaptation to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate capacity of an Psychologists have proposed several individual to think rationally, act theories of intelligence. Theories can be purposefully, and to deal effectively with broadly classified as either representing a her/his environment. Other psychologists, psychometric/structural approach or an such as Gardner and Sternberg have information-processing approach. suggested that an intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment, but also The psychometric approach considers actively modifies or shapes it. You will be intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It able to understand the concept of expresses the individual’s performance in intelligence and how it has evolved, when terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. On the other hand, the information- processing approach describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. Rather than focusing on structure of intelligence or its underlying dimensions, information- Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 5 2019-20

processing approaches emphasise independent of the others. These primary studying cognitive functions underlying abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension intelligent behaviour. We will discuss (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and some representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising We mentioned above that Alfred Binet patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed was the first psychologist who tried to (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word formalise the concept of intelligence in Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), terms of mental operations. Prior to him, (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling we find the notion of intelligence described information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning in general ways in various philosophical (deriving general rules from presented treatises available in different cultural facts). traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and therefore, conceptualised intelligence as Level II. Level I is the associative learning consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). problem in an individual’s environment. Level II, called cognitive competence, His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective theory came to be disputed when output. psychologists started analysing data of individuals, which was collected using J.P. Guilford proposed the structure- Binet’s test. of-intellect model which classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions: In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a operations, contents, and products. two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does. employing a statistical method called factor These include cognition, memory analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of g-factor includes mental operations which materials or information on which are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed. performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent. they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes, them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 6´5´6 categories, theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or primary abilities, each of which is relatively ability; some cells may have more than 6 Psychology 2019-20

one factor. Each factor is described in high on this intelligence can easily terms of all three dimensions. represent the spatial world in the mind. Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, The above mentioned theories are architects, interior decorators, and representations of psychometric approach surgeons are likely to have highly to understand intelligent behaviour. developed spatial intelligence. Theory of Multiple Intelligences Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns) : It is the capacity to Howard Gardner proposed the theory of produce, create and manipulate musical multiple intelligences. According to him, patterns. Persons high on this intelligence intelligence is not a single entity; rather are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, distinct types of intelligences exist. Each and in creating new patterns of sounds. of these intelligences are independent of each other. This means that, if a person Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not portions of the body flexibly and necessarily indicate being high or low on creatively) : This consists of the use of the other types of intelligences. Gardner also whole body or portions of it for display or put forth that different types of construction of products and problem intelligences interact and work together to solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, find a solution to a problem. Gardner sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons studied extremely talented persons, who are likely to have such kind of intelligence. had shown exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle of intelligence. These are as follows: aspects of others’ behaviours) : This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings Linguistic (skills involved in the and behaviours of other people so as to production and use of language) : It is the bond into a comfortable relationship with capacity to use language fluently and others. Psychologists, counsellors, flexibly to express one’s thinking and politicians, social workers, and religious understand others. Persons high on this leaders are likely to possess high intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are interpersonal intelligence. sensitive to different shades of word meanings, are articulate, and can create Intrapersonal (awareness of one’s own linguistic images in their mind. Poets and feelings, motives, and desires): This refers writers are very strong in this component to the knowledge of one’s internal of intelligence. strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others. Logical-Mathematical (skills in Persons high on this ability have finer scientific thinking and problem solving) : sensibilities regarding their identity, Persons high on this type of intelligence can human existence, and meaning of life. think logically and critically. They engage in Philosophers and spiritual leaders present abstract reasoning, and can manipulate examples of this type of intelligence. symbols to solve mathematical problems. Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features to be strong in this component. of the natural world) : This involves complete awareness of our relationship Spatial (skills in forming visual images with the natural world. It is useful in and patterns) : It refers to the abilities recognising the beauty of different species involved in forming, using, and of flora and fauna, and making subtle transforming mental images. The person discriminations in the natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 7 2019-20

zoologists, and bird watchers possess Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or more of naturalistic intelligence. creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve novel Triarchic Theory of Intelligence problems. It is reflected in creative performance. Persons high on this aspect Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the integrate different experiences in an triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg original way to make new discoveries and views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, inventions. They quickly find out which to shape and select environment to information is crucial in a given situation. accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to this On the ‘Practical’ Track Activity theory, there are three basic types of 1.2 intelligence: Componential, Experiential, You have just been admitted into a and Contextual. The elements of the school/college. You will take three triarchic theory of intelligence are shown examinations during the entire year. in Figure 1.1. You sincerely want to receive high marks in the course. How likely are you Componential Intelligence : Compo- to engage in each of the following nential or analytical intelligence is the actions? Rank the following courses of analysis of information to solve problems. action. Match your answer with that Persons high on this ability think of your classmates. analytically and critically and succeed in • Attend classes regularly. schools. This intelligence has three • Create study groups with your components, each serving a different function. First is the knowledge acquisition friends for weekly discussions. component, which is responsible for • Take detailed notes in the class. learning and acquisition of the ways of • Join a tutorial/coaching centre. doing things. The second is the meta or a • Prepare written notes for each higher order component, which involves planning concerning what to do and how chapter. to do. The third is the performance • Read the textbook chapters component, which involves actually doing things. thoroughly. • Solve the questions of the last three years. Talk to your teacher after the class. Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 8 Psychology 2019-20

Contextual Intelligence : Contextual you perceive the relations among various or practical intelligence involves the ability concepts and integrate them into a to deal with environmental demands meaningful pattern for comprehension. For encountered on a daily basis. It may be example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. (RPM) Test, a design is presented from Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to which a part has been removed. You are their present environment or select a more required to choose one of the six options favourable environment than the existing that best completes the design. one, or modify the environment to fit their Simultaneous processing helps you in needs. Therefore, they turn out to be grasping the meaning and relationship successful in life. between the given abstract figures. Successive processing takes place when Sternberg’s triarchic theory of you remember all the information serially intelligence represents the information- so that the recall of one leads to the recall processing approach to understand of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, intelligence. multiplication tables, etc. are examples of successive processing. Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model Planning : This is an essential feature of Intelligence of intelligence. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is This model has been developed by J.P. activated. It allows us to think of the Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). possible courses of action, implement them According to this model, intellectual to reach a target, and evaluate their activity involves the interdependent effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is functioning of three neurological systems, modified to suit the requirements of the called the functional units of brain. These task or situation. For example, to take the units are responsible for arousal/attention, test scheduled by your teacher, you would coding or processing, and planning have to set goals, plan a time schedule of respectively. study, get clarifications in case of problems and if you are not able to tackle the Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is chapters assigned for the test, you may basic to any behaviour as it helps us in have to think of other ways (e.g., give more attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your enable a person to process information. An goals. optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a These PASS processes operate on a problem. Too much or too little arousal knowledge base developed either formally would interfere with attention. For (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or instance, when you are told by your informally from the environment. These teacher about a test which s/he plans to processes are interactive and dynamic in hold, it would arouse you to attend to the nature; yet each has its own distinctive specific chapters. Arousal forces you to functions. Das and Naglieri have also focus your attention on reading, learning developed a battery of tests, known as the and revising the contents of the chapters. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal Simultaneous and Successive tasks that measure basic cognitive Processing : You can integrate the functions presumed to be independent of information into your knowledge system schooling. The battery of tests is meant for either simultaneously or successively. individuals between 5 and 18 years of age. Simultaneous processing takes place when Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 9 2019-20

The results of assessment can be used intelligence while rich nutrition, good to remedy cognitive deficits of children family background, and quality schooling with learning problems. increases intelligence. There is a general consensus among psychologists that This model represents the information- intelligence is a product of complex processing approach to intelligence. interaction of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE viewed as something that sets a range within which an individual’s development is Why are some people more intelligent than actually shaped by the support and others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it opportunities of the environment. due to the influence of environmental factors? You have already read about the Assessment of Intelligence influence of these factors in the development of an individual in Class XI. In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and formally measure intelligence. In 1908, Nurture when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a The evidence for hereditary influences on measure of a person’s intellectual intelligence comes mainly from studies on development relative to people of her/his twins and adopted children. The age group. A mental age of 5 means that intelligence of identical twins reared a child’s performance on an intelligence together correlate almost 0.90. Twins test equals the average performance level separated early in childhood also of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological show considerable similarity in their Age (CA) is the biological age from birth. intellectual, personality and behavioural A bright child’s MA is more than her/his characteristics. The intelligence of identical CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. twins reared in different environments Retardation was defined by Binet and correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins Simon as being two mental age years below reared together correlate almost 0.60, and the chronological age. those of brothers and sisters reared together correlate about 0.50, while In 1912, William Stern, a German siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25. psychologist, devised the concept of Another line of evidence comes from the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to studies of adopted children, which mental age divided by chronological age, show that children’s intelligence is more and multiplied by 100. similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents. IQ = MA ´ 100 CA With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children grow The number 100 is used as a multiplier in age, their intelligence level tends to move to avoid the decimal point. When the MA closer to that of their adoptive parents. equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is Children from disadvantaged homes more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ adopted into families with higher socio- becomes less than 100 when the MA is less economic status exhibit a large increase in than the CA. For example, a their intelligence scores. There is evidence 10-year-old child with a mental age of 12 that environmental deprivation lowers would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 ´ 100), 10 Psychology 2019-20

Activity ‘Intelligent’ Numbers ‘intellectual disability’, while persons 1.3 (Computing IQ) with IQ above 130 are considered to have exceptional talents. The IQ score of a • Find out the IQ of a 14-year-old person can be interpreted by referring to child with a mental age of 16. Table 1.1. • Find out the mental age of a 12- Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the year-old child with an IQ of 90. Basis of IQ whereas the same child with an MA of 7 IQ Range Descriptive Label Per cent in the would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 ´ 100). The Population average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age. Above 130 Very superior 2.2 IQ scores are distributed in the 120 – 130 Superior 6.7 population in such a way that the scores of most people tend to fall in the middle 110 – 119 High average 16.1 range of the distribution. Only a few people have either very high or very low 90 – 109 Average 50.0 scores. The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell- 80 – 89 Low average 16.1 shaped curve, called the normal curve. This type of distribution is symmetrical 70 – 79 Borderline 6.7 around the central value, called the mean. The distribution of IQ scores in the form Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2 of a normal distribution is shown in Figure 1.2. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity; some are The mean IQ score in a population is exceptionally bright and some are below 100. People with IQ scores in the range of average. One practical use of intelligence 90–110 have normal intelligence. Those test is to identify persons at the extremes with IQ below 70 are suspected to have of intellectual functioning. If you refer to Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per cent of the population have IQ above 130, Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population 11 Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 2019-20

and a similar percentage have IQ below to those who cannot be trained and 70. The persons in the first group are require institutional care throughout their called intellectually gifted; those in the lives. You have learnt earlier that the second group are termed intellectually mean IQ score in the population is 100. disabled. These two groups deviate These figures are used to understand the considerably from the normal population categories of intellectually disabled. The in respect of their cognitive, emotional, different levels of intellectual disability are: and motivational characteristics. mild (IQs 55 to approximately 70), moderate (IQs 35–40 to approximately 50– Variations of Intelligence 55), severe (IQs 20–25 to approximately 35–40), and profound (IQs below 20–25). Intellectual Deficiency Although the development of people with mild disability is typically slower than that On the one hand are the gifted and of their peers, they can function quite creative persons we discussed briefly independently, hold jobs and families. As earlier. On the other hand, there are the level of disability increases, the children who face enormous difficulty in difficulties are strongly marked. The learning even very simple skills. Those people with moderate disability lag behind children who show intellectual deficiency their peers in language and motor skills. are termed as ‘intellectually disabled’. As They can be trained in self-care skills, and a group, there is wide variation among the simple social and communication skills. intellectually disabled. The American They need to have moderate degree of Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals views intellectual disability as with profound and severe disability are “significantly sub-average general incapable of managing life and need intellectual functioning existing constant care for their entire lives. You concurrently with deficits in adaptive will read more about the characteristics behaviour and manifested during the of the intellectually disabled in Chapter 4. developmental period”. This definition points to three basic features. First, in Intellectual Giftedness order to be judged as intellectually disabled, a person must show significantly Intellectually gifted individuals show sub-average intellectual functioning. higher performance because of their Persons having IQs below 70 are judged outstanding potentialities. The study of to have sub-average intelligence. The gifted individuals began in 1925, when second relates to deficits in adaptive Lewis Terman followed the lives of about behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a 1500 children with IQs of 130 and above person’s capacity to be independent and to examine how intelligence was related deal effectively with one’s environment. to occupational success and life The third feature is that the deficits must adjustment. Although the terms ‘talent’ be observed during the developmental and ‘giftedness’ are often used inter- period, that is between 0 and 18 years changeably, they mean different things. of age. Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide Individuals who are categorised as variety of areas. Talent is a narrower term having intellectual disability show and refers to remarkable ability in a significant variation in their abilities, ranging from those who can be taught to work and function with special attention, 12 Psychology 2019-20

specific field (e.g., spiritual, social, These may include life enrichment aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are programmes that can sharpen children’s sometimes called ‘prodigies’. skills in productive thinking, planning, decision-making, and communication. It has been suggested by psychologists that giftedness from the teachers’ point of Types of Intelligence Tests view depends on a combination of high ability, high creativity, and high Intelligence tests are of several types. On commitment. the basis of their administration procedure, they can be categorised as individual or Gifted children show early signs of group tests. They can also be classified as intellectual superiority. Even during either verbal or performance tests on the infancy and early childhood, they show basis of the nature of items used. larger attention span, good recognition Depending upon the extent to which an memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity intelligence test favours one culture over to environmental changes, and early another, it can be judged as either culture- appearance of language skills. To equate fair or culture-biased. You can choose a giftedness with brilliant academic test depending on the purpose of your use. performance is not correct. Athletes who show superior psychomotor ability are Individual or Group Tests also gifted. Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities An individual intelligence test is one which and characteristics. Some important can be administered to one person at a characteristics of gifted children are : time. A group intelligence test can be administered to several persons • Advanced logical thinking, questioning simultaneously. Individual tests require and problem solving behaviour. the test administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive • High speed in processing information. to her/his feelings, moods and expressions during the testing session. Group tests, • Superior generalisation and discri- however, do not allow an opportunity to be mination ability. familiar with the subjects’ feelings. Individual tests allow people to answer • Advanced level of original and creative orally or in a written form or manipulate thinking. objects as per the tester’s instructions. Group tests generally seek written answers • High level of intrinsic motivation and usually in a multiple-choice format. self-esteem. Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests • Independent and non-conformist thinking. An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verbal or fully performance- • Preference for solitary academic based, or it may consist of a mixture of activities for long periods. items from each category. Verbal tests Performance on intelligence tests is not require subjects to give verbal responses either orally or in a written form. the only measure for identifying the gifted. Therefore, verbal tests can be administered Many other sources of information, such as only to literate people. The non-verbal tests use teachers’ judgment, school achievement record, parents’ interviews, peer and self- ratings, etc. can be used in combination with intellectual assessment. To reach their full potential, gifted children require special attention and different educational programmes beyond those provided to normal children in regular classrooms. Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 13 2019-20

pictures or illustrations as test items. is asked to arrange the blocks within a Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is time period to produce a given design. A an example of a non-verbal test. In this major advantage of performance tests is test, the subject examines an incomplete that they can be easily administered to pattern and chooses a figure from the persons from different cultures. alternatives that will complete the pattern. A specimen item from RPM is given in Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests Figure 1.3. Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or Fig.1.3 : An Item from Raven’s Progressive culture-biased. Many intelligence tests Matrices Test show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Tests developed in America Performance tests require subjects to and Europe represent an urban and manipulate objects and other materials to middle class cultural ethos. Hence, perform a task. Written language is not educated middle class white subjects necessary for answering the items. For generally perform well on those tests. The example, Kohs’ Block Design Test contains items do not respect the cultural a number of wooden blocks. The subject perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups. You may be already familiar with the concept of norms discussed in Class XI. It is nearly impossible to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully in all cultures. Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair or culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures. In such tests, items are constructed in a manner that they Box Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests 1.1 You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the ill- effects of intelligence testing by naive testers are: • Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely affect their performance and self-respect. • The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the society. • Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society. • Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence, and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor for achievement in various spheres of life. It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individual’s strengths and weaknesses. 14 Psychology 2019-20

assess experiences common to all cultures (NCERT) has documented Indian tests. or have questions in which language usage Critical reviews of Indian tests are is not required. Non-verbal and published in the form of handbooks. performance tests help reduce the cultural NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in bias usually associated with verbal tests. the area of intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, and interests. Intelligence Testing in India Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in India. Among these, Bhatia’s Battery of S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in Performance Tests is quite popular. constructing an intelligence test in Hindi Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India Verbal Performance • CIE Verbal Group Test of Intelligence by • CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence Uday Shankar • Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests • Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak • Group Test of General Mental Ability by S. Jalota • Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Performance Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy • Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta • The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin • Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of Psychology, Allahabad • Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test (Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha • Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by M.C. Joshi. in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE standardise Binet’s test in Urdu and Punjabi. At about the same time, A major characteristic of intelligence is that Mahalanobis attempted to standardise it helps individuals to adapt to their Binet’s test in Bengali. Attempts were also environment. The cultural environment made by Indian researchers to develop provides a context for intelligence to Indian norms for some western tests develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, including RPM, WAIS, Alexander’s has argued that culture provides a social Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs’ context in which people live, grow, and Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a understand the world around them. For Mental Measurement Handbook listing out example, in less technologically developed 103 tests of intelligence in India that were societies, social and emotional skills in available in various languages. Since then, relating to people are valued, while in a number of tests have either been technologically advanced societies, developed or adapted from western personal achievement founded on abilities cultures. The National Library of of reasoning and judgment is considered Educational and Psychological Tests to represent intelligence. (NLEPT) at the National Council of Educational Research and Training From your previous reading you know that culture is a collective system Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 15 2019-20

of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and others in the society. Some non-western achievements in art and literature. A societies value self-reflection and person’s intelligence is likely to be tuned collectivistic orientation as opposed to by these cultural parameters. Many personal achievement and individualistic theorists have regarded intelligence as orientation. attributes specific to the person without regard to their cultural background. The Intelligence in the Indian Tradition unique features of culture now find some representation in theories of intelligence. Contrary to technological intelligence, Sternberg’s notion of contextual or intelligence in the Indian tradition can be practical intelligence implies that termed as integral intelligence, which intelligence is a product of culture. gives emphasis on connectivity with the Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like social and world environment. Indian individuals, have a life of their own; they thinkers view intelligence from a holistic grow and change, and in the process perspective where equal attention is paid specify what will be the end-product of to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as successful intellectual development. well as their integration. According to him, while elementary mental functions (e.g., crying, attending to The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ which is mother’s voice, sensitivity to smells, often used to represent intelligence is far walking, and running) are universal, the more pervasive in scope than the western manner in which higher mental functions concept of intelligence. Buddhi, according such as problem solving and thinking to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental operate are largely culture-produced. effort, determined action, feelings, and opinions along with cognitive competence Technologically advanced societies such as knowledge, discrimination, and adopt child rearing practices that foster understanding. Among other things, skills of generalisation and abstraction, buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own self speed, minimal moves, and mental based on conscience, will and desire. Thus, manipulation among children. These the notion of buddhi has affective and societies promote a type of behaviour, motivational components besides a strong which can be called technological cognitive component. Unlike the western intelligence. In these societies, persons views, which primarily focus on cognitive are well-versed in skills of attention, parameters, the following competencies are observation, analysis, performance, speed, identified as facets of intelligence in the and achievement orientation. Intelligence Indian tradition : tests developed in western cultures look • Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to precisely for these skills in an individual. context, understanding, discrimination, Technological intelligence is not so problem solving, and effective valued in many Asian and African communication). societies. The qualities and skills regarded • Social competence (respect for social as intelligent actions in non-western order, commitment to elders, the cultures are sharply different, though the young and the needy, concern boundaries are gradually vanishing under about others, recognising others’ the influence of western cultures. In perspectives). addition to cognitive competence that is • Emotional competence (self- very specific to the individual, the non- regulation and self-monitoring of western cultures look for skills to relate to emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct, and self-evaluation). 16 Psychology 2019-20

• Entrepreneurial competence information accurately and efficiently. To know the characteristics of persons who (commitment, persistence, patience, are high on emotional intelligence, read Box 1.2. hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed Emotional intelligence is receiving behaviours). increasing attention of educators for dealing with students who are affected by EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE stresses and challenges of the outside world. Programmes aimed at improving The notion of emotional intelligence students’ emotional intelligence have broadens the concept of intelligence beneficial effects on their academic beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and achievement. They encourage cooperative considers that intelligence includes behaviour and reduce their antisocial emotions. You may note that it builds on activities. These programmes are very the concept of intelligence in the Indian useful in preparing students to face the tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set challenges of life outside the classroom. of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions. It SPECIAL ABILITIES is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough to be Aptitude : Nature and Measurement successful in life. You may find many people who are academically talented, but By now you have learnt enough about are unsuccessful in their own life. They intelligence. You may recall that experience problems in family, workplace intelligence tests assess a general mental and interpersonal relationships. What do ability. Aptitude refers to special abilities they lack? Some psychologists believe that in a particular field of activity. It is a the source of their difficulty may be a lack combination of characteristics that indicates of emotional intelligence. This concept was an individual’s capacity to acquire some first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who specific knowledge or skill after training. We considered emotional intelligence as “the assess aptitude with the help of selected ability to monitor one’s own and other’s tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help emotions, to discriminate among them, and us to predict an individual’s future to use the information to guide one’s performance. thinking and actions”. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional While assessing intelligence, intelligence in the same way as IQ is used psychologists often found that people with to express intelligence. similar intelligence differed widely in acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You In simple terms, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons Box 1.2 • Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions. • Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language, voice and tone, and facial expressions. • Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving problems and taking decisions. • Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions. • Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and others to achieve harmony and peace. Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 17 2019-20

may observe in your class that there are (vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and certain areas in which some intelligent (viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha has students do not do well. When you have a developed an Indian adaptation of DAT. problem in mathematics, you may turn to Several other aptitude tests have been Aman for help, and with similar difficulties developed in India for measuring scientific, in literature you may consult Avinash. You scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching may request Shabnam to sing for your aptitudes. annual function, and may turn to John when facing a problem with your bike. CREATIVITY These specific skills and abilities are called aptitudes. With proper training these In the foregoing sections, you have read abilities can be considerably enhanced. that there are variations in psychological attributes like intelligence, aptitude, In order to be successful in a particular personality and so on. Here, you will learn field, a person must have both aptitude that there are differences in the potential and interest. Interest is a preference for for creativity across individuals and the a particular activity; aptitude is the manner in which creativity is expressed. potentiality to perform that activity. A Some are highly creative and others are not person may be interested in a particular so creative. Some may express creativity in job or activity, but may not have the writing, still others in dance, music, poetry, aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may science and so on. Manifestations of have the potentiality for performing a job, creativity can be observed in a novel but may not be interested in doing that. solution to a problem, an invention, In both cases, the outcome will not be composition of a poem, painting, new satisfactory. A student with high chemical process, an innovation in law, a mechanical aptitude and strong interest in breakthrough in preventing a disease and engineering is more likely to be a the like. Despite differences, one common successful mechanical engineer. element among these is the production of something new and unique. Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude We generally think of creativity in terms tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude of creative persons like Tagore, Einstein, tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who have Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing made outstanding contributions in Aptitude are independent aptitude tests. different spheres. In recent years, our Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form understanding of creativity has broadened. of test batteries, which measure aptitude Creativity is not just limited to a selected in several separate but homogeneous few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the inventor. An ordinary individual who is the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), engaged in simple occupations like pottery, and the Armed Services Vocational carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known creative. However, it has been said that aptitude test batteries. Among these, they are not working at the same level of DAT is most commonly used in creativity as an eminent scientist or a educational settings. It consists of 8 writer. Hence, we can say that individuals independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning, vary in terms of the level and the areas in (ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) Abstract which they exhibit creativity and that all Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and may not be operating at the same level. Accuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning, 18 Psychology 2019-20

Einstein’s theory of relativity is an you have already read in Class XI about example of the highest level of creativity strategies to enhance creativity. which implies bringing out altogether new ideas, facts, theory, or a product. Creativity and Intelligence Another level of creativity is working on what has already been established One important debate in understanding earlier by way of modifications, by putting the variations in creativity has been the things in new perspectives or to new use. relationship of creativity with intelligence. Research literature suggests that Let us take an example of two students children begin to develop their imagination in a class. Sunita is regarded by her during the early years of childhood but teachers as an excellent student. She does they express creativity mostly through her work on time, scores the highest physical activities and in non-verbal ways. grades in her class, listens to instructions When language and intellectual functions with care, grasps quickly, reproduces are fully developed and store of knowledge accurately but she rarely comes out with is adequately available, creativity is ideas which are her own. Rita is another expressed through verbal modes too. Those student who is just average in her studies who are outstanding in their creativity may and has not achieved high grades give an indication about the direction in consistently. She prefers to learn on her which their creativity lies through their own. She improvises new ways of helping self-chosen activities. In some cases, her mother at home and comes up with however, opportunities need to be provided new ways of doing her work and before they can manifest their hidden assignments. The former is considered to potential for creativity. be more intelligent and the latter as more creative. Thus, a person who has the How do we explain variations in the ability to learn faster and reproduce potential for creativity? As in the case of accurately may be considered intelligent other mental and physical characteristics, more than creative unless s/he devises such variations can be attributed to the new ways of learning and doing. complex interaction of heredity and environment. There is no disagreement Terman, in the 1920s, found that that creativity is determined by both persons with high IQ were not necessarily heredity and environment. Limits of the creative. At the same time, creative ideas creative potential are set by heredity, could come from persons who did not have environmental factors stimulate the a very high IQ. Other researches have development of creativity. How much of the shown that not even one of those identified creative potential can be realised, when as gifted, followed up throughout their and in what specific form and direction is adult life, had become well-known for largely determined by environmental creativity in some field. Researchers have factors such as motivation, commitment, also found that both high and low level of family support, peer influences, training creativity can be found in highly intelligent opportunities, etc. Although no amount of children and also children of average training can transform an average person intelligence. The same person, thus, can be to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc. creative as well as intelligent but it is not but it is also true that every individual can necessary that intelligent ones, in the raise her/his level of creative potential conventional sense, must be creative. beyond its present level. In this context, Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity. Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 19 2019-20

Researchers have found that the are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new relationship between creativity and relationships between seemingly unrelated intelligence is positive. All creative acts things, ability to guess causes and require some minimum ability to acquire consequences, ability to put things in a knowledge and capacity to comprehend, new context, etc. This is contrary to the retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for tests of intelligence which mostly involve example, need facility in dealing with convergent thinking. In tests of language. The artist must understand the intelligence, the person has to think of the effect that will be produced by a particular right solution to the problem and the focus technique of painting, a scientist must be is on assessing abilities such as memory, able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual level of intelligence is required for creativity ability, and clear thinking. There is little but beyond that intelligence does not scope for the expression of spontaneity, correlate well with creativity. It can be originality, and imagination. concluded that creativity can take many forms and blends. Some may have more of Since expressions of creativity are intellectual attributes, others may have varied, tests have been developed using more of attributes associated with different stimuli like words, figures, action, creativity. But, what are the attributes of and sounds. These tests measure general a creative person? You may like to discuss creative thinking abilities like ability to the attributes which are common to all think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/ kinds of creative persons. situation, alternative ways of looking at things, problems or situations, to guess Creativity tests came into existence to causes and consequences, to think of assess variations in terms of the potential unusual ideas to improve and to use for creativity in contrast to intelligence. common objects, ask unusual questions and so on. A few investigators have also A general feature of most of the developed tests of creativity in different creativity tests is that they are open-ended. areas such as literary creativity, scientific They permit the person to think of different creativity, mathematical creativity, etc. answers to the questions or problems in Some of the famous psychologists who terms of her/his experiences, whatever have developed creativity tests are these may have been. These help the Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and individual to go in different directions. Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi. There are no specified answers to Each test has a standardised procedure, a questions or problems in creativity tests. complete set of manual, and interpretation Therefore, there is freedom to use one’s guide. These can be used only after imagination and express it in original ways. extensive training in administration and Creativity tests involve divergent thinking interpretation of test scores. and assess such abilities as ability to produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which Key Terms Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextual intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Culture-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor, Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intellectual disability, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ), Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Observational method, Planning, Psychological test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values. 20 Psychology 2019-20

• Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns. • A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests, personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes through psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports. • The term ‘intelligence’ refers to an individual’s capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual development is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and environmental conditions (nurture). • The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence as a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more recent theories representing information-processing approaches, e.g. Sternberg’s triarchic theory and Das’s PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence. • Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests may be of verbal or performance type; can be administered individually or in groups; and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligence are the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted. • Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes ‘technological intelligence’ based on skills of analysis, performance, speed, and achievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social and emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes ‘integral intelligence’ that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social world. • Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage one’s and other’s feelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain one’s impulses; and to handle interpersonal relationships effectively. • Aptitude refers to an individual’s potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude tests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and environment. • Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel, appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be creative. Review Questions 1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence? 2. To what extent is our intelligence the result of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)? Discuss. 3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner. 4. How does the triarchic theory help us to understand intelligence? 5. “Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of three neurological systems”. Explain with reference to PASS model. 6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence? 7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores? 8. How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence? 9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual ability? Explain. 10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why? 11. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured? 12. How is creativity related to intelligence? Chapter 1 • Variations in Psychological Attributes 21 2019-20

Project 1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ Ideas from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains. Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare. 2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological attributes required for successful performance. Write a report. Weblinks http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtml http://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.html http://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htm http://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htm http://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.html http://www.talentsmart.com http://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com Pedagogical Hints 1. To introduce the topic, teacher can initiate discussion on psychological constructs such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, values, etc. This would serve to point out the difficulty in arriving at one single, universal explanation of these constructs. 2. Teacher should draw from the experiences of the students to introduce the different psycho- logical attributes discussed in the chapter. 3. Some sample items of various tests (to be collected by the teacher) can be given to students to generate their interest. 4. Encourage students to complete the activities and also to design activities on their own either individually or in groups. Initiate discussion in the class on observations made by students on completion of the activities. 5. Students should be encouraged to relate the concepts to their real-life experiences. 22 Psychology 2019-20

SELF AND PERSONALITY After reading this chapter, you would be able to: describe the concept of self and learn some ways for self-regulation of behaviour, explain the concept of personality, differentiate between various approaches to the study of personality, develop insight into the development of a healthy personality, and describe some techniques for personality assessment. CONTENTS Introduction Self and Personality Concept of Self Key Terms Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self Summary Review Questions Self-esteem, Self-efficacy and Self-regulation Project Ideas Culture and Self Weblinks Concept of Personality Pedagogical Hints Personality-related Terms (Box 2.1) Major Approaches to the Study of Personality Type Approaches Trait Approaches Five-Factor Model of Personality (Box 2.2) Psychodynamic Approach Behavioural Approach Cultural Approach Humanistic Approach Who is a Healthy Person? (Box 2.3) Assessment of Personality Self-report Measures Projective Techniques Behavioural Analysis Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 23 2019-20

Introduction Quite often you must have found yourself engaged in knowing and evaluating your own behaviour and that of others. You must have noticed how you react and behave in certain situations in a manner different from others? You may have also often asked questions about your relationships with others. To find an answer to some of these questions, psychologists use the notion of self. Similarly when we ask questions such as why people are different, how they make different meaning of events, and how they feel and react differently in similar situations (i.e. questions relating to variations in behaviour), the notion of personality comes into play. Both these concepts, i.e. self and personality are intimately related. Self, in fact, lies at the core of personality. The study of self and personality helps us understand not only who we are, but also our uniqueness as well as our similarities with others. By understanding self and personality, we can understand our own as well as others’ behaviour in diverse settings. Several thinkers have analysed the structure and function of self and personality. As a result, we have different theoretical perspectives on self and personality today. This chapter will introduce you to some basic aspects of self and personality. You will also learn some important theoretical approaches to self and personality, and certain methods of personality assessment. SELF AND PERSONALITY CONCEPT OF SELF Self and personality refer to the From your childhood days, you may have characteristic ways in which we define our spent considerable time thinking about existence. They also refer to the ways in who you are, and how you are different which our experiences are organised and from others. By now, you already may have show up in our behaviour. From common developed some ideas about yourself, observation we know that different people although you may not be aware of it. Let hold different ideas about themselves. us try to have some preliminary notion of These ideas represent the self of a person. our self (i.e. who are we?) by completing We also know that different people behave Activity 2.1. in different ways in a given situation, but the behaviour of a particular person from How easy was it for you to complete one situation to another generally remains these sentences? How much time did you fairly stable. Such a relatively stable take? Perhaps it was not as easy as you pattern of behaviour represents the may have thought at first. While working “personality” of that person. Thus, different on it, you were describing your ‘self ’. You persons seem to possess different are aware of your ‘self’ in the same way as personalities. These personalities are you are aware of various objects in your reflected in the diverse behaviour of surrounding environment, such as a chair persons. or a table in your room. A newly born child has no idea of its self. As a child grows 24 Psychology 2019-20

older, the idea of self emerges and its disclosing her/his personal identity. Social formation begins. Parents, friends, identity refers to those aspects of a person teachers and other significant persons play that link her/him to a social or cultural a vital role in shaping a child’s ideas about group or are derived from it. When self. Our interaction with other people, our someone says that s/he is a Hindu or a experiences, and the meaning we give to Muslim, a Brahmin or an adivasi or a them, serve as the basis of our self. The North Indian or a South Indian, or structure of self is modifiable in the light something like these, s/he is trying to of our own experiences and the indicate her/his social identity. These experiences we have of other people. This descriptions characterise the way people you will notice if you exchange the list you mentally represent themselves as a person. completed under Activity 2.1 with your Thus, self refers to the totality of an other friends. individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts and feelings with regard to herself Activity Understanding the Self or himself. These experiences and ideas 2.1 define the existence of an individual both Please complete the following sentences at the personal and at social levels. starting with “I am”. Self as Subject and Self as Object Time Now............. If you return to your friends’ descriptions I am........................................................ in Activity 2.1, you will find that they have I am........................................................ described themselves either as an entity I am........................................................ that does something (e.g., I am a dancer) I am........................................................ or as an entity on which something is done I am........................................................ (e.g., I am one who easily gets hurt). In the I am........................................................ former case, the self is described as a I am........................................................ ‘subject’ (who does something); in the latter I am........................................................ case, the self is described as an ‘object’ I am........................................................ (which gets affected). I am..................................................... This means that self can be understood Time when you finished..................... as a subject as well as an object. When you say, “I know who I am”, the self is being Notice what they have done. You will described as a ‘knower’ as well as find that they have produced a fairly long something that can be ‘known’. As a list of attributes about how they identify subject (actor) the self actively engages in themselves. The attributes they have used the process of knowing itself. As an object for identification tell us about their (consequence) the self gets observed and personal as well as social or cultural comes to be known. This dual status of self identities. Personal identity refers to those should always be kept in mind. attributes of a person that make her/him different from others. When a person Kinds of Self describes herself/himself by telling her/his name (e.g., I am Sanjana or Karim), or her/ There are several kinds of self. They get his qualities or characteristics (e.g., I am formed as a result of our interactions with honest or hardworking person), or her/his our physical and socio-cultural potentialities or capabilities (e.g., I am a environments. The first elements of self singer or dancer), or her/his beliefs (e.g., may be noticed when a newborn child cries I am a believer in God or destiny), s/he is Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 25 2019-20

for milk when it is hungry. Although, this more specific level, a person may have a cry is based on reflex, this later on leads very positive view of her/his athletic to development of awareness that ‘I am bravery, but a negative view of her/his hungry’. This biological self in the context academic talents. At an even more specific of socio-cultural environment modifies level, one may have a positive self-concept itself. While you may feel hungry for a about one’s reading ability but a negative chocolate, an Eskimo may not. one about one’s mathematical skills. Finding out an individual’s self-concept is A distinction is made between ‘personal’ not easy. The most frequently used method and ‘social’ self. The personal self leads to involves asking the person about herself/ an orientation in which one feels primarily himself. concerned with oneself. We have talked above how our biological needs lead to the Self-esteem development of a ‘biological self’. But, soon a child’s psychological and social needs in Self-esteem is an important aspect of our the context of her/his environment lead self. As persons we always make some other components of personal self to judgment about our own value or worth. emerge. Emphasis comes to be laid on This value judgment of a person about those aspects of life that relate only to the herself/himself is called self-esteem. Some concerned person, such as personal people have high self-esteem, whereas freedom, personal responsibility, personal others may have low self-esteem. In order achievement, or personal comforts. The to assess self-esteem we present a variety social self emerges in relation with others of statements to a person, and ask her/ and emphasises such aspects of life as him to indicate the extent to which those cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice, statements are true for her or him. For support or sharing. This self values example, we may ask a child to indicate the family and social relationships. Hence, it extent to which statements such as “I am is also referred to as familial or relational good at homework”, or “I am the one self. usually chosen for the games”, or “I am highly liked by my peers”, are true of her/ COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTS him. If a child reports these statements to OF SELF be true for her/him, her/his self-esteem will be high in comparison to someone who Psychologists from all parts of the world says “no”. have shown interest in the study of self. These studies have brought out many Studies indicate that by the age of 6 to aspects of our behaviour related to self. As 7 years, children seem to have formed self- indicated earlier, all of us carry within us esteem at least in four areas: academic a sense of who we are and what makes us competence, social competence, physical/ different from everyone else. We cling to athletic competence, and physical our personal and social identities and feel appearance, which become more refined safe in the knowledge that it remains with age. Our capacity to view ourselves in stable in our lifetime. terms of stable dispositions permits us to combine separate self-evaluations into a The way we perceive ourselves and the general psychological image of ourselves. ideas we hold about our competencies and This is known as an overall sense of self- attributes is also called self-concept. At a esteem. very general level, this view of oneself is, overall, either positive or negative. At a Self-esteem shows a strong relationship with our everyday behaviour. For example, 26 Psychology 2019-20

children with high academic self-esteem stop smoking the moment they decide to perform better in schools than those with do so. Our society, our parents and our low academic self-esteem, and children own positive experiences can help in the with high social self-esteem are more liked development of a strong sense of self- by their peers than those with low social efficacy by presenting positive models self-esteem. On the other hand, children during the formative years of children. with low self-esteem in all areas are often found to display anxiety, depression, and Self-regulation increasing antisocial behaviour. Studies have shown that warm and positive Self-regulation refers to our ability to parenting helps in the development of high organise and monitor our own behaviour. self-esteem among children as it allows People, who are able to change their them to know that they are accepted as behaviour according to the demands of the competent and worthwhile. Children, whose external environment, are high on self- parents help or make decisions for them monitoring. even when they do not need assistance, often suffer from low self-esteem. Many situations of life require resistance to situational pressures and Self-efficacy control over ourselves. This becomes possible through what is commonly Self-efficacy is another important aspect known as ‘will power’. As human beings of our self. People differ in the extent to we can control our behaviour the way we which they believe they themselves control want. We often decide to delay or defer the their life outcomes or the outcomes are satisfaction of certain needs. Learning to controlled by luck or fate or other delay or defer the gratification of needs is situational factors, e.g. passing an called self-control. Self-control plays a examination. A person who believes that key role in the fulfilment of long-term s/he has the ability or behaviours required goals. Indian cultural tradition provides by a particular situation demonstrates us with certain effective mechanisms (e.g., high self-efficacy. fasting in vrata or roza and non- attachment with worldly things) for The notion of self-efficacy is based on developing self-control. Bandura’s social learning theory. Bandura’s initial studies showed that A number of psychological techniques children and adults learned behaviour by of self-control have also been suggested. observing and imitating others. People’s Observation of own behaviour is one of expectations of mastery or achievement them. This provides us with necessary and their convictions about their own information that may be used to change, effectiveness also determine the types of modify, or strengthen certain aspects of behaviour in which they would engage, as self. Self-instruction is another important also the amount of risk they would technique. We often instruct ourselves to undertake. A strong sense of self-efficacy do something and behave the way we want allows people to select, influence, and even to. Such instructions are quite effective in construct the circumstances of their own self-regulation. Self-reinforcement is the life. People with a strong sense of self- third technique. This involves rewarding efficacy also feel less fearful. behaviours that have pleasant outcomes. For example, you may go to see a movie Self-efficacy can be developed. People with friends, if you have done well in an with high self-efficacy have been found to examination. These techniques have been Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 27 2019-20

tried out and found quite effective with members of the group maintain their respect to self-regulation and self-control. individuality. In the Indian culture, the self is generally not separated from one’s own CULTURE AND SELF group; rather both remain in a state of harmonious co-existence. In the Western Several aspects of self seem to be linked culture, on the other hand, they often to the characteristic features of the culture remain at a distance. That is why many in which an individual lives. Analysis of Western cultures are characterised as self carried out in the Indian cultural individualistic, whereas many Asian context reveals a number of important cultures are characterised as collectivistic. features that are distinct from those found in the Western cultural context. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY The most important distinction between The term ‘personality’ often appears in our the Indian and the Western views is the day-to-day discussion. The literal meaning way the boundary is drawn between the of personality is derived from the Latin self and the other. In the Western view, this word persona, the mask used by actors in boundary appears to be relatively fixed. the Roman theatre for changing their facial The Indian view of self, on the other hand, make-up. After putting on the mask, is characterised by the shifting nature of audience expected the person to perform this boundary. Thus, our self at one a role in a particular manner. It did not, moment of time expands to fuse with the however, mean that the person enacting cosmos or include the others. But at the the given role necessarily possessed those next moment, it seems to be completely qualities. withdrawn from it and focused fully on individual self (e.g., our personal needs or For a layperson, personality generally goals). The Western view seems to hold refers to the physical or external clear dichotomies between self and other, appearance of an individual. For example, man and nature, subjective and objective. when we find someone ‘good-looking’, we The Indian view does not make such clear often assume that the person also has a dichotomies. Figure 2.1 illustrates this charming personality. This notion of relationship. personality is based on superficial impressions, which may not be correct. In the Western culture, the self and the group exist as two different entities with In psychological terms, personality clearly defined boundaries. Individual refers to our characteristic ways of Fig.2.1 : Self and Group Boundaries in Western and Indian Cultural Perspectives 28 Psychology 2019-20

responding to individuals and situations. or external situational demands. Thus, People can easily describe the way in which personality is adaptive to situations. they respond to various situations. Certain catchwords (e.g., shy, sensitive, quiet, Once we are able to characterise concerned, warm, etc.) are often used to someone’s personality, we can predict describe personalities. These words refer to how that person will probably behave different components of personality. In this in a variety of circumstances. An sense, personality refers to unique and understanding of personality allows us to relatively stable qualities that characterise deal with people in realistic and acceptable an individual’s behaviour across different ways. For example, if you find a child who situations over a period of time. does not like orders, the most effective way to deal with that child will be not to give If you watch closely, you will find that orders, but to present a set of acceptable people do show variations in their alternatives from which the child may behaviour. One is not always cautious or choose. Similarly, a child who has feelings impulsive, shy or friendly. Personality of inferiority needs to be treated differently characterises individuals as they appear in from a child who is self-confident. most circumstances. Consistency in behaviour, thought and emotion of an Several other terms are used to refer to individual across situations and across behavioural characteristics of individuals. time periods characterises her/his Quite often they are used as synonyms of personality. For example, an honest person personality. Some of these terms are given is more likely to remain honest irrespective in Box 2.1 along with their defining of time or situation. However, situational features. You may read them carefully to variations in behaviour do occur as they appreciate how they are different from the help individuals in adapting to their notion of personality. environmental circumstances. MAJOR APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF In brief, personality is characterised by PERSONALITY the following features: 1. It has both physical and psychological Psychologists interested in the study of personality, try to answer certain questions components. about the nature and origin of individual 2. Its expression in terms of behaviour is differences in personality. You may have observed that two children in the same fairly unique in a given individual. family develop dramatically different 3. Its main features do not easily change personalities. Not only they look physically with time. 4. It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal Personality-related Terms Box 2.1 Temperament: Biologically based characteristic way of reacting. Trait: Stable, persistent and specific way of behaving. Disposition: Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way. Character: The overall pattern of regularly occurring behaviour. Habit: Over learned modes of behaving. Values: Goals and ideals that are considered important and worthwhile to achieve. Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 29 2019-20

different, but they also behave differently of external rewards or threats available in in different situations. These observations a particular situation. The cross- often generate curiosity and force us to situational consistency of traits is found to ask: “Why is it that some people react be quite low. The compelling influence of differently in a given situation than others situations can be noted by observing do? Why is it that some people enjoy people’s behaviour in places like a market, adventurous activities, while others like a courtroom, or a place of worship. reading, watching television or playing cards? Are these differences stable all Type Approaches through one’s life, or are they just short- lived and situation-specific?” As we explained above, personality types are used to represent and communicate a A number of approaches and theories set of expected behaviours based on have been developed to understand and similarities. Efforts to categorise people explain behavioural differences among into personality types have been made individuals, and behavioural consistencies since ancient times. The Greek physician within an individual. These theories are Hippocrates had proposed a typology of based on different models of human personality based on fluid or humour. He behaviour. Each throws light on some, but classified people into four types (i.e., not all, aspects of personality. sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic and choleric); each characterised by specific Psychologists distinguish between type behavioural features. and trait approaches to personality. The type approaches attempts to comprehend In India also, Charak Samhita, a human personality by examining certain famous treatise on Ayurveda, classifies broad patterns in the observed behavioural people into the categories of vata, pitta and characteristics of individuals. Each kapha on the basis of three humoural behavioural pattern refers to one type in elements called tridosha. Each refers to a which individuals are placed in terms of type of temperament, called prakriti (basic the similarity of their behavioural nature) of a person. Apart from this, there characteristics with that pattern. In is also a typology of personality based on contrast, the trait approach focuses on the trigunas, i.e. sattva, rajas, and tamas. the specific psychological attributes along Sattva guna includes attributes like which individuals tend to differ in cleanliness, truthfulness, dutifulness, consistent and stable ways. For example, detachment, discipline, etc. Rajas guna one person may be less shy, whereas includes intensive activity, desire for sense another may be more; or one person may gratification, dissatisfaction, envy for be less friendly, whereas another may be others, and a materialistic mentality, etc. more. Here “shyness” and “friendliness” Tamas guna characterises anger, represent traits along which individuals arrogance, depression, laziness, feeling of can be rated in terms of the degree of helplessness, etc. All the three gunas are presence or absence of the concerned present in each and every person in behavioural quality or a trait. The different degrees. The dominance of one or interactional approach holds that the other guna may lead to a particular situational characteristics play an type of behaviour. important role in determining our behaviour. People may behave as Within psychology, the personality dependent or independent not because of types given by Sheldon are fairly well- their internal personality trait, but because known. Using body build and temperament as the main basis, Sheldon proposed the 30 Psychology 2019-20

Endomorphic, Mesomorphic, and the absence of Type-A traits. This typology Ectomorphic typology. The endomorphs has been further extended. Morris has are fat, soft and round. By temperament suggested a Type-C personality, which is they are relaxed and sociable. The prone to cancer. Individuals characterised mesomorphs have strong musculature, are by this personality are cooperative, rectangular with a strong body build. They unassertive and patient. They suppress are energetic and courageous. The their negative emotions (e.g., anger), and ectomorphs are thin, long and fragile in show compliance to authority. More body build. They are brainy, artistic and recently, a Type-D personality has been introvert. suggested, which is characterised by proneness to depression. Let us remember that these body typologies are simple, and have limited use Personality typologies are usually very in predicting behaviour of individuals. They appealing, but are too simplistic. Human are more like stereotypes which people behaviour is highly complex and variable. hold. Assigning people to a particular personality type is difficult. People do not fit into such Jung has proposed another important simple categorisation schemes so neatly. typology by grouping people into introverts and extraverts. This is widely recognised. Trait Approaches According to this typology, introverts are people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid These theories are mainly concerned with others, withdraw themselves in the face of the description or characterisation of basic emotional conflicts, and are shy. components of personality. They try to Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable, discover the ‘building blocks’ of outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow personality. Human beings display a wide dealing directly with people, and react to range of variations in psychological stress by trying to lose themselves among attributes, yet it is possible to club them people and social activity. into smaller number of personality traits. Trait approach is very similar to our In recent years, Friedman and common experience in everyday life. For Rosenman have classified individuals into example, when we come to know that a Type-A and Type-B personalities. The two person is sociable, we assume that s/he researchers were trying to identify will not only be cooperative, friendly and psychosocial risk factors when they helping, but also engage in behaviours that discovered these types. People involve other social components. Thus, characterised by Type-A personality seem trait approach attempts to identify primary to possess high motivation, lack patience, characteristics of people. A trait is feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and considered as a relatively enduring feel like being always burdened with work. attribute or quality on which one Such people find it difficult to slow down individual differs from another. They and relax. People with Type-A personality include a range of possible behaviours are more susceptible to problems like that are activated according to the hypertension and coronary heart disease demands of the situation. (CHD). The risk of developing CHD with Type-A personality is sometimes even To summarise, (a) traits are relatively greater than the risks caused by high blood stable over time, (b) they are generally pressure, high cholesterol levels, or consistent across situations, and (c) their smoking. Opposite to this is the Type-B strengths and combinations vary across personality, which can be understood as Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 31 2019-20

individuals leading to individual differences situations depends on her/his traits, in personality. although people sharing the same traits might express them in different ways. A number of psychologists have used Allport considered traits more like traits to formulate their theories of intervening variables that occur between personality. We will discuss some the stimulus situation and response of the important theories. person. This meant that any variation in traits would elicit a different response to Allport’s Trait Theory the same situation. Gordon Allport is considered the pioneer of Cattell: Personality Factors trait approach. He proposed that individuals possess a number of traits, Raymond Cattell believed that there is a which are dynamic in nature. They common structure on which people differ determine behaviour in such a manner from each other. This structure could be that an individual approaches different determined empirically. He tried to identify situations with similar plans. The traits the primary traits from a huge array of integrate stimuli and responses which descriptive adjectives found in language. otherwise look dissimilar. Allport argued He applied a statistical technique, called that the words people use to describe factor analysis, to discover the common themselves and others provide a basis for structures. He found 16 primary or source understanding human personality. He traits. The source traits are stable, and are analysed the words of English language to considered as the building blocks of look for traits which describe a person. personality. Besides these, there are also Allport, based on this, categorised traits a number of surface traits that result out into cardinal, central, and secondary. of the interaction of source traits. Cattell Cardinal traits are highly generalised described the source traits in terms of dispositions. They indicate the goal around opposing tendencies. He developed a test, which a person’s entire life seems to called Sixteen Personality Factor revolve. Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence Questionnaire (16PF), for the assessment and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of of personality. This test is widely used by cardinal traits. Such traits often get psychologists. associated with the name of the person so strongly that they derive such identities as Eysenck’s Theory the ‘Gandhian’ or ‘Hitlerian’ trait. Less pervasive in effect, but still quite H.J. Eysenck proposed that personality generalised dispositions, are called central could be reduced into two broad traits. These traits (e.g., warm, sincere, dimensions. These are biologically and diligent, etc.) are often used in writing a genetically based. Each dimension testimonial or job recommendation subsumes a number of specific traits. for a person. The least generalised These dimensions are: characteristics of a person are called (1) Neuroticism vs. emotional stability : It secondary traits. Traits such as ‘likes mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are refers to the degree to which people examples of secondary traits. have control over their feelings. At one extreme of the dimension, we find While Allport acknowledged the people who are neurotic. They are influence of situations on behaviour, he anxious, moody, touchy, restless and held that the way a person reacts to given quickly lose control. At the other 32 Psychology 2019-20

Five-Factor Model of Personality Box 2.2 The controversy regarding the number of basic personality traits has taken an interesting turn in recent years. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae have examined all possible personality traits. The findings indicate a set of five factors. They are often called Big Five Factors. These factors include: 1. Openness to experience : Those who score high on this factor are imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, and interested in cultural pursuits. In contrast, those who score low are rigid. 2. Extraversion : It characterises people who are socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, and fun loving. On its opposite are people who are shy. 3. Agreeableness : This factor characterises people who are helpful, co-operative, friendly, caring, and nurturing. On the opposite are people who are hostile and self-centered. 4. Neuroticism : People who score high on this factor are emotionally unstable, anxious, worried, fearful, distressed, irritable and hypertensive. On the opposite side are people who are well adjusted. 5. Conscientiousness : Those who score high on this factor are achievement-oriented, dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking and self-controlled. On the opposite are people who are impulsive. This five factor model represents an important theoretical development in the field of personality. It has been found useful in understanding the personality profile of people across cultures. While it is consistent with the analysis of personality traits found in different languages, it is also supported by the studies of personality carried out through different methods. Hence, it is now considered to be the most promising empirical approach to the study of personality. extreme lie people who are calm, even- with the other two dimensions mentioned tempered, reliable and remain under above. A person who scores high on control. psychoticism dimension tends to be (2) Extraversion vs. introversion : It refers hostile, egocentric, and antisocial. to the degree to which people are Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is the socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. test which is used for studying these At one extreme are those who are dimensions of personality. active, gregarious, impulsive and thrill- seeking. At the other extreme are The trait approach is very popular and people who are passive, quiet, cautious many advances in this respect are taking and reserved. place. These are beyond the scope of your present studies. A new formulation has In a later work Eysenck proposed a also been advanced that provides a novel third dimension, called Psychoticism vs. scheme of organising traits. This new Sociability, which is considered to interact formulation is given in Box 2.2. Activity If you were asked to change one aspect Psychodynamic Approach 2.2 of your personality, what would you like to change and why? If not, why? This is a highly popular approach to Which aspect of your personality would studying personality. This view owes you never want to change? Write a largely to the contributions of Sigmund paragraph. Discuss with a friend. Freud. He was a physician, and developed this theory in the course of his clinical practice. Early in his career he used Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 33 2019-20

hypnosis to treat people with physical and repressed unconscious materials to emotional problems. He noted that many consciousness, thereby helping people to of his patients needed to talk about their live in a more self-aware and integrated problems, and having talked about them, manner. they often felt better. Freud used free association (a method in which a person is Structure of Personality asked to openly share all the thoughts, According to Freud’s theory, the primary feelings and ideas that come to her/his structural elements of personality are mind), dream analysis, and analysis of three, i.e. id, ego, and superego. They errors to understand the internal reside in the unconscious as forces, and functioning of the mind. they can be inferred from the ways people behave (see Fig. 2.2). Let us remember that Levels of Consciousness id, ego and superego are concepts, not real physical structures. We will discuss these Freud’s theory considers the sources and terms in some detail. consequences of emotional conflicts and the way people deal with these. In doing Fig.2.2 : Structure of Personality in Freudian so, it visualises the human mind in terms Theory of three levels of consciousness. The first level is conscious, which includes the Id : It is the source of a person’s thoughts, feelings and actions of which instinctual energy. It deals with immediate people are aware. The second level is gratification of primitive needs, sexual preconscious, which includes mental desires and aggressive impulses. It works activity of which people may become aware on the pleasure principle, which assumes only if they attend to it closely. The third that people seek pleasure and try to avoid level is unconscious, which includes pain. Freud considered much of a person’s mental activity that people are unaware of. instinctual energy to be sexual, and the rest as aggressive. Id does not care for According to Freud, the unconscious is moral values, society, or other individuals. a reservoir of instinctive or animal drives. Ego : It grows out of id, and seeks to It also stores all ideas and wishes that are satisfy an individual’s instinctual needs in concealed from conscious awareness, perhaps, because they lead to psychological conflicts. Most of these arise from sexual desires which cannot be expressed openly and therefore are repressed. People constantly struggle to find either some socially acceptable ways to express unconscious impulses, or to keep those impulses away from being expressed. Unsuccessful resolution of conflicts results in abnormal behaviour. Analysis of forgetting, mispronunciations, jokes and dreams provide us with a means to approach the unconscious. Freud developed a therapeutic procedure, called psychoanalysis. The basic goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to bring the 34 Psychology 2019-20

accordance with reality. It works by the Ego Defence Mechanisms reality principle, and often directs the id towards more appropriate ways of According to Freud, much of human behaving. For example, the id of a boy, who behaviour reflects an attempt to deal with wants an ice-cream cone, tells him to grab or escape from anxiety. Thus, how the ego the cone and eat it. His ego tells him that deals with anxiety largely determines how if he grabs the cone without asking, he people behave. Freud believed that people may be punished. Working on the reality avoid anxiety mainly by developing defence principle, the boy knows that the best way mechanisms that try to defend the ego to achieve gratification is to ask for against the awareness of the instinctual permission to eat the cone. Thus, while the needs. Thus, defence mechanism is a way id is demanding, unrealistic and works of reducing anxiety by distorting reality. according to pleasure principle, the ego is Although some defence against anxiety is patient, reasonable, and works by the normal and adaptive, people who use these reality principle. mechanisms to such an extent that reality is truly distorted develop various forms of Superego : The best way to characterise the maladjustment. superego is to think of it as the moral branch of mental functioning. The Freud has described many different superego tells the id and the ego whether kinds of defence mechanisms. The most gratification in a particular instance is important is repression, in which anxiety- ethical. It helps control the id by provoking behaviours or thoughts are internalising the parental authority totally dismissed by the unconscious. through the process of socialisation. For When people repress a feeling or desire, example, if a boy sees and wants an ice- they become totally unaware of that wish cream cone and asks his mother for it, his or desire. Thus, when a person says, “I do superego will indicate that his behaviour not know why I did that”, some repressed is morally correct. This approach towards feeling or desire is expressing itself. obtaining the ice-cream will not create guilt, fear or anxiety in the boy. Other major defence mechanisms are projection, denial, reaction formation and Thus, in terms of individual functioning rationalisation. In projection, people Freud thought of the unconscious as being attribute their own traits to others. Thus, composed of three competing forces. In a person who has strong aggressive some people, the id is stronger than the tendencies may see other people as acting superego; in others, it is the superego. The in an excessively aggressive way towards relative strength of the id, ego and her/him. In denial, a person totally refuses superego determines each person’s to accept reality. Thus, someone suffering stability. Freud also assumed that id is from HIV/AIDS may altogether deny her/ energised by two instinctual forces, called his illness. In reaction formation, a life instinct and death instinct. He paid person defends against anxiety by adopting less attention to the death instinct and behaviours opposite to her/his true focused more on the life (or sexual) feelings. A person with strong sexual urges, instinct. The instinctual life force that who channels her/his energy into religious energises the id is called libido. It works fervour, presents a classical example of on the pleasure principle, and seeks reaction formation. In rationalisation, a immediate gratification. person tries to make unreasonable feelings or behaviour seem reasonable and acceptable. For example, when a student Chapter 2 • Self and Personality 35 2019-20

buys a set of new pens after doing poorly children at this age experience pleasure in in an examination, s/he may try to moving their bowels. The anal area of the rationalise her/his behaviour by asserting, body becomes the focus of certain “I will do much better with these pens”. pleasurable feelings. This stage establishes the basis for conflict between the id and People who use defence mechanisms the ego, and between the desire for babyish are often unaware of doing so. Each pleasure and demand for adult, controlled defence mechanism is a way for the ego to behaviour. deal with the uncomfortable feelings produced by anxiety. However, Freud’s Phallic Stage : This stage focuses on the ideas about the role of defence genitals. At around ages four and five mechanisms have been questioned. For children begin to realise the differences example, his claim that projection reduces between males and females. They become anxiety and stress has not found support aware of sexuality and the sexual in several studies. relationship between their parents. During this stage, the male child experiences the Stages of Personality Development Oedipus Complex, which involves love for the mother, hostility towards the father, Freud claims that the core aspects of and the consequent fear of punishment or personality are established early, remain castration by the father (Oedipus was a stable throughout life, and can be changed Greek king who unknowingly killed his only with great difficulty. He proposed a father and then married his mother). A five-stage theory of personality (also major developmental achievement of this called psychosexual) development. stage is the resolution of the Oedipus Problems encountered at any stage may complex. This takes place by accepting his arrest development, and have long-term father’s relationship with his mother, and effect on a person’s life. A brief description modelling his own behaviour after his of these stages is given here. father. Oral Stage : A newborn’s instincts are For girls, the Oedipus complex (called focused on the mouth. This is the infant’s the Electra Complex after Electra, a Greek primary pleasure seeking centre. It is character, who induced her brother to kill through the mouth that the baby obtains their mother) follows a slightly different food that reduces hunger. The infant course. By attaching her love to the father achieves oral gratification through feeding, a girl tries to symbolically marry him and thumb sucking, biting and babbling. It is raise a family. When she realises that this during these early months that people’s is unlikely, she begins to identify with her basic feelings about the world are mother and copy her behaviour as a means established. Thus, for Freud, an adult who of getting (or, sharing in) her father’s considers the world a bitter place probably affection. The critical component in had difficulty during the oral stage of resolving the Oedipus complex is the development. development of identification with the same sex parents. In other words, boys give up Anal Stage : It is found that around ages sexual feelings for their mothers and begin two and three the child learns to respond to see their fathers as role models rather to some of the demands of the society. One than as rivals; girls give up their sexual of the principal demands made by parents desires for their father and identify with is that the child learns to control the bodily their mother. functions of urination and defecation. Most 36 Psychology 2019-20