CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY

CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY S.SHEEBA N.RATHEESH



CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES FOR CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE USE OF BIODIVERSITY S. SHEEBA N. RATHEESH Published by Principal, Sree Narayana College Kollam - 691001, Kerala, India 2020

© Principal Sree Narayana College Kollam 691001, Kerala, India Editors S. Sheeba. N. Ratheesh ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied in any material from (including photocopying or storing it in any medium in form of graphics, electronic or mechanical means and whether or not transient or incidental to some other use of this publication) without written permission of the copyright owner. Any breach of this will entail legal action and prosecution without further notice. Type setting: Mr.Jineshkumar S. Publisher and Print by Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam – 691001, Kerala, India Editorial Board Dr. B.T.Sulekha Dr. B.Hari Dr. S.Jisha Mrs. Nisha.V.S Dr. Divya T Dharan Dr. Salini.M.P Dr. Meera.D Mrs. Munisha Murali.S

PREFACE As the human population increases, so does the pressure on ecosystems, since we draw ever more resources from them. Our ecological footprint on the planet is unsustainable and will become unbearable unless we change our consumption patterns and our behavior in general.Use of biological diversity in a sustainable manner means to use of natural resources at a rate that the Earth can renew them. It’s a way to ensure that we meet the needs of both present and future generations. Today our only option is to manage productivity and resources in a sustainable manner, reducing waste wherever possible, using the principles of adaptive management, and taking into account of traditional knowledge which contributes to the maintenance of ecosystem services. Sustainable activities can also be applied in many sectors, including organic farming, environmental impact assessments, certification and eco- labelling, management of protected areas, productivity, etc. The management and conservation of biodiversity has gained serious social concern during the past few decades both nationally and internationally. Educating youngsters is one of the major steps for conservation as they have to protect nature. In this context an international seminar was organized to highlight the importance of appropriate planning for solutions in some of the burning environmental problems which we face in the century. This book presents unique information on various aspects of Environmental science, Environment and society, Biodiversity, Entomology, Fishery science, Toxicology, Molecular biology, etc. We sincerely hope that it will be of great asset to researchers, field scientists, policy makers, etc. in the conservation and biodiversity. Editors Dr.S. Sheeba. Dr. N. Ratheesh.



CONTENTS Environmental Science 1-10 11-18 1. Environmental Impact Assessment of River sand mining from Bharathapuzha river, Kerala, India 19-26 27-36 Santhosh V and Padmalal D 37-42 2. Origin, Geochronology and Depositional Environments of 43-48 Quaternary Clay Sediments of Central Kerala, South India 49-54 55-60 Santhosh V 3. Analysis Of Fipronil Residues and Physico-Chemical Properties of Cardamom Plantation Soils, Idukki District, Kerala Keerthi A T and Salom Gnana Thanga V 4. Temporal Distribution of Microbial Communities in the water system of Sasthamkotta Lake in Southern Kerala, India Munisha Murali S and Sheeba S 5. Texture and Geochemistry of the Tile and Brick Clay Sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river Basins, Central Kerala Santhosh V and Padmalal D 6. Hydrochemistry of surface water Sources in Chalakudy and Periyar River Basins, Central Kerala Santhosh V 7. Assessment of Water Quality Variations in Kunnamangalam Block, Kozhikode, Northern Kerala Pramod A K and Santhosh V 8. Appraisal of Bacterial communities in the cradle of Sasthamkotta Lake in Southern Kerala, India Munisha Murali S and Sheeba S

9. Analysis of Physico-chemical and Biological properties of Soils at Ayiravilli Sacred Grove in Kollam, Kerala Aruna Mohan and Ratheesh N 61-66 10. Hydrochemical analysis of Water sources in a Semi-Critical Block of Kozhikode District, Northern Kerala, India Santhosh V, Aswathy E K and IrfanaMumthas 67-72 11. Impact of Human intervention on the Topography and Ecology at Kalarikunnu, Chelannur, Kozhikode, Kerala, South India Ratheesh N and Lesitha K R 73-80 12. Monitoring of Bacterial Pollution in Pampa River during the Pilgrimage Season Rakhi R 81-86 13. Physico-chemical Characterization of Water samples collected from different sources of Kollam District, Kerala, India Latha Sadanandan and Reemraj 87-90 14. Pollution of Tropical Estuarine systems: Heavy Metal contamination in the Sediments of Estuarine systems around Thiruvananthapuram, Southern Kerala Arunkumar K S 91-98 15. Solid Waste Management Technique for Sustainable Environment Dhanalekshmy T G 99-102 16. Analysis of Water quality and Application of Water purification methods in selected ward of Thekkekara Panchayath, Kerala Rugma Rajeev and Reeja Jose 103-108 17. An Income-wise Carbon Footprint of three Households in Kollam District, Kerala, India Jisha S M, Sulekha B T and Letty Titus 109-114

18. Commercial value of Locally available Plants with potential for use as a Natural Dye Sonia John and Santhosh S 115-120 19. Phytochemical screening of selected Mangrove Plant leaf extracts from Ayiramthengu Mangrove in Kollam Dist, Kerala, India Jisha S and Sreeja J 121-126 20. Ayurvedic concept of Drug substitution: A Sustainable option for Medicinal Plant Conservation Shanti Vasudevan C N and I’ma Neerakkal 127-134 Environment and Society 21. Kandalkadukal Sreeja N 135-142 22. A Matter of Survival: The Necessity of Environmental Education Aswathy Mohan 143-146 23. British Forest Policy in India Jissa S 147-152 24. Environmental Movements in Kerala: Cause and Course Suja Karappath 153-160 25. Sustainable Development: Public Participation in Environmental Decision Making Namitha K L 161-164 26. Climate Change, Natural Disasters and Biodiversity: Reflections on Uninitiatives Archa Arun 165-174

Biodiversity 27. Status and Future of Millipede Taxonomy in Kerala Aswathy M D, Usha Bhageerathan and Sudhikumar A V 175-180 28. Effect of Rainfall Fluctuations on Spider mediated Ecosystem Process Kashmeera N A and Sudhikumar A V 181-188 29. Mysid Fauna (Mysida: Peracarida) in the Andaman and Lakshadweep Waters of India Biju A and Sreejai R 189-192 30. Ecology and Morphometrics of an Invasive slug, Laevicaulis Alte in Kerala Aleena Elizabeth Cyril and Gigi K Joseph 193-196 31. Comparative Study on the Diversity of Brachyuran Crabs in Mangrove Ecosystems of Dharmadam and Valapattanam, Kannur District, Kerala Arathi Raveendran and Bindu O 197-206 32. A Study on the Abundance and Diversity of Plankton, Benthic Fauna And Fishery Resources in Kole Paddy Fields of Maranchery Kole Wetland, Kerala, India Nimisha P and Shirin T V 207-212 33. Ecology and Diversity of Brachionidae in Enamakkal Lake in Thrissur District, Kerala. Meharban M P and Vimala K John 213-218 34. Seasonal Diversity of Soil Microarthropods in Rubber Plantation, Panachivila, Anchal Shyamily S, Nimmy Jose, Shambu S, Sincy Amala Prasad and Nisha Thomas 219-222 35. Study on Phylloplane Micro Fungi in some plants at Ayiravalli Sacred Grove, Paravoor, Kerala Athira Vijayan and Ratheesh N 223-228

36. Diversity and Distribution of Vegetation at Ayiravilli Sacred Grove, Paravoor, Kollam, Kerala Harsha D and Ratheesh N 229-234 37. A Preliminary Assessment on the Diversity of Genus Ficus L. (Moraceae) in Kerala Sreehari S Nair and Amitha Bachan K H 235-242 38. Short-Term Temporal Variation in Coastal Phytoplankton of Saurashtra Coast: Influence of Dissolved Nutrients Ambili Nath and Suresh Balakrishnan 243-250 39. Analysis of Morphological variability in two different varieties of Carica papaya (L.) Remya R and Nisha A P 251-256 40. Biosytematics of Sida acuta, Burm.f Chithra Vijayan, Amina S and Sreeja S 257-274 Entomology 41. A Comprehend in to the Wing Scales of Butterfly ‘Acraea terpsicore’ Amina Thaj, MunishaMurali S and Sheeba S 275-284 42. A Preview on the Wing Scales of Danaus chrysippus using Light Microscopy Amina Thaj, MunishaMurali.S and Sheeba S 285-296 43. An exploration on the Wing Scale pattern of Euploea core Amina Thaj, Munisha Murali S and Sheeba S 297-306 44. A Look in to the Tiny flat plates Sheathing the Flimsy Wings of Amata Passalis using Light Microscopy Nidhi Soman, Surya A and Sheeba S 307-312 45. ‘Scales’ The Colourful Powdery stuff responsible for the Boggling Pattern and Colouration in Graphium agamemnon Surya A, Nidhi Soman and Sheeba S 313-318

46. A swot up on the Fur-Like Scales shrouding the Gossamery Wings of Olepa ricini using Light Microscopy Nidhi Soman, Surya A and Sheeba S 319-326 47. A Glance to Aquatic Entomofauna of Sasthamkotta Lake in Southern Kerala Munisha Murali S, Sheeba S and Lichu Thampi 327-330 48. Juvenile Hormone mimic from Medicinal plant Andrographis paniculata (Burm F.) Bindu O and Muraleedharan D 331-338 49. Screening of various plant extracts as Biopesticides against Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and its Enzymatic alterations Chandana J S and Ajitha V S 339-346 Fishery Science 50. Physiological response of Freshwater and Salinity - Acclimated Perch (Anabas testudineus Bloch) to Water - Borne Nitrate Vijayasree A S and Oommen V Oommen 347-354 51. Effects of addition of Carbohydrate sources on Fish waste fermentation and Efficacy Evaluation of Fermented products as Bio-Fertilizer for the Cultivation of Okra, Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Hari B, Jisha S and Noufiyath N 355-362 52. Differential Regulation of Na+, K+-Atpase by In Vitro Thyroid Hormones in Perch (Anabas testudineus) Gills and Kidneys: Evidence for Direct and rapid actions Leji J 363-370 53. Length eeight analysis of Stolephorus indicus of Kerala Coast Divya T Dharan and Sreedevi 371-376

Health Science 54. Regulatory role of Curcumin in overcoming Chemoresistance to 5-Fu In Breast Cancer cells via Cyclin D1 and BCL2 Vinod B S Haritha H Nair and Ruby John Anto 377-380 Molecular Biology 55. Current status of Molecular Phylogeny of Wolf Spiders Abhijith R S, Sheeba P and Sudhikumar A V 381-386 56. Molecular identification and Optimization of Amylase producing Bacillus gingshengiis NB12 using Response surface Methodology Divya Balakrishnan, Shilpa Shaji V S and Anu Krishna K R..387-400 Toxicology 57. Metabolic effects of Bisphenols on a Freshwater fish, Oreochromis mossambicus Anjali V R and Aruna Devi C 401-408 58. Hepatotoxicity of Azo Dye Tartrazine in Indian Major Carp, Labeo rohita Athira N and Jaya D S 409-416 59. Effect of 4 –Nonylphenol on Mitochondrial and Intermediary Metabolism in a Fresh water Fish, Labeo rohita Remya V S and Aruna Devi C 417-424 60. Biomarkers as Tools to characterize the Contaminated Ecosystem Sulekha B T and Anna Mercy T V 425-430 61. Hepatotoxic effects of 4-Nonylphenol on Oxidative stress and Antioxidant Responses in the Indian Major Carp, Labeo rohita Reshmi S and Aruna Devi C 431-440

62. Trace Metal analysis of Zooplankton from Cochin Estuary Bettina P Alex, Biju A and Jyothirmaye Mohan 441-446 63. Oxidative Stress Responses of a Freshwater Fish, Labeo Rohita, to anEndocrine Disruptor, Bisphenol S Shehna Mahim S and Aruna Devi C 447-458 64. Trace Metal Concentrations in Sediments and Commercially important Penaeid shrimp, Metapenaeus dobsoni (Miers, 1878) collected from Cochin Backwaters Jyothirmaye Mohan, Biju A And Bettina P Alex 459-466 65. Biochemical and Histopathological changes in the Tissues of Cyprinus carpio treated with Iron oxide and Cerium oxide Nanoparticles Usha. S 467-472 66. Impact of Green synthesized Gold nanoparticle fortified diet on Liver Histology of Oreochromis mossambicus Shine F, Akhila Thomas, Shibu Joseph S T and Dhanya Raj….473-478 67. In Vitro Antioxidant and Cytotoxic Activity Of Carica Papaya Nitha Anand and Gayathri B 479-484 68. Assessment of Heavy metals in Cheloor lake at Kollam, Southern Kerala. Remya Balakrishnan and Sheeba.S 485-492

Environmental impact assessment of river sand mining from Bharathapuzha River, Kerala, India 1 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF RIVER SAND MINING FROM BHARATHAPUZHA RIVER, KERALA, INDIA Santhosh V* and Padmalal D** Department of PG Studies and Research in Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani, Malappuram, Kerala-679586, India **Environmental Sciences Division, National Centre for Earth Science Studies Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram – 695031 *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Rivers play a major role in shaping the geographic, biological and cultural diversity of a region through which it drains. During the past 4-5 decades, anthropogenic activities like mining, damming, pollution, etc. have degraded these fragile ecosystems disrupting their dynamic equilibrium that is essential to maintain its stability as well as vitality. With the rapid development in the economy and growth in population, mining of rivers widely for river bed materials, especially sand and gravel, began to continue to meet the demand in the construction sector and gradually flourished as an industry. Sand and gravel are non-renewable resources, possibly in the human life scale. Further, indiscriminate sand mining from rivers can cause serious environmental problems, if the river being mined is erosional. So the present study is an attempt to unravel the environmental effects of sand mining from Bharathapuzha river located in the central Kerala Key words: Environmental impacts, River sand, Mining, Bharathapuzha river Introduction bank areas. Mining sand and gravel from the active channel is referred to as instream Rivers have always been an integral part of mining whereas mining sand from the human lives as a source of various resources floodplains or old terraces adjoining the river including water and a mean of civilization of channel is referred to as floodplain mining. so many cities, towns and villages. However, Studies reveal that river sand mining is in developing nations most of the rivers are taking place several folds, higher than the faced with a large number of environmental natural replenishments. This in turn leads to problems giving rise to a wide range of severe damages to the natural and man- made health issues productivity loses, social assets associated with the rivers. In Kerala, upheavals, etc. Large quantities of sand and rivers and the adjoining wetland ecosystems gravel are mined in the past few decades for are fast degrading consequent to building/construction purposes. Sand and indiscriminate sand mining over the years. gravel are predominant in the alluvial Many studies, stressed the imminent need for deposits - both from the floodplain / over Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

2 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity stringent efforts for regulating sand mining general, exhibits a dendritic drainage pattern. on an environment-friendly basis as the Bharathapuzha river hosts many reservoirs – two activity threatens the very existence of the of them are in Tamil Nadu (Thirumoorthy and river ecosystem. Taking a serious note on the Aliyar reservoirs) and nine in Kerala adverse impact of river sand mining, (Kanhirapuzha, Thunakadavu, Malampuzha, Government of Kerala enacted the legislation Walayar, Meenkara, Chulliyar, Pothundy, ‘The Kerala Protection of River Banks and Parambikulam and Mangalam reservoirs). Apart Regulation of Removal of Sand Act, 2001’ to from these, two major diversion schemes, (viz., protect river banks and river beds from large Moolathara and Cheerakuzhi diversion scale dredging of sand and protect their schemes), many check dams, subsurface biophysical environment and regulate the dykes, etc., are also built up in the river. The removal of river sand. River basin has long origin of Bharathapuzha river is closely been exploited as sources of building related to the origin of Palaghat gap. aggregates like sand and gravel (UNEP, Bharathapuzha river drains through highly 1990; Kondolf, 1997; Sunilkumar, 2002; varied geological formations composed of Padmalalet al, 2003). Kitetu and Rowen Archeancrystallines, laterites and coastal (1997) classified the impacts of river sand sands and alluvium. The Archean are mining broadly into two categories 1) off-site represented by charnockites, garnet- impacts and 2) on-site impacts. The off-site sillimanite-gneisses (khondalite), calc impacts are primarily transport related granulite and associated crystalline whereas the on-site impacts are generally limestones, hornblende-biotite gneisses, channel related. granites and quartzo-feldspathic gneisses. The basic metamorphic bodies and acid Geologic settings of the Study Area intrusive are represented by pyroximite, amphibolite, dolerite, pegmatite and quartz Bharathapuzha river, popularly known as vein. The Archeancrystallines cover almost ‘Nila’, is the life line of about 110 local the entire basin except the linear stretch bodies of Palakkad, Thrissur and along the master channel of the Malappuram districts of Kerala (Fig.1). The Bharathapuzha river and also the region close river has a length of about 209 km and a to the river mouth. The crystallines are catchment area of about 6186 km2. Out of the capped at many places by laterites. Recent to total catchment, about 28% of the area (i.e., sub recent sediments include coastal sands and 1786 km2) lies in Tamil Nadu State and the alluvium. These deposits near the river mouth remaining in Kerala. The river originates areas are underlain by semi consolidated / from the Anamalai Hills at an elevation of friable, variegated Tertiary sandstones and about 1964m above msl and drains through claystones (Fig. 2). highly varied geological and geomorphological features of Tamil Nadu Materials and Methods and Kerala States. The drainage network of the Bharathapuzhariver is formed by the This study covers a spectrum of subject union of four major tributaries, namely, components falling under diverse field of Chitturpuzha (also known as Kannadipuzha), environmental and socio environmental Gayathripuzha, Kalpathipuzha and aspects of Bharathapuzha river. The required Thuthapuzha. The point of confluence of information for EIA studies has been Chitturpuzha and Kalpathipuzha is at Parali collected using a questionnaire survey. A and from there onwards the river is called the systematic fieldwork was carried out in the Bharathapuzha (proper). The river, in entire Bharathapuzha river basin for mapping Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental impact assessment of river sand mining from Bharathapuzha River, Kerala, India 3 mining locations, degraded river reaches, groups: 1) Group A - criteria that are quantity of sand extraction and other relevant important to conditions and, 2) Group B - information regarding various subcomponents criteria that are of value to the situation. The for applying in the EIA procedure. Standard values allotted to each of these groups of format of Gilpin (1995) was used for the criteria are determined following Pastakia preparation of questionnaire used for field (1998).Rivers of Kerala are under immense surveys. The Rapid Impact Assessment pressure due to various kinds of human Matrix (RIAM) is based on a standard interventions among which indiscriminate definition of the important assessment extraction of sand and gravel is the most criteria, as well as the means by which semi disastrous as this activity threatens the very quantitative values for each of these criteria existence of the river ecosystems (Kitetu and can be collected to provide an accurate and Rowan, 1997, Kondolf, 2002). The semi- independent score for each condition. The quantitative Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix impact of the project activities is evaluated (RIAM) is used for assessing the against the environmental components/ environmental impacts caused by mining. subcomponents; and for each individual The scoping components included in the component a score is assigned, which RIAM were, physical or chemical, biological provides a measure of the impact expected or ecological, social or cultural and economic for the component (Pastakia 1998). The or operational components. important assessment criteria fall in two Fig.1Location map of the study area Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

4 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Fig.2 Geology map of the study area Result and Discussion many stretches of the river system. It is estimated that the 21 local bodies of the River sand mining- Indiscriminate sand Palakkad district together extract an amount mining activities of the past few decades as of about 734490m3 of sand annually from the well as reduction in the flow of water have Bharhtapuzhariver. The quantity of river sand imposed drastic changes in the environmental quarried by Thrissur and Malappuram scenario of Bharathapuzha river. About 21 districts are 210400m3 / year and 457600 m3 / local bodies including the Shornur and year respectively. Ottapalmm municipalities of Palakkad district, 6 local bodies of Thrissur district and The sediment discharge data of Bharthapuzha 11 local bodies including the Ponnani River obtained from the river gauging Municipality of the Malappuram District are stations of Central Water Commission involved in sand mining from Bharthapuzha (CWC) located at Kumbidi and Pulamanthole and its tributaries. In addition to this, illicit have been used for estimating the sand sand mining activities are also recorded at replenishment of the river (Table 1). The Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental impact assessment of river sand mining from Bharathapuzha River, Kerala, India 5 average annual discharge of sand moving Awaousgutam, Garamuliya and past these gauging stations as suspension amounts to 52608 metric tons (MT) in Glossogobius giuris occurring in the river Kumbidi and 6440 MT in Pulamanthole The daily dividend worked out as per 200 prefer to live in sandy substratum. Removal working days a year comes to about 264 MT in the downstream reaches of Kumbidi. This of excessive quantity of sand and exposure of means that, if one is very strict in sustainable mining an amount of 2164 MT of sand can intervening clay layers may adversely affects only be mined from the river stretch downstream of Kumbidi gauging stations the breeding and spawning grounds of amounts to 2712 MT, which is several folds higher than the natural replenishments. several aquatic animals including these Environmental problems of sand mining - important fish species. In Bharathapuzha, out Bharathapuzha river, the lifeline of Palakkad, Thrissur and Malappuram districts of Kerala of 47 fresh water species, 26 species are is under severe stress due to various kinds of human interventions including indiscriminate enlisted under threatened fresh water fishes sand mining The various environmental issues noticed during the field survey are salt as per the norms of IUCN (1990). The major water ingression during summer season, disposal of waste materials including those of causative factor responsible for the threat is slaughtered animals into the river channel, occurrence of vegetated or partially vegetated habitat loss due to extensive sand mining, sand islands within river channel, extensive sand mining and wet pit mining, ponding of encroachment and other type of human water due to differential scooping of sand, agricultural activities on river beds, disposal interventions (Bijukumar, 2001). The flow of waste materials in to the river, ponding of water due to differential scooping of sands, regulation by means of check dams, agricultural activities of river beds and extensive sand mining, reclamation of river pollution, destruction of natural pools and bed, water scarcity in discriminate pumping / lifting of water and extensive sand mining, riverine vegetation and unscientific fishing reclamation of river bed, collapse of river bank, water scarcity, collapse of engineering methods are the major threat to fish fauna in structure, slumping of riverbanks, indiscriminate pumping / lifting of water for the river. various activities, check dam within river bed, encroachment of river bed, etc. are the Sand mining provides direct employment major problems. Bharathapuzha river is the opportunities top about 6000 laborers in the homeland for a rich stock of flora and fauna Bharathapuzha river basin. Besides with a high diversity index. The study found thousands of employees in the construction that the biotic environment of Bharathapuzha industry also depend indirectly on river river system decline considerably due to sands. A preliminary socio economic survey extensive sand mining. The fishes such as in some local bodies which are involved in sand mining from the rivers of Kerala revealed that over 60% of the laborers engaged are solely dependent on sand mining and are above 35 years old. Out of the total labour force in the basin about 35% is working in the 11 local bodies of Malappuram district. The 21 local bodies of Palakkad accounts for about 45% of the labour force and the remaining are distributed in the 96 local bodies of Thrissur District. The method of the RIAM makes it possible to carry out an analysis of the results based on individual environmental scores (ES) for each environmental component/ subcomponents that are classified in ranges so that the effects can be compared to each other. The description of the components and the impact categories in the assessment process are depicted in Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

6 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 2. Table 3 summarizes the final results mining of construction grade sand, tile and of the RIAM process. From the tables, it is brick clays from the floodplains and evident that most of the impacts are in the limestone from the upper catchments not negative end and the benefits from the only disturbing the food web and natural activity are very limited and are mainly nutrient cycles at significant levels, but short-term economic gains. Considering the drastically changing the fluvial magnitude of the negative impacts strict geomorphology and scenic beauty of the measures are required to rescue the unique fluvial system. Mining from upstream Bharathapuzha river from the uncontrolled areas can reduce water quality for sand mining operations that is being wide downstream users and damage aquatic life. It spread all along the river channel. is a fact that sand mining poses grave environmental as well as socio-economic Conclusions problems. The threat to the livelihoods of local communities from this mindless Bharathapuzha river, one of the major commercial activity seems to be more real perennial rivers of Kerala falls within 11°45’- now than ever before. They include the 11°55’N latitudes and 75°50’-76°15’E depletion of groundwater, lesser availability longitudes. The river drains through the of water for industrial, agricultural and highland, midland and lowland drinking purposes, destruction of agricultural physiographic provinces of Kerala. The soil land, loss of employment to traditional types encountered in the study area are farmers, threat to livelihoods, human rights lateritic soil, red sandy soil, and forest loam violations, and damage to infrastructure and and reverine alluvium. Major landuse classes many more. It has affected the stability of in the study region are agricultural land, riverbanks leading to loss of productive wasteland, grassland, forest plantations and land. From the EIA study, it is well water bodies. understood that river sand mining changes the physical characteristics of the river basin, The study reveals that, about 21 local bodies disturbs the closely linked flora and fauna, of Palakkad district, 6 local bodies of alters the local hydrology, soil structure as Thrissur district and 11 local bodies well as the socio-economic condition of the including the Ponnani Municipality of the basin, in general. Malappuram district are involved in sand mining from Bharathapuzha and its Potential impacts, both positives and tributaries. In addition to this, illicit sand negatives, of sand mining from mining activities are also recorded at many Bharathapuzha river were identified and stretches of the river system. It is estimated evaluated by using Rapid Impact Assessment that, the local bodies of the Palakkad district Matrix. It allows data from different sectors extract an amount of about 734490m3 of sand to be analyzed against a set of common annually from the Bharathapuzha river. The important criteria within a common matrix, quantity of river sand quarried by Thrissur thus providing a clear evaluation of the and Malappuram districts are 210400m3 / potential impacts. The negative impacts of year and 457600 m3 / year respectively. the activity are many folds higher (i.e. around 86%) than the marginal economic gains The degradation of the river is well reflected (14%), which in turn is of short-term nature. in the biotic environment of the Bahrathapuzha river. The indiscriminate Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental impact assessment of river sand mining from Bharathapuzha River, Kerala, India 7 Table 1. Discharge of sand and total sediment through Bharathapuzha Year Sand (MT) Total sediment 1989/90 Kumbidi Pulamanthole Kumbidi Pulamanthole 1990/91 1991/92 23559 4197 301431 108598 1992/93 1993/94 44925 4709 272597 138242 1994/95 1995/96 81355 7462 575945 119298 1996/97 Average 47198 6741 539389 154859 39087 5655 353707 66693 63594 11932 769037 194727 65894 6866 370751 94795 55253 3955 240799 85292 52608 6440 427957 120313 Table 2. Environmental components/subcomponents and impact categories of sand mining from Bharathapuzha river (after Pastakia, 1998) Components of environment Assessment criteria Environmental conditions/ Subcomponents Group A Group B ES RV Parameters A1 A2 B1 B2 B3 Land stability 1 -2 3 3 3 -18 -B Physical & Chemical Land/River Landuse / Land cover 1 -2 2 2 3 -14 -B channel Soil 1 -2 2 2 3 -14 -B Landform 1 -3 3 3 3 -27 -C River bed 1 -3 3 3 3 -27 -C Air quality 1 -1 1 1 1 -3 -A Air 1 -1 1 1 1 -3 -A Noise level Water Ground water 1 -3 3 3 3 -27 -C Surface water 1 -2 2 2 3 -14 -B Biological & Flora Instream flora 1 -2 2 2 3 -14 -B ecological Riparian flora 1 -2 2 2 2 -12 -B Fauna Instream fauna 1 -2 2 2 2 -12 -B Riparian fauna 1 -2 2 2 2 -12 -B Habitat Habitat loss 1 -2 2 2 3 -14 -B Social & Social - health Accidents 1 -1 1 1 1 -3 -A cultural Health impairment components 1 -1 1 1 1 -3 -A Social - cultural Heritage / Historical areas 1 -3 3 3 2 -24 -C Socio-livelihood Sustainable livelihoods (Fishing, 1 -2 2 2 2 -12 -B farming etc.) Economic & operational Employment 1 2 2 2 2 12 B environment 1 2 2 2 2 12 B Economic Economic base 1 -2 3 3 3 -18 -B Agriculture 1 -2 2 2 2 -12 -B 1 -2 3 3 3 -18 -B Aesthetics 2 -3 3 2 3 -48 -D 2 3 3 3 3 54 D Approach road 2 -3 3 3 3 -54 -D Operational Engineering structure Infrastructure Transportation ES Environmental score, RV Range value Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

8 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 3. Summary of assessment of RIAM of sand mining from Bharathapuzh river after Yousefi et. al., 2008 Sl ES Range Value Description Environmental components Final(1) Impact No Alphabetic Numeric PC BE SC EO Total total () 72 to Major 108 1 E 5 positive 000 0 0 0 0 change 36 to Significant 71 2 D 4 positive 000 1 1 4 7 change 19 to Moderate 35 3 C 3 positive 000 0 0 0 0 change 4 10 to B 2 Positive 000 2 2 4 7 18 change 1 to Slight 9 5 A 1 positive 000 0 0 0 0 change 60 N No 0 0 0 change/statu 0 0 0 0 0 s quo -1 to Slight –9 7 -A -1 negative 202 0 4 -4 7 change -10 -B -2 Negative 451 3 13 -26 45 8 to - change 18 -19 Moderate 9 to - -C -3 negative 301 0 4 -12 20 35 change -36 Significant 10 to - -D -4 negative 000 2 2 -8 14 71 change -72 Major 11 to -E -5 negative 000 0 0 0 0 108 change ES Environmental score, PC Physical and chemical, BE Biological and Ecological, SC Social and Cultural, EO Economic and operational. (1) Product of range values (numerical) and environmental component's total. References Allen, J. R. L. 1964. Studies in fluvial Allen, J. R. L. 1970. Physical processes of sedimentation: six cyclothems from the Old sedimentation. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Red Sandstone. Sedimentology., 3: 163 - 198. Unwin University Books, London, 248pp. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Environmental impact assessment of river sand mining from Bharathapuzha River, Kerala, India 9 CESS. 1998. Sand availability of the South west coast of India: In Water resources Manimalariver in the vicinity of system operation. Proc. Int. Con. On Water Mallappallygramapanchayat, Pathanamthitta and Environment, Bhopal (India) (Eds. district: A technical study. Centre for Earth Singh, V.P. and Yadava R.N., Allied Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, 9p. Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 48-59 pp. CWRDM. 1995. Water Atlas of Kerala. Padmalal, D., Maya, K., Sreebha, S. and Centre for Water Resources Development Sreeja, R. 2008. Environmental effects of and Management, Kozhikode, 82p. river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of Vembanadlake, Southwest Gilpin, A. 1995. Environmental Impact coast of India. Environmental Geology., 24: Assessment (EIA): Cutting edge for the 21st 879-889. century. Cambridge University press, Cambridge. Pastakia, C.M.R. 1998. The rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM)- A new tool for IUCN. 1990. Red list of threatened animals. environmental impact assessment. In: International Union for the Conservation of Environmental Impact Asssessment Using Nature and Natural resources, World the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix – ( Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, RIAM) (Ed. K. Jensen), Olsen & Olsen, United Kingdom. Fredensborg, Denmark. Kitetu, J. and Rowan, J. 1997. Integrated Pastakia, C.M.R. and Jensen, A. 1998. The environmental assessment applied to river Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM) for sand harvesting in Kenya: In sustainable Environmental Impact Assessment. development in a developing world – Environmental Impact Assessment Review., Integrated socio-economic appraisal and 18(5): 461-482 Environmental Assessment (Edited by Patric C K and Lee N), Edward Elgar, Cheltenham Renwick, W.H. 1992. Equilibruim, (U.K.), pp. 189 – 199. disequilibrium and non-equilibrium landform in the landscape.Geomorphology.,5: 265-276. Kondolf, G. M. 1994a. Geomorphic and environmental effects of instream gravel Schumm S. A. 1977. The fluvial system. mining. Land.Urb.Plan., 28: 225–243. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 338pp. Kondolf, G. M. 1997. Hungry Water: Effects Seralathan and Padmalal, D. 1995. of dams and gravel mining on river channels. Geochemistry of Fe and Mn in the surficial Environ. Manag., 21: 533–551. sediments of tropical river and estuary, Central Kerala, India – A granulometric Kondolf, G. M., Smeltzer, M. and Kimball, approach. Environ. Geol., 254:270-276. L. 2002. Freshwater gravel mining and dredging issues. Report prepared for Sheeba, S. and Arun, P. R. 2003. Impact of Washington department of fish and wildlife, sand mining on the biological environment of Washington department of ecology and Ithikkara river – An over view. Proc. 15th Washington department of transportation, Kerala Sci. Cong., Jan. 29-31, 122pp. Thiruvananthapuram. Padmalal, D., Maya, K., Mini, S. R. and Sioli,H.1950.Das Wasserim Amazonasgebiet. Arun, P. R. 2003. Impact of river sand and Forsch.Fortschr. , 26: 274-280 mining: A case of Greater Kochi Region, Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

10 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Sreebha, S. 2008. Environmental impact of sand mining: A case study in the river catchments of Vembanadu Lake, South west India. PhD Thesis (unpublished), Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin. Stanford, J. A. and Ward, J. V. 1993. An ecosystem perspective of alluvial rivers: Connectivity and hyporheic corridor. Jour. N. Am. Benthol. Soc., 12: 46-80. Sunil Kumar, R. 2002. Impact of sand mining on the Benthic fauna: A case study from Achankovilriver in Kerala. Report Submitted to Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram. UNEP. 1990. Environmental guidelines for sand and gravel extraction projects. Environmental guidelines, No.20, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, 37pp. Yousefi, H., Ehara, S. and Noorollahi Y. 2008b. Air quality Impact Assessment of Sabalan Geothermal Power Plant Project NW Iran, 33rd work shop on geothermal reservoir engineering, January 28-30, Stanford, CA, USA. 216-222pp. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.1-10 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Origin, geochronology and depositional environments of quaternary clay sediments … 11 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 2 ORIGIN, GEOCHRONOLOGY AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS OF QUATERNARY CLAY SEDIMENTS OF CENTRAL KERALA, SOUTH INDIA Santhosh V Department of PG Studies and Research in Geology, MES Ponnani College, Ponnani, Malappuram, Kerala-679586, India *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Study of quaternary clay sediments has received much attention in recent years, as these particular sediments are associated with the finer particles and plays a pivotal role in elemental exchange between sediments and water. Clay minerals are reactive geological materials or particulates that regulate the overall physico-chemical milieu of aquatic environments. The clay mineral composition of sediments may give important clues to the conditions under which the sediments were deposited in addition to the climatic conditions, provenance etc. of the sediments. The composition and distribution of clay minerals have been used as indicators of sediment dispersal in various environments. Information on clay minerals is essential for a better understanding of the origin, early digenetic reactions and environment of deposition of the sediments. This clay mineral rich top layer containing organic matter and other nutrient elements which is the major life supporting systems of the wetland ecosystems. The nature of the nutrient dynamics in the wetland system is dependent on the quality and quantity of the clay minerals in the sediments. The present study is an attempt to understand the origin, geochronology and depositional environments of the clay sediments of the two river basins of central Kerala Keywords: Origin, Geochronology, Depositional environments, Quaternary, Central Kerala Introduction system of Kerala used traditionally for paddy cultivation) and other wetlands for tile and Ecologically, wetlands are important brick making can be found in many districts ecotones, which are transitional between of Kerala (KSLUB, 1981). Our environment open waters and land endowed with definite is degrading in large scale due to over structural and functional attributes and exploitation, unscientific development and performing specific ecological rules. improper management. Major anthropogenic Wetlands are water saturated and submerged activities like mining, pollution, deforestation areas, which include both natural and man- etc. can contribute major threat to our made, permanent, or temporary, fresh water environment. The only way of protecting our or marine habitats. These areas occur in environment and land resources is through almost all climatic regions and differ widely sustainable management practices. All these on their biotic and abiotic structure. Clay mining from paddy lands (a major wetland Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

12 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity areas are demanding urgent focus and proper longitudes. The basins are mainly located in fallow up. the Thrissur and Eranakulam districts of Kerala State. The total catchment areas of the The clays are one of the major mineral Chalakudy and Periyar river basin measures to about 1448 km2 and 5398 km2 deposits used in a wide variety of industries. respectively. Out of the total catchment area approximately 300 km2 area of Chalakudy The composition and distribution of clay river basin and 114 km2 area of Periyar river basin fall in Tamil Nadu State (CWRDM, minerals have been used as indicators of 1995). sediment dispersal in various environments. Geologic setting of an area is a major factor, which influences the various human activities (Biscaye, 1965; Griffin et al., 1968). of that region. The major rock types or lithological units make its structural features Statistical analysis revealed that proper and has general relevance to landscape and landuse (Vink, 1975).The Chalakudy and selection and combination of size parameters Periyar river basins record all the three major geologic formation such as, can be used as an effective tool to archaeancrystallines, tertiary sedimentaries and quaternary deposits. Laterite caps over discriminate various depositional crystalline and sedimentary rocks. Recent to Sub-Recent sediments cover the low lying environments of sediments of ancient as well areas and the river valleys. The crystallines are represented by a spectrum of rock types as recent origin (Freidman, 1967; Folk, which include charnockites, charnockite gneiss, hypersthene–diopside gneiss, 1966). Each environment leaves its imprints hornblende gneiss, hornblende–biotite gneiss and quartz-mica gneiss / biotite–gneiss on sediments and therefore the various (composite). These crystalline rocks are intruded at many places by quartzite, sediment characteristics can reflect their pyroxene granulite and calc granulite. These pre-Cambrian crystallines comprises about respective environment of deposition. Further more than 90% of the total rock formations in the study area and the coastal sand and the particle size distribution of ancient as alluvium include only about 4% of the total study area. Sedimentary formations ranging well as modern sediment has a bearing on the in age from Miocene to Recent overlie the crystallines along the coastal tract. The Sub- mineralogy and chemistry of sediments Recent formations consisting of a great thickness of sand with shell fragments, black (Forstner and Wittman, 1983). Study of clays, peat beds etc. are also seen mostly in low lying areas (Fig.2). sediments is able to find out a number of depositional environments from size spectral analysis as particle distribution is highly influenced by the environment of deposition (Folk and Ward, 1957; Padmalal, 1992 and Ngusaru, 1995 and Visher1969). The present study covers a spectrum of subject components related to almost all aspects especially the origin, geochronology and depositional environments of the of tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river basins of central Kerala. Geologic settings of the Study Area The Chalakudy and Periyar river basins, selected for the present study, are located in the central part of Kerala State (Fig.1). The Chalakudy river basin lies between 10°30’– 10°32’N latitudes and 76°14’–77°2’ E longitudes and the Periyar River between 9°31’–10°13’ N latitudes and 76°8’-77°7’ E Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Origin, geochronology and depositional environments of quaternary clay sediments … 13 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

14 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Fig. 2 Geology map of the study area Field work and Sample collection collected from the Chalakudy and Periyar river basins were subjected to A systematic fieldwork was carried out in the sedimentological and geochemical analysis entire study area (Fig. 1) to collect the following standard procedures. A portion of relevant field information, secondary data each of the sediment samples were dried and from various sources and collection of powdered well for geochemical analysis. The sediment samples for laboratory analysis. sand, silt and clay content of the bulk The areas, where clay mining activities take sediments were determined by pipette place, were mapped using Survey of India analysis following the method of Lewis (SOI) topo base maps in 1:25000 scale. A (1984). Mud fraction was separated from the total of 20 surface samples from the major respective samples using 230 mesh (63 μm) clay mining centers were collected from ASTM sieves. The textural facies (sediment selected locations in the Chalakudy and types) were identified following the ternary Periyar river basins. The sediment samples model of Picard (1971). Organic carbon rich Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Origin, geochronology and depositional environments of quaternary clay sediments … 15 sediment and shell samples were used for C14 of fluvial dominated sediments over the dating. Radiocarbon dates of the samples organic matter rich mangrove detritus were determined following standard dominated sediments (locally known as procedures by Birbal Sahni Institute of ‘Kandal’). The peculiar sedimentary Paleobotany (BSIP), Lucknow. sequence (grayish black to black carbonaceous clay/mud–reddish brown to Results and Discussion brownish red silty sediments) of Annallur and Cherukadappuram might have evolved in Origin of Clays this way. In short the tile and brick clay sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river The formation of tile and brick clay deposits basins are of fluvial or fluvio-marine origin of Kerala, according to Nair and Padmalal and are formed during the coastal evolution (2003), is related to the evolution of fluvial processes of Holocene. But the region further systems and monsoonal activity coupled with inland, particularly, near Melur and sea level changes during the late Quaternary surrounding regions were influenced by Period. Palaeoclimatologically, the period fluvial sedimentation as indicated by the from 10000–4000ybp is reported to have lithological suite with fining upward witnessed high monsoonal activity. The sequence and comparatively low organic radiocarbon dates of the tile and brick clay matter. In short, the tile and brick clay sediments / samples are also of this age sediments of Chalakudy and Periyar river (Table 1). The abundant occurrences of basins are of fluvial or fluvio-marine origin marine shells with C14 date of 5440±80 ybp, and are formed during the coastal evolution recorded 2.5m bgl at Puthenvelikara shows processes of Holocene. the prevalence of marine activity at this site during middle Holocene. The Geochronology corresponding tidal zone with mangrove vegetation might have extended upto the The analysis of fossil pollen assemblages in Valur or even to Vynthala-Annallur stretches sediments/sedimentary deposits can give which are located ~10 km east of inferences on the relative age of sediments, Puthenvelikara. The dominance of vegetative history, climatic conditions, sea Rhizophoraceae pollens in the sediments level changes and even cultural development collected ~3 m bgl at Valur and C14 age of human beings (Tooley, 1980; Shajan, (5520 ±160ybp) of organic matter recovered 1998). The palynodebris/peaty material at the level confirms this view. The sediment collected from 5m below the ground surface types of the study area are illustrated in the at Valur reveals the occurrence of table 2 and the corresponding sediment type Rhizophoracea, Poacea, Arcacea, Meliacea is shown in the figure 3. and Moracea, in addition to some unidentified spores and pollens. Of these, The presence of mangrove vegetation from Rhizophoracea are present in abundance, inland to the present day coast-line at about indicating mangrove vegetation in 6000-5000ybp, according to Shajan (1998), contributing palynodebris to the sedimentary might have resulted from the shifting of deposit of the Chalakudy river basin. It is coastline inland, consequent to the early important to note from the Valur section that Holocene transgression which culminated a sample collected 3m bgl is C14 dated to around 6000 ybp. The regressive phase 5520±160 years and another one from 2m bgl during late Holocene (~3000ybp) which gave is dated to 3393±110 years (Shajan 1998). rise to the present position of coastline might have resulted in the westward advancement Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

16 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity The results of the C14 dates of samples penetrating the subsoil, indicating insitu analyzed are given in Table 1 along with appearance. But, the shells are recorded only some of the dates collected from the in boreholes, which are located near the available literature. Peat deposits of variable coast. All the dates indicate that the clays thickness (a few cm to even half a meter) are used for tile and brick making are of encountered in some of the borehole samples Holocene age (7000 ybp and 3000ybp). The at different levels. Detailed analysis of peaty lithological sequence in the study area have debris reveals that the provenance of organic been evolved due to sea level changes debris is very near, and the bottom part of affected the area during Holocene time. some of the peat beds are with distinct roots Table 1. Radio Carbon dates of samples of study area associated with tile and brick clays Location Latitude Depth Material Age Source Valoor (m, bgl) Peat (Year bp) Shajan (1998) Valoor Longitude Peat 3390+110 Shajan (1998) Annallur 10014’30” 2 Peat Padmalalet al. Puthenvelikara 76020’25’ Shell 5520+160 Padmalalet al. Puthenvelikara 10014’30” 3 Present study 76020’25” Sediment 6630+120 10018’08” 4 76014’44” 5440+80 2.5 10011’45” 7050+140 76014’37 ” 4.7 10011’45” 76014’37 ” Table 2. Sand, silt and clay content of surface sediments of Periyar and Chalakudy river basins with mud content and sediment type. Location Sand % Silt % Clay % Mud % Sediment type (after Picard, 1971) Periyar river basin Madanpilli 2.09 64.41 33.50 97.91 Clayey silt Puthyedam 23.54 76.46 Silty mud Ezhippuram 15.00 39.46 37.00 85.00 Silty mud Parappuram 26.44 73.56 Silty mud Koovapadam 5.42 45.50 39.50 94.58 Clayey silt Vazakulam 5.11 94.89 Clayey silt Mudickal 6.19 36.56 37.00 93.81 Clayey silt Sreemulanagam 24.50 75.50 Silty mud` Mattoore 24.53 54.58 40.00 75.47 Silty mud 18.63 81.35 Silty mud Ockal 51.88 43.01 72.31 21.50 38.80 36.70 38.45 37.02 42.50 38.87 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Origin, geochronology and depositional environments of quaternary clay sediments … 17 Chalakudy river basin Annallur (I) 46.88 24.25 28.71 52.96 Sandy mud Annallur (II) 33.97 66.01 Silty mud 70.93 33.84 32.17 29.07 Clayey sand Vynthala 19.67 80.32 Silty clay Unjakadavu 10.82 12.13 17.06 89.18 Silty clay Kochukadavu 56.79 43.21 Silty sand 19.67 24.94 55.38 80.00 Silty clay Kumbidi 34.49 65.08 Silty mud Melanthuruthu 56.26 27.03 62.21 43.71 Clayey sand 41.49 58.50 Sandy mud Erayankudi 23.37 20.48 Mambrakadavu 23.13 56.87 Valurpadam 41.64 23.44 12.11 31.6 17.34 41.16 chalakudy PePrieyrairyar Chalaku S- Sand, zS- Silty sand, cS- Clayey sansda,msMp-leSsandy msuadm, zpMle- sSilty mud, cM- Clayey mud, sC- Sandy clay, zC- Silty clay, C- Clay, cZ- Clayey silt, sZ- Sandy silt, Z- Silt Fig. 3 Ternary diagram showing the textural type of surface samples collected from Chalakudy and Periyar river basins (modified after Picard, 1971). Conclusion The tile and brick clay blanketed zones of used for ordinary brick manufacturing. The Chalakudy and Periyar river basins have been black clays collected from Valur revealed the evolved to the present state thorough several presence of mangrove spores of episodes of geological events. The tile and rhizhophoraceae in it, indicating a swampy brick clays are a part of the Quaternary environment during early –middle Holocene. deposits, which is underlined by 40-55 thick The C14dates of the carbonaceous clays tertiary deposits and then by Precambrian underlying the reddish brown clays yielded crystalline. The surface of the Tertiary is age date between 7050± 140 ybp and often lateritised at many places. Two types of 3390±110 ybp. The red earth type of material clays are seen in the study area–yellowish found above this carbonaceous clay might be brown to brownish red type and grayish slightly younger in age and may be flood black to black type. The former is with plain origin. In short, the deposition of the appreciable amount of sand and silt, and are tile and brick clay in Kerala is related to the Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

18 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity evolution of fluvial drainage system and Department of Science and Technology, monsoonal activities coupled with sea level Govt. of India. oscillations during Holocene. Ngusaru, A. S. 1995. Grain size analysis and References facies interpretation of backshore sediments along the beach area, North of Dares – Allen,J.R.L.1964. Studies in fluvitile Salam, Tanzania. Ind. Jour. Mar. Sci., 24: 87 sedimentation: six cyclothems from the Old – 90. Red Sandstone. Sedimentology., 3:163 - 198. Padmalal, D. 1992. Mineralogy and Biscaye,P.E.1965. Mineralogy and sediments Geochemistry of the sediments of of recent deep sea clays in the Atlantic Muvattupuzhariver and central Vembanad Ocean. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., 76: pp. 803 – estuary, Kerala, India. Ph.D thesis.Cochin 8032. University of Science and Technology, Kochi. CWRDM. 1995. Water Atlas of Kerala. Centre for Water Resource Development and Pejrup, M. 1988. The triangular diagram used Management, Kozhikode; pp.75-78.Folk, for classification of estuarine sediment: A R.L. 1966. A review of grain size parameters. new approach In P. L. de Boer et. al. Eds., Sedimentology., 6: 73-93. Tide influenced sedimentary environment and facies, Reidal Publishing company, Folk, R.L. and Ward, W. 1957. Brazos river pp.289-300. bar: A study in the significance of grain size parameters. Jour. Sed. Petrol., 27: .3-26. Picard, M.D. 1971. Classification of fine- grained sedimentary rocks. Jour. Sed. Petrol., Forstner, U. and Wittman, G. T. W. 1983. 41: 179-195. Metal pollution in the aquatic environments, Springer- Verlag, New York, 486p. Shajan, K.P. 1998. Studies on late quaternary sediments and sea level changes of the Fortlage, C.A. 1990. Environmental Central Kerala coast, India. Ph D Thesis assessment, Gower publishing Company Ltd. unpublished. Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi. Freidman, G. M. 1967. Distinction between dune, beach and river sands form their Tooley,M.J.1980. Methods of reinstruction in textural characteristics. Jour. Sed. Petrol., 31: the environment in Britoric pre-history.Eds. 514 – 529. I. G. Simmons, and M. J. Tooley, Oxford university press. Griffin, J.J., Windom, H. and Goldberg E.D. 1968. Deep sea. Res., 15: pp. 433. Unnikrishnan,V.P.1987. Texture,mineralogy and provenance of the beach sands of South KSLUB. 1981. Report of the study of clay Kerala.Ph.D Thesis, Cochin University of mining areas in Thrissur district. Kerala State Science and Technology, Cochin, 338pp. Land Use series No.14, Kerala State Land Use Board, Thiruvananthapuram, 21pp. Vink, A.P.A. 1975. Land use in advancing agriculture, Springer-Verlag, New York, Lewis,D.W. 1984. Practical sedimentology. 394pp. Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company, Pennsylvania, 227pp. Visher,G.S. 1969. Grain size distributions and depositional processes. Jour. Sed. Nair,K.M. and Padmalal,D. 2003. Quaternary Petrol.,39: 1074-1106. Sea Level Oscillations, Geological and Geomorphological Evolution of South Kerala Sedimentory Basin.Project Final Report. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity|2020 |pp.11-18 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of fipronil residues and physico-chemical properties ... 19 CHAPTER 3 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 ANALYSIS OF FIPRONIL RESIDUES AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARDAMOM PLANTATION SOILS, IDUKKI DISTRICT, KERALA Keerthi A T and Salom Gnana Thanga V Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to analyze the fipronil residues and physico – chemical properties of cardamom plantation soils of Idukki district, Kerala. Soil samples collected from both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere areas of six completely different major cardamom plantations of Idukki. Fipronil residues were detected in all sampling sites by using HPLC. This study revealed that fipronil residue was detected maximum in organic rich acidic soils. The soil texture varied from loam, silt loam to sandy loam. The nutrient status of both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils in the order of N ˃ K ˃ P. Key words: Fipronil residue, Cardamom plantations, Soil, Nutrient Introduction cardamom and tea in Idukki. Among these pesticides, Fipronil is awidely used India is an agricultural based country. The organochlorine pesticide in Idukki. Its trade use of pesticides becomes an integral and names in Kerala are Tata Sonic, Combat, economically essential part of our modern Frontline, Regent granules etc, which was agriculture. In India, alarming levels of applied directly to the soil during planting. pesticides have been reported in air, water, This insecticide was used against the and soil (Viswanathan, 1985). Pesticides are nematode which affects the root system of often applied several times during one crop plants. Interaction with the cardamom season and a part always reaches the soil. planters and farmers revealed that farmers Repeated and excessive application of applied 50g to 100g fipronil mixed with soil pesticides leads to accumulation of to each plant against root knot nematodes. appreciable quantities of pesticides and their This insecticide is not recommended by the degraded products in soil environments spices board but the farmers widely used (Chowdhury et. al., 2008) either through fipronil against nematodes and the fipronil deliberative application to the soil or residues detected in cardamom plantation indirectly runoff from leaves and stems of the soils of Idukki district (Beevi et al., 2014). plant (Khan, 1980). Various types of The fipronil pesticide residues remained in pesticides are used in Kerala, especially on the top 15cm layer of the soil and it is the the cash crop plantations of cashew, Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

20 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity region of greatest activity of soil microflora Quantification of fipronil residue (Alexander 1961). Soil samples were dried in shade, crushed The fate of pesticides in the soil is controlled with wooden roller, and passed through a by chemical, physical and biological sieve having 2mm diameter. To 10g air dried properties of soil ecosystem (Sparks, 2003). soil, 10ml of 10mg fipronil per litre of stock Soil type, temperature, pH, moisture content, solution was added. Then added 20ml of organic matter content and microbial acetone and mixed thoroughly to the uniform populations (Tiryaki and Temur, 2010) are distribution of insecticide. It was left various factors influencing the degradation of undisturbed overnight till complete persistent pesticides accumulated in the soil evaporation of acetone occurred, and then it environment. The physico-chemical was mixed with 90g of untreated soil to get a properties of the soil also have a key role in uniform fortification level of 10µg fipronil the persistence, metabolism and binding of per gram soil. Then 2g soil samples were pesticides in the soil particles (Hussain et. al., transferred to conical flasks and 25 ml of 1994). Studies pertaining to the fate of acetone was added. The contents were stirred fipronil residues in soil and their effect on with a glass rod and kept on a shaker for 30 soil physico-chemical and biological minutes with intermittent shaking. The characteristics are limited (Zhu et al., 2004) contents were filtered using whatman filter and there is a complete lack of information in paper No.1 and the soil was re-extracted the cardamom plantations of Idukki district, using 20ml of fresh acetone. Acetone extract Kerala. This study was undertaken to assess was pooled and concentrated to 10ml using the fipronil residue and physico – chemical rotary evaporator and the residue was properties of cardamom plantation soils, dissolved in 2ml high performance liquid Idukki district Kerala. chromatography (HPLC) grade methanol, which was passed through 0.45µm millipore Materials and methods disk filter prior to injection into the HPLC system (Verma et. al., 2014). The technical Soil sampling grade of fipronil of 98% and 97% purity was obtained from Sigma Aldrich Chemicals Pvt Soil samples (0 -15cm) depth were collected Ltd, Mumbai. Fipronil residue in soil was in the cardamom plantations of Idukki district quantified using high performance liquid (9016’30’’ N-1002’00’’ N and 76038’00’’ E- chromatography (Shimadzu-UFLC SpinCo 7702’30’’E), Kerala. A total of 12 samples Laboratory Pvt Ltd, Chennai) with variable were randomly collected from six major wavelength UV detector was used. Standard cardamom plantations of Anakkara (Ana S1, solutions were prepared in methanol. The S2), Vandanmedu (Van S3, S4), Puliyanmala operating conditions are a C-18 column, (Pul S5, S6), Pampadumpara (Pam S7, S8), methanol: water (85:15) mobile phase in Nedumkandam (Ned S9, S10) and isocratic mode at a flow rate of 1ml/minute Udumbenchola (Udu S11, S12) with varying and UV detection at 276nm. The retention altitudes. Each sample was placed in a sterile time of fipronil under the above conditions plastic bag, sealed and placed on ice during was 3.6 minutes transportation to the laboratory. All samples were passed through a 2.0mm sieve and Physico – chemical characteristics of field stored at 40C for further analysis. soil Physico-chemical parameters like pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and nutrients Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of fipronil residues and physico-chemical properties ... 21 (total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) The pH showed maximum on Ana S1 (6.3) were analyzed (Saxena, 1998). Organic sampling site and minimum on the Udu S12 carbon was analyzed as per Walkey and (5.0) of rhizosphere soils. In nonrhizosphere Black (1934) and soil texture analyzed by the region, pH was maximum in Ana S1 (5.9) and pipet methodology and classified (Lewis, the minimum in Ned S9 and Ned S10 (5.2) 1984) sampling station (Table 2). Relatively high pH observed in rhizosphere than Results and Discussion nonrhizosphere region of sampling stations. The present study observed that the pH of the Fipronil concentration ranged from 0.09 to collected soils was acidic in nature. Soil 4.05 mg kg-1 in the soil samples of cardamom acidity is an important factor affecting the crop production in Kerala. It might be due to plantations of Idukki district (Table 1). increase in rainfall, which leads to leaching of soil with bases like calcium, magnesium, Among the different stations, Anakkara (Ana potassium and sodium ions and is replaced by hydrogen ions (Sahu et. al., 1990). S1) showed a maximum concentration of Electrical Conductivity (EC) ranged from fipronil both in the rhizosphere and non- 0.126 mhos cm-1 (Udu S11) to 0.321 mhos cm-1 (Pul S6) in the rhizosphere soil samples. rhizosphere region. The maximum fipronil In nonrhizosphere region, EC ranged from Udu S11 (0.115 mhos cm-1) to Van S4 (0.346 concentration in the rhizosphere region was mhos cm-1) (Table 2). Moisture Content 4.05 mg kg-1. However, the maximum (MC) was found to be high in Van S3 sampling sites of both rhizosphere (3.5%) fipronilconcentration in nonrhizosphere and nonrhizosphere (3.3%), and least in Pam region was 1.43 mg kg-1. Fipronil residue was S7 sampling station of both rhizosphere observed maximum in both rhizosphere and (0.5%) and nonrhizosphere (1.1%) regions. The present study indicated that electrical nonrhizosphere regions of Anakkara due to conductivity was low in sandy soils and maximum in silt soils. Therefore, electrical high organic matter content. Because, the conductivity had a strong relationship with particle size and texture of soil; sandy soils adsorption of pesticides increased in the soil had low conductivity and silt soils had a medium conductivity (Wiatrak et. al., 2009). due to increase in organic matter content up Organic matter (OM) content was observed to 6.5% in soils (Bobe et. al., 1997; Ying and maximum in both rhizosphere (4.82%) and Kookana, 2002). nonrhizosphere (4.5%) region of Ana S1. Organic matter showed minimum on the Van Table 1. Fipronil residues in soil S3 (1.9%) on both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soil samples (Table 2). The Samples Rhizosphere Nonrhizosphere present study revealed that organic matter (mg kg-1) (mg kg-1) was maximum in rhizosphere than 1.43±0.01 nonrhizosphere regions. This might be due to AnaS1 4.05±0.01 0.46±0.01 the addition of leaf litter from shade trees and AnaS2 0.69±0.01 0.40±0.01 the farmyard manner near to the root zone VanS3 0.79±0.01 0.09±0.01 (rhizosphere) of the crop plant VanS4 0.36±0.01 0.36±0.01 0.44±0.01 PulS5 0.32±0.01 0.61±0.01 PulS6 0.96±0.01 1.41±0.01 PamS7 0.64±0.01 0.59±0.01 PamS8 0.31±0.01 0.42±0.01 NedS9 0.43±0.01 0.77±0.01 0.23±0.01 NedS10 0.25±0.01 UduS11 0.59±0.01 UduS12 0.16±0.01 Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

22 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (Korikanthimath, 1994) and also reported organic matter and available nutrients. that cardamom field soils had relatively high Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of soil pH Electrical conductivity Moisture content Organic matter (OM) Sites (EC) (mhos cm-1) (MC) (%) (%) Rh nRh Rh nRh Rh nRh Rh nRh AnaS1 6.3±0.05 5.9±0.05 0.253±0.00 0.214±0.00 3.22±0.14 1.7±0.05 4.82±0.06 4.5±0.05 AnaS2 5.8±0.05 5.7±0.06 0.282±0.01 0.276±0.00 3.0±0.05 2.4±0.06 2.2±0.06 2.4±0.05 VanS3 5.9±0.03 5.5±0.05 0.233±0.01 0.246±0.00 3.5±0.01 2.6±0.06 1.9±0.06 1.9±0.05 VanS4 5.8±0.05 5.8±0.05 0.213±0.01 0.346±0.00 0.6±0.01 3.3±0.06 3.5±0.06 3.2±0.05 PulS5 5.8±0.06 5.3±0.05 0.271±0.01 0.293±0.00 0.9±0.01 2.5±0.06 2.4±0.05 4.5±0.05 PulS6 5.2±0.06 5.6±0.06 0.321±0.01 0.328±0.00 2.9±0.01 1.4±0.06 3.1±0.06 3.1±0.06 PamS7 5.1±0.05 5.4±0.06 0.231±0.01 0.252±0.00 0.5±0.05 1.1±0.05 2.6±0.05 2.2±0.06 PamS8 5.2±0.05 5.3±0.06 0.281±0.01 0.163±0.00 2.2±0.01 1.4±0.01 3.5±0.05 3.2±0.06 NedS9 5.5±0.06 5.2±0.06 0.143±0.01 0.152±0.00 0.7±0.05 2.6±0.05 4.3±0.05 4.1±0.06 NedS10 5.6±0.05 5.2±0.06 0.182±0.01 0.131±0.00 1.5±0.01 2.0±0.02 3.9±0.05 3.7±0.06 UduS11 5.3±0.05 5.4±0.06 0.126±0.01 0.115±0.00 1.0±0.01 1.8±0.01 3.2±0.03 2.3±0.05 UduS12 5.0±0.05 5.3±0.06 0.185±0.01 0.182±0.00 1.2±0.01 1.8±0.01 2.6±0.06 3.2±0.05 In the rhizosphere, the sand percentage sampling station had sandy loam soil in both varied (Table 3) from 24% to 78%, silt rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere sampling content varied from 12% to 63% and clay locations. The sampling station ranged from 4.2% to 21.1%. In Nedumkandam and Vandanmedu had the nonrizosphere, the sand percentage varied texture of silt loam in both rhizosphere and from 28% to 82%, the silt content was ranged nonrhizosphere regions. The texture of the from 8.4% to 66% and clay content was cardamom plantation soil was mainly fine varied from 6% to 19%. The textural class of textured loam and silt loam soils. It varied the soils varied from sandy loam, silt loam from sandy loam, silt loam and loam. The and loam in nature. The texture of Anakkara, sand percentage was observed maximumin Pampadumpara and Udumbanchola was loam the rhizosphere and silt percentage was in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere observed maximum in nonrhizosphere regions of plantation soil. The Puliyanmala regions. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of fipronil residues and physico-chemical properties ... 23 \\Table 3. Soil Texture Samples Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Soil Type Rh nRh Rh Rh nRh nRh AnaS1 78.00±0.57 28.00±0.57 12.90±0.28 66.00±0.57 09.10±0.05 06.00±0.57 Loam AnaS2 76.80±0.08 32.00±0.57 19.00±0.57 53.70±0.05 04.20±0.05 14.30±0.08 VanS3 24.00±0.57 28.30±0.03 63.80±0.05 55.70±0.05 12.20±0.05 16.00±0.57 Silt Loam VanS4 36.00±0.57 39.00±0.57 48.00±0.57 51.20±0.03 16.00±0.57 09.80±0.05 PulS5 74.10±0.05 42.50±0.05 19.10±0.05 47.80±0.03 06.8±0.05 09.30±0.05 Sandy Loam PulS6 78.00±0.33 35.00±0.57 12.80±0.05 58.60±0.03 09.20±0.05 06.40±0.05 PamS7 74.60±0.05 46.40±0.05 12.00±0.57 43.00±0.57 13.40±0.05 08.60±0.03 Loam PamS8 77.00±0.57 48.00±0.57 17.20±0.05 45.20±0.15 5.80±0.05 06.80±0.05 NedS9 39.00±0.57 68.00±0.33 36.90±0.05 13.00±0.57 21.10±0057 19.00±0.05 Silt Loam NedS10 43.60±0.05 51.90±0057 44.00±0.33 35.00±0.57 12.40±0.05 13.10±0.57 UduS11 72.00±0.57 82.00±0.57 18.40±0.57 08.40±0.05 09.60±0.05 09.60±0.08 Loam UduS12 75.30±0.05 76.00±0.57 12.70±0.05 18.00±0.57 12.00±0.57 06.00±0.05 The nutrient nitrogen (N) was observed to be lowest in Udu S11 (12.6 mg kg-1) sampling maximum in both the rhizosphere (826 mg station. In nonrhizosphere region kg-1) and non-rhizosphere (736 mg kg-1) phosphorous was maximum in Pam S8 (105.7 mg kg-1) and minimum in Van S3 (11.4 mg region of Ana S1 and minimum in the kg-1) sampling location (Table 4). Among rhizosphere (135 mg kg-1) and non- three nutrients, phosphorous was very low in rhizosphere (138 mg kg-1) region of Van S4 andUduS11samplingstationsrespectively. The concentration.The total available results revealed that (Table.4) the available phosphorous in the rhizosphere and nitrogen in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere of the soil was very low nonrhizosphere regions were medium to high because of insolubility. Available in status.In the present study, nitrogen was phosphorous in the cardamom plantation observed to be maximum in Anakkara soils were very low (Korikanthimath et. al., because of the presence of high organic 2000) because a small portion of matter content and minimum in soils with phosphorous from the applied phosphate minimum organic matter content fertilizer was utilized by plants and (Korikanthimath et. al., 2000). It might be remaining phosphorous was converted to due to the maximum mineralization and litter insoluble phosphate (Rodriguez and Fraga, decomposition occurred in plantation soils 1999) leads to a phosphorous deficiency in (Balagopalan and Jose, 1995). soil. In rhizosphere region highest phosphorous The nutrient potassium (K) found to be (P) noticed in Pul S6 (122.5 mg kg-1) and maximum in the S1 site of both rhizosphere Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

24 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity (817 mg kg-1) and nonrhizosphere (735 mg soil samples.Maximum potassium content in kg-1) region of Anakkara. Potassium was cardamom soil might be due to the repeated minimum in Pul S6 (102 mg kg-1) on application of potassium fertilizers and its rhizosphere region and Van S4 (54.91 mg kg- accumulation in soil (Balagopalan and Jose, 1) in nonrhizosphere (Table 4). Available 1995; Korikanthimath, 1999; Sadanandan et.al., 1989; Swaroop and Ghosh, 1979). potassium was medium to high in both rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere regions of Table 4. Nutrients in soil Samples Nitrogen (mg kg-1) Phosphorous (mg kg-1) Potassium (mg kg-1) Rh nRh AnaS1 Rh nRh Rh nRh AnaS2 817±0.33 735±0.57 VanS3 826±0.57 736±0.58 21.5±0.05 19.3±0.05 145.08±0.57 331±0.57 VanS4 PulS5 391±0.58 168±0.58 21.6±0.06 39.6±0.06 216±0.57 172±0.58 PulS6 155±0.58 54.91±0.57 PamS7 196±0.58 260±0.57 14.4±0.06 11.4±0.05 510±0.58 55.6±0.58 PamS8 102±0.58 60.9±0.57 NedS9 135±0.57 215±0.57 28.7±0.06 74.24±0.01 376±0.58 387±0.58 NedS10 285±0.58 324±0.57 UduS11 279±0.57 272±0.58 19.6±0.05 23.5±0.05 430±0.57 414±0.58 UduS12 331±0.57 301±0.57 257±0.58 184±0.58 122.5±0.06 14.73±0.00 411±0.57 450±0.58 516±0.57 580±0.33 280±0.58 684±0.58 108.3±0.05 99.8±0.03 302±0.58 263±0.58 112.9±0.05 105.7±0.05 156±0.57 325±0.57 49.8±0.05 55.9±0.03 198±0.57 159±0.58 75.1±0.05 67.1±0.05 226±0.57 138±0.57 12.6±0.05 18.3±0.05 206±0.57 345±0.58 20.3±0.05 26.1±0.05 Conclusion maximum in rhizosphere soils than nonrhizospheresoils. The soil texture varied The soil is the natural habitat for from loam, silt loam to sandy loam in microorganisms, play an essential role in rhizosphere as well as nonrhizosphere maintaining the soil health. The toxicity and regions.The three major nutrients such as persistence of insecticides on soil could be nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium (NPK) deleterious to soil fertility. In this study, was maximum in rhizosphere region of fipronil residue on the cardamom plantation different sampling stations than soil was quantified by using HPLC and nonrhizosphere.The nutrient status of both observed that it was found to be maximum on rhizosphere and nonrhizosphere soils was in organic richsoils. All the soil samples were the order of N > K >P. Investigation on these generally acidic and fipronil contaminated in fipronil residue analysis and physico – nature.Organic matter was found to be chemical properties of the soil samples leads Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Analysis of fipronil residues and physico-chemical properties ... 25 to the further studies on biodegradation of Korikanthimath.V.S., Gaddi, A.V. and pesticides from the soil. Ankegowda, S.J. 2000. Status of major nutrients in soils of cardamom (Elettaria References cardamomum Maton) plantations in Kodagu district, Karnataka, India. J. Spi. Aromat. Alexander, M. 1961. Introduction to soil Crops., 9 (2):117 - 22. microbiology. John Wiley and Sons NewYork. Lewis, D.W. 1984. Practical Sedimentology. Hutchinson and RossStroudsburg. Balagopalan, M. and Jose, A.I. 1995. Soil chemical characteristics in a natural forest Rodriguez, H. and Fraga, R. 1999. Phosphate and adjacent exotic plantations in Kerala, solubilizing bacteria and their plant growth India. J. Trop. For Sci., 8:161 – 166. promotion. Biotechnol. Adv., 17:319 - 330. Beevi, S.N., Paul, A., George, T., Mathew, Sadanandan, A.K., Peter, K.V. and Hamza, T.B., Kumar, N.P., Xavier, G., Kumar, S. 1989. Role of potassium nutrition in G.T.P., Rajith, R., Ravi, K.P. and Kumar, improving yield and quality of spice crops in S.V. 2014. Pesticide residues in soils under India. cardamom cultivation in Kerala, India. Pest. Res. J., 26(1):35 – 41. Sahu, G.C., Patnaik, S.N. and Das, P.K. 1990. Morphology genesis, mineralogy and Bobe, A., Coste, C.M. and Cooper, J. 1997. classification of soils of northern plateau Factors influencing the adsorption of fipronil zone of Orissa. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 38: on soils. J Agric Fd Chem., 45:4861- 4865. 116 -121. Chowdhury, A., Pradhan, S., Sahu, M. and Saxena, M.M. 1998. Environmental analysis Sangul, N. 2008. Impact of pesticides on soil - Water, Soil and Air. Vyas Nagar Bikaner microbiological parameters and possible Darya Ganj New Delhi India. bioremediationstrategies. Indian J. Microbiol., 48: 114 - 127. Sparks, R. 2003. Environmental Soil Hussain, A., Maqbool, U. and Asi, M. 1994. Chemistry, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Studies on dissipation and degradation of 14C-DDT and 14C-DDE in Pakistani soils Netherlands. under field conditions. J. Env. Sci. Heal. B., 29: 1 - 15. Swaroop, A. and Ghosh, A.B. 1979. Effect of intensive cropping ad mannuring soil Khan, S.U. 1980. Pesticides in soil properties and crop yield. Ind. J. Agri. Sci., environment, Elsevier, Amsterdam. 49:938 - 944. Korikanthimath, V.S. 1994. Nutrition of Tiryaki, O. and Temur, C. 2010. The fate of cardamom. Adv. Hort., 9: 467 - 477 pesticide in the environment, J. Biol. Envi. Sci., 4(10):29 – 38. Verma, A., Srivastava, A., Chauhan, S.S. and Srivastava, P.C. 2014. Effect of sunlight and ultraviolet light on dissipation of fipronil Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

26 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity insecticide in two soils and effect of pH on Wiatrak, Khalilian, A., Muller, J. and its persistence in aqueous medium. Air, Soil Henderson, W. 2009. Applications of soil EC and Water Research., 69 - 73. in production agriculture., 93(2):16 - 17. Viswanathan, P.N. 1985. Environmental Ying, G.G. and Kookana, R.S. 2002. toxicology in India. Biol. Mem., 11: 88-95. Sorption of fipronil and its metabolites on soils from south Australia. J. Environ. Sci. Walkey, A. and Black, I.A. 1934. An Health. B., 36:545 -558. examination of Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and proposed Zhu, G., Wu, H., Guo, J. and Faithrest, M.E. modification of the chromic acid titration. 2004. Microbial degradation of Fipronil in Soil Sci., 37: 28 - 38. clay loam soil. Water Air Soil Pollut., 153:35 -44. Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.19-26 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Temporal distribution of microbial communities in the water system of Sasthamkotta lake … 27 ISBN 978-93-5396-871-7 CHAPTER 4 TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES IN THE WATER SYSTEM OF SASTHAMKOTTA LAKE IN SOUTHERN KERALA, INDIA Munisha Murali S*and Sheeba S PG and Research Department of Zoology Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala *Correspondence E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Bacterial distribution and environmental factors play a central role in the functioning of wetland stability. Clean water is necessary for the well-being of society which provides good health. Sasthamkotta Lake is the lone drinking water resource to Kollam city and nearby suburban areas. The present study addresses on the distribution of microbial communities in the water of Sasthamkotta Lake. Water samples were collected bimonthly during the period from February 2016 to December 2016. Maximum number of bacterial count in the surface water was noted in the monsoon season and minimum in the post monsoon. Highest number of bacterial count in the bottom water was recorded during postmonsoon and lowest during monsoon. In the surface water total coliforms were recorded high during monsoon and low during premonsoon. Total coliforms in the bottom water were noted to be lowest during postmonsoon and highest during premonsoon. In surface and bottom water E.coli was at highest during premonsoon and least during postmonsoon. A total of twenty one microorganisms were recorded in water. Nine species of bacteria obtained from both surface and bottom water. The evaluation of bacterial communities revealed the microbial pollution in Sasthamkotta Lake. Key words: Water, Total bacterial count, Total coliforms, E.coli Introduction in regulating the bacterial communities in water leads to health risk. In this backdrop Nowadays aquatic ecosystem is deteriorating the range of bacterial pollution in due to various anthropogenic activities. The Sasthamkotta Lake was explored. adequacy of freshwater resource is progressively increasing but its drinking Materials and Method quality standards are lowering. Failure to maintain the growing demand for drinking The study area was Sasthamkotta Lake at water is rising. Water quality and health are Kunnathur Taluk at Kollam district in Kerala parallel to each other in terms of (Map. 1).Water samples (surface and bottom management of pristine aquatic resource. The water) were collected bimonthly during the impacts of socioeconomic development are period from January 2016 to December 2016. cause of poor water quality. Disposal of Six stations were selected for microbiological polluted waste loads to the freshwater analysis such as Total Bacterial Count resource is responsible for the microbial (TBC), Total Coliforms (TC) and E.coli contamination of water. The obvious failure count. Of the six stations three stations such as Station I, IV and VI were selected for Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

28 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity seasonal bacterial species identification. strains isolated were initially analyzed for Total bacterial count, Total coliforms and characteristic colony and bacterial E.coli count were done as per pour plate and morphology as per colony growth and gram MPN method of IS 1622-1981 (Reaffirmed staining. To confirm the bacterial species 2003) Edn 2.4 (2003-2005). MPN was identity based on phenotypic traits laboratory obtained from the tables of APHA 22nd use VITEK Cards through VITEK 2 Edition Part B,E and H Table 9221:IV. Compact System. VITEK 2 System provides The identification of bacterial isolate was an automated computer based method of done by morphological, biochemical and species identification as per the measurement VITEK Identification System. Bacterial of light attenuation associated with each biochemical reaction. Map.1 Study Area – Sasthamkotta Lake Result and Discussion was noted during monsoon and highest during premonsoon. Total bacterial count in Monthly and seasonal variation of microbial bottom was recorded minimum during post load in water is depicted in Table 1 and 2. monsoon and maximum value was observed Minimum TBC (8x102cfu/ml) in surface during monsoon. Variation in total coliforms water was recorded during August and for surface water was ranged between 20 maximum (37.3x103 cfu/ml) during April. In MPN/100 ml during February and 720 bottom water minimum number of TBC MPN/100ml during June. Total coliforms of (22x103 cfu/ml) was observed during October bottom water were recorded between 6 and maximum (27x103cfu/ml) during June. MPN/100 ml during August and 270 Lowest total bacterial count in surface water Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Temporal distribution of microbial communities in the water system of Sasthamkotta lake … 29 MPN/100ml during October. Seasonal overall dominance of bacteria in water variation in total coliforms in surface water recorded minimum during premonsoon and sample indicated that Gram – negative forms maximum during monsoon. Lowest total coliform was observed during premonsoon was dominant accounting to 67% and Gram- and highest during postmonsoon. E.coli was absent in several stations and also recorded postive bacteria (included Gram positive highest value 20 MPN/100ml during February in surface water and 92 cocci -19% and Gram positive large rods MPN/100ml during February in bottom (BCL) – 14%) was 33%. Bacteria perceived water. Maximum number of E.coli was noted during premonsoon in both surface (17 in surface water during premonsoon included MPN/100ml) and bottom water (86MPN/100ml). Actinetobacter baumanii, Actinetobacter Highest TBC during monsoon season pitii,Chryseobacterium gleum, Pantoea indicated runoff and settlement of polluted waste water into the lake. Seepage of water spp.,Kocuria varians,and Sphingomonas with large number of bacteria from populated areas might have caused contamination of paucimobilis. Microorganisms recorded in water. The high coliform count noticed from the surface water during monsoon season surface water during monsoon consisted also supports the observation. The overlying water with copious nutrients may also be ofBacillus pumilus, Burkholderia responsible for the proliferation of bacteria. E.coli count recorded during monsoon may vietnamiensis, Chromobacterium violaceum, be due to dilution of water. Since the presence of E.coli contamination indicates Chryseobacterium gleum, Kocuria varians, faecal contamination the water is not fit for domestic use unless proper purification Ralstonia picketti,and Staphlycoccus treatment. The observation indicated that the water is beyond permissible limit for epidermis. Bacteria documented in surface domestic use. The desirable limit of TC prescribed for drinking purpose by Indian water during postmonsoon included of Standard is <10 MPN/100 ml and 0 MPN/100 ml for E.coli. The acceptable limit Aeromonas salmonicida, Pseudomonas for bathing purpose is 500 MPN/100ml for total coliforms and 100 MPN/100ml for luteola, and Aeromonas sobria. E.coli (Singh and Singh,1995). The values of microbial samples indicate that it was less Microbes observed in bottom water during compared to previous studies of Girijakumari et al., (2006), Girijakumari and Abraham premonsoon comprised of Actinetobacter (2007) and Peter and Sreedevi (2013). baumanii, Bacillus cereus, Chryseobacterium Bacteria identified in water during premonsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon is gleum, Kocuria varians, Kocuria kristinae, summarized in Tables 3, 4 and 5. In the Methylobacterium spp., Pantoea spp., and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. Microorganisms recorded in bottom water during monsoon included Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus licheniforms, Burkholderia vietnamiensis,Chromobacterium violaceum, Kocuria varians and Staphlycoccus epidermis .Bacteria detected in bottom water during postmonsoon encompassed of Aeromonas sobria, Cupriavidus pauculus and Granulicatella elegans. Nine species of bacteria found in both surface and bottom water. . Actinetobacter baumani has emerged as a nosocomial pathogen established in the hospital infection(Ramı´rez et al.,2015). Actinetobacter pitii is also a hospital adapted pathogen and both Actinetobacter spp. are not ubiquitous in nature. Chryseobacterium is typically found in soil, water, plants, food products and can survive in hospital Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

30 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity environments, chlorinated water, and wet enzymes of clinical relevance. Hydrocarbon- surfaces, all of which serve as potential degrading bacteria that have recently been reservoirs of infection (Arouna et al., 2017). investigated in different localities in Saudi The presence of these Gram-negative Arabia, include Stenotrophomonas Actinetobacter spp and Chryseobacterium maltophilia (Arulazhagan et al., 2017). spp. in lake water indicates that the hospital Bacillus pumilus inhabit in aquatic setting waste disposal was done in the catchment and highly resistant to extreme area of lake. Kocuria varians is a Gram- environmental conditions. B.pumilus act as a positive bacterium is recovered from potential pyrene biodegrader appropriate for different food-processing plants. It is polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) reported to cause brain abscess. Further, the bioremediation (Khanna et al., 2011).Its beneficial effects of K. varians include presence in water due to anthropogenic improvement of the flavor profile in sources such as cigarette smoke and fermented sausage and the degradation of automobile exhaust(Jacques et al., 2007). putrescine (Raghupathi et al., 2016). Kocuria Enzyme isolated from B.pumilus showed kristinae is also a clinical pathogen found in efficient activity in leather processing, immunocompromised patients. Also keratin degradation, Bio-film removal, and degradechlorpyrifos, an organophosphorus Antifungal agent of fungal plant pathogen insecticide (Hamsavathani et al., 2017). (More et al., 2017). Bacillus licheniforms is Pantoea spp.is found in both aquatic and often isolated from feathers of aquatic birds terrestrial environment. It is an opportunistic and also from soil. It possesses keratinase bacteria isolated from hospital environment. activity for degrading keratin waste It is used for degradation of herbicides, (Okoroma et al., 2012). Therefore it is certain toxic stuffs and biocontrol of plant evident that water is polluted by livestock disease and possesses bioremediation industry. B. licheniforms also possess abilities (Walterson and Stavrinides, 2015; degrading capacity for hydrocarbon oil Tiwari and Beriha,2015). Sphingomonas (García-Alcántara et al., 2016) and organic paucimobili sis widespread in the natural contaminants and their associated metabolites environment and considered asa waterborne (Zhao et al., 2016). Also used fo clinical pathogen (I-Ching et al., 2009). rbiodegradation of commercial polyethylene Methylobacteriumspp. are commonly isolated products (Mukherjee et al., 2016).It from various natural environments (i.e., leaf detoxifiesthe mycotoxin Zearalenone (ZEA) surfaces, soil, dust, and fresh water). produced by Fusarium fungi (Guanhua Fu et Methylobacterium species are resistant to the al., 2016). Burkholderia vietnamiensis is residual chlorine of disinfectants. Bacillus isolated from clinical, rhizospheres, soil, and cereus is widely distributed in the aquatic niche. Have the capacity to remove environment. It is an infectious candidate in herbicide glycophosphate (Manogaran et al., hospital presentations and also causes food 2018). This bacteria is extensively studied in poisoning. Also beneficial in the the biodegradation of organic pollutants detoxification of nitrogenous waste and for trichloroethylene (TCE), Benzene, o-cresol, application in aquaculture (Barman et al., m-cresol, p-cresol, phenol, toluene, 2016). Stenotrophomonas maltophiliais naphthalene and chloroform and biocontrol ubiquitous in water bodies and prominent in of root disease(O’Sullivan and hospital niche and affects severely debilitated Mahenthiralingam, 2005) and also degrades patients. The bacteria possess multi-drug microcystin-LR (MC-LR) (Wang et al., resistant ability and produces extracellular 2014) and also reduces nickel and uranium Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Temporal distribution of microbial communities in the water system of Sasthamkotta lake … 31 toxicity (Van Nostrand et al., 2007). environment. Pseudomonas luteola is found Chromobacterium violaceum is a facultative in damp surroundings. It is utilized in the anaerobe found in soil and water and also treatment of industrial effluent containing associated with human infections. The purple azo dyes (Hu, 1998). P. luteola degrade pigment violacein, expanded its utility as aromatic compounds such as carbazole marker trait during quorum sensing assays degradation (Liu et al., 2012). Also used in (Kothari et al., 2017). Cyanide production the bioremediation of crude oil-contaminants and degradation is done by this bacterium (Atanasković et al., 2016). Cupriavidus (Rodgers and Knowles, 1978) and useful for pauculus is a water pathogen isolated from phenol degradation and survives under clinical samples. It is effective for the various environmental stresses. Ralstonia bioremediation of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol picketti is a free living water- borne and (TCP) polluted backgrounds (Cao et al., clinical pathogen. It is involved in the 2012). This microorganism possesses removal of xenobiotic contaminants such as haloacetic acid (HAA) (Berthiaume et al., toluene and trichloroethylene (Rayan et al., 2013) degradation capacity. Granulicatella 2007) and phenol (Al-Zuhair and El-Naas, elegansis found in periorbital septicity 2012) and hydrocarbon degradation (Quartermain et al., 2013). (Kostenko et al., 2013). Staphlycoccus epidermi is a commensal bacterium The existence of these microorganisms associated with hospital settings. This showed that the lake was getting polluted due bacteria is involved in the degradation of to population explosion, dumping of synthetic polyurethanes (Jansen et al., 1991). untreated sewage and also revealed Aeromonas sobria is distributed in aquatic hydrocarbon pollution. Disposal of hospital environment, isolated from dairy industries, waste was at large rate was indicated by the fish industries and is an important human presence of several bacteria. The persistence pathogen. Aeromonas salmonicida degrade of agricultural waste in lake can be evidenced polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) by the presence of insecticide degrading compounds (Nie et al., 2014). It can flourish microbes. The incidence of these bacteria in tremendously polluted aquatic exhibited the anthropogenic influence on lake. Table 1. Range of microbial count in water samples of Sasthamkotta Lake Parameters Water TBC (cfu/ml) Minimum (Month; Station) Maximum (Month; Station) TC count(MPN/100 ml) E.coli count (MPN/100 ml) SW 0.12x103 (October;VI) 21x103 (June; III) BW 0.22x102 (October ; IV) 27x102 (June; V) SW 20 (February; V) 720 (June; IV) BW 6 (August ;III) 270 (October;I) SW <1.8 (June, August, October, December;I, III, IV,V,VI) 120 (February; V) BW <1.8 ( (June, August, October, December;I, II, III, IV,V,VI) 92 (Februar ; VI) SW- Surface Water; BW- Bottom Water Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

32 Current status and challenges for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Table 2. Seasonal fluctuation of microbial count in waters amples of Sasthamkotta Lake Parameters Water TBC(cfu/ml) TC count (MPN/100 ml) Minimum (Season; Station) Maximum (Season; Station) E.coli count (MPN/100 ml) SW 130 (Post monsoon; VI) 20x103 (Monsoon; III) BW 240 (Postmonsoon; IV) 21x102 (Monsoon; V) SW 20.5 (Premonsoon; V) 520 (Monsoon; IV) BW 23 (Premonsoon; III) 900 (Post monsoon; I) SW <1.8 ( Monsoon; IV, V, VI;Postmonsoon; I, III, IV, V, VI) 17 (Premonsoon; V) BW <1.8 ( Monsoon; IV, V, VI; Postmonsoon; I, II,III, IV, V, VI) 86 (Premonsoon; VI) Table 3. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lake during premonsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Staining Station I Station IV Station VI Reaction SW BW SW BW SW BW ++ +- Actinetobacter baumannii GN + + + + -- Actinetobacter pitii GN - - - - -- -- Bacillus cereus BCL - - - + -- -- Bacillus coagulans BCL - - - - ++ -- Bacillus pumilus BCL - - - - ++ -- Bacillus spp BCL - - - - ++ -- Brevibacillus choshinensis BCL - - - - -- -- Chryseobacterium gleum GN + + + + Kocuria kristinae GP - + - - Kocuria varians GP + - + - Methylobacterium spp GN - + - - Pantoea spp GN - - - - Sphingomonas paucimobilis GN - - + - Staohylococcus lentus GP - - - - Stenotrophomonas maltophilia GN - + - - GN- Gram Negative; GP- Gram Positive; BCL- Bacillus Identification Card ; ‘+’ - Presence; ‘-’- Absent Table 4. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lake during monsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Staining STATION I STATION IV STATION VI Reaction SW BW SW BW SW BW Bacillus pumilus BCL +- -+ ++ Bacillus licheniforms BCL -+ -- -- Burkholderia vietnamiensis GN ++ ++ Chromobacterium violaceum GN +- ++ + Chryseobacterium gleum GN -- +- -+ Kocuria varians GP -+ ++ -- Ralstonia pickettii GN +- -- +- Staphylococcus epidermidis GP +- -- +- -+ Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

Temporal distribution of microbial communities in the water system of Sasthamkotta lake … 33 Table 5. Presence of bacterial species identified by VITEK Method in representative sampling stations of Sasthamkotta Lake during post monsoon of 2016 Bacteria Gram Staining STATION I STATION IV STATION VI Reaction SW BW SW BW SW BW Aeromonas salmonicida GN Aeromonas sobria GN -- +- + Bacillus cereus BCL +- ++ ++ Brevundimonas diminuta GN -- -- -- Cupriavidus pauculus GN -- -- -- Granulicatella elegans GP -+ -- -- Pseudomonas luteola GN -+ -- -- Sphingomonas paucimobilis GN -- +- -- Staphylococcus xylosus GP -- -- -- -- -- -- Conclusion purpose but for drinking adequate remediation measures have to be taken. Determination of bacterial load and Bacteria isolated from water have clinical and community versatility exposed the human public health importance especially to impact on lake. Degrading capability of the immune compromised patients. The bacteria was a merit in controlling the lake governing authorities must guarantee safety from much pollution. Unsafe and improper of water. Sufficient monitoring methods have sanitation and dumping of untreated wastes to be implemented to detect any change in the considered to be great risk to human health as pattern of pathogens. The quality of lake was it contains disease causing bacteria. The fact getting weakening steadily so management revealed that water can be used for day to day measures must be taken to save the ecosystem. References Al-Zuhair, S and El-Naas, M H. 2012. Phenol bacterium Pseudomonasluteola PRO23.Hem. biodegradation by Ralstonia Pickettii Ind., 70 (2): 143–150. extracted from petroleum refinery oil sludge.Journal Chemical Engineering Arouna,O.,Deluca, F., Camara,M., Fall,B., Communications.,199(9): 1194-1204 Diallo,A.B., Docquier, J.D. and Mboup, S. 2017. Chryseobacteriumgleum in a man with APHA. 2012. Standard Methods for the prostatectomy in Senegal: a case report and Examination of Water and Wastewater 22nd review of the literature.Journal of Medical Case Reports.,11:118 Edition. American Public Health Berthiaume, C., Gilbert,Y., Fournier-Larente, Association,Washington, D.C., USA. J.,Pluchon,C., Filion, G., Jubinville, E., Serodes, J.B., Rodriguez,M., Duchaine,C. Atanasković, I.M., Jelena, P., Jovičić ,P., and Charette, S.J. 2013. Identification of dichloroacetic acid degrading Cupriavidus Marjan,B.B., Vera, M.K., Vera, B.R. and bacteria in a drinking water distribution Blažo, T.L 2016. Stimulation of diesel degradation and biosurfactant production by aminoglycosides in a novel oil-degrading Current Status and Challenges for Conservation and Sustainable use of Biodiversity | 2020 | pp.27-36 © Principal, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala, India

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