1.Democratic educational administration for the Philippine educational system

184 fo rth by Gibson; •k* 2 1 —- r r — , - T r - n - &* I t Is moat conoerued with the dignity and worth of each individual, b* I t Is a b e lie f In equality; an equal chance to a reasonable development* c* I t .guarantees c e rta in basic lib e r tie s to the p e o p le - re lig io u s to le ra tio n , freedom of speech, a fre e r p re ss, rights of asso cia tio n , etc* d, Those in a u th o rity consult the people a t a l l times* e* The government e x is ts not only to represent the peo­ ple but to b e n e fit them* f . Democracy i t s e l f is an educative p rin c ip le ; i t cannot endure without education* 2* P rin cip les of curriculum construction a* Curriculum rev ision must be c a rrie d on lu cressiu g ly by those in charge of the school program* b* The adm inistrative sta ff provides reasonable unity and e ffe c tiv e integration by coordinating functions* ©.* In building a sign ifican t educational environment fo r « community, board members, administrative o f f ic ia ls , p aren ts, teach ers, and le a rn e rs operate a© a cooper­ ative group* 3' ErtPololea of m m m m l a.aaiHalstra.tioH a* The achievement o f the ideals of democracy requires th at teachers and students be free to think and a c t w ithin the p attern of le g a l end so c ia l policies* b* Democratic competency can b est b© achieved when per­ sonnel administration is conducted along democratic lines* o* All p o licies In regard to personnel*-© el actio n , pro­ motion, d ism issal, should be considered In the lig h t of fa c ilita tin g instructional processes. 4. m n c lp le s a£ business saalBlstrstlas. a* Business adm inistration e x is ts not as an end in i t ­ s e lf but as a complement to the to ta l educational endeavor. b. Since the q u a lity and quantity of textbooks and in­ stru ctio n al m aterials end supplies determine the success of a te a c h e r1© program, teachers should be given opportunity to p a rticip ate in th e ir selectio n , o. Teachers who use the school building to carry out an educational program should have the rig h t to suggest the kind of building they are to occupy with the children*

185 B* M B gM ftB M ss ge-mlaMoM a* Rules m& regulations are J u s tifie d only as they en­ hance the In stru c tio n al process, b* Rules and regulation.® should be formulated by those who carry them out. o. Rules, and regulations are to be considered in re la ­ tionship with the democratic living th e ir schools seek to develop* 6 . a e ia e lB lfti of! gejiQ.fti-ooa.m>nlt.Y a* the school ex ists to s a tis fy certain basic needs of the individual being educated, of the community, and of the s ta te . b. Changes in the educational program must be preceded by change® in community a ttitu d e s . c. The goal of school-community partnership is the im­ provement of a l l phases of l i f e and liv in g in the community. Ross1 Ipstrpm ent. . ^ The study The ffeagum ent of Democracy Present J& *M Administration of ..schools, accord­ ing to the author, Donald k. Boss, is a pioneer or model instrument for the self-evaluation of the democratic aspects of school adm inistration. I t is considered to be a gueging and viewing device, not a guide fo r action. In order to determine a d efin itio n of democracy, the concepts gathered from his readings In the lite r a tu r e on education were checked by a Jury of 70 graduate students and educators, resulting in the following conclusions; 1* Democracy is a continuum with Innumerable grada­ tio n s from high to low. 2, This continuum is without definable ends. There 20Hoas, D. II., Ihe Measurement &£ Democracy, present A& Administration of Schools, unpublished Doctor’s dis­ sertation.

186 is m situ a tio n completely without I t , an6 no situ a tio n where i t has been achieved completely# 3# Democracy requires & consistency of means and ends; say th a t some situ a tio n is democratic re fe rs to both the goal and the process of achieving the goal# 4# Democracy can be seen in both stru ctu re and opera* tionj i t must be democratic not only in i t s rule® fo r operation, but in the mad© in which those rule® are applied# 5# Democracy is not a single concept; i t is a com­ plex with a, number o f discernible fa c e ts .29 The various d e fin itio n s end uses of the word democ­ racy were grouped by Boss Into seven basic categories which he uses as the main areas of c r ite r ia in his instrument# The seven divisions ares (1) popular sovereignty, (2) unity end coherence of the groups, (5) obligations for the general wel­ fa re , (4) f a ith in people, (5) freedom, (6) eq u ality , and (?) the unique and Inviolable nature of the individual* The hypothesis advanced by the author Is the application of a balanced Judgment o f the concepts of democracy and of the prin cip les Id e n tified by Port. The main p rin cip les formu­ la te d , ©round which the self-evaluating instrument was organ­ ized are $30 1* BQ.reT®lm%l I n & democracy the people ru le . a# The Board of E je c tio n acts a® representatives and tru ste e s of the people as a whole. ^-Ifoicu , pp. 5-6, SGlbld#, Appendix

18? b. The point o f decision sh a ll be close to those In­ volve c* In a democracy| decisions are made by the people, not fo r the people, d. The q u a lity of democracy In a s itu a tio n is mate­ r ia lly related to the quality of leadership found tber®. e« Consultative features of p a rtic ip a tio n should be as widely spread as p o ssib le, both as to areas and persons. f* Channels fo r p a rtic ip a tio n and areas fo r decision should be available for a ll. s. IM iff .and ff&M,m s i of the groan ■Seig.gmY i t bgasS S2SS m sm n% im . Of thg existence a f J218. M IX M « fiohe.re.nae fg r ® a o n e a tlv e purpose. a. Individuals and groups of indlviduals work a® a w ell- in teg rated team. b. Democratic unity implies some area of school concern, a definable welfare. 3. o f R estraints m tl Obligations ■Sgff.o.sratj'C gpyamaenls tes I t s M t e <atoi M l B&2 £££ a e lf-lip o se g . an <3 fo r the comon weal, a* Members of a democratic group nave the re sp o n sib ility of using th e ir powers wisely* b» Wise use of democratic rig h ts is re fle c te d In exten­ sions of those rig h ts, o. Democratic d u ties are Imposed by the group on them­ selves and are equitably shared. 4. f a ith J& People Maasmx £ssms 1M n k sm. sails MaMssa 1£ Bax Mye the fa c ts. a. In a democratic s itu a tio n , genuine e f f o r t must be made for communication. b. F aith In people carries the corollary th at they can Improve th e ir a b ility to solve wisely th e ir c o lle c tiv e problems* 5. Freedom off Action fo o u lar goyerelOTt.v has M a g 3SlS. 3& I I ^IP-ISSlS XSMflgB a. The teacher la given freedom th a t i s commensurate with bis professional statu s. b. That democratic rig h ts extend only to a class of peo­ ple Is not democracy. Equality i p o lltic ia .deip..om.cy Jjl $ &££S3afl IM &1&- JaMsJ m Bs vxHm&rU s£ sflusUSx-

188 7* MflM Mg' imaatefelft T M m $& m M m s m i a* Each person haa an e sse n tia l personal dignity and worth. b. Each person has the p o te n tia lity of a unique c o n tri­ bution. c. Channels for the contributions of a l l persons must fee provided. MaEfelS M a l e c . a { s r s M ? o s . l i g t o . o l t t l e a . 3 ! T h e s e r i e s of p rin cip les evolved by Paul K* Kor-t have been presented as possible c r ite r ia for the common -^©nse approach to the solution of adm inistrative problems* $ort c la s s ifie s his p rin cip les into three groups: the humanitarian group , the prudential group* and the tempo group* Highlights o f MortU exposition of his principles are abstracted and presented below* 1* £ M humanitarian toouo (The public sens© of the t a a n i - tarianV) *• M m s m i An individual is of unique worth and as such he has a rig h t to p a rtic ip a te In decisions th a t a ffe c t hi®, Application of the principle to- school adm inistration im plies: broad p articip atio n of the public in im­ portant p o licies re la tin g to the educational program; assuring the s ta f f a of democracy, a p a r ti­ cipation in policy formation and planning; p a r tic i­ pation of the pupils in p o licies affecting them, considered in the lig h t of th e ir m aturity and com­ petence; provisions for channels of two-way communi­ catio n . The law provides the minimum of democracy to operate the schools—the adm inistration of schools becomes democratic or not in those areas of free d iscretio n depending upon whether an adm inistration 1® democratic or undemocratic, b* P o litic a l Democracy the exercise of controls should be lodged as close as possible to the people and should be placed by law 3^ o r t , p, B ., P rinciples .School Admlni8tra.tlQ.n* P art 2-, pp. 91-848#

189 as close as possible to those concerned* Applied to school adm inistration I t meanss “The operation of any function should be such that the p articip atio n of the public A n forming decisions sh a ll be as great as possible, While serving the demands of the democratic p rin cip le, the adm inistrator must also accomplish his Job, but as democratically as possi­ ble* three outcomes of the democratic principle are claimed to b© th a t (1) popular control may be a chan­ nel for se lf-re a liz a tio n of the p articip an t, (2) popular control may safeguard popular government, and (3) popular control may contribute to the educa­ tion of the citizen s. 0. M M s t The p rin cip le of Ju stice p rotects the individual1® in te re s ts against Inflexible methods and rules, on the one hand, and against a rb itra ry action of dis­ cretionary power on the other, Equity in contract, In school support, and in tax le g isla tio n are a l l important facets of the principle of Justice as ap­ plied to educational administration. M Onoor'kmlty The q u ality of e q S lK y does not In fe r uniformity. I t means th a t each individual should have m equal chance In the race of l i f e , ^or education, i t means th a t %o c ttld sh all be given an educational tra in ­ ing less than th a t reasonably required to f i t him fo r l i f e as a contributing member of s o c ie ty .w5* Equality of opportunity should take into considera­ tion the horn© background and. d isp arity in a b ilitie s of the youth* Provisions fo r equalization of op­ p o rtu n ity are considered good only to the extent th at they provide the child that which the community accepts as the golden mean. (kraut) (The public sense of the p ra c tic a l* ) prudence implies the a b ility to regulate, to calcu late; to employ s k ill and sagacity In the .man­ agement of p ra c tic a l a ffa irs ; to exercise caution and circumspection; to use fo resig h t, that i s , due regard 52JM 5 .. p. 12?. 35i b i a . , p. 163,

190 to the futu re; to employ forethought, that i s , give du© consideration to contlng©ncies«—ln substance, the cpaepraiecnitcye .to^ exercise wisdom as the outgrowth of ex­ *• M m m i, Money should be expended economically and should show re su lts of i t s Judicial use. The economical purposes in the use of money cannot be served when educational purposes are sacrificed for lower costs. In other words, the educational purposes should be served in any considerations of economy. However, to prevent waste of funds, various types of account­ ing have been devised. Prudential checks and balances should be placed on persons with discretionary power and persons with re sp o n sib ility to handle or spend public money, while these checks safeguard the use of money and the exercise of power, they should not Impede the good adrainistratIon of schools. The prudential p rin cip le must foe balanced with other p rin cip les. c « Liberty and License Liberty shouldbe' grant &d where i t can b est foe u tilis e d and without danger of its abuse. Deny lib e r ty where obviously i t w ill foe misused. Safe­ guards should foe established to assure a wise use of discretion. btSer'things being equal, the simpler procedure or plan should foe selected. Changes in procedures and introduction of innovations in the adm inistration of schools should foe preceded by notice to the public imde in simple, meaningful terns in order that the people w ill gain a basic understanding of the work in school. Complexities in procedures should foe reduced and streamlined, I t is simpler to administer a school when those which the public considers aa standards of achievement are not v io lated , in the meantime, that public’s appreciation of reasons for change Is being sought. 54Xbid. , pp. 173-174

191 e. 3g.a.poBqlbll,ny agd There should bo ultim ate power to a c t commensurate w ith the responsibility for the accomplishment of a task| i . e . , a person having re sp o n sib ility should not fe el *he has to run to higher a u th o rity .*35 the lim its of the authority for each responsibility should be precise* f. Loyalties The sentiments and attachments to a group, a b e lie f or e cause should be taken into consideration by a prudent administrator on occasions when needed changes are introduced that disrupt old loyalties* g. Inert la Too sudden or unexpected changes rouse opposition, end slow or delayed action irks* Both are avoided by the action of the democratic process wherein cl t i - %mf s ta f f , and pupil groups discus s and confer and think on the changes proposed* 3. The f m m (toous (The impacts of changing needs and in - s i g h t s ’*) a* Adaptability wA daptability is the a b ility to adjust to newly de­ veloping needs or to new insights into methods of meeting old n e e d s . ^ The community should be looked on as a p o ten tial resource fo r education* Community characteristics and community trends should be taken into consideration in making adaptations. In order th at teachers can best contribute to a d a p ta b ility , the adm inistration should provide situ atio n s to draw out th e ir powers* Ms semination of b est known prac­ tic e s , seeing a vision of the power of education, and the strengthening of the s t a f f ’s cu ltu ral and professional background tend to increase adaptabil­ ity. School d is tr ic ts must have freedom to tax to insure adaptability* An adequate minimum of support is necessary for diffusion of adaptability, b. rajadMUfty \"F lexibility 1ms to do with adjustment In accepted 5BIbld, . pp. 185-186. M lbia. . p, 220,

192 p ra c tic e s-to make them b e tte r f i t lo cal conditions or individual needs* * . . I t applies to stru ctu re and procedure only*1,3' The larger school systems have a tendency to re so rt to the device of uniform ity* There is need to encourage teachers to vary from regulation or traditional, practice in terms of local conditions, Requirements of mandatory leg is­ la tio n , of s ta te department regulations, end of c e rtific a tin g bodies should not be too re stric tiv e to prevent f le x ib ility in the local units* In areas of school adm inistration where no need for lo cal v ariatio n Is demanded, centralization or uniformity may be acceptable. o. st»%y j ya The conservation of the good and of la s tin g value in the old, freedom from upsetting change, and the gradual process of evolution in making change are demanded by the principle of s ta b ility , This implies an honest assessment of the advantages, purpose®, and by-products of tlie old before coming to decisions about discontinuing old practices* Mew practice® must also be appraised with reference to the old* Tenure fo r teachers and administrators* long and over­ lapping term® of board members* fis c a l independence of school boards; home rule and the democratic pro­ cedure a ll contribute to st&billtyjrhleh \"must be conceived as dynamic, not s t e t i e .^ S In the wise adm inistration of schools, the adminis­ tr a to r w ill have to us© common sense in the appli­ cation of the principles according to Mart* Care must be taken th a t Judgments are arriv ed a t as a re s u lt of a balancing of the d iffe ren t forces and not only of a single force* the importance of a balanced Judgment is manifest especially In areas th at leave a considerable leeway of discretion with the board of education or with the admin.istra.tor. The six dissertations by S trayer, Ri®soa, G illie, M iller, Gibson, and Boss, lik e the f i r s t six studies re­ viewed, also deal with the problems of democratic educational 57IM S., p. 226. g8Ibia. . p. 235.

193 adm inistration* This group defines damoemev In terms of particip ation and the application of democratic concepts and id eals to educational adm inistration. Educational aj.~ m inistration is discussed with emphasis on the necessary p rinciples to guide and implement democratic school admin­ istration. Studies by Professional Organizations Two outstanding studies on democratic adm inistration by professional organizations are those undertaken by the Department o f Supervisors and Directors of Instruction in 1939 and the study of 90 American secondary schools “of evi­ dences of the democratic s p i r i t In educational p ra c tic e \" ^ am&e in 1940 by the Educational P olicies Commission. k M O &X of democratic admin1at r at i on. The Depart­ ment of Supervisors and Directors of in stru ctio n , in th e ir Eleventh Yearbook in 1939, presented, in addition to an ana­ ly s is o f cooperation as a social id e a l, a survey among teach­ ers and superintendents. The purpose was to ascertain (1) a ttitu d e s held by superintendents toward certain Ideals and ^E ducational P olicies Commission, Learning the Pays &£ i » m r a c y , P- X. 40The Department of Supervisors and Directors of In­ stru c tio n , Cooperation: Principles and P rac tice s-. Eleventh Yearbook of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of In stru ctio n , 1939,

194 p rin c ip le s of education in a democracy; (8) the opportunity to engage In cooperative adm inistration; (3) the extent of sharing In adm inistration on the p a rt of A dm inistrators, teach ers, and pupils; and (4) the advantages and d if f ic u ltie s encountered in democratic cooperation* Four hundred fifty-seven superintendents out of the I , £00 selec te d a t random fro® the 48 s ta te s , and 1,453 teachers representing 55 systems In £2 sta te s answered the questionnaire forms, the survey revealed that both superin ten dents and teachers are almost unanimous in th e ir b e lie f in democratic id eals and in the role of the school in a democracy, Ninety- seven per cent of the superintendents and 98 per cent of the teachers, believe in the need of education in a democracy. N inety-five per cen t of the superintendents and 93 per cent of the teachers believe schools must be run dem ocratically. However, ?1 per cent of the teachers and 48 per cent of the superintendents think that public education has not per­ formed i t s ro le . Both groups recognize the value of group planning, thinking, and evaluation: 98 per cent of the adm inistrators and 89 per cent of the teachers were in favor of i t . Marked d i s a g r e e m e n t , on the o th er hand, e x ists regarding the lin e - and-staff organization. Sixty-two per cent of the adminis­ tra to rs favor i t , but i t is re je cted by 66.6 per cent of the

195 teachers. Another c o n flic t in opinions la expressed regarding q u a lific a tio n and deeIre of teachers in participation. More than h alf o f the superintendents claim teachers are not ade­ quately prepared to p articipate In adm inistration, while teachers claim they are# Forty-three per cent of the super­ intendents are of the opinion-that teachers are unwilling to accept re sp o n sib ility , while 94 per cent of the teachers as­ serted that they are w illing to accept responsibility. while there is a thorough acceptance of the democratic ideal in adm inistration» both superintendents and teachers (61 per cent and 6£ per cent, respectively) claim that super­ visory p ractices are undemocratic# Another point of agree­ ment between the two groups is the immaturity of the pupils to p articip ate in democratic adm inistration. The actual p articip atio n compared with the desired p articip atio n of teachers shows th at teachers do not have the opportunity to share in adm inistration. Also, the superin­ tendents report a g reater degree of particip ation than is the actual participation according to the teachers. Some of the d if f ic u ltie s involved in cooperative ad­ m inistration are: (1) too-heavy teaching load, (2) lack of knowledge of adm inistration by the teachers, (3) lack of ex­ perience in techniques of democratic cooperation, (4) boards of education holding superintendents responsible for schools,

196 find (5) e a sie r planning and delegation of re sp o n s ib ilitie s by the adm inistrator* Among the advantages of cooperative p a rticip atio n ares (13 batter-planned educational program, (2) Improved relatio n sh ip between fa c u lty and administrators, (3) improved morale among teaching s ta ff, (4) growth of experience in group thinking and planning, and (5) more In te re s t in teach­ ing* i dffipo.ra.tle schools*4! The Educational P olicies Commission In tefimlftft the Ways of Democracy pre­ sents th® results of an Investigation of education for demo­ c ra tic citizenship in 90 selected high schools scattered over 27 states* Information was gathered by a s ta f f of f ie ld workers through personal v is ita tio n s , observations, and In­ terviews* the Commission discovered six d iffe re n t ideas of democratic education prevalent In the high schools. The six types of schools were: 1. One mind se ts democratic goals and d irects action toward th e ir attainm ent—the \"efficiency* school. To get school work done with a minimum of lo s t time and e ffo rt Is i ts goal. 2. Students are kept busy practicing the use of tools of democracy—the ’‘practice'* school. I t is believed that constant p ractice in the use of the tools of democracy w ill make students more e ffic ie n t citizen s. 3. formulas for democratic planning are mad® chief ends of ^E ducational Policies Commission, gg, o l t .

107 ©ducation—the *formula* school# The point of emphasis U the method by which democratic planning Is accomplished, although the ends m y be predeterm ined by whigher-ups.fl 4# Freedom to do m one pleases is considered the heart of demooracy-*-the *rugged individual* school# The g reatest concern of the school Is to protect the individual lib ­ e r tie s of pupils and teachers w ith very few rules and leas uniformity* 5. Socially useful Jobs, with widely shared re s p o n s ib ilitie s , engage th© e n tire school-**the H©hared-leadership* school# There is a wide sharing of resp o n sib ilities, the members of the group sometimes leading m i. sometimes following. Useful job© In school and community are done, enlisting everyone, although l i t t l e is ©aid about democracy* 6* haws of learning and of man set lim its to democratic education—the \"realistic\" school* The students, teach­ e rs, m i adm inistrator re a lise lim its se t by the ma­ tu rity and experience of pupils, and the requirements set by law which cannot be delegated# democratic education is operated with these lim its. The report 1« rep lete with examples of actual democratic procedures in the high schools v is ite d which were evaluated by the twelve hallmarks o f democratic education formulated by the Commission* The Commission claims that the \"volume may therefore be said to consist of evidences of democratic school administration**^ Pertaining to Hie democratic administration of Ameri­ can education, the Commission cu lls nine principles of ad­ ministration from an e a r lie r publication# 1* The Ideal of equality of opportunity th ro u g h edu­ cation largely determines the structure of the school system in the United States, m i provides 4£ib id *, p. 370*

198 a fundamental c rite rio n of efficiency in school adm inistration, 2* Educational p o licy , in th© long run, is determined lay the people, through the exercise of franchise* the people, however, place the authority to con­ tr o l educational policy in the hands of the lay board* 5, the lay board se le c ts a ch ief executive o ffic e r and holds him responsible for presenting p o lic ie s and programs . * * and fo r carrying out these policies* 4. Educational policies should be formulated in itia lly by the professional s ta ff of the school system, through a. cooperative process* fhia p a rtic ip a tio n , * * should not b@ thought o f as a favor granted by the ad m in istration, but ra th e r as a rig h t and an obligation* 5. When a policy has been so formulated and approved, every member o f the school system fo r whom i t fee Im plications becomes responsible for carrying i t into effect* 6. * * . I t w ill allow a large degree of freedom to individual teach ers. The aim of adm inistration is to secure cooperation in working for common objec­ tiv e s while encouraging resourcefulness and ingen­ u ity on the p a rt of a ll, 7* The rig h t and duty of teachers to take p a rt in formulating educational policy ie closely related to one of the b asic purposes of American education. 'Our schools are organized fo r the purpose of edu­ cating children, young people, and adults for par­ ticip atio n in a democratic society*' 8. In a democratic school system, therefore, the board and s t a f f w ill 'seek the cooperation of parents and other c itizen s in developing the educational pro­ gram* 1 9* The person© who control the school budget thereby determine school policy* Therefore, the control of the budget must be in the hands of the same persons who control p o lic ie s , namely, the board of

199 education.*^ Beports of experimentation In school adm inistration m m gmvped. under six headings! (1) cooperative procedures in developing educational policies} (2) promoting the profes­ sional growth of Hie teachers? (3) planning re la te d to bud­ g ets, personnel administration* and buildings; (4} including lay c itiz e n s In policy-making; (5) sustaining free and im­ p a rtia l Inquiry; and (6) providing equal educational opportu­ n ities for a ll students. The <30001sslon makes the conclusions,, based on th® evaluation of the administrative practices observed, that (1) democratic adm inistration requires superior competence; {%) democratic adm inistration re su lts in b e tte r p o lic ie s, more in te llig e n tly executed; (3) democratic education builds school morale; (4) organization must be suited to the aims of democratic adm inistration; (5) democratic administration safeguards equality of educational opportunity; (6) students have a rightful place in democratic administration; (?) democratic adm inistration lays re sp o n sib ilitie s on teachers; (8) laymen am help to advance civic education. ^E ducational P olicies Commission, fhe 5tnictu r e mand Administration sL Education in ^erloaM j>em&g£Rgy» P* 128, as quo ted in Educational P olicies Commission, learning the laya 9 l Democracy, pp. 33X-33S.

200 Conclusions Derived fro® Studies Th© purpose of the review o f re la te d stu d ies In ad­ m in istratio n was to discover procedures end p rin cip les of educational adm inistration regarded as desirable in the find­ ings which th© various studies re p o rt. A v a rie ty of tech­ niques were used to g ather data, $m h as the questionnaire* the survey, th© interview analysis and reasoning, and th© h is to ric a l approach* Fro® th© studies considered, the fo l­ lowing inferences emerge: 1. while school adm inistrators and school personnel strongly believe in democratic id eals, actual practice reveals in­ adequate application of the ideals in the processes of education. 2. While there is repeated advocacy for an increasingly democratic ad m inistration, very few of the studies take into account the p o te n tia litie s of lay contributions to administrative problems. 3. There is a growing awareness of th© shortcoming of edu­ cation as presently administered to train children as oitisens in a democratic society. 4. There i s an increasing recognition of the advantages of cooperative administration, however, in only a lim ited area of administrative functions.

201 CHAPTER IX PRXHCIPU58 Of DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATE)W The pressing problem of demoorstic adrain 1st rat ion of schools has always been a challenge to arM n lstro to rs and educational w riters who have an abiding fa ith in the conser­ vation and betterment of a democratic society through schools* This growing awareness of the need of e democratic concept of adm inistration has been fostered by various factors* The f i r s t outstanding Influence Is the dynamic nature of so ciety , characterised by a rapid and m accelerated tempo of change* The technological developments have inevitably brought in th e ir wake changing concepts of behavior, of social thinking, and, u ltim ately , of social living* Because of the sw iftly changing world, we have been thrust Into new ways of behavior which have l e f t many helpless and confused, presumably be­ cause th e ir school education did not prepare them to cope with the requirements of an evolving society, for the new ways of behavior do not so much depend on acquired knowledge a® on functional adaptations to new situ atio n s, I t would seem, then, th a t democratic administration should meet these changes and focus its attention to the methods, means, or relatio n sh ip s th at w ill engender democratic behavior. The tendency fo r ©any years In the d irectio n of cen­ tra lis a tio n of control is an indisputable f a c t .l Today, 3-Tead, Ordwajr, The Art &£ Admlnla.trat.lon, p* 87*

202 oentralizing tendencies are exemplified in the role of the gov@mmentt affectin g many people and many areas of liv in g . In school systems, th© dominant trend is the growing concen­ tra tio n o f au th o rity a t the s ta te lev el In some administra­ tiv e f ie ld s . Smaller school d is t r i c ts have been unified In­ to la rg e r administrative units fo r the maintenance and im­ provement of services. However, according to Holmstedt* the c e n tra lisa tio n of control and support of schools has de­ veloped in a \"haphazard f a s h i o n . Can th© e sse n tia ls of democratic processes be upheld and preserved simultaneously w ith the extension and centralisation of authority? A th ird important factor is fee Increasing profes­ sio n alizatio n of teach ers. Many advantages have accrued to th© teach ers, enhancing th e ir professional statu e through th e ir united e ffo rts In teacher associations* They have de­ veloped a competence in p a rtic ip a tin g 1b fie ld s formerly th® p rivate preserves of administrators: curriculum making, fo r example, has become e n tire ly a teacher a c tiv ity , ^ore and more, in other areas, such as policy determ ination, policy execution, and objective ©valuation of fellow teach­ ers and su p erio rs, teachers have expressed desire fo r g reat­ er participation, Th© writing® of educators and educational, leaders have % oloatedt, R. w ., .State CpbIjqI sL Rufrlla M taal Finance. p. ?.

203 Influenced the trend toward democratic adm inistration. Led by Dewey, K ilp a tric k , Bode,, and o th ers, educational woackers have incorporated th® ideals of democracy into their educa­ tional conceptions. This has resulted in a searching of the adm inistrative p ra c tic e s and organisations and & growing emphasis on th® id eals of democracy as a basis of an evalua­ tio n of effe c tiv e adm inistrations. These fa c to rs have been f e r t i l e s o il fo r the favorable growth of deiaooratlc educe- ttonal adm inistration. Democratic Administration Defined ■\"hat i n democratic adm inistration? Is democratic adm inistration good adminIs tr e t ion Is Or does a good and ef­ fic ie n t adm inistration n ecessarily have to he democratic? The numerous d e fin itio n s found In the lite r a tu r e on the sub­ je c t have v aried points o f emphasis, hut the c h ie f stre ss Is la id on participation. Ordway Tend o ffe rs the following definitions} Democratic adm inistration is that direction and oversight of an organization which assures th a t aims are shared in the making, that working p o lic ie s and methods are agreed to by those involved, th a t a ll who p a rtic ip a te fe e l both free and eager to contribute th eir best creative e ffo rt, that, stimulating personal leadership is assured, and that In consequence the to­ t a l ' outcome maximize® the elms of the organization while also contributing to the growing selfhood^of a ll Involved, in terms of c le a rly realized b e n e f its .w ®Tead, The Art -of Administratio n , p. 134.

£04 Democratic adm inistration is thus definable m fe a t ov erall d irectio n of an organisation which assures th a t purpose® .and p o lic ie s are shared in the making* th a t method® are understood and agreed to* that individual p o te n tia litie s are being enhanced* that corporate or group ends are being realized wife a max­ imum o f released shared creativ e power and a minimum of human f r i c t i o n .4 Reeve® place® Ms emphasis on the g re a te st p a rtic ip a ­ tion in policy-formatlent By democratic ad m in istratio n , I .mean the op* timum arrangement whereby a l l persons affected are adequately represented in policy-making, whereby proper degrees of deference are given to wishes of d iffe re n t classes of patrons and b e n e fic ia rie s of the service and whereby appropriate reliance is placed upon the special s k ills of d ifferen t grades of professional aid technical employee®.^ Hopkins lays Importance on cooperative participation* * . . democratic adm inistration is cooperative undertaking in which everyone p a rtic ip a te s to the ex­ te n t of his a b ility through the in terac tiv e process on the b e lie f that whose ifho must abide by p o licies should p a rtic ip a te in making th e m *6 These are rep resentative cf d efin itio n s of democratic adm inistration found sc a tte re d in the many volumes and studies Dem cratlo Adm inistration, p. 72. 5Beeves* Floyd, \"Principle® of Democratic Administra­ t i o n / Democratic P ractices in {School Adm inistration. Univer­ s ity of Chicago Proceedings of the Eighth .Annual Conference fo r Administrative O fficers of Public and Private Schools, p. 16. ®Hopkins, Thomas, In te ra c tio n; The Denoeretie Process, p. 406.

206 in &d®In1s t ration not only In education and p o litic a l science but also in industry* A closer scrutiny of these definitions yields a common element* All give recognition to the fa c t that adm inistration becomes democratic In so fa r as adminis­ tra tio n is aware of the way democracy functions, i , e . , (1) participation and sharing in formulating purposes and p oli­ cies* (2) cooperative and Interactive working methods, (3) development of the individual p o te n tia litie s , (4) recogni­ tion of the place of leadership, and (5) the re alisa tio n of th© maximum welfare o f the group* I f this Is the nature of democratic ad m inistration, the fundamental principle© that need to be reformulated as guides of administrative actio n , to be democratic, must b© presented and Interpreted in terms of persona and o f processes* Before taking up the discussion of democratic prin­ ciples of adm inistration, a cognate reason fo r defining the prin cip les In tanas of processes and relatio n sh ip is found In the nature of the administrative functions* Two compr\\e- henslve tre a tis e s on the function© of administration have' been advanced, one by an in d u stria list and the o th er by an educator, Henri Fayol, a famous French in d u s tr ia lis t, who, according to Urwick, wag responsible fo r the s c ie n tific ; \\ study of ad m inistration, defines admin1st ra t ion as Ho plan* v 'A

206 organise, command, co-ordinate, and co n tro l. \"*? Jeeae B. Sear®* a p ro lific w riter on the study of school administra­ tion* expounds th a t the major divisions of the school ad­ m inistrative process are planning* organising, dlrecting, coordinating* and controlling*0 the difference in both Is found in the terms (?&yol*s HooHBani8 and. Sears* ^directing*) and* although they may not exactly be sim ilar in denotation, the two are re ally synonymous and p a ra lle l in connotation, th e ir explanations of each term are highly id e n tic a l, as seen in the followings X.. Fayolfs explanations? ** £& ftXan means to study the future and arrange th© plan of organization, b. To org&plze means to build up the m aterial and hu­ man organization of th© business, organizing both mm and m aterials. ©* 1© means to make the s ta f f do th e ir work. After an organization has been formed i t must be made to work and th is is the function of command* d. jfo co-ordinate means to unite and co rrelate a ll a c tiv itie s . To give things and actions th e ir prop­ er proportion and to adapt the means to the ends, ©-, control means to see th at everything is don© in accordance with the plan which has been adopted, the rules which have been la id down* and the orders which have been giver*.9 ?8ee outline of Fayol*a theory as found in L, Urwick*8 aThe Function of Administration with Special Eeference to the Work- of Henri fa y o l,MPaper 5 in papery ojn the ffplence &£ Adm inistration, edited by Luther Gulick and L. Urwick, 0Sears devotes P art I of ^he nature of Lthe g- Jiratlv© Process to 'the discussion of each process. 9Gulick and Urwlek.•op. c l t . , p. 119.

207 2. Bears' explanations; Eldm lng se ts up purposes and outlines procedures and means of a tta in in g the purposes. k* ty m m ination divides the labor* and holds people to th e ir jobs* h ireo ,t,Ion authorises and orders actions, plans, and p o licies and can penalize inaction or abuse. &• Coordination holds p arts together, to the end th a t e&<55 suppor t s or supplements the others* .Oontrol deterolnes whether purposes, plans, poli­ cies,. orders, assignments, and contracts are being ca rrie d out, and how effectiv ely In a given case.10 The point of Importance in the reference made to the functions of administration is th at whether administration is in the f ie ld of business adninistr& tion, school adminis­ tra tio n , or government adm inistration, I t performs the afore-mentioned functions to adm inister. Additionally, whether the administration is founded on the democratic con­ cept or on the autocratic concept, the adm inistrative func­ tions are the ppme in both. Hence, to produce a democratic -Y end product, our concern lie s in the relationships and pro­ cesses th a t democratize. Many studies and books on the ad­ m inistration of schools have set up basic principles from which the subsequent principles have been derived and re­ fined. ^ S e a r s , o&. c l t . . p. 205.

208 The Democratic P rinciple Amgo.mtlc operates maaciulvoQ&bly ltet£& 5&&&SA&Q M SSSBlill, 1 H 1 S I liy p . ..tfeff democratic M§£i§- 1b discussions of democratic a ^ i r ^ s t ra tio n , a. basic assumption 1$ th at schools are potent and effectiv e In the instrum entation of democracy* Professional organizations* in th e ir conference d elib eratio n s and in th e ir various pub­ lic a tio n s, point out th at the Implementation of the democratic way of l i f e both in the schools mC through the schools is the a x ial point of tb s ir woPk*H There Is ample proof that educational adm inistration today, in theory, Is In harmony with the democratic ideals* kn adm inistration th at arrogates to i t s e l f the c u ltiv a tio n of democratic predispositions, how* ever, cannot stop short with mere vocalisation of belief* Democratic adm inistration must take into account, in it s methods and desired outcomes, the ideals of democracy. The Educational P o licies Commission is most emphatic regarding ^E ducational P o lic ie s Commission publications such a® iM&amMmsjLM* I xm m im i* 'X M M . t e aItts* in AaftcUaa M jM MucMion in M m m m * XM i u m jq£ in American democracy; also Department of Supervisors and Directors of In stru c tio n , Cooperations Prinolaleui En&gr tle e a ■ Eleventh Yearbook, 1939; Grace, Alonso 0#, ed ito r, leadership .11%Msriafon Education« Proceedings .of Co-operative Conference for Administrative O fficers of Public and Private Schools, 1950; Developing Leaders for Education, a Report of a Work-Conference of Professor© of Educational Administra­ tio n , 1947*

209 the Ideal th a t the human being is of surpassing worth and th a t the f i r s t and moat fundamental obligation of education is to give each individual a feeling of worth and dignity, Reeves claims th at democratic adm inistration is based upon universal respect for individual worth and dignity and con­ s is ts e sse n tia lly in advancing the development of Hie per­ sonal p o te n tia litie s of a ll who come within i t s o rb it, coupled with the ever-widening Invention and adaptation of techniques of cooperation for the common good, **The meas­ ure of the soundness of whatever features the management may desire to p ro v id e / according to lead, ftis the enhancement of self-hood of a ll p a rtic ip a n ts/^ * 5 He further adds that the p articip an ts have to be helped to grow toward a condition where a sharing of partnership, a ttitu d e s , and cooperative p ractices w ill progressively become the fa c t. That adminis­ tra tio n sh a ll seek to f a c ilita te the continuous growth of individual and social personalities by providing a ll persons with opportunities to p articip ate actively in a l l enterprises th at concern them is also advanced by Koopm&n, Miel, and M isner.l4 i f , therefore, educational adm inistration would *% eeves, P* 1?* ^ T e ad , SM M i 9.1 Admlnl.Bt.nt.Ion, p, 36.' l%oop®an, R. &.; Miel, Alice; and Misnar, P. <X,, Democracy in School Administration» p. 3.

210 tra n s la te th is democratic Ideal into overt behavior, i t means providing agencies fo r p a rtic ip a tio n in adm inistration* The position ha® been taken, th a t p a rtic ip a tio n is not a p riv ileg e extended to the p a rtic ip a n ts by a p a te rn a lis tic adm inistra­ tio n , ra th e r, i t Is an obligation to b© f u lf ille d , All those concerned o r affected by conditions resu ltin g from the oper­ ation of policies should contribute to the shaping of those p o lic ie s . M§d©rn education is a complex and v ast venture; in ad d itio n , there is presently an awakening to the fa c t th at education is evejyhody*® b u s i n e s s * & s 8Ueh, p articip atio n In policy formation and sharing in the purposes, programs, and problem® of the schools should come to mmn the inclusion not only of the professional s ta f f but also of pupils and the lay public in accordance with each one’s in te re s ts and a b i l i t i e s , The su rest fru itio n of personality growth comes through participating in a ffa irs th at resu lt in the b e tte r- sent of individuals* Each individual has a unique c o n tri­ bution to make and, th erefo re, opportunities to sake th at contribution should be provided. The freedom to p a rtic ip a te In making th a t contribution in cooperative action must be guaranteed. This implies granting freedom to exchange id e a s, the freedom, therefore, to offer suggestions and to voice i^The special issue of j&g. school jfcoaqtlift, January, 1962, is devoted entirely to the subject of c itiz e n p a r tic i­ pation in school®.

2X1 criticism s Ik order th a t p articip atio n w ill be responsible and cooperative and not a mere nodding of beads* Recogni­ tion should be given each contribution to the extent to which i t co n trib u tes to the common welfare end not because of status* Democratic adm inistration Ih rth er should estab lish the effectiv e operation of the group process to secure the widest p articip atio n * Much too often the democratic group process has been objected to as being d ilatory and costly in time and effort* tod yet a. work of a r t or a precious thing is never cheap, much le s s democracy* Evolving an opinion from the in tellig e n ce of the group and extracting agreement out of disagreement require patience and time. But as Macaulay once said, HM©n are never so lik ely to s e ttle a ques­ tio n rig h tly as when they discuss i t freely*iJ Besides the educative values such ©s learning to deal w ith and get along with people, developing respect for human worth, or gaining s e lf-d is c ip lin e re su ltin g from the p artic ip a tio n ; sharing, cooperation and In teractio n of a group are v astly important in fo sterin g democratic behavior* Cooperative decisions must be based on the democratic id eals, chiefly on the consent of the governed, on a respect of the rig h ts and worth of an individual t and on a regard for the general welfare* Decisions cannot v iolate these ideals, A unique c h a ra c te ris tic of American education is i t s horn© ru le concept, th a t the schools belong to the people,

212 th a t the point of decision shall be close to those affected by the decisions* and th a t those decisions are made by the people and not f&r the people. Hence, a democratic atM M s- t ration w ill augment the areas of p articip atio n and draw in more and more teachers, pupils, and corBmunity adults in co­ operative planning to enlarge the source of unique contri­ butions in determining p o licies th a t affect decisions. And since in te llig e n t decisions are based m fa c ts, a l l the facta necessary should be mad® accessible. Thus, another ideal is served, which Is the b elief that with the necessary knowledge and understandings the people can be tru sted to resolve problems* with regard to p articipation in school administration, Bimson’s study reported clashing opinions, which ha summarised as follows j On© group of people fe e l th at the teacher *s main Job is in the classroom and that when he or she Is called upon to take part in woik outside of this fie ld , there is danger of having poorer teaching m a re s u lt, p articip atio n on the p a rt of teachers would consist in doing well the work In the classroom, An­ other group insist® th at the teacher has a rig h t to p a rtic ip a te in a l l forme of adm inistrative procedure that a ffe c t the teacher, even outside the range of the teacher1® immediate in te re s t. Between the two extremes w ill be found a group of people who feel th at there are time® and situ atio n a whan teachers and other em­ ployees can render most effective service by helping to formulate adm inistrative policy and there are other times when i t would be merely a waste of time and ef­ fo rt to bring the employees into the adm inistrative p l a n n i n g .3'® ISairagon, 0. H., P a r t l d notion s i SoMol Personnel 12 ftgffitoU»rj8l>.lpn. p. 31.

213 I f we hold the democratic principle as tenable, the claims summarised in Simeon*a study would be c la ssifie d as undemocratic. Other pip blame raised by discussion on par­ ticip atio n ares what hind of p articip atio n , and mQil participation.* An adequate answer to these questions is expressed by the Educational Policies Ccmlsalon thus: the formulation of policy should be a cooper­ ative process capitalising the intellectual resources of the whole staff* This particip atio n in the develop­ ment of educational policy should not be thought of as a favor granted by the adm inistration but as a right M obligation* Some plan should be provided through which the constructive thinking of a i i the workers in the school system may be u tilized * * '\"^ Throughout th is study I t has been pointed out that persons w ill not behave democratically because of someone*s mandate* Neither can a. group become democratic by an in­ stantaneous ©lection of the democratic way of liv in g . Hoj Learning to fee democratic Is ju s t lik e a ll other learning* I t is for th is reason th at democratic adm inistration In i t s processes and relatio n ships must operate democratically. I t is on th is account th at pupils are not too young to learn to p articip ate and work and liv e cooperatively, to learn respect of other people*s worth, to learn to think of the common good, and to learn a l l these democratic learnings by actual ^E ducational P olicies Commission, ,Jhe Structure and MtMstaaUaa si saaaMaR la m*n<smMmssssi> p* 66>

214 doing* Teachers can perform a b e tte r Job as teachers In a democracy only i f in school and in community they exemplify the democratic behavior of free persons confident that while working cooperatively fo r the very best and highest growth of children and citizen s of the community, the teachers1 own personal in te g rity and worth as unique individuals era also warranted* To gradually eliminate the discrepancies between theory and p ra ctic e, and in order that a democratic society of mutually to le ra n t, keenly group-conscious democratic in­ dividuals w ill slowly but surely be the fa c t, the principle of democracy must undergird, the democratic administration of the educational undertaking* The Principle of Equal Opportunity Democratic administration prpvtdes fo r m gaafti opportunity i s gnm i s aasls fu ii astfia&HlMga* Equality of opportunity has been pointed out repeatedly to mean not id en tity or uniformity of education for a ll children but as an equal chance fo r a l l to a reasonable de­ velopment* 11It does not mean a leveling of a b ilitie s : i t does mean, however, th at each individual shall be provided with fu ll opportunity * . . to use hia a b ilitie s to the f u ll­ est extent.*118 The p rinciple of equal educational opportunity 18Batho, M* d . , \"The Bole of the Federal Government In Education,\" In Leadership ifi American Education, p, 113, edited by Alonso 0, 3raoe.

215 Is a fundamental p rinciple of democratic administration# According to the Educational P olicies Commission, the chief purpose of school adm inistration is to provide the conditions which make equal and adequate educational opportunities available to a ll the children of a ll the people, farther, the Commission claims th at the ideal of equality of oppor­ tunity \"determines the structure of the school system and is a crite rio n fo r the efficien cy of school administration* Democratic educational administration* therefore, that seeks to provide equal opportunity for a ll must accept equality of opportunity to mean two conditionss F irs t, i t must mean th at education is equally accessible to a ll; second, i t must mean the right to an equal q uality of education. In order to f u l f i l l the f i r s t condition, the costs of gaining m education or the school regulations formulated should he such th a t many w ill not be deprived of th e ir op­ portunity fo r development, Neither should the opportunity he denied due to race, profession of creed, or weak academic a b ility . Doing so would be denying the individual his rights as a member of a democratic society and at the same time denying the democratic principle. Democratic adminis­ tration must be concerned with the Mrights of children as well as of teachers and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s * I t is a citizen 's l^Educational P olicies Commission, hea.r,nijM£ the ££ Democracy* pp* 331, 370. gQlbia.. p. 376.

216 rig h t to gain m education, available a t public expense. This Is the basis fo r the demand of universal free education, aside from the fact th a t the school is the accepted in stru ­ ment fo r tra in in g the young in in te llig e n t p articip atio n and democratic cooperation in the l i f e of the community* Democratic Administration to implement equalization of opportunity must guarantee an ©qua! quality of education, which undoubtedly means that sta te financial support is needed. Surveys and Investigations of school systems have revealed wide in e q u alities In educational opportunity among states in d iffe ren t sections of the United States and even within each s t a t e , SI fhe principle that education is a function of the s ta te is based on co n stitu tio n al provisions and court decisions, although, as a matter of tra d itio n , the schools have been administered lo cally . However, I t has been claimed th at public education lo cally controlled has failed to equalize educational opportunity. As a w rite r expressed I t when re ferrin g to the schools in small school d is tr ic ts , Hh© expense of teaching Is high no matter how poorly the teacher 1® paid, and the quality of the work done is poor because of lack of equipment, lack of proper grading of ch il­ dren, and lack of properly trained t e a c h e r s . H c U r a t h Is SlBurice, A. J . , Financing: la b ile Schools Jin ihg M M B ta tc i, Chapters 11 and 13. ^Anderson, w illiam , ^Ja§ Units. &£ (km?-,mment jy$ th& .United S ta te s . pp« 43-44, Public Administration Service, no, 83.

21? Quoted as saying th a t the Important re sp o n sib ility to provide basic education fo r citizen sh ip and fox' productive l i f e cannot be discharged by schools and colleges i f they are fin an cially handicapped.?^ without adequate local f i ­ nances* equipment* and q u alified teachers* the quality of education w ill n a tu ra lly be discrepant, a lte rn a tin g between one of penury or one of prodigality* The recognition of the inadequacy of lo c a l fin an cial e ffo rts fo r the support of education has led the states to devise ways and means fo r g reater equalization of educational opportunity* ju s tify in g the use of s ta te money by the prin­ ciple th a t education is the state** responsibility* Some of the s ta te s s tip u la te forms of control* ranging from to ta l control to control of a minimum of the educational program upon p a rtic ip a tio n in the s ta te aid p r o g r a m * 24 xn other states* the mgthqft of d istrib u tio n of sta te a id re su lts in the flow o f money in the wrong directio n ; i . e . * d is tr ic ts th at acutely need s ta te support receive a small share; while the wealthy d i s t r i c t s and fin a n c ia lly able get the lion*a share of the s ta te funds. 2% o0rath, E* J . , as quoted by Elaine Exton in *The Schools as C itadels of Democracy,” M®JA9m M & 9A I Journal 121s51, 96, November* 1950, 243trayer* J r . , 0. I),, O entrailzlM in ;&h§ Administration M Public Education* pp. 106-112. 25eee HagiBan, H. L, * The AdBlnMtjmilon &f j M M Public Schools. Chapters 5 and 6,

218 Education is a basic so c ia l, economic, end p o litic a l concern* The democratic adm inistration of education demands a sa tisfa c to ry and progressive financing scheme in order to secure to each child his constitutional prerogative to an education* The accepted theory of sta te support defines the s ta te ’s duty to be the provision of a t the le a s t a ©ininaum or foundation, program. The National Conference on the Fi­ nancing of Education defines a foundation program as follow©5 * * * I t is commonly to be thought of as the financial measure of th at educational offering which w ill be mad© available to a ll children of the sta te regardless of where they may reside or the financial a b ility of the d is tric t or resid en ce.^ The foundation program should help to ra ise the educa­ tio n al opportunities to a certain minimum level of quality be­ low which schools w ill not be allowed to operate* In the equalization program, while provisions are mad© to improve the school f a c ilitie s and environment9 the g reater portion of the fin an cial aid Is u tiliz e d fo r teachers’ sa l­ aries* This Is a cognizance of the truism th at a school la only as good as i t s teachers. I t is incumbent on democratic adm inistration, accordingly, in order to underwrite the equal quality of education, to provide the type of teachers who a re , ^N atio n al Conference on the Financing of Education, Report, pp. 24*25, as quoted in Straysr, C entrrdliing last- jg |o.iM Aa J S t Aaaip.istrsti.9p s i M i l s IM ssiia S i pp«

219 f i r s t l y * democratic lm thought and behavior,, and, secondly, adequately prepared and technically competent to do the im­ portant job of teaching. The P rinciple of Adaptability At keenly pparp o£isfiSMr tmalasL M Ate imM st a $$sQjMb The lo cal school government units have m inherent authority but what is delegated to the® by the sta te ; the school systems a rt administered by the local d i s t r i c t only in tr u s t fo r the s ta te , The equalisation of educational op­ portunity through (state aid or sta te support is the expres­ sion of th is relationship* However, a re o o ^ ltio n of other principle® be®ides the principle of sta te resp o n sib ility fo r education baa tended to restrict sta te educational e ffo rts to provision* of minimus standard* only, Except in state® where educational control ia highly centralised, the local school system* can go over and above the s ta te 1* minimus requirements to adapt the school® to the needs of the community* Adapta­ b ility is the faculty to adjust to change* So®# define adapt­ a b ility a®5 The principle which re a lly keeps a school system v i t a l , growing, dynamic, responsive, flex ib le or e la s tic , ha* beta variously celled the ad a p ta b ility , progressive or efficiency principle,2? H i** P* 88.

220 A daptability re fers to changes In the recognised program th a t might or might not be applicable to a ll communities without v ariatio n • . , The adaptation p rin c ip le demands capacity fo r c h a n g e , 2 8 The school * « « cannot be Judged successful I f I t neglects the p ersistin g needs or i f I t f a lls short of f u l l and reasonably rapid response to new d e m a n d s ,29 I t Is a known fa c t th a t a d a p ta b ility in schools has o rig in ated most of the modem Innovations in American educa­ tio n , and th a t these adaptations re su ltin g in the improve­ ment of schools and education o rig in ate a t the lo cal l e v e l *^0 There has been a long tra d itio n of home rule and local i n i t i ­ ative. bocal In itia tiv e is the rig h t of lo c a litie s to i n i t i a t e action* I t assumes the existence of functions or a c tiv itie s over which the lo c a l a u th o ritie s , as opposed to ce n tral a u th o ritie s , have d iscretio n or control * * • I t is the cower to act or decide—not the action or decision,*! The e ffe c ts of lo c a l control of education, wherein the people decide matters concerning th e ir children, are considered more important a t times than the exercise of prudence In the operational management of lo cal schools. Herein lie s the di­ rection fo r democratic adm inistration. E fforts to preserve 2 % o rt, P, R ,, and Reuseer* w, 0 ., jgphllo .gohool £1- MBS&* p. 102. S % o rtf P* R ,, and Cornell, n G., AdapMMlLtY S t M3J& i s t e l M te a # p* s - SQ m a . , pp. 94-97, 3xikM*» p* 103,

831 local in itia tiv e in establishing and administering schools should bo made* The administration. mm% fa c ilita te the procedures by which lo cal initiative of parents and other lay cltisen s can be directed to r c iu i t in a. g re a te r variation in the program* The schools adapted to the needs of the con- ©unity should necessarily be adapted to the individual d if­ ferences of pupil® and should assure the maslsus opportunity fo r personal development through a wide variety of arrange* ©ants in the in stru ctio n al program* To achieve ad a p ta b ility In schools, the educational program considers the a c t iv itie s » resourcesf and purposes of the lo cal community which have to be continuously analysed and studied cooperatively end dsjsoor&tlasliy by a l l groups affected* These are taken into account in the deliberations and plana fo r any Innovations to bring about change to ex­ ceed the requirements of the Blnimurs sta te program. Further, the plans formulated by the si®ring group have need to be flex ib le so that any future adaptations of variatio n s of the plans w ill not be impeded, bocal I n itia tiv e , besides usually effecting a varied and flex ib le program geared to the com­ munity, is a .dlsedsmtug because I t gives reins to the demo­ cratic process* The school, home, and society are intricately related , hence, democratic administration m s t sseh closer cooperation of these groups for in telligen t participation in school and community l i f e . Holmetedt, in discussing some

222 problems of school ad m inistration, sayss Maintaining constructive and harmonious re la tio n ­ ships between the schools end the community which they serve is accepted as one of the major functions of school adm inistration * . * The function of the school as an agency fo r the Improvement of liv in g w ithin the community, the use of community resources in in stru c­ tio n , the p a rtic ip atio n of the public in the formula­ tion of educational p o licies and the development of in stru c tio n a l programs, and the adaptation of educa­ tio n a l services to meet th© so cial and economic needs of c itiz e n groups w ithin the community are some of the more s ig n ific a n t additions to the scope and purposes of school-community re la tio n s Where the people have an in te re s t a t sta k e , where they understand the school program, where they have a d ire c t voice in school government, a d a p ta b ility to meet the local needs w ill b© obtained* Other aspects of the problem have to be considered in order to achieve the principle of adaptability* f i r s t free­ dom is essential* Although some lo cal school systems can on­ ly meet the minimum requirements and not be able to go over the foundation program, the lo cal c itiz e n s and the schools must have the freedom to experiment, to find out how to do things b e tte r w ithin the framework of the s ta te minimum pro­ gram* Economically able communities, too, should have the freedom to purchase b e tte r education than th a t considered es­ se n tia l by the state* 3% olm ateat, ffjecftlgms J& % hm ! .Adiainletratlq n , p, 42,

223 &iven able and energetic leadership* an a l e r t, coop­ e ra tiv e community, and other favorable conditions* yet adap­ ta tio n s to the true needs of the community w ill be consider­ ably lim ited or hindered without \"pocket-aoney.* The com­ munity must have a tax leeway. ^ I t la not d if f ic u lt to follow the reasoning th a t the g re a te r the money, the g re a te r is the a b i l i ty to s e le c t and buy a v arie ty of commodities. In other words* the lo c a l communities should have the free­ dom to tax and freedom to decide what adaptations to in tro ­ duce fo r the re a lis a tio n of lo c a l needs. Otherwise, lo cal in itia tiv e is fu tile ; local e ffo rts w ill be exerted only to meet the s ta te minimum requirements which grow to proportions ss the maximum lev el of e ffo rt; and p a rtic ip a tio n in coop­ erativ e adm inistration w ill only be so much \"busy work.!* Democratic administration i s , th ere fo re, In terested in ques­ tio n s of finance and th e ir adm inistration to determine how the needs of the pupils and the community can be met most e f fic ie n tly and e ffe c tiv e ly , fo r the improvement of community living is sig n ifican tly related to expenditures for education. the Principle of Authority and Responsibility Jleaooratio ndalnlBtration recogMzga thg. jaaUffiU oogplegentary .aaaxlatenge of authority gad responsibility 3 3 |t o r t and Cornell, o p .. o l t . , pp. 1 0 0 - 1 6 1 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 9 .

224 M g & S fiftff l £&£ tfeg, a t t a i n m e n t o f com m on e n d s . The Infusion of the d e m o c r a t i c concepts In the admin* is tra tio n of schools does not negate the importance of author* I t y and of re sp o n sib ility in the d irectio n and attainm ent of tlie common aims of democratic education. Authority and re* s p o n e i b i l i t y are clo sely re la te d and cannot be thought of as independent on© of the other. wherever au th o rity Is exer­ cised, th a t au th o rity should toe held r e s p o n s i b l e fo r the good or the detrim ental execution and e ffe c ts of the exercise of that authority. Correspondingly, i f responsibility is a l l o ­ c a t e d to a person or group of persons, t h a t e n tity must toe vested with the authority to f u lf ill its r e s p o n s ib il i t y .® 4 Authority w ill be cogent only as r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for i t is e sta b lish e d , e x p l i c i t , and accepted, when, th ere fo re, we spe&h of e stab lish in g c le a rly allo catio n s of authority and re sp o n sib ility as a. d e s i r a b l e c h a ra c te ris tic of g o o d a d m i n i s ­ t r a t i o n , we imply c le a r d efin itio n of the au th o rity & aa re ­ sp o n sib ility of each function or person, not th a t one body w i l l hold the a u th o rity to com m and and another w ill toe held responsible fo r the accomplishment of a function, sResponsi­ b i l it y without corresponding authority is inconceivable, and sound organization demands a c le a rly defined re sp o n sib ility 3 4 ;5 e a r a , J . B . , £ h e S ta tu r e £ f jth e flain In 18 t r A t l v g P ro cess. C hapter 3.

22b fo r every met, fra® the g re a te st to the smallest* ^ Since colonial days, the re sp o n sib ility fo r the de­ velopment o f American schools has been indicated as the col­ ony1e and the s t a t e ’s# the C onstitution of the United S tates makes no mention of education except in the Tenth Amendment, which c la r if ie d the statu s of education. In discussing the re s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r education, Moehlman s ta te s ; Education in the United States is a s ta te func­ tio n , deriving i t s leg al au th o rity from a reservation of power In the fe d eral C onstitution, s ta te c o n stitu tio n ­ a l provisions, statu to ry enactment, positive Judicial in te rp re ta tio n s'* and the continuous exercise of the function*^ The schools, accordingly, are the creations of laws and i t must follow th a t they are governed by laws# The author­ ity to adm inister the schools is delegated to th© lay boards, and these boards and th e ir decisions are held responsible to the people u ltim ately through a. review a t the polls# In the publications of the American Association of School Adminis­ trators, the Educational P olicies Commission, and the Nation­ a l Society fo r the Study of Education, I t is stre sse d th at the school board la the acceptable agency fo r lay control of schools# I f the schools are to be the bulwark o f democracy, s %ooney, J . 8»» ’’The P rin cip les of Organisation,” p# 95, In Papers on the Science of A dm inistration, edited by Luther Guliok and L#’ Urwick# 36|foehlman, A# B#, School Adm lnlstratloji. p. 59?#

the hoard of education must function dem ocratically, since I t is the e n tity d ire c tly granted the authority to adm inister the school®. Being responsible to the people, I t Is under obligation to give accounting of I ts adopted po licies end i t s authorisations fo r carrying out the w ill of the people. The prerogative of making decisions, the auth o rity for fin a l action, i s the board1® solely. But democratic administra­ tion can only be well-founded to the extent with which i t •has drawn extensively upon the knowledge and opinion of the appropriately informed, asso ciates, Bedstone c m be no b et­ t e r than the understanding out of which they a rise ; pise authority Is thus assured fry and exercised a f te r shared de­ lib e ra tio n . The board’s paramount function is to protect the b est in te re s ts of the children and to see th at the schools ere accordingly managed but got to manage the schools them­ selves. The authority for the development and the responsi­ b ility fo r the operation of the educational system within the lim its of the policies of the board belong to the professional staff. The key to a l l our e ffo rts should be the children In the school, th e ir b est In te re sts and g re a te st pos­ sib le development. In other words, both the formulation of educational p o lic ie s and th e ir adm inistration in p ractice should be tested a t a l l points by th e ir s?Tead, Ihe &j£ Administration, p. 126,

227 contribution to the children In school. Primarily for th is reason, the lay board delegatee the au thority and resp o n sib ility fo r the management of the school® to the professional s ta f f . The present organisation fo r the adm inistration of the schools is known as the Mlin e -a n d -sta ff ** Administrative pattern with the superintendent as the o ffic ia l directly held accountable fo r i t s operation. The implications of demo­ c ra tic adm inistration become most c r itic a l a t th is lev el. Administrators answerable to the public for tangible re su lts in school adm inistration tend to In ject autocratic procedures since they possess the discretionary power and the position to command those below in the hierarchy of au th o rity in order to produce re su lts . The Educational Policies Commission, in i t s study of the 90 secondary schools of the country, con­ cludes that the variations in the six patterns of school democracy stemmed from Merely trying to get a task done ef­ ficiently. However, M iller claims th a t there is nothing inherent In the 11lin e -and-staff*1 plan which prevents the exercise of democracy in the adm inistration of schools.40 Tut t i e , Edward, \"Clear Understanding of Policy- Making and Administrative Relationships Promotes Effective Public S c h o o ls/ American School ftn&rd journal 121*63, Sep­ tember, I960. ^E ducational P olicies Commission, Learning J£& i m &£ M M M m i* PP. *6-16. 4% i l l e r , w* 1 ., Democracy in Educational Admlnlgtra- 11,pn f p. 43.

228 &ullck c l a r if ie s the concept of lin e -a n a -s ta ffff* Whan the work of the government is subjected to th e dichotomy o f *lin@H and #s ta ff,* there &r© In­ cluded in s ta f f a l l of those persons who devote th e ir time exclusively to the knowing, thinking* and plan­ ning fu n ctio n s, and in the lin e a l l of the remainder who a re . thus, c h ie fly concerned with the doing func­ tions#'*! In a democratic adm inistration, however, those charged w ith the doing functions also think and plan# They cannot he divorced* the democratic p rin c ip le is predicated on the Individual worth of persons# Personnel who are concerned only w ith the doing, leaving the thinking to another agency, are reduced to in d iffe re n t automatons# Democratic adminis­ tra tio n is a g reat re s p o n s ib ility , but where cooperation and c o lle c tiv e in te llig e n c e are drawn upon to d elib era te ly share the burden, the educational undertaking Is carried forward with more f a c i l i t y , and, a t the same time, the values and purposes of democracy become in te g ra l In the l i f e of the com­ munity# Hence, not only teachers but also pupils and lay citizens should cooperate in the determination of the pur­ poses th a t are to be re a lise d , w riting on the purposes and value of c itiz e n communities, H eller says: Through c itiz e n p a rtic ip a tio n a f in e r educa­ tio n a l system and a fin e r democracy can be achieved . . . 4!a u iie k , Luther, \"Notes on the Theory of Organize- tlon,\" p. 31, In Ismara on SolenM sL feiMl&afcBa&gB. edited by Luther dullok and L. Urwlck*

This is Inevitable since genuine understanding and sound appreciation come to those who become sincerely involved # » * This Involves participation in policy- making by the people.4^ I t I s , therefore, reiterated here that every basic policy should be effected as a re su lt of p articipation in discussions and deliberations by those who w ill be involved and affected by the workings of the policy# The acceptance of responsibility of these participants in policy formation w ill be manifested In the whole-hearted support they render to the fru itio n of the policies once they are accepted and adopted by the local board# An Important point e x p lic it In democratic administra­ tion is democratic leadership* According to the ways the educational systems function now, there Is only one executive o ffic e r responsible to the board. Nevertheless, a sound ad- m inistration c a p italizin g on democratic group processes la called on to supply not so much authority as the rendering of democratic leadership. I f , as has bean discussed elsewhere, adm inistration Is concerned with processes and relatio n sh ip s, the democratic leader holds a sa lien t position in the ad­ m inistration of schools. This position has been too often realized , so th at adm inistrators have exercised authority as a personal influence by virtue of the high position they 4% © ller, f . L ., \"The Purposes, f!ork, and Values of Citizens Committees,\" The School Executive January, 1932*

230 occupy* The m ilita ry idea of au th o rity th at goes unques­ tioned and is a rb itra ry and absolute has prevailed in school situations to ta lly unrelated to m ilitary life* Subsequently, the manners of executives and adm inistrators have given the word au th o rity an obnoxious connotation, feed ap tly de­ scrib es them: Many executives are poor In th e ir human re- lationahlps be.ftSHW ihgjr I L t e a lt o M B2& MS2 M s M behave orooerlv. They have copied bad manners, rude ex terio rs# heedless methods# arrogant p ra c tic e s, peremptory tones of voices * * * To exercise power is to be Hough0 end inconsiderate * * * and they believe th is is the way executives are supposed to act*^* The process of leadership in a democracy w ill tax to the utmost the im agination, ore&tivenees# d aring, and patience of an adm inistrator* Some people are stu p id , others s e lfis h or else j u i t stubborn,* many can think only in terms of rig h ts and p riv ileg es but cannot visualize tb s lr corresponding re­ sp o n sib ilitie s* Democratic leadership seeks the development of persons through the process, not ju s t the accomplishment of the Job* At the same time, I t s triv e s to m ultiply the number of those who carry re sp o n sib ilitie s fo r leadership* Creating o pportunities by which people ©ay re a liz e th e ir po­ t e n t i a l i t i e s does not preclude leadership; I t merely re ­ solves i t s e l f into educational statesmanship, Mow leadership ^Teacl, JJhg Art of Admlnl s t m t Ion, p, 123.

231 m m t be concerned with people as persons—have a b e lie f In the worth of individuals and the w ill to help them—I t must have the a b ility to in sp ire confidence through cooperation, f u l l p a rtic ip a tio n , fellow ship, and the acceptance of respon­ s i b i li t y ; I t must have a broad Knowledge, fo r true authority re s ts not on statu s but on the rig h tn ess, accuracy, and d e li­ cacy of decisions. The problem th a t confronts democratic adm inistration Is not the repudiation of a u th o r ity or the declination of re sp o n sib ility , but, ra th e r, i t is the acceptance of the coexistence of au th o rity and re sp o n sib ility and the need of some rev isio n of the allo catio n of both within the legal framework. The P rin cip le of Effectiveness sdginlatratilpi) u tilis e s J&e values, w s s - Mss.a» ®M JM ^sources avsllablfi & effeotlT ely fe cllltB te i& i l££SM »g m l Im m lm vroemsm. One of the fundamental functions of adm inistration is the execution of an undertaking with a minimum of time, ef­ f o r t, and resources—both human and m aterial. This is es­ s e n tia lly a d e fin itio n of efficien cy . The problem of demo­ cratic adm inistration Is the e ffic ie n t discharge of the school serv ices, but since in a democracy the paramount-purpose of a l l doing la the w ell-being of the individual, efficiency,

although a value In democratic adm inistration, then becomes an Inadequate standard. Certain conditions, values, and re­ latio n sh ip s must be taken into consideration when viewing, from the standpoint of efficien cy , the arrangements and ac­ tions of men brought together to perform educational Jobs. Effectiveness, therefore, rather than the pure concept of efficiency, becomes the c rite rio n involved In the leadership and management of men. The principle of effectiveness con­ strues not only the dispatch with which Jobs are done (as efficiency is popularly understood} but encompasses as well the performance of coordinated action predicated on good rapport, teamwork, and the contribution to the growth of human personality. I f democratic action is not to be accused of being slow, bungling, and in e ffic ie n t, a democratic adminis­ tra tio n of the educational system must evaluate i t s effectiv e­ ness in the lig h t of i t s purposes, procedure, and personnel. People act more in te llig e n tly when they know what they are about, thus saving time, e f fo rt, and m aterials that would have been expended in waiting about for orders or in doing over a task th a t has not been so well understood or ac­ complished. Democratic adm inistration must provide the op­ p o rtu n ities fo r p articip atin g in deciding group purposes and purposeful a c tiv itie s , fo r learning and doing is judged ef­ fective rtquite larg ely to the extent to which th is acquisition

253 kelps persons achieve s ig n ific a n t purposes944 and when per­ sonal w elfare is derived from group purposes. E fficien t group performance Is possible when the cooperative body un­ derstands what the work i s designed to do, hence, duplicating e f f o rt, which is so w asteful, Is precluded* The In te ra c tiv e , sharing members decide what th e ir purposes a re , based on fa c t, so th a t each can. f i t him self b est to do the b e st work he can. Here, then, the d efin itio n of proper lin e a of authority and re sp o n sib ility also en ters into the determination and Im­ plementation of purposes and a c tiv itie s . This implies th a t effective democratic adm inistration, while Importantly a f­ fected by standards, c le a rly requires the application of the democratic principle; and that to e l i c i t the growth of In­ dividuals, there is no recourse but th a t those d ire c tly in ­ volved by educational p o licies p articip ate in deciding the fundamental purposes of the group. Administration has to do with g e ttin g things done, to seeing th a t the purposes defined by the group are accom­ plished, The problem of procedures 1ms to be met, the f i r s t of which Is the consistency of the methods u tiliz e d with the purposes to be served. E ffective procedures demand careful 44Department of Supervisere and Directors of Instruc­ tio n , Cooperation: Irln clp l.es agy| i m Q li o m * p. '89. 4®See dullck, Luther, ‘‘Science, Values, and Public A dm inistration,9 pp. 191-195, in JfeBflrfl jfe. j&ijgfigs &£ A dm inistration, ed ited by Luther Gullck and L. U m ck.