1.Democratic educational administration for the Philippine educational system

85 health education, «sd-National Language. Large divisions have supervisors In '.English and other subjects fo r the sec­ ondary schools* the superintendent occasionally delegates some o f M s power® and duties th at a ffe c t the whole division to some of those in the supervisory s ta ff ! esp ecially to the academia supervisor* k school division is e s s e n tia lly made up of elementary schools| a t le a s t one secondary school* and sometimes a nor­ mal or tech n ical school* Unless the normal school or the technical school has a ■superintendent of i t s own* a l l public school® located In the division are d ire c tly responsible to the division superintendent, the administration of a division is delegated to minor adm inistrative head® a t the d iffe re n t level®, Administration of the elementary schools, from the superintendent the lin e of auth o rity runs down to the element iary classroom teacher through the d i s t r i c t supervisor and subsequently through the elementary school principal. Each school division is divided into school d is tric ts * which are made up of ce n tral school® with th e ir respective b arrio schools. Each d i s t r i c t is given over to the charge of a d i s t r i c t supervisor who represent® the division superin­ tendent in his d istric t* but a d is tr ic t supervisor*s func­ tion® are more supervisory than adm inistrative. He organizes and adm inisters the cen tral and b arrio school®, Inspects

86 schools | and “checks the work of various teachers with the requirem ents of :the prescribed courses and sees to i t th a t they comply w ith the general plan of In stru c tio n se t up by the D irector of Public Schools.*® Some d istr ic ts are supervised and administered by '.s.unervlslng p rin cip als« who a c t as the p rin c ip a ls of the c e n tra l schools without p rin c ip a ls , and a t the same time per­ form the usual functions of the d i s t r i c t supervisor. All d i s t r i c t supervisors, communicating with the d iv isio n super­ intendent channel th e ir actions through the academic super­ v iso r i f they pertain to subjects other than the vocational courses, h e a lth , and n atio n al Language, in which case they are coursed through th e ir respective supervisors. The c e n tra l schools In a d i s t r i c t are the elementary schools within the town proper known m the pobl&clon. Each elementary school i s d ire c tly adm inistered and supervised by the elementary school p rin c ip a l who Is the immediate superior of the classroom teacher. The p rin c ip a l takes charge of the enrollment; schedule® the school program; inspects and ob­ serves the work of a l l teachers; and holds teac h er’s meetings generally to explain the c irc u la rs , memoranda, and b u lle tin s issued by th e D irector of the Public Schools. The b arrio school® are usually primary schools or ju s t %®n&I$mg, P. S ., ^egal Basis of Philippine, .gduoa- Mon, p. 129.

87 graces on® and two* although there are some complete elemen­ ta ry b a rrio schools* A b a rrio school is one th a t is located in the o u tly in g ru ra l areas of the town* A b a rrio school w ith le s s than six teachers has a b a rrio heed teacher* while the complete elementary school is under an elementary school principal* Both p rin c ip a l and head teacher represent the D is tric t Supervisor* however* the head teacher exercises no supervisory duties* the organic Act Ho* 74 e a rly provided fo r the organi­ sation of a lo c a l school board* s tip u la tin g i t s composition and membership (sectio n 10)* and ©numerated the powers and d u ties (sec tio n 11) of the said b o ard .' One h a lf of the n ix o r four members were to be elected by the Municipal Council; the other h a lf w e r e to be appointees of the superintendent** and a l l were to hold o ffic e fo r two years* Among the d u ties of the lo c a l school board provided fox'4w e r e ; 1* To v i s i t schools and render to the superintendent b i­ monthly reports regarding school conditions and a t­ tendance o f pupils* 2*. To recommend s ite s and plans fo r schools to be erected to the Municipal Council. 3. To re p o rt annually to the Municipal Council the amount of money needed to be raised from taxation* 4, To report d ire c tly to the D irector of Education when necessary or suggestions may be deemed expedient. The provisions fo r the school board are s t i l l found in the A d m in I g t r & . t l v e Code, section 921, and b&ve not been repealed, but there are no school boards in existence in

88 the Philippines. City school systems also provide for city school hoards in th e ir charters* but like the local school boards* they are non-existent. J ^ a ln la tra tlo a of the secondary gohpo^s. School di­ visions usually have a general high school and a. vocational secondary school of e ith e r trade, ag ric u ltu ra l, or rural high school type. Of l a t e , the Bureau has opened high school® In the more populated regions In a school division outside of the p ro vincial capital* Such schools have been designated as Junior High Schools i f supported from the provincial fund and tu itio n fees, or they have been ca lled Municipal High Schools i f supported from municipal funds and tu itio n fees. The adm inistration of the secondary schools in each division is the province of the secondary school principals, who are answerable to the Director of Public Schools fo r th e ir management, through the division superintendent. Like the elementary school principal, the high school principal*s duties are concerned w ith the d e ta ils of keeping the machin­ ery o f h is secondary school in smooth running condition. He prepares and coordinates the school program, supervises and checks the classroom work of teach ers, plans the extra­ cu rric u la r a c tiv itie s * holds teachers* meetings, and keeps the school plant in a hygienic condition. Different subject supervisors from the In stru c tio n al Division of the Bureau also supervise the educative process* but i t is the principal

89 who is hold responsible fo r the school* Administration of .the normal schools* The seven nor­ mal schools of the country are each under the d ire c t a d m i n i s ­ t r a t i o n of a normal school p rin cip al. In the ©vent th a t a normal school does not have i t s own superintendent, the nor­ mal school is placed under the supervision of the superin­ tendent of schools o f the division where the normal school Is located. T h r o u g h t h e normal school p rin cip al t h e authority of the D irector of P u b l i c Schools reaches the in stru c to rs, t h e supervisor of the train in g department, and the c r itic teach­ ers. T h e supervisor of the training department, subordinate to the p rin c ip a l, i s the immediate head of the c r it i c teach­ ers and supervises t o practice teaching of student teacher®. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the normal p rin cip al has overall control of the s c h o o l , supervising t o academic in stru ctio n in t o college department, coordinating t o w o rk in s t u d e n t teaching with t o c r itic teachers* work, a n d In general attending to t o management of t o school* Adala1s tra tto n o f national schools* The six national schools are independent of school divisions and are admin­ iste re d by superintendents d ire c tly responsible to t o Di­ recto r, The college adm inistration is undertaken by a p rin ­ cip al or a r e g is tra r aided by the department heads* If a national school 3ms a train in g department, unlike in t o

90 normal school, the tra in in g supervisor and the c r i t i c teach­ ers under him are under the supervision of the superintendent and not the p rin cip al. A Resume The organization of the system and the extent of cen­ tra liz e d control has been variously attached and defended in I t s 5 0 year® of existence* Joseph % Hayden, f o r m e r vice- governor general and therefore by I'm the secretary of pub­ l i c in stru c tio n during his incumbency, gives four reason© for th e Justification of th e centralized sy stem r • * * highly ce n tralise d control Is an out­ standing c h a rseteristic of Spanish adm inistration under which F i l i p i n o s liv ed fo r 3GQ year®, and t o d a y p rev ails in every department of the Philippine r'overo- m m t * , * a ttitu d e s a n d habits acquired through cen­ tu rie s can1! be t r a n s f o r m e d in a generation , . , m a n y communities * • . are s t i l l so poor and b a c k w a r d t h a t without fin an cial support and rig id control from Manila th e ir schools would d eterio rate and collapse * * * a c e rta in minimum o f s t a n d a r d s are maintained , . The d etailed control , • • le mad® n e c e s s a r y by meager educational and professional attainm ents, in experience and lack o f 'in itia tiv e o f a large portion of teachers * * ♦ $ In hi® annual rep o rt of 1923, the D irector s t a t e d : B y means of an organ!setion of th is kind, i t Is possible for the o ffice of the Director working through super i n t e n d e n t s , to see that the best and most p racticab le 9H ayden, J . R. > The P h ilip p in es. pp. 607, 510.

91 of tr ie d methods end policies? are followed by super­ visors and teachers throughout the archipelago.10 In 1935, upon the in v ita tio n of the Philippine Govern- ment, t commission of outstanding American educators headed by Paul Monroe surveyed the ayste®. In unmistakable words, Monroe c r itic ise d the administration of the schools: * , . the adm inistration was producing throughout . . . a system of standardisation and uniform ity which were destructive of efficiency and detriments! to the best In te re sts of the pupils • . * Supervision had de­ generated through Inspection into espionage . . . de­ ta ile d control through a bureaucratic organisation which depended almost wholly upon the maintenance of rig id routine was developing . . . in itia tiv e and independence were being destroyed among the teachers* the pupils and local communities * * # The schools were dehumanized . * * burled under useless paper work . # * 22 Almost 25 years l a t e r , in 1949, another group o f edu­ cato rs, th is time representing the United Mat Iona, in ap­ praising the school system In the P hilippines, came to the conclusion th at; *Education In the Philippines is too highly centrailzed; there is need for delegation to the provinces and chartered c itie s of g reater au th o rity and re sp o n sib ility for the management of th e ir schools. *2.2 3-%ewXey, L. B ., B&portf* pi re c to r g f Education. 1923, pp. 38*39# ^Monroe, Paul, chairman, b $,u.rrey of H e gd^oaMon,il j& iteg &£ JH& puT W , as, se , 221, 39a , 530, 558# 2-sUHF.S0O# Mppr.t Q f Mission Jo H e Philippine a ,t p* 19#

However, report® coming from the P hilippines In the p ast year augur weIX fo r the future of education in the i s ­ lands. F ilip in o educational leaders are awakening to the tru th th a t a rad ical change in the adm inistration of the schools is imperative I f the Philippines is to be a bulwark of democracy in the East against the impingement of b e llig ­ erent ideologies* Bernardino, a division superintendent of schools, remonstratesj while the Philippine educational system has long professed to be dedicated to the propagation of democ­ racy, a g re a t many practices In adm inistration, super­ vision and in stru ction are undemocratic * * . General policies relating to adm inistrative, supervision, cur­ riculum and other phases of education emanate from the head of the public school system and go down the lin e* 2,5 Perhaps the fa c t of g re ater Importance fo r education in the Philippines are the pronouncements of Benito Pangilinan, the Director of Public Schools him self, when In a meeting with the superintendents of the whole archipelago, he gave impulse to democratization of administrative, super­ visory! and in stru c tio n a l practices* In p a rt, he declared! the lin e -a n d -staff organization should yield to the democratic principle of group process * . * the reo rien tatio n of classroom organization and p ractices along [email protected] p rin cip les should be studied m d ex­ plored more fu lly . . . The b est possible way of help­ ing the people understand the function of the school is ^B ernardino, VrfcaXis.no, nhew Education in the P h ilip ­ p i n e s / Educational Leadership BjlEO, November, 1950*

93 to m k e the people p a rtic ip a te in t o t fu n c tio n .2-4 the school adm inistrators In the Philippines during the past two years, according to t o lite r a tu r e they have put out and th e ir in te r e s t in t o new community schools, at le a s t are now larg ely temoomtie in a ttitu d e . But teaching i s s t i l l larg e ly tra d itio n a l; teachers are s t i l l manacled by a m u ltip lic ity of ru les and reg u latio n s, d if f ic u lt to recon* c lle with freedom and in itia tiv e ; the curriculum is s t i l l prescribed; ftpa.rtioipatlon® ls s t i l l in terms of what t o teachers want pupils to think and do; the teacher is s t i l l the commander and the children the obeyers. i^F angllinan, Benito, wBasic P rinciples of the Commu­ n ity School,* r M llu p tn e Journal of Education 2 9 :6 , J u ly , 1950*

94 CHAPTER I t PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINXSTRATIOH^THER OOHTROL3 The centralization of the public school system in the 'Philippines is fu rth e r strengthened by the e x te n t o f i t s control over o ther area© in the f ie ld of adm inistration. The c o n stitu tio n a l mandate o f s ta te regulation and control is strongly manifest in matters of finance, pupil personnel adm in istratio n , and teaching personnel. Support of Education How is the huge educational machinery financed? Both the C onstitution and the Educational Act of 1940 c le a rly stip u la te th at primary and interm ediate education is the economic resp on sib ility of the n atio n al Government. P rio r to 1940| elementary education was financed by the lo cal municipal governments p rin c ip a lly from land ta x , re g is tra ­ tion tax , and appropriations of the municipal council from general funds. However, the lo c a l funds, which were f r e ­ quently inadequate, had to be b o lste re d with continuous and increasing a id from the in su la r funds, b o th a t u n til 1959 the support of the elementary school was the dual responsi­ b i l i t y of the m unicipality and the n atio n al Government, By the Educational Act of 1940, a l l lo c a l revenues fo r school support were tra n sfe rre d to the National Treasury and the

95 National Government assumed the whole fin an cial responsibil­ ity for elementary education, with the exception of the interm ediate grade© of the chartered c itie s which, however, also occasionally c a ll ©n the Philippine Government for funds in times of school ^ c r i s i s / when children seeking admission are more than can be accommodated In the c i t i e s 1 school fa ­ c ilitie s* Intermediate grades In the chartered c itie s are supported by the city government and p artly by the National Government* Other schools financed jo in tly by the National Govern­ ment and the provincial governments are the normal schools, the national schools, and the technical schools* The u n iv ersity of the P h ilip p in es, the Philippine Normal College, and the Central Luton A gricultural College are financed through appropriations by Congress supplemented by tu itio n and other fees from students. Secondary schools are self-supporting through student fees a t present* The high schools are the resp o n sib ility of the provinces, c i t i e s , and m unicipalities through th e ir respective boards and councils, which are expected to help finance the secondary schools by appropriations from, th e ir general funds. The funds for some years have been so meager that ac tu a lly the various governments have spent very l i t t l e public money fo r secondary education, and the problem of more funds fo r the high schools has been resolved by the

simple expedient of merely increasing the rate of tu itio n fees* The secondary vocational schools, which formerly were free schools In the hop© of a ttra c tin g students away from the academic high schools and to popularise vocational edu­ catio n , have been turned into pay schools by v irtu e of Re­ public Act No. 384 authorising vocational schools, among other things, to co llect tu itio n fees, Expenditure® fo r education have been given top p rio rity in the n atio n al budget since the war. In 1948, expenditures fo r education amounted to only 1*6 per cent of the national income, but the to ta l expenditure fo r education has increased fro® one-fourth to almost tw o-fifths of the to ta l expenditure of the National Government*^ The Bureau of Public Schools operates on funds th at are annual le g isla tiv e appropriations by Congress based on the recommendations of the D irector of Public Schools. These outlays for the Bureau of Public Schools are incor­ porated in the annual Budget Act fo r current expenses and in the Public works Act fo r c a p ita l outlay. All appropriations fo r current expenses are to be spent s t r i c t l y fo r purposes provided in the budget, and any special funds not esp ecially Itemised have to be budgeted iO ra ta , P. T ., \"Educational Progress in the P h ilip p in es, ,f Educational Record 31:369-382, October, 1950*

and itemized subject to the approval of the Secretary of Education before th e ir expenditure* other rules regulating expenditures of appropriations require;5 1* Approval of the General Office before any purchases are made through the Bureau of Supply; 2* The certifica tio n by the Auditor General or his repre­ sen tativ e of the a v a ila b ility of funds? 3, The ap p licatio n of the Flag Law, 1 ,8 ., giving preference to F ilip in o and American product© in purchasesj and 4. The reversion to the National Treasury of unexpended appropriation® at the end of the fis c a l year. Th© appropriations for capital outlay used in the constructiony re p a ir, and improvement of buildings are p art of the general Public Works Act, b e tte r known a® the \"pork b a rre l,\" In the public works appropriations before the war, d e fin ite amounts were a lio te d to the provinces. As i t is prepared today, the public works b i l l appropriates a lump sum placed a t the disposal of the P resident, and the amounts of th© fund are released only on his order, sore lik e ly de­ pendent on the p o litic a l leanings of the Representative or of h is province than on the educational needs of some pro­ vince. All work on public school buildings 1© under the su­ pervision and control of the Bureau of Public works unless the urgency for school housing is very great or in very % analang| P. B*, Legal Bag,la Philippine E d u ca­ tio n f pp* 311*337*

minor re p a irs , as of broken windows, in which case the di­ vision superintendent m n adm inister the construction or the rep air of the building. Plans for school buildings in the country are drawn up In the School Plant 'Division in the General O ffice, subject to the approval of the Bureau of Public works,' k ty p ical elementary school plant co n sists of on® or more main buildings housing class roosts, the lib ra ry , o ffic e s , and health clinic? a shop building fo r In d u stria l a rts In­ struction? a home economics building; a lawn, playground,, gardens, and an a th le tic fie ld . Barrio school building's range from one-room or two- room stru c tu re s to several rooms, located on s ite s that provide fo r a lawn, playground, and gardens. Secondary school plants are made up of one or more academic b u ild in g s, a shop b u ild in g , a. home economics build­ ing, a playground, an a th le tic f ie ld , and farms fo r voca­ tional students. A gricultural schools have, besides the regular aca­ demic and home economics buildings, other stru ctu re s to house the ad m in istratio n, mess h a ll, dorm itories fo r boys and fo r g i r l s ; cottages fo r faculty; far© houses fo r stu ­ dent farmers? a playground, an a th le tic f ie ld , and farm­ land. Normal schools and other teac h er-tra in in g schools

99 have buildings fo r elementary classe s, in addition to the standard academic., shop, and tom® economics b u ild in g s, and playground. Maintenance of groun.de and premises is undertaken by J a n ito rs , but ground improvement and b e a u tific a tio n and the cleaning o f rooms are done by pupils supervised by teachers# Control of public school buildings is vested in the Director but delegated directly to each division superinten­ dent , whose permission has to be secured before any school building o r school ground can be used by the community* E hlle the National Government assumes most of the f i ­ nancial burden of the educational system, the acquisition of school s ite s is l e f t to the lo cal governments# In addition, le g is la tiv e appropriations have often been supplemented by donations of land fo r school s ite s and by other contribu­ tio n s , from the Parent-Teacher Associations or other c i t i ­ zens, in the foiis of building m aterials or in the form of labor fo r p utting up temporary school buildings. Both school s ite s and school buildings, while given free to the government, have to comply with the Bureau1s requirements and sp e c ific a tio n s. The control of the government extends, too, Into the area of textbooks, through the Board on Textbooks in the De­ partment of Education* The five members of the Board are appointed to o ffice fo r six years without pay by the

lo o President# The Board1s main functions* lim ited by the ap­ proval, of the Secretary of Education, are the selection and approval of textbooks to be used (fo r at le a s t six years) in both public and p riv ate schools in the P hilippines. Eeq- ttlettiona of division superintendents o f approved textbooks have to be channeled through the D irector of Public School© before being sent to the Bureau of Supply fo r procurement. k strong criticism , of the country* a educational f i ­ nancing system is i t s contingency on concessions from Gon- gross, th ere are no d e fin ite and adequate sources of school revenue today, In 192b, the- Monroe Commission observed th a t Hthe P hilippine public educational system has m a general ru le , no d e fin ite source of support.11 The UKESOO Consultative Educational Mission was more specific In i ts criticism of the financial situ atio n . I t said? Th© present support of elementary school® is unsatisfactory because? 1* Adequate funds are not provided. 2. The funds th at are made available are unstable. 3. The in s ta b ility of the funds received prevents long-range planning for school®.. 4. There I® not now and never has been a d e fin ite plan to provide fo r needed elementary school ex­ pansion* * . , public high schools ©Iso have Inadequate funds» no stab le means of support and no provision

101 for necessary expansion • • . 3 fhe educational system has a. phenomenon th a t has been recurring each year* fo r nor® than a quarter of a century, called the annual \"school c r is is - n the tern , as I t Is under­ stood In the country# Involves the problem of admitting a l l children of school age a t enrollment time Into the public schools* w ith acuity# the TOSCO Mission In I t s four-point critic ism of the fin an c ia l situ a tio n had put I t s finger on the source of this- yearly ^crisis*® In support of the TOSCO charge Is an e d ito ria l In the Philippine Journal of Education wherein the method of meeting the problem Is c r i t ­ icized thus; , * * nothing was done u n til one or two weeks before the opening of schools# when a se rie s of con­ ferences of educational# financial# and congressional o f f ic ia ls were held to find the funds needed to f i ­ nance the schools * « * can not these o f f ic ia ls ex­ ercise a l i t t l e fo resig h t and meet a t the opportune tisse so th a t the children who are e n title d to education a l l be admitted on time? , . . of course# we know th a t 1b the la s t 25 years every school c r is is has been solved a f te r e month or two of delay. Everyone re a liz e s the primary obli­ gation of the State to give free education to children of school age. what is not 00 well understood, is why i t is necessary to delay action th at leads to loss of time and unnecessary confusion,4 Sukescg, & m .K% si Jka IlanAas Ss jfe p. 117. 4\"School C ris is ,\" e d ito ria l, Philippine Journal o£ fMoaMoa 29} 5, Ju ly , I960.

102 An e n tire ly d iffe re n t in te rp re ta tio n is expressed by Senator Abad&f former Director of Public Schools, regarding what he considers Is the real school crisis# He ©aysj In our desire to admit in our schools a ll ch il­ dren of school age, we re so rt to a l l makeshift measures Irresp ec tiv e of th e ir adverse e ffe c ts on tr ie d school standards. . * • what they In the United States have been try in g to accomplish in B or ? years using th e ir own language* we try to do in about 3 years using a lan­ guage not our own * # * * ♦ * With a pauperised curriculum; over-sized classesj inadequate supply of equipment, textbooks, and o th er e sse n tia l teaching aids; a g re a tly reduced school day; one-te&cher-one-cl&se plan in the in te r­ mediate gradesj w ith 00?! of our teachers without pro­ fe ssio n a l preparation, i t w ill be unreasonable to ex­ pect cur public school system to produce the type of c itiz e n s we aim to develop. • * * we are Inclined to 'View mere admission to school as synonymous with education and to give more importance to quantity than quality, the re a l and serious c r is is is when thousands of school children thus admitted do not receive the in stru ctio n s contemplated fo r them in our C onstitution.5 The Pupil The F ilip in o p u p il, whose development end growth Is the purview o f f i r s t imperativeness for a l l government ex­ penditure for education and the huge complicated adm inistrative s Abada, E. R#, \"Undermining the foundations of Our Educational System, n ffM llpplae Jour&al Qf Education 29i?0, August, 1950,

103 machinery, Is not ©xempt froia control* As a pupil in the public schools * under the Const!-* tu tio n and in -provisions of the M m lnlstratlve Code, the F ilipino ch ild is guaranteed such rig hts as free primary in s tru c tio n , relig io u s In stru ctio n when demanded w ith the consent of the parentsj and p rio rity rig h ts over alien children to admission in public schools.® The .Service Manual of the Bureau of Public Schools also catalogues pupil rights during his school l i f e , of which eom© are the following: 1* Ho fin a l examination to determine fa ilu re or promotion, which should be determined by overall y e a r's performance,*^ 2* The rig h t to present p e titio n s or p ro te s ts , however, in the event of false statements or accusations* the pe­ titio n e r s are su b ject to d iscip lin a ry measures.® 3* Corporal punishment, reducing scholarship ra tin g s, im­ position of manual work or degrading task s, use of epi­ th ets and expressions, confiscation of personal e ffe c ts , unnecessary ridicule of pupils are forbidden as cor­ re ctio n a l measures.® R estrictive conditions and measures, nonetheless, overbalance a p u p il*& p riv ileg es, As matters stand in the support of education, i f a pupil is ,s poor man*© son, the doors of the secondary schools are p ra c tic a lly barred to him — I— .■» ........ . ......... ... ®Ma»aleng# c l t , , p, 357♦ 7S M S ervice Manual, sec. ICO. elb lfl. . sec, 125. 9Ibld. . seo. 131.

104 because of the high tu itio n fees* Schools above the eleven- tary lev el are highly ©elective and the \"open-sesame\" la the successful passing of competitive examination fo r admission* Once a pupil Is w ithin the la titu d e of school author- ity i more sp e c ific provisions in h ib it his actions* these re s tric tio n s are mostly s e t fo rth in the Service Manual supplemented by the ru les and regulations promulgated by the D irector in circulars* The following are some of the more Important regulationst 1* Transfers during the year are prohibited, save for change o f realdeuce in which case the approval of the D irector must be secured. 1° 2. Cleanliness^ o rderliness, courtesy, respect, promptness, obedience, in d u stry, and reasonably regular attendance are required. H S. Offenses are punishable depending on the g rav ity of the case by$ a. Suspensions of not more than three days by the prin­ cipal. b. Suspensions from four to not wove than th irty days by the superintendent* c. Expulsion, In d e fin ite suspension, suspension of more than th irty days by the Director of Public Schools. 4, Offenses subject to expulsion a re jl2 a. Assaulting a teacher. b. P articipation in strik es. (This Is v irtu al separa­ tion. ) c. Injuring o th er pupils w ith dfmgenws weapons* d. Immorality* 5. Attendance being a matter of d iscip lin e, absences are subject to punishment as in other violations* 10Ibia. . see. 90. I p b l d . . sec. 126. l gIb ld . . see. 129.

105 The ju ris d ic tio n of the school extends also to out- of-school premises over the conduct of the pupils when ac­ t i v i t i e s of the pupils are re la te d to school a f f a ir s and on questions of morals* The F ilipino Teacher From the very o u tse t, in the incipience o f the system of public school®, one of the vmin r e a s o n s given for the choice ©f a ce n traliz ed school stru ctu re wag the necessity of a high degree of supervision and close control under the p revailin g circumstances—which was the dearth of trained teachers# For 00 years, th is has been the recurrent burden of the d isp raise of F ilip in o teachers# According to O r a t e , b y 1939, the problem of securing a s u ffic ie n t number of p ro fessio n ally -train ed teachers was s t i l l acute. At th at time, 50*1 per cent of the teachers were s t i l l without ade­ quate preparation, In 1949, t h e TOSS0O Consultative Mission in sisted the.t the g re a te st need of education in the country was the train in g of teach ers, as *fewer than h a lf of the teachers of the nation are qualified in terms of present Philippine standards, which are re la tiv e ly l o w . S e n a t o r ^ O ra te , p. T ., ^Progress and Trends: Philippine Education,11 gphaol ,|4 fe 27? 140, February, 1942# ^ U N E S C O , J & . H I . , p. 1 9 .

206 Abate*,® claims th a t w ith 60 per cent of the teachers without p ro fessio n al prep aratio n, the investment in money, e f f o r t, and time In education w ill he a poor one I f the children do not receive the In stru c tio n as contemplated by the Constitu­ tion. The Government, through the Bureau of Public Schools, endeavors to raise the lev el of competence of the army of Philippine teach ers, more than 80,000, by rules and regula­ tions re la tin g to training, q u a lific a tio n s , d u tie s I;and p rlv - lie g e s , and a c tiv itie s outside of school. Training? and q u a lific a tio n s * The Bureau has ''standing ru les regarding the train in g and q u a lific a tio n s of those who ©ay teach In the elementary schools* The Bureau requires a teacher to be a t le a s t a secondary normal graduate' and gen- \\ •\\ erally a graduate of a two-year teacher-training In stitu tio n , with the rapid horizontal extension of the school system, the seven regional normal schools; the Philippine £lariof& College; and the vocational teacher-training schools suteh as the n atio n al schools of a rts and trad e s, the national ; a g ric u ltu ra l schools, and the Philippine School of OofB^ero® a l l have been unable to meet the demand fo r q u a lifie d elemen­ tary school teachers, although they have been supplemented by normal graduates of private colleges and u n iv e rs itie s . As a consequence, the Bureau has been compelled to employ i „ .... — - &*_ Abate, on. c l t . , p, 70. \\\\

10? g reat number of high school graduates and even some under* graduates as elementary teachers. Beginning 1950-1951 a l l applicants fo r elementary teaching positions must pass a qualifying examination and personal in te rv ie w ,^ ihe secondary school teachers are trained In the College of Education of the University of the Philippines and in about 160 p riv ate u n iv e rsitie s and colleges, in s p ite of the great number of in s titu tio n s of learn in g , the supply of train ed teachers is in su ffic ie n t. As a r e s u lt, the much-needed normal school graduates in the elementary schools are appointed to the secondary schools, whereas a secondary school teacher before the war was required to be a holder of a Bachelor*s degree in education, today there is scarcely any classroom teadher on the secondary lev el having a Master* s degree in education# The national vocational schools have also fo ile d to supply the demand fo r trained teachers for the vocational courses. Since students have to be supplied with teachers, the Bureau has accepted members of other profession® who can present a t le a s t 18 semester c re d it hours in education as qu alified to teach in the secondary schools, the pro­ fessio n als perm itted to teach and the subjects assigned Burean of Public Schools ffircul&r# no# 9#, ser# 1950, ^ P u b lic school normal graduates are exempt from the Interview , since they had passed the interview required to qualify fo r admission to the normal school.

108 to each are? 1* Lawyers—M story and government* 2. B oetors^physles, biology, general science. 5. A gronom ists--horticulture* agronomy, animal husbandry. 4. Engineers-—mathematics, physics, e le c tr ic ity . All personnel of the Bureau of Public Schools are within the scope of the c iv il service system, except those who hold p o sitio n s that are pollcy-deteraining or highly tech n ical and those lab o rers earning not more than two peso® a day* Before a teacher can gain a regular and permanent position in the Bureau, he must pass an appropriate c iv il service examination* teachers in the elementary grades must pass the floplor fff&ehsr examination; secondary teachers, su p erv iso rs, and p rin c ip a ls, the Senior Teacher examination; div isio n superintendents take the Dtv^atpn Superintendent of examination; supervisors and p rin cip als a t the elemen­ tary le v e l must take e ith e r the Ju n io r or jlsntor fe&oher ex­ amination. Because of the employment of non-ellglble personnel, the Bureau o f C ivil Service has c la s s ifie d teachers into four groups? 1. Regular teachers Personnel who have both academic q u alificatio n s and c iv il serviOe e lig ib ility hold tenure. s. xeaag-gya .teate. ., Personnel who have the academic q u a lific a tio n s but no c iv il service e l i g i b i l i t y ©ay 'be replaced by c iv il service

109 eligible®* fmeregency teacher® Personnel who have n e ith e r educational q u a lific a tio n s o r e l i g i b i l i t y can be replaced by others not q u a lifie d but who have higher attainments* 4. ..Substitute teacher® Personnel who f i l l ' in regular positions l e f t vacant by leaves of absence are replaced upon the retu rn o f the regular incumbent* The Bureau thus appoints a person without c iv il se r­ vice e l i g i b i l i t y tem porarily fo r one sem eiter and renews the appointment u n til a q u a lifie d person can be obtained. Personnel holding supervisory and adm inistrative po­ sitio n s are required to hold a c iv il service e lig ib ility , preferably the fan to r feaehay e lig ib ility ., and to possess the educational q u a lific a tio n s of a t le a s t th a t of a normal school graduate fo r posts in the fie ld of elementary educa­ tion; and to hold a t the le a s t a Bachelor of Science in e&u- ■ cation fo r position® on the secondary lev el and above* D uties* rig h ts * and p riv ile g e s* while a teacher Is in serv ice, by means of laws, department orders, and bureau c i r ­ culars# ce rtain d u ties, rig h ts, and privileges are granted him* To render a minimum of five hours five days a week is one of hi® f i r s t duties* However, a teacher’s superiors o m require of him overtime work and service on Saturdays* A powerful implement to make teachers and supervisors and p rin ­ cipals cooperate with the adm inistration are the efficiency ra tin g cards called For® 8 -A fo r teachers, and form &»b fo r

1X0 principals and supervisors, the ratin g of personnel e f fi­ ciency ts done by the iw e& late superior! I . e . , ra tin g of teachers Is done by p rin c ip a ls, who are rated by th e ir su­ pervisors* who In turn are rated by the superintendent. Teachers are warned to lisprove th e ir work when they receive a re.ting of HBelow Average” in two items. Three years of ,fPoor” average ratin g s are grounds fo r dropping a teacher fro® the ro lls . Duties* besides classroom teaching, Include tran sm ittin g and following rules and. regulations from the general o ffic e , taking charge of e x tra c u rric u la r a c tiv itie s , preparing rep o rts and records* leading and advising student groups* supervising classroom \"housekeeping,* and p a rtic ip a t­ ing in gohool-led. community a c ti v i t ie s , Among the valued rig h ts of a teacher ares 1. tenure Possession of a c iv il servlet e lig ib ility gives a teacher tenure and he can be removed only fo r cause a f te r a pub­ l i c hearing according to the rules of the C ivil Service. Only the D irector of C ivil Service can dismiss a teacher, 2. lassJtiga sili sm Beginning in 1948-1949* temporary teachers were granted vacation pay* which was formerly enjoyed only by regular teachers. 3. Insurance service P a rtic ip a tio n in the Government Service Insurance System is autom atically granted upon appointment of regular and temporary teachers. The Government and the teacher Jo in tly buy a policy selected by the teacher paid for w ith 5 per cent of the teacher1® monthly salary and an equivalent amount by the Government, 4. leraon X& jal& B &te Protection of teachers In performance of th e ir duties is

XXX given through th e ir recognition as \"Persons In Authority3 and as such they cannot toe attacked* A few p riv ileg es extended to the teaching personnel center around financial areas such ass !• Gutsld. teaching th is re fe rs to teaching done besides those prescribed for o ffic ia l school hours. A teacher Is permitted six hours a week of teaching in p riv ate schools with the permission of the D irector of Public Schools through the division superintendent* Qualified teachers are also appointed by the Director of Public Schools to teach in Saturday clausaee and vacation normal school w ith an extra compensation of three-fourths of the teachers1 monthly salary . 2* M M y a rL tU a g iJt To ra ise the educational q u alificatio n s of teachers, they are granted permission to study during off-hours. A teacher can take nine u n its ft semester or s ix u n its per q u arte r, ami nine u n its a summer* Twelve u n its a summer are allowed those w ith an above B average* s - Leave pglvllegea a« teachers are given study leave without pay to im­ prove th e ir q u alificatio n s, to* Maternity leave fo r two months with pay are given to reg u lar wooes teachers. (1) Temporary female teachers with two years* teach­ ing c re d it are given two months leave with h alf pay, 4. irAMi.e M^imas. Engaging in p riv ate business is lim ited to membership in consumer cooperatives. R e stric tio n s* The m u ltip lic ity of re s tric tio n s im­ posed on the teachers have more or le ss been made on the claims of Hfo r the good of the Service3 and nfo r the sake of efficien cy of the system*1; many of these claims are valid; but there are quite a few th at reach into the very private

112 domain of an in dividual, R estrictio n s and prohibitions are found in the jjervlee Manual, esp ecially in Chapter IX; in the numerous' Bureau of Public School circulars; and iri the AMin.ia-tra.tive Co&q* The following re s tric tio n s on the F ilip in o teacher are mentioned* S ro g M ti.k p M is a« Engaging in business in any m n m r dealing with school, equipment and supplies is prohibited. Perales ion o f the D irector of Public Schools is re q u is ite before lending money on re a l property or in v estin g in Philippine stocks and bonds. b. Wives of teachers cannot engage in business con­ nected with the duties of th eir husbands# e«g. , wive® cannot operate bookstore® o r dorm itories fo r pupils and teachers without permission from the Bu­ reau. 2. S oliciting contributions for public or semi-public pur­ poses! sellin g tic k e ts for charitable purposes is for­ bidden except in oases of authorized drives for public welfare purposes, Rarpnt-teacher association® Teachers are not allowed to hold positions In parent- teacher associations except In an advisory capacity* 4 . S M £ 1 a u th o r ity Although a ffperson in authority p* a teacher In flic tin g corporal punishment is subject to adm inistrative action. 6. Religious activities The teaching, discussion, end critic ism of re lig io n or religious doctrines are forbidden, k teacher cannot teach Sunday school, 6. Teachers are Inh ib ited from p a rtic ip a tin g in any p o liti­ cal a c tiv ity , He may vote but not campaign. 7 . M ast Teachers* s a la rie s w ill be withheld u n til presentation

113 of tli© residence c e r tif ic a te when due fo r the current year* 8- t e f l i s a a* A woman loses her position In the public school upon marriage to an ©lien i f she acquires h is n atio n ality by v irtu e of the lew of the land in force in her husband1a country* b. A married woman teacher must use her husband»3 sur~ name| except when the marriage is annulled* 9* Bela%ions w ith the opposite sex a* A tea dier is prohibited to be alone in a room w ith the opposite sex except in the presence of a th ird party* Female teachers must chaperone g i r l ath~ let©® a t a l l games and practices* b. Courtship of a pupil or courtship between teachers is not allowed to be a prolonged affair* 10* Pergonal hab its a. Smoking during o ffic ia l- hours In offices* school b u ild in g s# and on the premises is prohibited* b* While on duty* teacher® should dress appropriately*, c* teachers are enjoined to liv e in decent houses lo* eated In respectable neighborhood, si mssM a* Airing differences of opinion and c ritic ism of su­ p erio rs to the pres.® Is prohibited* b* **Subordinate o ffic e rs of the Government holding of­ fic e by appointment or selection have no rig h t to c o n stitu te themselves the c r itic s end censors of th e ir superiors*# ©* Teachers arc restrain ed fro® commenting on p o litic a l question® or situ atio n s of the country*

114 chaws® v mmm A discussion of the country— the lend and the people— Is presented, as a. frame of reference by which to appraise the p o ten tial of the educational venture of the fillp in o people* The P h ilip p in es has the w ealth and n a tu ra l resources seeded to finance a high standard o f so cial economy and mod­ em education along with i t , i f the la te n t riches are devel­ oped* fjme a p tly describes the country m t * * . with fe rtile p lains, great riv e rs, tree- covered mountains * * . The P hilippines are an ag ri­ c u ltu ra l hothouse and a treasure chest of only par­ t i a l l y ex p lo ited m in erals.3* what about the people? Over 400 years ago, whan the Spaniards f i r s t landed in the is la n d s , the people were as­ suredly beyond the stage of barbarism, having a w ritten language, government, and commerce—a l l the earmarks o f civ ­ ilis a tio n * The F ilip in o s were always a freedom-loving peo­ p le, a q u ality objectively demonstrated centuries la te r in the stand fo r democracy a t Bataan*. The h is to ry of unhappy dependency under Spain was one long struggle fo r the lo s t freedom and fo r enlightenment* when, th e re fo re , the Ameri­ cans went to the isla n d s, they found a people I l l i t e r a t e , l^The P h ilip p in es,* Time 59}32, November 26, 1951*

115 s u p e rs titio u s , an t backward, but avid for education and w illin g students of th is \"itoerlean democracy.# Under American d irectio n and supervision* a system of public education was established to provide universal edu­ cation* democratic and p ra c tic a l education to a l l the c h il­ dren of school age* M unition for citizen sh ip became the major purpose of the public schools* The schools became the instruments to tra in the people in the p a rtic ip a tio n and ■exercise of self-government* Of the success of the venture, Margaret wood of the u, 8* Office of Education says th at the pioneer American teachers had b u ilt b e tte r than they perhaps knew* Paul H* Hanna of Stanford U niversity says, referring to the early teachers: *The»e devoted public servants did th e ir task so well th a t within one generation the F ilipinos have learned to govern themselves and have won th e ir place in the family of free nations* Mow th a t p o litic a l democracy has been won, a new task is s e t fo r the public schools* th at of training fo r economic competence and independence ultim ately for the preservation of democracy In the nation, dan th is p o litic a l democracy be perpetuated? what are the c h a ra c te ristic s of the present educational system? ^Hanna, F* H*, *The Philippines—-Meeting of East and west,* Philippine Journal of Education 89j60, July* 1950*

116 The C onstitution mandates fre e primary education, besides proclaiming the objectives of education, namely, moral ch a racter, personal d isc ip lin e , civ ic conscience, vo­ cational efficien cy , and the duties of citizen sh ip . Other area® of the curriculum le g isla te d on are: preparatory m ili­ tary train in g ; English as the language of instruction ; na­ tio n al Language in a l l grades; Spanish in the secondary schools; observance of a school ritu a l to fo ster nationalism# In compliance with the proviso of estab lish in g and m aintaining a complete system of public education, the Gov­ ernment, through the Bureau of Public Schools, operates e l­ ementary, secondary, and co lleg iate schools, the l a t t e r fo r the tra in in g of teachers# the high degree of control is ap­ parent a t the different levels of instruction* Regulations cover admission, enrollment, curriculum, promotions, pupil a c ti v i t i e s , and discipline# with the exception of the elemen­ tary schools, admission and enrollment in public schools are conditioned by in te llig e n c e and fin an cial ab ility # A stu ­ dent has v irtu a lly no say In the courses to take a t any le v e l, since most of the courses in the d iffe re n t cu rricu la are required# The eondltlQiis in the primary grades are over-crowded classrooms and half-day sessions# The emphasis of the sys­ tem has been on the number of children th at can be enrolled and not the q u a lity of instruction* Th® interm ediate grades

11? are abbreviated to two year® beyond the primary grades. The trend in the secondary school is away from the purely academic curriculum with the inclusion of vocational subjects in the general curriculum* However, since voca­ tio n a l schools charge tu itio n fe e s, and since vocational students stay longer hours In school and do actual manual labor, the tendency to fallow the lin e of le a st resistance re su lts la the over-crowding of the general secondary schools* Higher education under the Bureau of Public Schools for the tra in in g of teachers is offered in the seven regional normal schools and in the six national schools* Admission to these schools Is rig id and purposely highly discrimina­ tive* purportedly to selec t only the best candidates for the teaching profession. Whatever the reasons and purposes, they are circumvented, fo r students rejected and denied ad­ mission go to private schools for training and la te r are ac­ cepted m teachers on the same footing with the government* trained teachers. The d ire c t lin e of authority from the Director of Public Schoolsi who is responsible to the Secretary of Edu­ catio n , runs down to the teachers through the superinten­ dents, supervisors, and on down through the principals* Vast powers are placed in the hands of the Director which he exercises a t his discretion* Subject to the approval of the D irector, the ourrioulum, course® of study, study guides,

1X8 e tc * * are prepared, in the General Office to.be distributed to the fie ld force 1b a l l parts of the Philippines* The teachers have no share or p a rticip atio n whatsoever in formu­ la tin g the curriculum* They are prepared by the curriculum Mexperts#* and the teachers* part Is to us® and follow what i s sent out to then* the supervisors and principals check to ©ee th a t the requirements In the prescribed courses are followed by the teachers* who are further checked by the General Office supervisors* I t has been pointedly remained th a t the F ilip in o teacher Is the most supervised teacher In the world* In the same manner, other matters attendant to instruction such as personnel matters* school p lan t and property* vocational education are centralized in the General Office* The fie ld force of superintendents* supervisors* and principals* while holding administrative positions, actually have very l i t t l e discretionary power. More or leas* th e ir functions are not policy-forming but the administration of routine m atters m 6 the determination of the extent to, which circu lars m d memoranda are carried out by the teachers^ Because of the standardisation snd uniformity in the requirements which have to be complied with* most of the school situations are teacher-dictated or teacher-dominated* Beside®, as i t is colloquially expressed* the schools are \\ so crowded that the children are hanging by the windows* and

119 therefore nothing can-be done about Individual differences in pupils« The ®m% prevalent method of teaching la t o formal v e rb a llstic assignment-recital kind. A student is granted rights and p rivileges under the Constitution * In t o Service Manual* and in t o circu lars from the Director* while a student In t o public schools, he Is controlled by restrictIona* infractions of which are pun­ ishable by a three-day suspension to expulsion* depending on t o gravity of the case* Provisions for practice In demo­ c ra tic living* cooperation,, sharing* and p articip atio n in t o learning process are absent* Discipline of students is Imposed from without and not self-imposed by student groups in each school* Due to the meteoric rise In school population and t o in su ffic ie n t teacher supply* some 80 per cent of the teachers are e ith e r devoid of professional training* are inexperienced, or possess very meager educational attainments* Pre-war standards such as professional preparation* degree require­ ments* c iv il service e l i g i b il i t y , and competency for t o d if­ ferent teaching positions have been lowered, to say nothing of t o increasing d iffic u lty of weeding out t o In e ffic ie n t and Incompetent for lack of teachers* Qualified teachers have tenure, besides the rig h ts accruing to other teachers* among them: a salary on a twelve­ month b asis; vacation cred it; additional pay fo r vacation

120 service; teaching and study privilege® during off-hours* The re stric tio n s on the teaehera are numerous, and among the more strin g en t \"’.res lim itations to private enter­ prise! prohibitions on discussions of p o litic s and religious doctrine®! lim itatio n s on freedom of speech; and regulations on personal and p rivate affair® , k student of adm inistration does not need to delve deep in to the Bureau1® f ile s and archives to re a liz e th at a F i li ­ pino teacher is p ra c tic a lly bound up by rules to the point where every move is covered by a c irc u la r, The teachers* situation has a strik in g sim ilarity to th a t of the pupils, F articip at Ion and cooperation are defined in terms of the a la c rity with which teachers carry out orders* Teachers are not consulted in the making of courses of study, in planning educational o b jectiv es, or in deciding what p o licies or rules or regulations shall epply to the group. Efficiency is Judged by the a b ility to assign hard lessons, to keep the pupils docile, to follow requirements, and by accurate re­ ports neatly accomplished and promptly handed In, There is need of new c r ite r ia fo r Judging teaching success, Buies promulgated govern the use of of f-hours, le isu re hours, the Investment of money, and personal matters to such an extent that apparently the regulations are *promulgated on the as­ sumption th at the teacher is an u n in tellig en t creature,

121 wholly unable to think and act independently*^ A school cannot function without finances* The sup­ port of public education is chiefly the fin an cial burden of the National Government. Exceptions are the c ity intermed­ iate schools and the secondary schools, which are prim arily the re sp o n sib ilitie s of the chartered c itie s and the pro­ vincial governments> respectively, funds for the construc­ tion and rep air of the national school buildings are derived from the Public Works fund d istrib u ted at the discretion of the President. Acquisition of school site s is the responsi­ b ility of the lo c a lity of the school, subject to the Bureau's regulations* The organic school law, Act Ho. 74, provides for the organization of school boards to el & in the finances and ad­ m inistration of the school* Chartered c itie s also have pro­ visions in th e ir charters fo r school boards, however, both local school boards and c ity school boards are non-existent. Duplication and overlapping of functions of the De­ partment of Education, Department of Finance, and Department of Public Porks occur in the process of expending appropri­ ations, re q u isitio n for books and equipment, repairing of buildings* e t c ., en tailin g a lo t of time, voluminous paper work, and red tape. Sjjanalaag, P. S ., Leas1 .Bagla of K 9 p. 435.

In the Declaration of Principles in the C onstitution, I t is sta te d th a t5 #The Philippines is a republican s ta te . Sovereignty resides in the people and a ll government author­ ity emanates from them. This provision Implies th at the people must be e&u- eated in democratic ways of liv in g . The combination of ig­ norance and power or power and autocratic behavior are in- flammable combinations, and a republican sta te in such an environment cannot long e x ist. There is no more f e r tile f ie ld fo r the growth of democracy than in the minds and hearts of pupils. But i t cannot be taught by f l a t or by academic discussions# The pupils must see democracy work, in the school, in the way ac­ tiv itie s are planned and shared, in the ways of getting things done cooperatively and with good w ill, in arriving a t decisions, In respecting a good idea so matter who makes i t f i r s t , and in the re la tio n s of people working fo r the seme ends# Centralized control is not undemocratic In itself# Many educational functions are more democratically adminis­ tered from a cen tral authority than otherwise# The main criticism is the over-use of the words superiors, subordi­ n ate, power, and re s tric tio n s rath er than fellow -teacher *■■■■ ■ I1 I ' Ml* ----- | ) . |._| ^ ( | r r .f . |l< f f n . f ^ ^ f. ^ II I # HJ ll VIITlI IIII T~‘\"fTl‘ fH l l l IT'll I T ~ l \" n il l 'f l T T ~l~ 'ft ~ Ull ' ' 4I!i£ Conatl'tutlor.. Art. I I , seo. 1.

and cooperation* There la need for a more democratic adm inistration. There is need of greater recognition of the dignity of igU individuals, and that includes pupils and teachers. The crite rio n fo r carrying out the great work of ©duostion should not be submission but consent, the consent of t o governed. As Hernia® describes democracy! De&o&r&cy Is not , * mere mechanism. Democ­ racy is a s p i r i t , an a ttitu d e toward our fellow men . . . a cooperation through which the human personality may find t o fin e st and rich est expression of human values,® %@rrta$, C, £*, hha,t Is Democracy? p, 92,

PART.21 DBKOCRATIC AOKIHISTRATION

124 CIAPTEB n m m m m fob democracy Democracy in school adm inistration has bean & main fie ld of Inquiry and discussion during the past two decades, doubtless because we have a democratic torn of government, and because democracy lends i t s e l f so easily to abuse unless v ig ila n tly guarded* History is rep lete with examples I llu s ­ tra tin g how the nature of an educational in s titu tio n has varied according to the prevailing p o litic a l theory of gov­ ernment in a country. Under any form of government, public education is organized for the benefit of the state, there­ fore, the f i r s t purpose of the public school is to serve the Interests of the sta te . I t la a state in stitu tio n to preserve and perpetuate the sta te ; consequently, the school has intim ate ;re la tio n s w ith the s ta te and how the state gov­ erns its e lf . In a. democracy, the sta te is the people; as such, the public school must concern i t s e l f w ith in te re sts of the peo­ ple, and the school in practice should be an example of demo­ cratic living. In an absolute monarchy, In the In te re st of i t s s e lf- preservation, the Ignorance of the masses is of no moment to the ru le r s , and whatever schools are established are for the e l i t e , the upper classes, the ru le rs. Under a to ta lita ria n s ta te , i t has been graphically demonstrated that education is

125 a powerful and effectiv e tool fo r the lndoctrlnat ion of the sta te1® Ideologiesi nesis® i t Germany, fascism is Italy, communis® in Bus®l&, and emperor worship in Japan, In our democratic society, a basic assumption is that public education is maintained by the state to prepare c i t i ­ zens fo r In te llig e n t p articip atio n in self-government and ultim ately to augment and enhance democracy, \"w* striv e to perpetuate and Improve democracy only because we believe that i t offers the best Implement for fashioning l i f e as we want It* #3* we believe th at the democratic way of l i f e provides the most effectiv e channel® fo r experiences of a kind, that re su lt in the highest development of the g re a te st number of individuals* As Dewey says, there Is one conclusion to which experience unmistakably point®, i t is th at democratic ends demand democratic methods for th e ir realisation*1,2 ■Evidently, th e n , i f our purpose is the achievement of democracy, the schools of necessity must clearly and p ra c ti­ cally implement i t , the method® of administering a school must be concerned with engendering m environment In which democracy is activ ely functioning* Sewey*® pragm atism taught that we learn by doing* Stated negatively by K ilpatrick, we ^Studebaker, J , w*, Education for Democracy, bul, no. 1?, U,S# Department of In te rio r,\" o ff Ice of Kdubat i on, 1935, p. 9. 2Dewey, John, feMdo® and Ckl.tM.re> p. 176*

126 to not lea in what we do not practice* Claiming education as the most potent weapon In the world-wide co n flict of ideas, Mcdrath believes & *It la of the utmost importance that the young learn the meaning of democracy and that they practice I t in th e ir everyday school lif e * ”*5 I t is true th at democracy is quite often taken fa r granted, but no country oan long remain democratic when the pattern of livin g in i t s in s titu tio n s —in the schools, In the churches, and even in the homes—Is undemocratic* Written 25 years ago, yet e n tire ly pertinent today, K ilpatrick as­ serts: Clearly I f the world Is to be democratic, our people must learn i t . . . One way is fo r the school to teach i t and th is means th a t the school must prac­ tic e i t . Ontil recently the school has been largely autocratic* Our pupils have on the whole practiced not democracy* but obedience, not to say subserviency, to autocracy#^ In a study of democracy in educational administration* Williams sta te s th is conclusions Schools have fa ile d to provide youth the kind of experiences that w ill enable them as eittsan a to u tilis e the p o te n tia litie s of democracy* Before schools can per­ form th e ir ro le, the en tire school environment must ^McSrsth, E. J . , quoted by Elaine Exton in HThe Schools as Citadels of Democracy,” .ABHatrlfl.au School £&ard im m A 121:51, November, 1950* K ilp atrick , w, H., gaaoa.tjoii. Xsl &Cte»«Ha£ S illll- jaliai* p.

12? exemplify democratic practicea and ideals *5 He fu rth e r says: ' American schools maintained for the purpose of preparing children fo r democratic c itiz e n sh ip , pre­ sents on© o f the paradoxes of the age: schools preach v erb ally the id eals of democracy but p ra ctic e autoc­ racy*® How can we educate fo r democracy in an au to cratic se t­ up? T o ta lita ria n s ta te s haw been very summary in stamping out any suggestion of democratic teaching in th e ir in s titu ­ tio n s, but we are to le ra n t of au to cratic methods in our schools# I t is stretch in g the Imagination to expect teachers in an a u th o rita ria n system, to-employ democratic procedures and techniques in the classroom* Children*6 behavior responses, and adults* too, fo r that m atter, are e sse n tia lly the re su lts of the in te ra c tio n of th e ir environment and the maimer in which they are treated* Experiments^ and studies® have been con­ ducted w ith democratic and au to cratic teaching, th© re su lts W illiam s, 0* S*» Ifrm sM M i An MM^felqnal jp a in le tra - tlo n * unpublished Doctor* s d isse rta tio n , p* 388. 6Ih ld . . p* 30. ?Lewln, K. K,; L ip p itt, Ronald; ©nd w hite, R« ¥,*, ^Patterns of %gr@sslve Behavior in Experimentally Created Social C lim a te s/ {Journal. o£ M ila l ffeyohplogy. 10:271-299, .May, 1939* *A*a»§, r, &•, site M m M i M £&&&* i t .and A utocratic Sjoplitl Climates. unpublished Doctor*s d isse r­ tation.

128 of which attach some weight to the claim for g re a te r demo­ c ra tic adm inistration of schools* the embodiment of demo­ c ra tic ideale should be-tacit in the philosophy of teachers and administrators- i f we ar© to conceive of a professional competence in translating the implications of democratic principle© In the day-to-day contact with people* The im­ p licatio n of Importance here is that education and democracy ar© closely coterminous* Democracy is safe and stable only m i t re sts on a broad base of in te llig e n t and responsible individuals , and in te llig e n t persons are broad-thinking per­ sons, Quoting Dewey again, 11freedom of action without freed capacity of thought behind i t is only chaos,\"9 Jefferson, as the e a rlie s t of the strong advocates of the principles of democracy, believed in the need for education* I f a nation expects to be ignorant and free, In a s ta te of c iv ilis a tio n , I t expects what never was and never w ill be « * # There Is no safe depository of these l , e . , lib e rty and property but w ith the people themselves; nor can they be safe without In­ formation#1® Before the deed Is the Idea and the Idea must have a man, and the man by Implication should surely be educated, \"One om not d i s t i l , as i t has been noted, co llectiv e wisdom 9 Dewey, John, \"Democracy In Education,\" Elementary School Teacher 4:193-204, December, 1903. lOpa&over, S. K ., Democracy by Thomas Jefferso n , pp. 10-11, 138.

129 from Individual ignorance# An ignorant c itiz e n ry means bad government* ®M Democracy cannot p e rs is t without education; I t must be nurtured.! get I ts sustenance, and be strengthened in education* *A proper education becomes accordingly the b est i f not the sol# safeguard against d ictato rsh ip and the police s ta te * *2$ Education, on the other hand, finds innumer- able p o s s ib ilitie s fo r growth and expression in a democracy* Only in a democratic s ta te , and in no other, are opportuni­ tie s afforded education to experiment, to in v estig ate, to share, to contribute in p erfect freedom th a t youth might p ro fit by the g re a te s t ben efits democracy guarantees* That schools have sin g u lar re sp o n s ib ilitie s fo r so cial enlighten­ ment is s ta te d by Bode thus* The school, th ere fo re, is cle a rly under ob li­ gation to show th at democracy i s a way of l i f e which breaks c le a rly w ith the past * * * the school Is .ca r excellence the in s titu tio n to which a democratic so­ ciety is e n title d to look for c la rific a tio n of the meaning of democracy* in other words, the school is p e c u lia rly the in s titu tio n in which democracy becomes conscious of itself* From the very s t a r t , In the educational h isto ry of the United S ta te s, the founders of American democracy llh o c a in , f . M*, HThe Biggest Diploma. M i l l / I h t ll p - fi.la.fs Fro© 42:2-3, September 16, 1961, p. 2* ^ K ilp a tric k , H* t \"John Dewey1# N inetieth B irth ­ d a y / Progress ive Education. 27*51, October, 1949* l s Bode, B. H., Dewaemtu M M EM 2£ Ml£.> PP* '.94-95.

130 In tu itiv e ly recognised the Importance of education to democ­ racy when they passed the now famous Massachusetts haw of 164*2 and l a t e r the Law of 1647# A historian of the Masse* chusetts school system, Martin, comments about the le g isla ­ tions? I t Is Important to note her^ that the idea underlying a l l th is le g isla tio n was n eith er paternal­ is t ic nor s o c ia lis tic , The child Is to be educated, not to advance his personal in te re s ts , but because iM J M s S i3 1 M £ e r H hg M M l fi&l&aM* «»« State does not provide schools to relieve the parent, nor because i t mn educate b e tte r than the parent ean, but because i t can thereby b e tte r enforce the obligation which I t imposes,14 Washington* a g reat concern for the preservation of democracy was apparent in his Warewell Address in 1796 when he strongly recommended: Promote then as an object of primary importance, in s titu tio n s fo r the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion* I t Is essential that public opinion should be enlightened,*1'® A contemporary p ractical application of the thesis that education and democracy are in te rre la te d is best I llu s ­ tra te d by the American educational experiment in the P hilip­ pines, Half a century ago, with the advent of the Americans l^Oubberley, E. P ,, Public Education In the IMtsfl M ates, p. 19. l 5Har<3ing, 3. 8 ., Selected Orations Illustrating American History, p, 159,

131 In the Is la n d s | in order to fo s te r the development of a rep- resentatlve democracy* a d e lib e ra te ly planned aye tern of edu­ cation ch aracterised by u n iv e rsa lity and democracy was in ­ augurated to educate the masses which fo r 400 years had known no other form of government end social re la tio n s but au to cratic ones. Early in the Aoerleen regime in the P h ilip - pines| the governing body* the Schurman Commission* appointed by the President of the United States* recommended* High schools are necessary along w ith the elemen­ tary schools* but the elementary are the most impor­ ta n t . » * For the people here must be educated • * * they have no p o litic a l education at a l l . 18 william H* Taft* while governor-gene ra l of the Philip­ pines* also reported* we are seeking to prepare the people under our guidance and control fo r self-government* we are a t­ tempting to do th is f ir s t* by primary and secondary education offered fre ely to a l l the Filipino people * * , popular education i s In our judgment the f i r s t and Important means*3-^ There is an unqualified recognition of the comple­ mentary interdependence of education and democracy, Since the relatio n sh ip s between administrator and teacher, between 16U,lSa, ISStaateaaaDieapsawrtmSe.nwt* Report of the Philippine . 2, p. 46. i ^ T a f t , v/, H., “American Education In the P hilippines,\" Educational Review 29!264 , 267, January-May, 1905.

pupil end teacher, and among each group are conditioned by the social clim ate, and, fu rther, i f the schools are to func­ tion as the w ellsprings of democracy, the urgent need fo r g reater democracy in school administration is obvious. In the words of divene: ttI f we re a lly 'believe in democracy we ought to p ractice i t in the adm inistration of schools.t!^ Admitting that the administration of the educational system is to be democratic, then I t is req u isite th a t any consideration of the principles, objectives, and functions of educational adm inistration should be predicated on lucid definitions* ^bat is democracy? How should i t be re in te r­ preted in order that i t w ill be functional in our modem so­ ciety? what are the elements of democratic education? How should the functions be allocated in order th at the adminis­ tratio n of the educational system w ill be democratic? what democratic educational administration? The questions posed are not mere verbiagej they are real problems that confront adm inistrators and educational w riters who have reason to believe in the fe a s ib ility of democratic adm inistration, Mot a, few of the studies in demo­ cratic educational adm inistration have concluded th at a con­ fusion ex ists in the thinking of school administrators, re­ sulting from the varying Interpretations of what democratic ^®&ivene, w. E ,, f,lh© Challenge of a United Profession, latlonal Education Association Journal 28:105, A pril, 1939,

adm inistration consists* Hosest there is need of a c la r i­ fic a tio n of meanings of adm inistration th at w ill be func­ tio n al in our modem world*