1.Democratic educational administration for the Philippine educational system

834 group planning, and. again emphasized is the p a rtic ip a tio n of those concerned* th is means the p a rtic ip a tio n of students In those phases of school a ffa irs In consonance w ith th e ir m aturity and experience* This also means making the parti­ cipation of teachers and lay citizen s meaningful in terms of making important decisions and a consideration of the recom­ mendations they make. F urther, since facts are necessary to p a rtic ip a te dem ocratically, an intensive study of a l l re le ­ vant lite ra tu re and of facts is required before a single step is taken. Possession of facts is not enough; democratic adm inistration must encourage experimentation to discover and devise new and unique application of the fa c ts in order th a t b e tte r procedures w ill f a c i lit a t e both the learning ana- doing processes. All th is amounts to one thing? guaranteeing in te llig e n t freedom, a warranty of ample opportunity for growth while achieving the common good# But while freedom Is granted, certain controls are necessary not to destroy or rob one1® Individual freedom. Control®, group determined, should strik e a t In ju stic e and inequity, a t undesirable and in ef­ fic ie n t p ra c tic e s, and a t abuse of freedom, so th at a g re a te r amount of freedom fo r a g re ater number of Individuals is pro­ moted, Controls work both ways, fo r while some controls of human actio n are necessary, also 51there are some things which a democracy cannot do and s t i l l be called a democracy; fo r example, i t cannot fo rcib ly s t i f l e a l l c ritic ism on the

235 p art of the minority groups in order to create a seeming u n i t y # ^ Gonsequentlyi th is leads to the need for a con­ tinuous evaluation of the effectiveness of the procedures and outcomes to safeguard the democratic processes* Then, too, d etailed and comprehensive appraisal of methods is necessary to determine where change and adaptations are needed fo r the' ongoing improvement of the educational en­ deavor* & wise adm inistration must Know the resources av ail­ able and the way they can be used* Well-defined purposes and well-planned democratic procedures through deficiencies in resources w ill produce deficient results* For effective and e ffic ie n t adm inistration, i t is important to know the tangibles, the time, m aterial, and money needed and which ones are expendable; i t is needful to know the physical of­ fe r t th at is capable and w illing to be put to wcifc* The strength of the adm inistration of the educational system is commensurate with the q uality of i t s human resources* Hav­ ing taken stock of the resources that can be made to count, a democratic adm inistration next u tilis e s effectively a ll the available human resources of the group. That administra­ tion is in e ffic ie n t i f , in the use of the personnel, the in­ telligence of each person Is not lib erated and cap italised on to make free and in te llig e n t contributions consistent with ^E ducational P olicies Commission, Learning j&he ffiaya qi Mmmmxt p*w*

236 th© purposes of democratic education* Thoughtful considera­ tion should be given in the execution of adm inistrative re­ sp o n sib ilities* I f adm inistration w ill be frankly e ffic ie n t, execution, of p o licies should be entrusted in the hands of those b est fitte d to do the work* while ©very single member of the democratic group should exercise his rig h t in the de­ termination of purposes, for groups of people to undertake problems of procedure which a competent person can accom­ p lish w ith le s s d if f ic u lty , complication or acrimony is sheer waste of energy and resources* The expert, then, has a def­ in ite place in democratic adm inistration, not as the fin al a rb ite r of knowledge, but as a resource person fo r advice and fo r v alid information th at the work to be accomplished may be don© e ffic ie n tly and thus productive of effectiv e results* How, then, sh a ll we apply the principle of effectiv e- ness? From the preceding discussion, I t follows that m ef­ fective democratic adm inistration should, f i r s t , have a clearly stated , group-determined policy or policies; i t should Inquire what the end purposes are before selectin g people. Second* i t should ascertain what Jobs have to be undertaken to implement the p o licies and what appropriate q u alificatio n s of personnel are required by each Job* Third, i t should se­ le c t competent persons, p a rtic u la rly the able and dynamic* Competence as her® used connotes not only a high degree of in itia tiv e , drive, and a b ility but also s k ill in good

237 personnel relationships. Frequently, undertakings break down not so much because o f what was said as the manner in which I t was said* Fourth, those assuming wide responsibil­ i ty should be granted commensurate au th o rity in order e f­ fectively to exercise th e ir functions* F ifth , in accepting a u th o rity , those concerned must accept the basic premise of acco u n tab ility . They must be held to render periodic and frequent rep o rts in order th at the group can e ffe c tiv e ly evaluate Its progress or, i f need be, a modification or changing of policy can be undertaken by the group.

2m CHAPTER X THE &PMINXSTRATION OF EDUCATIONAL FUNCTIONS Those engaged In the adm inistration of educational a ffa ire have some time or other coma face-to-face with the problem of a llo c a tio n of functions and th e ir control# I t la presumably a b asic c o n flic t between democratic control and the In terests of state control* Stated interrogatively, where does a function operate best} a t the s ta te level or a t the lo c a l level? Or I f local control is desired, what aspects of education should be tran sferred to the local ad­ m in istratio n ? The question ultim ately asked i s , “c e n tra li­ zation or decentralization of control?*1 C entralization of the adm inistration of schools as ©cant here lo cates the con­ tr o l and support of education In one centrally-operated s ta te agency; decen tralization is the control and support of education granted to self-governing lo cal agencies# The i s ­ sues of c e n tra liz a tio n and decentralization have always con­ cerned school .administrators* In a publication of the Educa­ tio n al P o lic ie s OoBJiiilsslon, i t s a ttitu d e toward c e n tra lisa tio n and d ec en tralizatio n Is thus presented} Centralisation In the control, adm inistration, and financing of education is very apt to lead to a mediocre school system and a lack of progressive de­ velopment of the program of public education, with well-developed local units for the administration of schools, i t is ce rtain that some communities w ill de­ velop leadership which w ill be e ffectiv e in improving

239 education ♦ * . 1 Proponents fo r c e n tra liz a tio n , on the o th er hand, have th is to a&y regarding decentralized control of educations Everyone who studies the matter re a liz e s that the l i t t l e country school d i s t r i c t , supporting a one-* room school, is adm inistratively Inadequate to the task of modem schooling * * . C riticism can ju s tly be d irec te d against hundreds of l i t t l e country high schools o r “high school departmentsH in which one to four teachers stru g g le against odde to give proper in­ s tru c tio n to a handful of students over the whole range of the high school curriculum.£ Mort, however, says “the key to s tru c tu ra l design is the alio o atio n of control between cen tral and lo cal agencies. In appraising the division of central and local au­ th o rity and re sp o n sib ility with reference to educational functions, factors th at condition th e ir exercise should be examined* I t should be made cle a r th at the performance of certain functions cannot be premised on s t a t e 's rig h ts nor on the l o c a lity 's r ig h ts , since education is a s ta te respon­ s i b i l i t y , and, th ere fo re, the s ta te can perform a l l education­ al undertakings i f i t so decides, then, too, a simple fa c t th a t is often lo s t from view in the zeal fo r power and ^Educational P o licies Commission, S M M m ctu re m £ AdalnlatraMaa s£ BflMMllflBAaHwHawt M M & tm ., P* W. 2Anderson, t;., Ifi® Unlta 3 l Governments J& Jfeg United M ates, pp. 43-44. 3Mort, P. R ., and Cornell, P. G., M§,VlSM AS T ra n sitio n , p. 301.

240 control of the operation of schools is that there la no d isp arity between, the concern of the sta te and the In terest of the lo c a lity with regard to education* which la the best in te re sts of the children# The question of great Import tbus becomes not whose rig h t to exercise but where best can a function be operated democratically that gives promise of b e tte r educational results* I f democracy, according to our d e fin itio n , means cooperation* should there be any quarrel with mafetng the educational system a jo in t re sp o n sib ility of both the s ta te and the local community? If* according to the principle o f e ffe c tIvenaas, a l l possible ta le n t and resources p ertin en t to the case should be made use o f, can there be a reason fo r excluding lo cal e ffo rt o r denying the state action? I f children are to have equal opportunity or i f the school i s to provide for individual differences, can e ith e r sta te or lo cal coMunity single-handedly administer the schools and yet guarantee an effectiv e and democratic education? The experiences of complete sta te control in North Carolina or In the Philippines does not seem to prove I ts effectiveness for purposes of democratic education# Norway, which has a cen­ tralized m inistry, but which provides for lo cal boards, lo ­ cal power, and lo cal p o lic ie s, seems to have a democratic system of education# This re sp o n sib ility of the governments of the several states fo r the education of th e ir citizens is

241 much more than &' theory o r a tra d itio n or a leg al con­ vention* to examination of the effo rts of the states to strengthen th e ir public school systems indicates th a t I t Is a liv in g p rin cip le • . * accompanylug th is acceptance of state responsibility Is the conviction that a large share of local control is both desirable and e s s e n tia l* 4 I n f e r e n tia l! ! , then, the moot point is not an “e ith e r- o rH one but one of conducing the harmony of c e n tra lisa tio n and decentralisation* I t seems th a t the actio n s of the s ta te and lo c a l a u th o ritie s must accordingly \"be based on sharing, cooperation, and p a rtic ip a tio n . Admitting the advantages of Jo in t s ta te and lo cal control and support in the adm inistration of schools, “fin e d istin c tio n s between areas in which schools sh a ll be operated by lo cal i n i ti a t i v e and those in which t o y must be operated by d ire c t c e n tra l ad m inistration8^ have to be undertaken and defended in t o lig h t of t o p rin c ip le s of democratic admin­ is tra tio n formulated* Support of Education fo r some time p a s t, t o requirements of t o s ta te re­ garding education had been resented as an encroachment of lo cal rig h ts . The recognition of the in e q u a litie s of 4The fort.v-eigrht Sfoat® Sphool .Systems* pp* 4-5, The Council of S tate Governments, 1949* % o rt and C ornell, p i t *, p. 361*

£42 opportunity due to economic conditions of poor d is tr ic ts in many state® , however, hag led to the gradual acceptance of some form of s ta te help in financial matters* The case of Horth Carolina is c ite d 'a s an example of the s h ift from lo ­ cal control to cen tral control of education due to the s tr in ­ gency of fin an cial resources* k more sig n ifican t reason seems to he the general realisation th a t the s ta te .has m obligation to provide a minimus educational opportunity fo r a l l the children of the sta te and, therefore, i t is the s ta te ’s duty to supply the means of equalising educational opportunity* l o r t enumerates three positions taken fcy those who advocate sta te resp o n sib ility : There are those that take the position th at the s ta te should accept resp o n sib ility —a t le a s t to the point of equalisation of the burden of the mini­ mum program**\"for In structional co sts, whereas, the lo c a lity should carry the en tire responsibility of other expenditure®* S t i l l other® propose th at the sta te should assume the responsibility fo r equalis­ ing the currant costa of the minimum program but should leave the outlay® to the lo calities* A third position la th at a l l undertakings that arc mandatory should be included in the minimum program.$ Iffort refutes a l l these positions, claiming th at (1) i f the s ta te assume® the Instructional co sts, nothing would preclude adopting a sim ilar program for other costs; (?) although buildings are p art of the community’s c a p ita l, ue to some point the building Is a necessary p art of the % ort, P. R., state Support x s i S M M §£tmte> P* 9*

243 equipment to carry on the educational process; and, (3) i t is not the mandatory nature of the minimum program that ob­ ligates the state but i t is the state*a responsibility far the educational program presented in tbs uniform minimum program which mandates the duty to equalise opportunity.^ In putting an equalization program into effe c t so th a t equal and adequate educational opportunity is made available to every person, the sta te must have a clear-cut view of what equalisation e n ta ils , The state must, f i r s t l y , give p rio rity to the guarantee of sufficient support for the foundation program in order that lo cal schools, without sac­ rific in g other serv ices, can meet the minimum sta te standards. In addition, a margin of fin an cial support from the state releases lo c a l taxing power, with which local in itia tiv e can introduce improvements* innovations, or adaptations to meet the peculiar needs of .the community#^ The provision meets the prin cip les of equality of opportunity and the principle of a d a p ta b ility . Secondly, while e ffo rts should be made to meet the needs of the people with the foundation program, provisions should be made to finance adequately f i r s t of a l l the existing minimum requirements before any extensions of the foundation program are attempted. The principle of ef­ fectiveness applies here, since the extensions would thereby 7Mort, Jjfrld. » pp. 9-12. 0Mort, grlPQlplea s i School MsMsi££MS£» P* -I 7*

244 weaken the foundation program, re su ltin g In Inadequate op­ portunities, Thirdly, a very important consideration in the d istrib u tio n of s ta te finance should be the degree of freedom of choice within the lim its of the foundation program, Def­ in itio n ©f services th a t must be offered as sp ecific a llo t­ ments to be provided in the budget c u rta ils freedom of choice, The control of the budget should fee in the hands of local au­ th o ritie s* ^ I t Is a le a se r ev il than central control by agencies who can reduce or disapprove budgetary allowances and so block the purposes of equalisation* Holmstedt asserts* “these agencies aa a ru le have no re sp o n sib ility for educa­ tio n al policy yet control the means by which policy can be made effectiv e* “3.0 I f the budget la controlled by a. sta te agency, the principle of adaptability is contravened because the power of review Invariably destroys In itiativ e* *Con­ trol should be placed w ith those who can make best use of i t , R esponsibility fo r support should be placed with those gov­ ernmental u n its which can adm inister the most suitable method of raisin g revenue * . • \"31 State minimum requirements must be minimum* Fourthly, the elements of a minimum program should %ol®ste&t, Tim W,* “Fiscal Controls,** p. 140, In ipMm® m i 1m m to M U s M m k £3m m *>y ^ National Conference of Professors in Educational Administration. iQ ibia** 161-162* llM ort and Cornell, Adaptability of Public echoed M M i S f P* 3 m

245 include th a t educational program which is accepted by the people, the a c tiv itie s necessary to carry out the accepted program| and those elements thought e sse n tia l a t any given t i m e Lastly, the democratic processes should be u tilis e d when changes are to be made or Introduced In the foundation program. The l a s t two conditions give expression to the p rin ­ c ip le of democracy* v i s , , discussions are held close to the people* the w ill of the people is the c rite rio n fo r the e l­ ements in the prograss* The foundation program is supported e ith e r by the s ta te In i t s e n tire ty , which places a heavy fin a n c ia l burden on the s ta te , or by a combination of cen tral and lo cal support, thereby a tta in in g eq u alisatio n of opportunity and yet not unduly s tra in in g the s t a t e 1e finances. How, then, sh a ll the fin a n c ia l problem be resolved? From the forego leg, the con­ clusion om be drawn th a t sta te support o f the foundation program is an accepted fa c t. The s ta te provides the mini­ mum program and leaves a tax leeway fo r the lo c a l units Ho help assure reasonably adequate and w ell rounded educational o pportunities fo r a l l children and youth throughout the s t a t e , *13 A re la tiv e ly b e tte r program is made available to the community when s ta te requirements are held to a minimum iEBurk@, A« J* i financing Public Schoola in jgw United M i i J m * p* 3 0 2 . ‘^3‘fhe fforty—sig h t S tate School. Systems.,' p. 111.

246 and lo cal u n its are perm itted to use the released tax source fo r securing a rich e r program th m th a t mandated by the s t a t e . 1^- Budget control should not be in the hands of a cen­ t r a l agency* and. a degree of freedom must be possible w ithin the minimum program* The p rin cip le of equality of oppor­ tu n ity is served w ith the operation of a foundation program* The p rin c ip le of democracy, however, has to be safeguarded w ith r e s tr a in ts on the cen tral agency to prevent undesirable s ta te co n tro ls of lo cal school programs and protected w ith Improved school management by the lo cal u n its ,1® The p rin ­ cip le of effectiv en ess demands the exercise of certain pru­ dential controls to avoid waste of resources in the adminis­ tra tio n of the foundation program. These controls should not determine the educational opportunities to be made a v a il­ able In the lo c a l units* ra th e r, the checks and balances should only be safeguards to see that the educational oppor­ tu n itie s are not n u llif ie d by the diversion of funds from purposes intended or by the m isappropriation of public-money or by the inadequacy, Incompetence, or extravagance of the lo cal a d m in istra to rs.1® A daptability is possible only with an adequately-supported program; but in an e f f o r t to re a liz e equality of opportunity* precautions must be taken that the H'HoliDstedt, 0£. &il*> P* 1SIM d. ■ p. 158. 16M 3 m PP- 151-153.

247 principle® of democracy and of ad a p ta b ility are not s a c ri­ fice# i f the schools are not to d eterio rate Into a \"dead uniform ity14 o r retrograde into au to cratic adm inistration. Buildingi Equipment, and Supplies The control of c a p ita l outlay bears an Important re­ la tio n to the equalisation of opportunity. Although someone one© defined a university m Mark Hopkins s ittin g at one end ©f a leg and a pupil a t the other end* desirable* flexible* hygienic* and safe school housing and working f a c ilit ie s are e ss e n tia l to the e ffe c tiv e performance of the educational process In our modem society, the need for b e tte r housing f a c l l i t l e s 9 the recognition that they are plainly inadequate* cad the importance o f giving Instruction equal to the oppor­ tu n itie s offered has created re a l problems for nearly a l l school d is tric ts * According to the study of the Council of Governments* because of the mailed v ariatio n s In local a b ility to provide educational programs, \"the problem o f assuring adequate p la n t f a c ilit ie s for a ll children In a state can never be solved by expecting or requiring each d i s t r ic t to provide a l l o f the necessary fin an cial support*17 unless a good measure of funda is derived from state sources. To pro­ vide a more equal opportunity* therefore* the states have 17Thk Forty-eight State School Systems.'p . 92

248 cen tralized the financing and control of school buildings, Various devices have been used to provide adequate housing of pupils, Delaware requires a small local contribution o f the building cost and assumes the bulk of the resp o n sib ility ; Florida gives 1400*00 a classroom u n it for c a p ita l outlay; Alabama sake* ca p ita l outlays p art of the foundation program,18 North Carolina does not grant but lends the expenditure fo r capital outlay,!® Whatever methods are used to finance schoolhouse con­ struction# the p a rtic ip a tin g local units have to meet s ta te minimum standards. In his study# Strayer observes that in Horth Carolina, *uniformity in the planning and construction of buildings Is considered desirable by most educational leaders. *80 »r*he equalization of support# however, should never mean uniformity* Xn order that the principles of ef­ fectiveness , adaptability# and democracy w ill be observed# the sta te should aid in the financing of minimum building needs# regulate matters pertaining to hygienic and healthful conditions# and provide supervision to obviate dangerous and weak construction. The sta te can render Immeasurable help to the lo c a litie s by supplying competent advice in the planning l eIblfl. , p. 99. l\" s tr» y e r, J r . , C-. P ., C entralizing Tendencies In J&g Administration of £i&U& £3SflaSiM* P* 34• SOlbld.. p. 33.

249 to avoid c o stly mistakes and to assure good planning in re­ lation to tfee educational process* The effectiveness of the accomplishment of the educational program conceived as a changing program adjusted to the needs of the school popula­ tion can he g re atly handicapped by inadequate or Inflexible buildings. . Buildings are not ju s t sh elter, but they are tools to f a c ilita te educational a c tiv ity , and, as such, they should be planned to f i t the educational program. Herein Is the reason for the p articip atio n of local i n i ti a t i v e In providing b e tte r schools, Mo c e n tra l agency can know the needs of the community b e tte r than the community Its e lf* The s ta te should guarantee a g re ater eq u ality of school p lan t f a c i l i t i e s , but according to the American As­ sociation of School Administrators* the board of education 8 * * . decides what buildings sh a ll be b u ilt, when and where, and what equipment sh a ll be purchased fo r the©; de­ cides upon extensions of buildings and any major a lte ra tio n s ; selects and purchases school s ite s fo r future plant expansion * . . a ll w ith the counsel of the s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , -De­ cisions are sad© by those closely concerned. The superin­ tendent as the c h ie f executive of the board execute® the building planning and procedures, A® a democratic adminis­ trator, he should provide the situ a tio n s such th a t school ^American Association of School Adm inistrators, 3otool £2S£3S IE MMMx P. 30.

250 boards, school s t a f f , other citizen s of the comisunity, and expert consultative services p lm together and make de­ cisions on building p o l ic ie s ,^ The Association claims: The sehoolhouse Is a place for many kinds of learningi the schoolhouse i t s e l f is an instrument of education. I t can teach children much of beauty, of useful ordering of space, and of the p o s s ib ilitie s of harmonious liv in g . There la increasing recognition of the school building a® a place th at w ill help children to grow to th e ir best physically as well as mentally +*a The financing o f equipment la p art of the support fo r c a p ital outlay, Here, more than, with the support of build­ ings, state control should not interfere with local in itia ­ tiv e , Good serviceable furniture and equipment arc essen­ t i a l , and th e ir selection should take into account the b est educational theory and p ractice, *The children are in the building but they fu rn itu re, fo r many generations fu r­ n itu re has been placed in a school room and then the children have been expected to f i t the furniture.*® 1* Equipment should be made to order fo r the children th a t use them and should contribute to th e ir growth and well-being. The question of supplies always raises the issue of economy. To save the d o llar or to stre tc h i t as fa r as i t 22American Association of School Administrators, Jmztem .tehaal p* r* g3Xhld», p, 9, 24JW *> p*

251 oan sometimes cheaper m aterials than those c a lle d fo r &r® substituted* Poorer m aterials th a t do not s e w the purposes o f the in stru c tio n a l a c tiv ity in the long run is poor economy* Economy is best exercised when quality sp ed * flea tio n a are met and when supplies are on hand a t the time they are needed, the needs of the children as evaluated by the teacher who w ill make use of the supplies are paramount* Democratic adm inistration w ill draw upon the s t a f f through teacher committees to determine the sp ec ific needs of the school* In th is manner, the educational o bjectives and not only fin an cial matters are considered In procuring school supplies. In allocating the substantial support of school fa­ c ilitie s to the sta te le v e l, the control of the building program should be held to a minimum and should be of a. pro­ tectiv e and consultatory nature. Since buildingsf equip­ ment, and supplies determine to a large extent the effectiv e educational growth of ch ild ren , i t would be fallaciou s to c e n tra lise th e ir control a t the s ta te level on the ground® th a t these arc qxteraa of education, the plans drawn up must be the re s u lt of lo cal in itia tiv e and thinking, and the pur­ chasing of the m aterials should be handled by the local u n it.

252 The Teaching Personnel The democratic education of the youth Is not assured by the mere provision of modern* flexible* homey* safe* sanitary* and appropriate buildings* equipment* and supplies; the quintessence of democratic education la any school sys­ tem or s ta te hinges on the character* intelligence* and pro­ ficiency of teachers. This point is stressed not to b e little the e ffo rts and enthusiasms of partisans or experts of buildings* equipment * and the lik e * but good \"buildings* courses of study, mechanical aids* books* equipment, and supplies contribute very l i t t l e except as they are used in­ te llig e n tly by personnel.\"8® In the fin a l analysis* i t is the teacher th a t shapes and Influences the in te re sts and sense of values of boys end g irls during th e ir most pliable years. The offeeto of the quality of teaching are not sta ­ tionary and lo cal. The Implications of what goes on in the classrooms, in th is age of m obility, are far-reaching and affect the sta te and those beyond the elate boundaries. In order to safeguard the progress of equalizing the educational opportunity of youth* many states have set up controls per* t&inlng to the training and c e rtific a tio n of teachers* Two schools having id en tical physical f a c ilitie s but differing in qualified teachers w ill offer unequal opportunity to the 2$Burke* o i t . . p. 475*

253 children* The youth have a rig h t to m approximately equal quality of education* The need fo r state controls and rig ­ orous miniums standards is manifest in the educational con­ ditions obtaining today* Only 59 per cent of the teachers in the 48 sta te s hold college degrees; in Iowa, 51 per cent have less than two years* college preparation; in North Dakota and M ississippi, 32*3 per cent and 23*5'per cent, resp ectiv ely , are without college preparation; most of the teachers w ith l i t t l e or no college preparation are employed in the small ru ra l elementary d i s t r i c t s .26 To Improve the q u alificatio n s of teachers, most sta te s have cen tralized and standardised the requirements fo r securing c e rtif ic a te s . However, the standards' set up by the d iffe re n t sta te s vary fo r elementary teaching and high school teaching* To secure an elementary c e rtif ic a te , only i? s ta te s require Bachelor's degrees; Nebraska's minimum re­ quirement 1© high school normal training; Missouri stip u la te s only eight semester hours of college preparation for rural schools; North Dakota grants c e rtif ic a tio n by ^7e x a m i n a t i o n . For teaching c e rtific a te s in high school, 42 sta te s require a Bachelor's degree; Mew York and Washington require five years of college; C alifornia, where more than half of the teachers hold M aster's degrees, requires a Bachelor's degree plus IS Fort.y-ei^ht State School Systems * pp. 72-74, 88. g7 lb ia . . p. 89.

254 s e m e s t e r hours o f g r a d u a t e w o r k . ^ This c e n t r a l i s a t i o n of the adm inistration of teacher c e r t i f i c a t i o n made the p r e r e q u i s i t e s fo r en­ tering the teaching profession uniform throughout the s t a t e * whereas previously t h e r e had been as many standards as there were county s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . The c e rtif ic a tio n requirements of teachers by the s ta te are the goals a s ta te se ts fo r i t s e l f . To achieve these standards* the fie ld of teacher training is of great importance# BThe selectio n and preparation of those who are to be en tru sted w ith the Immediate conduct of the public school con stitute m undertaking of the deepest gravity* In lew York* the Commissioner of Education has been given the power t© s e t up the regulations fo r admission to the teacher- train in g schools and to determine the courses to be offered} in Maryland* the S tate Board of Education stip u la te s the exact nature of the professional training of teachers} In Iforth Carolina* the various sta te colleges and normal schools were merged to elim inate overlapping of courses and to bet­ t e r organise train in g courses fo r teach ers.^1 According to the reports to the Council of State Governments, in sp ite of 28D i M . 2 9 $ t r s y e r , ££. olt,. , p . 6 6 . '^Educational P o licies Commission* The Education M free Men &n fm r.'ism Mmocraoy. p. 106. 3 1 e t r a y e r * ££♦ * pp. 45, 65, 99.

255 the effort® of the states to Improve teacher training* the supply of trained teachers, ineluding those with two years of college, Is fa r short of that needed to take care of nor­ mal replacement, of Increased enrollment, or of replacing those with temporary permits. However, I f the s ta te would hold qualified persons and encourage those employed to further ra ise the level of th e ir attainm ents, I t must o ffer more lucrative salaries th at take Into consideration the cost of living and provide a leeway fo r betterment* There is. a trend in th is d irectio n , as shown in the various sta te salary schedules in operation a t present, yet there are some sta te s where I t could be bet­ ter* In nine s ta te s , more than 10 per cent of the teachers receive above 14000.00i 33*9 per cent in Hew York, 25 per cent in California* 20*8 per cent in Arizona; 14*4 per cent in I n d i a n a . At the other extreme are eight states whose teachers receive leas than t l , 500*00: ?2*9 per cent in M ississippi; 54*8 per cent in Kentucky; 4 9 .3 per cent in Arkansas; 43*6 per cent in Georgia; 42*7 per cent in North Dakota.33 Approximately the same group of teachers that re­ ceive the low salarie s are those w ith low teacher prepara­ tio n , whereas, the teachers in Hew York and C alifornia, of 32|hg f o r t n i g h t State School fM tem i. p. SI. asibia* * p. 83.

256 whofs are required Master*s degrees, receive the highest salaries* tv m a f te r taking Into eonside ra t ion th a t i t may fee cheaper to liv e in M ississippi than .in 'New York, and no m atter bow a l t r u i s t i c a person may be, s salary below 11,500,00 w ill hardly be worthwhile for one who has in­ vested money, time, and e ffo rt to be b e tte r prepared, to teach* I t follow s, therefore, that the sta te should control and s e t standards fo r teacher train in g and teacher c e r tif ic a ­ tion end should e sta b lish an equitable salary schedule in order r e a lis tic a lly to Implement the principle of equality of opportunity. The function of se le c tio n , appointment, and dism issal of teachers should be handled a t the local lev el and not by a s ta te agency. The p rinciples of ad a p ta b ility and effec­ tiveness demand i t . I t is the lo cal school board*s responsi­ b ility to appoint teachers, but the board should delegate to the-superintendent the power to selec t and recommend the te a c h e r.34 A democratic adroinistr a te r ’s recommend©tion fo r positions should be the composite of the advice and counsel of the school personnel, Thus, the rig h t person for the po­ sitio n w ill more lik e ly be selected and appointed, Elim­ inating weak teachers from the very s ta r t by careful selec- <s tlon also elim inates much of the re su lta n t poor teaching 34Hagn*a», H. L ., Xhe AdMMsiiljjM M £ f American £ub~ l i e {Schools. p. 211,

257 that has to fe® improved through unnecessary ru les and regu­ la tio n s o r even through penalties# Otherwise, poor teachers are employed a t the s a c rific e of the best In te re s ts of the children# To prevent such a condition fro© a ris in g , teach­ ers to be employed must possess a t le a s t a s ta te teacher c e rtific a tio n , although there is nothing to deter the local adm inistrative u n it from making i t s own professional yard­ stic k b e tte r than th at of the sta te 's, while i t is the s ta te 's duty to secure fo r each teach­ e r a decent liv in g wage, the welfare of the teacher should be a concern of Mgh p rio rity w ith the local board# Some d e fin ite plans or p o lic ie s have to be formulated, as has been done in some s ta te s , about sick leave w ith pay, study leav e, ten u re, and re tire m e n t.^ Only as teachers have a sense of se c u rity can they expend a l l th e ir worries on b et­ te r methods of teaching and. not d issip a te th e ir energies in \"k illin g time* while w aiting for a more p ro fita b le position elsewhere* Educational Control The control of some services which are necessary to f a c ilita te the educational processes, objective in nature, simple and economical to administer a t the s ta te lev el, should r r - ^ . ^ 1 - ^ 1 J L || | -T - - r - r r ■r - r - , . . |1.| | T . - r r - , . T 1 . ^ . . . r i U | i r .. r r . . .- r r -r >.-f - [ - ^ ^ ^ ■ ■■— ■ ■ — ■ ■ ■ ■ II I — Ml ■ i i f c w a i r f i T . ffort.v-elffht afoa.te School Systems * p. 165*

258 be allocated a t the s ta te lev el based on the p rin cip le of effectiveness and the principle of equality of opportunity* th e operation of the tran sp o rta tio n system is a case in point. Uniform requirements regarding the color of the bus, the ownership of the bus, or the driver*a qualifications do not contribute to the learning process.3® Operated lo c a lly , tran sp o rtatio n of a few children becomes expensive; operated by the s ta te , i t releases a p a rt of local fin a n c ia l s tr a in , besides gaining advantages from ce n tral operation in reduced maintenance costs and in su b sta n tia l savings from mass pur­ chases* Uniform safety rules and regulations which work for the pro tectio n of the pupils transported should be pre­ scribed by the s t a t e ,$8 The o p em tion of the tran sp o rtatio n by the s ta te should n o t, however, prevent the lo cal unit from using the school buses as i t sees f i t in. furthering the edu­ catio n al program, the question of length of school tens should, in fairn ess to the p u p ils, be uniform throughout the sta te and should be determined by the s ta te , there can be no equality of opportunity where some children attend classes nine months a year and others only six months. 3®3tapley, 1. W,, J .Recommended P upil fo r the S tiM of I s ilito # P* 1* 57Ib id ., p. 35. Ibid. , pp. 41-42, 56.

259 th ere i® a tendency fo r the state® to assume wore and more the s e le c t ion and purchase of textbook®*^ one- th ird of the state® use sta te funds to provide textbooks; one-sixth provide books fo r a l l grades# and the other six th provide books only to the elementary grades.40 other state® have gone only as f a r m making an approved l i s t of b o o k s *41 The a llo catio n of textbook control to the s ta te is premised on the re su ltin g economy and a c e rta in degree o f desirable uniform ity w ithin the state# Precaution should be taken th a t in the ardor fo r economy# the educational objectives are not relegated to second importance# Moreover# in the desire fo r some uniformity# ear© should be exercised th a t the textbook requirements do not become inflexible# k sen­ s ib le procedure would be to devise a scheme whereby a l a t i ­ tude of choice within the requirements ia present so th a t lo cal u n its can s t i l l have d iscretio n In the ©election of textbooks# In o th er a re a s# the ©tat© can be of g re a te r service by providing leadership rath er than by being concerned w ith detail® of adm inistration within the numerous lo cal d is tric ts * # m II.. ,j — m i *r > ■Wm*w m -mnrn*■ .............................................................. ... n m ^ N a tio n a l Education Association# \"Legal Statu® of the School Superintendent,\" National Education Association .M r October# 1961. 40The lforta» eig h t ££&& §Mk%m> P* 106*v dlHatlonal Education Association, cl,t. ,

260 j?he state is in a ’b e tte r position fin an cially to conduct Statewide research or to secure information from other s ta te s about'experimentation In those states* Many adm inistrative u nits cannot afford research workers * sp e c ia lists in various services as school buildings experts, psychologists, testing sp e c ia lists, or curriculum sp ecia lists. In a democratic ad­ m in istratio n , In te llig e n t actions and decisions are baaed on facts and knowledge, and for th is reason the sp e c ia list has a special function to perform, through these sp ec ia lists the s ta te om provide able leadership, technical guidance, and research service,not autocratic control, to enable the i local u n its to promote the best growth and development of the pupils end the welfare of the community. The s t a t e d important a c tiv ity re la tin g to educational matters w ill be putting facts where they are needed. Good p ractices anywhere should be disseminated everywhere* This is especially true with curriculum development* Since the curriculum deals with the what and the hqw of teaching, i t should be evolved by the local u n it and should ‘be a record of the cooperative ac­ tion of adm inistrators, teachers, pupils, and c itiz e n s. The examples of Shaker Heights, Ohio,43 and Lincoln, Nebraska»4& In cooperative curriculum construction show how the 42E&uoational P olicies Commission, Learning the w&ys of Democracy, pp. 345-349.- 43Ibld,. pp. 337-338.

261 development of a b e tte r curriculum can be fostered a t the lo cal level* the content of the curriculum and the method of In stru ctio n are the two important educational matters which cannot he safely tended down from a cen tral agency without developing s t r i c t rig id ity and uniformity and yet meet the needs and in te re s ts of the pupils to provide fo r th e ir d iv e rs itie s . G illie ’s study of centralized and &©- centralized systems of schools came to the conclusion that f le x ib ility and a d a p ta b ility of Instruction to the individual pupils were provided fo r b est In decentralized systems.** Administrative Management The assumption by the sta te of the support of educa­ tion should not mean the assumption of the control of i t s adm inistration In the lo cal d i s t r i c t . whatever administra­ tiv e controls are to be exercised by the s ta te should be on tte broadest terms based on basic general policies and not on the specific®. Controls that ©re exercised—prudential in nature—are those th at w ill maintain a proper balance be­ tween guaranteeing eq u ality of opportunity and effectiveness one hand and f a c ilita tin g adaptability and the democratic 44C ilIle , F. 8. t C entralization or Itecentral.izallppy p. 99. 4% o rt, P. B ., and Reusser, W. 0 ., Public School £1- m m * p- io 6«

adm inistration of schools on the other the state*s In terest in local operational adm inistration is only to pro­ mote the economical, e f f ic ie n t, end judicious fu lfillm en t of the minimum standards s e t by the s ta te and the re a liz a tio n o f the c o n stitu tio n a l prov.Xsicms* The local community through i t s school board m d school personnel should determine the nature of education they want within the legal framework end s e le c t the methods of i t s operation end adm inistration. The -state le g is la tu re s have delegated authority and resp o n sib ility for the operation of the local school dis­ t r i c t s to lo c a l boards# They are the local governing school body created by the s ta te and as such are q u a si-le g isla tiv e bodies whose decisions in educational matters carry the force of law* The important function of the local board should rath er be le g is la tiv e than adm inistrative. Like the sta te cen tral agencies*, the function of the local board. ” . ♦ . l ie s in the realm o f educational statesm anship, In keeping free of p etty d e ta il work In order to sense trends, needs, and asp ira tio n s « * * to approve p o licies which w ill aid edu­ cators in keeping to the course, arid to check up from time to time on how m atters are progressing. *4? s c ie n tific man­ agement and routine of adm inistration should be delegated by 46M 3 . , p* l l 2* -'''Davies, D. H., and Hosier, P. ff., Jhe Olwllersge of School Board Memberships. p. 16.

the board to the superintendent* Since the board has been responsible for the selection o f the superintendent, the confidence o f the board must be made m anifest in the author­ i t y granted him compatible with his responsibility* To ob­ tain a harmonious productive cooperation between the board and the superintendent* s i the very outset the basic lin e s of au th o rity and re sp o n sib ility must be outlined* Much of the bard fe e lin g and confusion can be averted w ith the c le a r imderstending th a t the board dec Ides on p o lic ie s a f­ fectin g the adm inistration and management of schools which are executed by the superintendent and t o s t outcomes are evaluated by the board* This im plies t o t the board of edu­ cation r e lie s on the superintendent to see th at the sta te fsdnlssum requirements m i t o board p o lic ie s , re so lu tio n s, m i d ire c tiv e s are c a rrie d into operation# In t o School Boards In &&tionf t o American Association o f American Ad­ m inistrators gives a d etailed lis tin g of functions to i l ­ lu s tra te the difference in areas o f school board action and those o f the superintendents*4^ The t e s t o f an e f f ic ie n t and democratic adm inistra­ to r is found in the m u ltip lic ity of individuals he has brought in to cooperative planning and in the b e st use of t o human ta le n ts and a b i l i t i e s of t o community* A democratic ^American Association of bchool Administrators, school Bftsta* l a M ila a , pp. 4 9 -e i.

264 adm inistration should provide, therefore, the agencies of p articip atio n to increase popular control in the adminis­ tration of schools, F ir s t, teachers* committees should be organised to study the various phases of the system such as the salary schedule, curriculum revision, supplies and equipment, pupil problems, community re la tio n s, e tc . Second, parent*teacher organisations should be exam­ ined and re v ita lis e d , too often, the parent*teacher asso­ ciatio n Is exploited to finance e x tra -c u rric u la r and other activ ities# Parent*teacher organisations cm be useful in solving ehild-problems in school in re la tio n to home in flu ­ ence, Third, citizens* committees should be organised th a t are composed of a broad representation of c itiz e n s in the community* These should p a rtic ip a te in the formulation of policy but should not decide policy. Public participation develops a sense of resp o n sib ility for the schools in the p articip an ts and public support of education becomes more adequate and consequently promotes a d a p ta b ility ,46 The c i t i ­ zens gain a wider concept of the place of education in society besides gaining efficien cy in b e tte r human relatio n sh ip s. In these committees, regardless of the nature of th e ir 40“omz@ns Committees in A ctio n / .The aoMPl Execu­ tiv e 71:91-98, January, 1952.

265 work, %% is incumbent on the adm inistrator to see that the committoes have the necessary resources* f a c ts , and tools to f a c i l i t a t e th e ir planning and thinking* Leadership on the p art of the superintendent w ill bring about an in teg ratio n and coordination of the work of the committees such th a t re* sponsibiXlty for the accomplishment of every task is assigned and accepted* A function of prime importance i s the pro* vision fo r the rapid communication end exchange of ideas upward, downward, and h orizontally so th at the re su ltin g product is the outcome of the group effort* To prevent or* gsaizations from being *fly-by*nlght?i a f f a ir s , the stru ctu re of the organizations should provide for continuity of the group p o lic ie s in spit© of changes of adm inistration. These agencies cooperatively share in solving prob­ lems of the school and in planning b e tte r schools, and par* ticipat© in formulating p o lic ie s , but each agency must r e a l­ ise th a t th e ir main function is advisory: The board of edu­ cation is s t i l l the fin a l authority for action.

266 CMJTK& XI sw im Education Ubm been werlously labeled #&te bulwark of s f i r s t lin e o f defense»* or *%h» highway to des^e-raey.* fh t m m m p tim Is t t e i the mrviv&l o f im m tm y I® dependent m en educated eltiftnry* *hu* th is i t undoubtedly true* i t needs n m ^ m r qualifying state** mn%* k x b ^ m tiQ countries In the past m m fearful o f *4u-» cationi f m uoqpeitURJa* obedience of Che » s§ # § rat easier ted with an ig n a tw i oonstitneiicy, f$wm*r§ in the twentieth century * Cetalltarisa countries hate objectively end ef­ fectiv ely dsnoiistmted tew cdicatloa can t ie s implement otter Ideals thus the dsmeerttttCL in order to safeguard des^ertey* therefore# the administration of education in a denoemey s u it be characterised by d#fw»or«clo ideals m& effected by democratic methods* Pdui$.ilcml writers and p r o feseional educational ongsiilsatieii* emphasise that to en­ gender deaoorelle behavior# feelings# isa ideas in people* the staftt mist be consistent with the ends* fte aofblguity sod confused thinking m educational adninlatration# reported by students o f denocratio adminis­ tration# eee»« to atea from the divergence in the interpret t a tiom of democracy# to differing groups of people# democ­ racy carries different oormotatlona* at!»g which a m fx) Democracy is chiefly p o litic a l in nature# concerned with a

26? hind of p o litic a l machinery and form of government th at p ro tects l i f e and property; (2) democracy is a tru s t In­ h erited from the past and 11once obtained, always obtained** j {3} democracy Is freedom to run one1s a ffa irs with the le a s t Interference from the government* These conceptions of democ­ racy, while v alid in th e ir own time, need to be re in te r­ preted fo r a modera changing world of p o litic a lly end eco­ nomically interdependent and in terac tiv e people* lew conno­ tatio n s attached to democracy are th a t democracy is p a rticip atio n , th at I t is concerned with individual in teg rity and worth, and th at democracy serves the purposes of the common welfare# democracy is re a lise d only as provisions are made fo r the continuous p articip atio n of individuals In cooperative direction of shared in terests, in integrating the minority opinions with the majority to arrive a t the consen­ sus of the group, and in insuring equal opportunities for the fu ll development of one’s personality consistent with the welfare of the group* for education, th is implies that universal education should be provided to extend equal educational opportunity to a l l , which should be adapted to the inherent diversity of men, so th a t through democratic processes, the dignity and worth of each individual w ill be enhanced fo r the good of a democratic society* The studio® conducted in educational adm inistration

268 f a l l under two categories? studies of practices or demo­ c ra tic processes In the schools and studies to discover principles to guide democratic administration. Studies concerned with democratic practices in the schools in the s ta te s discuss the question from the standpoint of p a r tic i­ pation* The differentia enters on the questions of who should p a rtic ip a te , in what areas p articip atio n should he allowed, and how much p articip atio n there should be. The prin cip les formulated are based prim arily on the question of where control© should be established to re s u lt in a demo­ cratic administration of schools* The studies by the pro­ fessional organisations also f a ll under the two categories, One is a study of cooperation, the other studies practices in the f ie ld and draws principles from the evidence* The facto rs th a t have influenced the development of democratic adm inistration are the accelerated tempo of an A evolving so ciety , the tendency towards centralisation in governmental control, the increasing professionalization of teaching, and the influence of the democratic ideal© of leading educational w rite rs and workers* Democratic adminis­ tration Is defined as the management of a, cooperative, shar­ ing, and in terac tiv e organization, is which common purposes and p o licies are group determined, wherein the highest de­ velopment of the individual subscribes to the maximum w ell­ being of the group.

289 the p rin cip les fe m ila te ft to be used as guides to a democratic adm inistration of the schools are: *• SM, Jeio c.m tic p riao lalft adm inistration m m m lm m h lx M S§* fi£E M i m f lU f ti la QiMPlete Mmoxq w ith the democratic iSsM s* A* The fundamental obligation of democratic adm inistra­ tio n is to f a c i li t a t e the continuous development of a person*® d ig n ity and worth, B* The su rest fru itio n of perso n ality growth comes through freedom in cooperative p a rtic ip a tio n of a l l concerned In a ffa irs that re su lt in the betterment of individuals. C. Cooperative p o lic ie s and decisions should be kept close to the point of operation. Ho decisions or actions th a t v io la te democratic ideals should be taken. II* IM JEglJSUdlflA o£ f e l l PmpmxM X$1 Democmtlp nd|m^,alatration provides fo r and guarantees ag M CT0W b.ne*s .full A. E quality of opportunity means th at education is ac­ cessib le to a l l . Ho one should be deprived of an education due to difference i s race* profession of creed* weak academic a b ility , or low economic' a b ility . B. Equality of opportunity means the rig h t to an equal

270 q u ality of education* th e quality of teaching should be insured by providing pupils with equally trained teacher®| proper b u ild in g s, and adequate equipment and supplies* 1 1 1 , 2 m .S llM llL li J2l M m M k U X M PMMSlKMMM M M & te te a tlo n J j, M e n lj m&sst o f and re g io n - ®lye. JwiQ*Ss. SSfiSa s£ evolving «aai»rty. A* The adm inistration must arouse and guide local i n i t ­ ia tiv e to secure a g re a te r v aria tio n In the program* B* Adaptations should be geared to the Individual d if ­ ferences of the children of the community. Q. k program adapted to the community must consider the resources, purpose®, and a c tiv itie s of the community* I)* Local in itia tiv e cannot function without finances and, th ere fo re, the lo cal u n it must have a tax leeway with which to buy b e tte r education fo r th e ir children* ?V* S M te in c io .lt of A utM rlty jM ,])emoc..ratlQ jssgga&Sft MmImLWJi m&r elementary coexistence of au th o rity and x ti.p o if lk llliy m o m m r i fo r the attainm ent &£ <mm@& M M * A. where au th o rity e x is ts , re sp o n sib ility fo r th a t au­ th o rity must be demanded. B* R esponsibility must foe vested w ith au th o rity to ac­ complish I ts function* C* the lo cal school boards are the fin a l authority in

271 school matter® but are held, responsible to the peo­ ple a t the polls* D* The superintendent is the board1® administrative of­ fic e r accountable fo r the operation of the schools* He should be given authority compatible with his re­ sponsibility* £* Basic p o licies formulated should be the re su lt of the discussions and deliberations of the whole group who stand to be affected by the policies* Th© group’s resp o n sib ility Is to give whole-hearted support to the adm inistration once the policy is adopted by the board* F* Democratic leadership is basic In the functioning of group processes* v. ja&a&nlft ol MlmWjmm, M mocratle admMlstration. i M U m . Jftft ISM SSn sm & lM A * and resources available J& e f fe c tiy e lj f M i l i t a t e jfchg M i l M m § M m & m m m sim * An An effectiv e adm inistration executes Ita functions e ffic ie n tly predicated on good rapportf teamwork, and i t s contribution to the growth of human personal­ ity* B. People act more in te llig e n tly when they have p a r ti­ cipated in deciding the group purposes and a c tiv itie s* 0* The group must have facts to work with in effectiv e

278 planning, B* Free t o to experiment should be guaranteed, 5, An effectiv e organization re aliz es the need of con­ tr o ls determined by the group* to secure greater freedom fo r a g re a te r number of individuals, F* There must be continuous evaluation of the effectiv e­ ness of the procedures and outcomes, 6. Effective use of resources takes into account th e ir economical and prudential use* B* E ffective use of the expert as a resource person should be u tiliz e d by the adm inistration. The allo catio n of the control and support of education should be a shared undertaking of both the s ta te and the lo cal u n it. In appraising the division of central and local au­ th o rity and resp o n sib ility over education* consideration of where b est i t can operate democratically so th a t i t w ill re­ s u lt in more effectiv e educational programs should be made* The functions th a t should be controlled a t the s ta te level are the followings x* lh® fla a fe & a a I t m i m A, The s ta te should provide adequate supnort of the foundation program to insure the equalization of op­ portunity* B* The requirements of the foundation program should be held to a minimum.

273 0# Minimum requirements .should f i r s t he adequately f i ­ nanced before extensions are attempted* 0. The foundation program should include th a t which Is accepted by the community and the services needed to carry out the program* 1. Control over the adm inistration of the program should be of a supervisory nature to see th a t the mandates of the s ta te are carried out* I I . l a l i a i n g . Equipment. «a3 Sw.pp.lles A, The s ta te should a id in the financing of minimum building needs of the lo c a l unit* B* The s ta te should provide controls to secure the h e a lth fu l, hygienic, and safe construction of the building. G. The s ta te should provide the services of expert building consultants to guide the local unit in the building planning. 0* The equipment should also be financed as p art of the capital outlay. E, Economy of expenditures should be evaluated in terms of educational objectives. III . 2M TeachiM personnel A. C e rtific a tio n of teachers should be undertaken a t the sta te level to secure qualified teachers through­ out the state*

B?4 B. Te&eher tra in in g standards should be set by the s ta te 'to achieve the standards o f teacher c e r ti ­ fication, 0% k minimum salary schedule should be used th a t pro­ vides fo r a liv in g wage and a. leeway for b e tte r­ ment and s e c u rity , XV* M m & itim l & m $ m l A* The s ta te should provide leadership in curriculum development and render technical guidance and research services* B. I f the s ta te adopts the textbooks, i t must provide fo r freedom of choice by the lo c a l unit* 0* The s ta te should define the length of term* B* The s ta te should operate the tran sp o rtatio n system of the school d istricts* V* k. The s ta te form ulates b asic general p o lic ie s th at concern a ll the schools In the state* B* The s ta te ex erts only a minimum control to promote and safeguard the accomplishment of the s ta te re­ quirements. The functions th a t should be performed a t the lo c a l level are the following: x* S M A. The lo c a l u n it should secure the funds to Introduce

275 improvements, innovations, or adaptations to secure a ric h e r program, over the foundation program* B* The control of the budget should be undertaken by the school d is tric t* The school d i s t r ic t should de­ cide what to include in the budget, A* The lo cal u n it shouldplan the design of the build­ ing and. the equipment to go with i t , which should be the product of the cooperative action of the adminis­ tr a to r , teachers, and the community. B* The lo cal u n it should undertake the actu al purchase of the equipment and supplies, exercising economy and prudence, taking into consideration the educa­ tio n a l objectives of the system* III* The Teaching: Personnel A* The selection and appointment of the teacher should be the function of the lo cal unit that employs them. B. The lo cal u n it should endeavor to give sa la rie s over the state* s minimum to a ttr a c t the b e tte r trained teachers. C. The lo cal u n it should adopt a se t of p o licies that w ill provide fo r the welfare and security of the teacher* IV, Educational JM iXSl A, The lo cal u n it should develop the curriculum through

the cooperation ©f teachers, pupils, c itiz e n s , and adm inistrator. B» The local u n it should adapt the curriculum to the need© of the pupil® and the community, Administrative Management A* The lo cal hoard of education determines the nature of education I t wants w ithin the legal framework# B# The lo cal board ©f education le g is la te s and decides m atters of policy on the management ©f schools* C* The superintendent executes the p o licies of the board and is responsible fo r Hie operation of the schools. D# Agencies for p articip atio n in policy formation should be available* I t is obvious th a t the sta te and the lo cal units must work out cooperative measure® in the in te re s t ©f b e tte r schools and b e tte r ??&ys of adminis taring them democratically to ef­ fe ctiv e ly r e a lis t the purposes of education In a democracy, The f i r s t necessity is a c le a r understanding th at the educa­ tion of a democratic c itizen ry Is wholly dependent on the democratic adm inistration of that education, The welfare of the children Is the welfare of the sta te . Each child must be guaranteed an equal opportunity to develop to the highest that is In him so that he may be a happy and useful member of a democratic society, From the standpoint

277 of edueatlon&l adm inistration, th is implies certain essen­ t i a l s fo r a sound adm inistration and operation of schools* The Council of State Governments enumerates the essen tials as followsj 1# Provision for system atically obtaining and study­ ing facts as a basis for policy decisions; II* A sta te policy-making agency fo r education through which the w ill of the people may be voiced and the Interests of the state protected; III* Local adm inistrative units of sufficien t size to promote effectiv e local control and to provide appropriate educational opportunities at a reas­ onable cost; IV. Provisions calculated to assure high q u ality pro­ fessional leadership fo r both sta te and local agendas; V* Conditions conducive to maintaining w ell-q u alified s ta ffs of teachers for a ll phases of elementary and secondary schools; VI* A system of financing th at w ill provide s u ffi­ c ien t funds and d istrib u te them in such s. way as to assure adequate educational opportunities for a ll and to encourage both sound administra­ tion and a high degree of local In itia tiv e * 3* Sia&s. M & si ?-s.

PAR? I l l A DEMOCRATIC PATTERN fOH PHILIPPINE EDUCATION

278 QHAOTR XII THE IWMCXHJE8 AMD THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM A multitude of reasons have been found to explain away the extremely cen tralized organisation and control of the P hilippine educational ayetern- Under the conditions ob­ taining in the Philippines during the American regime, the highly cen tralised system of adm inistration of the schools was possibly the only su itab le way, The education of the people had to s t a r t v irtu a lly with the f i r s t Mbaby-steps,\" In 1900, the Americans did the teaching and, provided the leadership while .the F ilipinos were being educated to take over the adm inistration of the schools fee®selves. By 1925, most of the classrooms were manned by F ilip in o s, while the Americans retain ed the au th o rity and leadership fo r the edu­ cation of the country, The conduct of a ffa irs by F ilipinos had to be subject to the approval of the Americana who held the au th o rity . Today, the whole educational system is op­ erated and administered e n tire ly by F ilip in o s. The system of control s a tisfa c to ry fo r a dependent and subject people cannot very well be p ra c tic a l fo r a self-governing and In­ dependent citizen ry . In the event th at the present leaders and educators make m istakes, the correction cannot be sought from an outside power but must be thought out and evolved and applied by the people themselves. This implies d ifferen t

279 educational purposes* The problem now is not Ju st to give the people a common language or to teach the forms and a t­ tribute© of democracy* Much of the reason fo r the verbal- is t ic and academic effusions In the classrooms has I ts roots in the g reat anxiety to l e t the students understand and mas­ te r English, and to develop a common vehicle of communica­ tion* 4s a r e m i t , the methods of thought, of c r itic a l or independent thinking have been by-passed* Regarding democ­ racy, the people have learned the form© of democracy: the us© of the b a llo t, m ajority ru le , equal protection before the law, and c iv il l i b e r t i e s , etc* But whether the democratic way of l i f e has been learned is a m atter of conjecture* Heal representative p articip atio n in deciding reasons for doing things or formulating p olicies can rarely be found, ©specially in the lower lev els of the hierarchy of control* Buies and regulations seem to be the end-all of a c tiv itie s rath er than th at these should f a c ilita te the growth of a democratic in­ dividual in a democratic society* I t seems c le a r that the redirection of education to result in in te llig e n t, thinking, p a rtic ip a tin g , cooperative masses of people is a matter of necessity fo r the strengthening of future Philippine democ­ racy. One unique c h a ra c te ristic of the people of the country la th e ir im plicit fa ith in education—that with education the so cial and economic condition o f a family can be ameliorated,

280 Since a n atio n can be bo b e tte r than the fam ilies which form the mosaic p attern of i t s life * th is great value which F ilip in o s place on education should be J u s tifie d by the qual­ ity of education o ffered to the children* Beeves* in an ad­ dress a t the Cooperative Conference of Administrative O ffi­ cers of Public and Private Schools* said of the F ilip in o si The value th a t the F ilip in o s place upon educa­ tion is great* This is indicated by the g re at sa c ri­ fice s th a t parents make to provide education fo r th e ir children—s a c rific e s th at go fa r beyond those th at many American parents would be w illin g to endure* I t is indicated also by the fact th a t of a ll the tax re­ ceip ts o f a l l the u n its of government in the Philippines combined, from 23 to 24 per cent was expended for edu­ cation during each of the la s t three years. Imagine, i f you w ill, what the react! ona might b© from many of the taxpayers in the United States i f almost one- fourth of the to ta l expenditures of our fed eral, s ta te , and lo c a l governments combined, were u tiliz e d for the support of education! In. addition to the public funds expended for education in the P hilippines i t should not be forgotten th a t a larg e p art of the educational program there is financed through tu itio n fees* Half of the high school enrolleea are those in the p riv ate schools, and the other h a lf, although in public schools, are receiving education that is financed very largely through tu itio n fees.l Undeniably, public education must measure up to th is f a ith of the people in education* The educational system, from the top ad m inistrator down to the teacher, must constantly 1Beeves, F. U ., HUHES0G and the P h ilip p in e® / pp. 1V-18, in Leadership £n American Education, edited by Alonzo a. Grace.

281 seek to improve the q u ality of i t s services adapted to meet the needs of the nation and p a rtic u la rly of the local com­ m unities. In discussing m odifications and adjustments to stream line the overall program, an evaluation of the educa­ tio n a l system in the lig h t of the principles Is needed as a basis of wise positive action. Support of Education That education i s a sta te function is fu lly realised In the P hilippines. Today the burden of education is almost e n tire ly home by the n ational government in an attempt to provide equalised opportunities throughout the country irre ­ spective of lo cal economic resources. At the present, I t ap­ pears that equalisation of opportunity is taken to mean uni­ form education for a l l children in schoolt The same curriculum Is offered, to Christian and bob-C hristian pupils; the same textbooks are used throughout the archipelago; the m m amount of money is spent on each pupil, whether in the c ity or in the barrio school. By the d efin itio n established of equality of oppor­ tu n ity , the system of schools of the country f a ll s far ato r t of the c r it e r ia . In the f i r s t place, i t has been pointed out elsewhere th at uniformity of educational offerings is not eq u ality of opportunity, fu rth e r, when i t is claimed th a t education must be accessible to a l l to provide &2J. the

282 children equal opportunities, I t is usually taken to m m m opportunity to a free public elementary and secondary educa­ tio n . This i s , of course, the ideal* Looking a t the problem r e a lis ti c a l ly , a® the educa­ tio n al system is now financed and adm inistered, i t must be admitted th a t,f o r a long time yet to coiae, o fferin g equality of educational opportunity w ill have to be lim ited to ele­ mentary education. Bight now, in sp ite of fin a n c ia l exi­ gency, the national government is doing more than i t is ob­ lig a te d by providing free elementary education, although the constitution stip u lates only a free primary education. But, since the survival and strengthening of democracy Is contin­ gent on m in te llig e n t constituency, an elementary education Is too low a lev el fo r democracy to re s t on* In consequence, long-range plans for changes in the structure of support, a b e tte r system of tax co lle c tio n , increases in financial sup­ p o rt, have a l l to be undertaken so th a t free secondary edu­ cation w ill be included in the national program of free edu­ cation. A p o ten tial source for additional support of educa­ tion are the provinces and local communities. The provinces are authorised to undertake the support of th e ir high schools with funds appropriated from the provincial general funds* In a c tu a lity , the secondary schools are self-supporting, de­ riving th e ir Income fro© tu itio n fees. The m unicipalities,