1.Democratic educational administration for the Philippine educational system

Xo4 CHAPTER VII a m m m m B tm o n of m m m o i The eonfueed and c o n flictin g thinking regarding demo- eratic educational adm inistration seems to evolve around the question of what democracy re a lly i s . Democracy has so- often received lip service from people fro® a l l walks of l i f e , or been thought of as an a b stra c t figure of speech, that I ts meaning has become vague# low sh ell we sp ell democracy to people in a modern society? Shall democracy mean only po­ l i t i c a l democracy, or s h a ll I t have an expensive connotation to incorporate a l l ways of living? Does i t mean freedom fro® control or the fre e r In teractio n between so cial groups? yhat Is democracy? Viewpoints on Democracy The prevalent conception of democracy has ch iefly a p o litic a l connotation, concerned with © kind of government end p o litic a l machine, and democracy generally has reference only to p o litic a l a ffairs* Even p rinciples of democracy such as \"governments derive th e ir ju s t powers from the con* sent of the governed11 or *government of the people, by the people, and fo r the people,\" subsume no d e fin ite meanings in other areas of livin g or in s titu tio n s save p o litic a l, which in I t s e l f is assigned a re s tric te d meaning# More or le s s ,

135 /i p o litic a l democracy to moat people refers to p o litic a l ad­ m inistrative arrangements, to the police powers, and to the protection afforded by the government to l i f e and property from enemies w ithin and without# Democracy to many others is looked upon as a sacred, untouchable ark, a tr u s t Inherited from the past, they are believers In the ten et th at democracy \"once obtained, always obtained. * These are the ones who end up taking democracy fo r granted, since i t is always there, l e t democracy un­ questionably is In teg rally tied up with the ever present, with i t s so cial condition® and p attern s, I ts needs and prob­ lems; democracy thus cannot be handed down from generation to generation. On the contrary, each society has to work at planning, conserving, reconstructing, and transforming democracy in the Interim in which society finds itself# A legitim ate implication of democracy which was ac­ ceptable a. hundred years ago in an agrarian social stru ctu re, but which la incompatible with twentieth century in d u strial­ ised so ciety | is s t i l l valid with most. Democracy was a way of l i f e , ca p italisin g the individual rather than the social group. Each man was expected to s h ift for himself and his immediate family. A society of Independent, se lf-su ffic ie n t fam ilies, a society of adventuresome* acq u isitiv e, competi­ tive Individuals, l i f t in g themselves by th e ir bootstraps, interp reted democracy as an exaggerated freedom to run th e ir

136 public and private liv e s , and to amass fabulous wealth or property irresp ectiv e of the- scrupulousness of methods. Democracy was especially taken to mean the absence of gov­ ernment control in private enterprise; the emphasis was on Individualism* Our changing, dynamic so ciety , wherein an individual must liv e in communicable relation® with th at society, char­ acterised by a high degree of specialisation and economic Interdependence| e n ta ils a new definition of democracy, k re in terp retatio n of democracy should not only take into ac­ count the changing social economic milieu to apply to a l l sphere® of conjoint liv in g , but at the same time should re­ co n stitu te the meaning of p o litic a l democracy# Since the prin ciples of democracy were f i r s t made vocal in the Declaration of Independence, th e ir meaning has expanded to include connotations undreamed of by the found­ ing fathers# Because of the conditions in Jeffarson*s day, i t was imperative to stress rig h ts, the *inalienable r ig h ts ,* “human r i g h t s / and that Ba l l men are e q u a l/ b© h© king or laborer, i f t e r the C ivil war, Lincoln, In Ms Gettysburg speech, am plified the essence of democracy by another prin­ cip le, th at ©f a government “of the people, by the people, and for the p e o p le / Theodor© Roosevelt, whose day was characterised by “big business* and self-aggrandizement, gave a new meaning to democracy to include not only the favored

137 few but a l l m e n , when he said th a t America should te s t the w o r t h of a l l m en and a l l measures by ashing how they c o n t r i b ­ u te to the welfare of a l l the people that compose the n atio n , and th a t w ealth should b© the servant and not the master of the people.! However, the scope of the s p i r i t of democracy has re­ ceived i t s g re a te st expansion In our own day, in the four freedoms enunciated by Frenfclin Delano Roosevelt in the At­ la n tic Charter* The f i r s t two freedoms, freedom of speech and freedom of re lig io n , have been guaranteed mm since the founding of the American nation* The l a s t two freedoms, freedom from fe a r and freedom from want, are. products of conditions in the modern world* In many areas of the world, man has become a shadow of fear* Bem ays, an eminent Ameri­ can counsel on public re la tio n s , writes} Under a d ic ta to rsh ip a man against whom some government o f f ic ia l bears a grudge may be snatched from h is own home on so©© mysterious charge of which he Is not informed, and without b en e fit of counsel brought to t r i a l —w ith the v e rd ic t almost c e rta in ly determined beforehand—be fore a prejudiced judge in a -geere t court*2 Bode describes the to ta lita r ia n method of con tro llin g 3*Roosevelt, Theodore, “Address- ©t the Ohio Constitu­ tio n al Convention, February, 19X2,“ as quoted in (ieorg© s* Counts, Jgte Social Fom datlom o£ Education, p. 22, SBemaya, E. L . , jBpftftfr M X&L P* I 2*

138 thoughts * * # dictatorships are not content to suppress h o s tile views * . . critic© Bust be \"liq u id ated 8 or a t m f rat® they must be silenced* 3 Freedom from fear# to bo a r e a lity , presupposes demo­ cratic so cieties all: over the world, i f m individual is to dwell in peace w ithin h is own country without a hanging sword of a rb itra ry s e c re t police action over Mm* Again, freedom from fear denotes a necessary world understanding to elim inate the fe a r re su ltin g from Impending wars or ac­ tu al d estru ctio n in the event of war* the in te rp re ta tio n of freedom from want is intertw ined with freedom from fear* Mm should be ’freed from the fe a r of want, and th is im plies a revision o f the present competitive p ro fit economy which has resu lted in economic inequalities* Economic In®quali­ tie s , the want of the bare e ssen tials fo r l i f e , heightened by c o n flic ts In id eo lo gies, germinates in secu rity and fru s­ tra tio n , generating a su sc e p tib ility to promised utopias threatening democracy* fo underwrite these four freedoms# we have to be cog­ nisant of c e rta in fa cto rs a t play in our modern world such a® the interdependence of peoples economically and p o l i t i ­ c a lly , the need of c o lle c tiv e actio n , and a continuously widening p a rtic ip a tio n o f a growing number of people in the — .... ... y... w tl.. 3Bode, B. H., aernocrso.Y M & ± M 8 l L ife . pp. 10-11,

determination of a ffa ire that concern them* what has been pointed out in the foregoing is the fact of the growing and evolving meaning of democracy ac­ cording to the environment in which i t finds I t s e l f , Ac­ cording to the Educational P olicies Commission* democracy has p o litic a l# social* economic, and moral aspects. \" It is a form of government; i t is a kind o f economy; i t la an or­ der of society; i t is a way o f l i f e ; i t is a ll of these tMng® together* *4 Modem Conceptions of Democracy Can our meaning of democracy ho rein terp reted to en­ compass so cial in stitu tio n s* especially the schools* what basic p rin cip les are there upon which modem democratic so­ ciety might operate* A search for meanings in the works of authorities in education# in educational philosophy, and in p o litic a l science reveals that w riters emphasise d ifferen t aspect® of democracy* Babcock®enumerates fourteen elements essen tial to democracy* Miller® mention® five* Simeon? ^Educational p o licies Commission, X&& Education $£ s m Mm M M m im i p * ®2 - sBabcock, BS. I),, ipemocr&tlo Practices In Educational HM SwmX&iM* unpuBlishad. Doctor’s d isser­ tation, % ille r# 'W. I* # .Democracy Educational Aflminlatra- M m * Doctor*s d issertatio n . ?Bl®aon, 0* E*, P articip atio n o£ School Personnel lg .^m in istratio n , Doctor’s dissertation*

140 another fiv e , and ra&ny others l i s t th e ir own, however, e ll the d efin itio n s of democracy attempted f a l l categ o rically into three main groupss p a rtic ip a tio n , concern fo r the in­ dividual, and group concern. Partlclnalfion. The term most repeatedly used and taken to- mean the same thing as democracy is p articip atio n . Other terms which have been c la s s ifie d to be synonymous with or related to p a rtic ip a tio n are sharing, in te ra c tio n , coop­ eratio n , method, and sovereignty. Webster defines p a r tic i­ pation as an a c t or s ta te of sharing in common with other®. Dewey defines democracy as sharing. He says; What does democracy mean save th at the individual is to have a share in the determining of the conditions and the aims of h is own work; and that upon the whole, work of the world Is b e tte r done than when planned and arranged and d irected by a few no matter how wise or how good the in ten t of that few.* More te rs e ly , Dewey says th a t democracy is more than a form of government, *!t is prim arily a mode of associated liv in g , of conjoint communicated experience*”9 K ilp atrick , too, places emphasis on the sharing ideas WA11 affected by a decision should share in making th at d@- ciaion—tills is essm %1a l cemocracy. ®Dewey, John, HDemocracy in Education,*1 Elementary School Teacher 4:193-204, December, 1903, p. 197, 9]» w y , petaocrRQ.Y and MagaMflBi p. 101. ^ K ilp a tr ic k , W. H., ttJohn Dewey’s N inetieth B irth d a y / i:rpgres.slV.i Education 27; 31, October, 1949.

141 Barr,. Burton, and Brueekner, in defining democracy, emphasise p articip atio n s \"Democracy tru ly means th a t a ll are to p a rtic ip a te in making decisions, in planning policies and programs. The authority is th at of the group over i t ­ self# Democracy, according to Hopkins, of Teachers College, Columbia U niversity, re s ts on three assumptions, one of which gives importance to cooperation as Ha b e lie f that purposes which guide action should be formulated through cooperative deliberation of those who must abide by such action* Bisson1s d e fin itio n of democracy stresses the sover­ eignty of the people in the followings \"Democracy mean® con­ tro l by the people through properly constituted representa­ tives responsible to the people or to the people1s represen­ ta tiv e , *2-3 There are no fundament©! co n flicts in the definitions cited, the weakness lie s in presenting a segment as equal to the sum of the whole* Taking a ll the definitions together, can they dovetail to build a composite d efin itio n of democ­ racy with .reference to participation^ 2**Barr,w* H*j Burton, A, S.j and Brueekner, L. 8*, funervlalon* p. 112. ^H opkins, T# L#, \"Said at Cleveland,\" National Edu­ cation Asso elation Journal 28:102, A pril, 1939. ! 3Bimson, 0. H., op. c i t . , p. 89.

142 Bemoor&ey Implies that p articip atio n should be mde in tern s of common in te re s t without which the process of sharing would be s tu ltif ie d . And when lik e in te re sts or conjoint experiences are the basis of p a rtic ip a tio n , when there I® productive sharing of power, of knowledge, and of resp ect,^4 a fre e r In te ra c t ion among the members of the group Is promoted. But sharing implies cooperation, This cooper* ation is indispensable fo r an e ffe c tiv e p articip atio n in group processes* i t conditions the “mode of conjoint living*; and i t widen® areas of common in terests* Constructive powers a»d interest* grow through exercise and us©. The exercise of p a rtic ip a tio n , sharing, in te ra c tio n , and cooperation re­ su lts In expansive growth and in gains in meaning and appre­ ciations of the shared in te re s ts of the individual members, for the group has evolved a way, a method of doing things. This method conveys the idea th at the controls and decisions are kept close to the group, to those directly concerned* The con tro ls, a f te r the application of cooperative and col­ lectiv e thinking, may be exercised through d ire c t p articip a­ tion or they may fee delegated to elected rep resen tativ es, always, however, with the safeguard that the ultim ate de­ cision© and power reside In the group. There are those who claim th a t even complete and f u ll S^Tead, Ordway, .Democratic Administration i p. 61.

143 p a rtic ip a tio n does not always m m . democracy, fo r the method of inducing p a rtic ip a tio n may be coercive and thus the s p i r i t is wrong. The point is well talien, since th e ir d efin itio n meant Just participation* However* that may he, in a, genuine* ly democratic group,where the group w illin g ly shares in de­ termining means and ends and cooperates 1b group liv in g and group working, and where creative powers are lib e ra te d , every member tru ly particip ate® , elim inating any necessity of par­ tic ip a tio n based on coercion or on fe ar. They are not regu­ la te d from outside. Yet, since rules and regulations are necessary, they are formulated by those whose liv e s w ill be affected by them, making discipline self-imposed rather than induced by an external demand. This discussion leads us fu rth er into another aspect of making p a rtic ip a tio n re a lly demoor&tlc. It hsM been accepted in an unquestioning Banner th at majority ru le is democracy, a lb e it the p lu ra lity at times 1® gained by one vote* And th at Ion© vote is usually referred to by p artisan s as the w ill or the voice of the people de­ spite the fa c t that h a lf the people expressed th e ir w ill otherwise. Mot infrequently, too, one hears reference to the “tyranny” of the m ajority. The complaints against the action of m ajority rule are augmented by p ractices wherein the minority are sometimes ridden roughshod by the control­ ling group*

144 I t seems that I f we are to accept the d e fin itio n of democracy as p a rtic ip a tio n ch aracterised by sharing* cooper­ ation* and in te ra c tio n we have to re-examIn© our Idea of m ajority rule* Since p articip atio n stands in need of the cooperation of the group, decisions by m ajority often ob­ v ia te cooperative actio n . Some means have to be devised so th a t by mutual co n su ltatio n , negotiations and. sympathetic sharing o f in te re s ts , consents, and decisions are arrived a t not by the rule of the m ajority but by a general consensus In b eh alf of a good in the categories of the general welfare and so cial J u s tic e . Concern for ,t^e individual,. Another group of au th o ri­ tie s in th e ir w ritings give prominence to the in te re s ts of the individual as the sa lie n t facto r in a truly functioning democracy, while concern of the individual is the focus of discussion* the approach Is mad© through d iffe re n t avenues* Most conspicuous In the studies and literatu re examined is the averment of the d ig nity and worth of the in d iv id u al, sometimes alluded to as respect fo r p erso n ality or the unique p o te n tia l of the in d iv id u al, the problems of providing for Individual differences* the eq u a lity of men* and the degree of freedom o f the individual are points of discussion. In his discussion of deiaocratic adm inistration, feed defines democracy as having H , . . the idea of respect fo r the Integrity of the person and of the primary value of developing

145 persons as worthy end worthful ends In themselves* M iller claims th at the p rin cip le of democracy must b© implemented through} 1. h respect o f the uniqueness and d ig n ity of in­ dividual human personality* 2. fa ith in the power of human In te lle c t to solve problems of mankind* 3. The rig h t o f each Individual to- share in deter­ mination of purposes and p o licies th at a ffe c t him and h is group. 4. the rig h t of the sovereign people to ac t d irec tly or through th e ir chosen rep resen tativ es. 5* The rig h t to eq uality but not Id e n tity of oppor­ tu n ity fo r a l l . 1® A very similar summation o f Miller*a points are in an enumeration of the e sse n tia l elements of a d efin itio n of democracyf according to lerriam , which are* 1. The dignity of man and the importance of tre a t­ ing personalities upon a fra te rn a l ra th e r than on a differential basis. 2. The p erfectib ility of men or confidence in the development more fu lly as time*-goes on, of the p o ss ib ilitie s la te n t in human personality m over against the doctrine of fixed caste, ©lass, and ©lav© systems. 3* The gains of c iv iliz e tie n s and of nations viewed as e sse n tia lly mas© gains—the preduct of nation­ al e ffo rt e ith e r in war or In time of peace rather I S lb ia ., p. 68. l% U le r , ». I . , Deaoorecy In MftgaMSMji i S a l U il llQUf p. 40.

146 than the e ffo rts of the few. 4# Confidence in the value of the consent-of the governed expressed Hi in s titu tio n a l forms, under­ standings and practices as the basis of order, liberty| Justice* 6* The value of decisions arriv ed a t by ra tio n a l pro­ cesses, by common counsel, with im plications nor­ mally of tolerance and freedom of discussion rath er than violence and b rutality* The Educational P olicies Commission claims that in any conception of democracy, the following must be included: : F i r s t, the individual human M ing is of sur­ passing; worth -y ; 'Second, the earth and human culture belong to m il men //1 . /■ Third, men cam and should rule themselves _ ./}/’ Fourth, the human mind can be-true ted and should be vset free / /' F ifth , the method of peace is superior to that of /war /•/ Sixth, ra c ia l, cu ltu ral, and p o litic a l m inorities /ehoul& be to le ra te d , respected, and valued**® / /; E l l io t t says the modern conception of democracy Is the reverse to th at held by the early Americane* Be puts emphasis on individual differences* Ho longer do we proceed on the fa lla c y that a l l l^Merriam, C. E ., what is Democracy? pp. 8-9. ^E ducational P o licies Commission, o&. o il* , p. 35.

147 men are created free and equal* In f a c t, our present conception of democracy Is quite the reverse. I t Is not the equality of man we consider today, but we do and should provide fo r the Individual differences of men. One of Bimson1® conclusions states* Democracy does not mean that a l l are equal in a l l re sp e cts, Due recognition i s made of the fa c t th a t some persons are e sp e c ia lly informed o r esp e cially tra in e d to make p a rtic u la r co n trib u tio n s that cannot 'be made by a l l *20 while individuals cannot a l l make the same contribu­ tio n s, y et there are instances when each in d iv id u a l, whether ©specially informed or trained or n o t, has sin g u lar co n tri­ bution® to make* Each p erso n ality has worth* A concern fo r the worth of a person also recognises the fa c t of his be­ coming, of what he can fu lly develop into* This innate dig­ n ity of man must not be made subsexvlent to the ends of a few, henca, an individual1© rig h ts and d ig n ity , p a rtic u la rly his d ig n ity , have to be protected ag ain st incursions under the cloak of the common good a r b itr a r ily determined by the w ill of a few. In order th a t th is dignity mid uniqueness of an in d i­ vidual may be continuously enriched, previsions fo r the ^ E l l i o t t , A. ¥*., £he Status of the Democratic Ideal M jM £ I S l 5 o f Sohoql A dm inistration* unpublished Doctor*® d is s e rta tio n , p.\"©. 20Bimson, clt* * p* 103*

148 f u l l e s t shaping of personal liv in g must fee maintained* Equality before the law and the guarantee of the same basic lib e r t i e s to the people underlie our concept o f democracy* Equality of opportunity is also one of the e q u a litie s guar­ anteed in a democratic society.. Equality before the law means th a t the seme law applies to a ric h man as to a poor mani to an educated man as to an i l l i t e r a t e person, fo r the same in fra c tio n s of the law. Equality of opportunity, however, does n o t mean the same or id e n tic a l o r uniform opportunities fo r a l l , ra th e r, the in te re s ts of the individuals demand th a t varied opportunities should be provided fo r the inherent d is s im ila ritie s , the individual differences of all* Respect of a man’ s worth p o stu lates an equal chance, every opportuni­ ty., every m courage®m t , irre sp e c tiv e of the side of the tracks h© comes fro®, to develop according to hi *3 ta le n ts in the common in te re s ts and purposes of the group* Thus th is profound respect fo r the worth of each in­ dividual in fe rs g ranting freedom of the in d iv id u al, freedom here does not denote licen se to do as one pleases regardless of law or rules} n e ith e r does i t imply the freedom to abuse one’s rig h ts or p riv ile g e s . Freedom meant here is a con­ d itio n , an assurance fo r each individual v o lu n tarily to work out unhampered or uncoerced his ideas and id e a ls. HI t is the freedom to explore, to experiment, to f a i l , to succeed, to discuss and judge, th a t casts the tone to democratic

149 practice. I t means the freedom to experience fre e ly , to gain knowledge, and to grow In understanding, fo r In pro­ portion m the in d iv id u a l^ knowledge and understandings grow,, m w ill his In tellig en ce he lib e ra te d , thus contribut­ ing to his g re a te r freedom and great s e lf-fu lfillm e n t. As a co ro llary to the exercise of th is freedom, democracy claims the rendition of ce rtain re s p o n s ib ilitie s , well ex­ pressed by Smith, Stanley, and Shore© thus? Democracy requires th at each individual bk dis­ cip lin ed in methods of thinking, in procedures of working w ith o th ers, and to p ro tec t others ag ain st^ those who would deny them th e ir democratic r ig h ts . ^ &roup concern, k third way of thinking places t^e welfare of the group as the focal point of discussion* Ad- voe&tes o f th is p o sitio n concede the rig h ts of the individual -V* to his f u ll p o te n tia litie s and the freedom to decide '..upon a way of liv in g provided that the course elected in no wait jeopardises the common w elfare. HDemocracy permits #.nd an- V courages wide ranges of types of Individual personality and genius and value systems, but I t cannot permit any of them to threaten the common good.*®** j& the in te re sts of the group, development of the unique interest:-! and capacities; of.an f u r in nr r i if ii \" v i........... n - ................................. L ~ .........~ ~........................... ................ S iBabcock, c l t . , p. 55. ®®S©lth, B. D*; Stanley, wf 0.• and Shares r J* E ., \\>,x £3&it e m M § sL a i s s t o t e M .§ Isssmk* p* 294* ®3Merriam, o&. o l t . . p. 5?.

150 in d iv id u al should be d ire c te d in a s o c ia lly acceptable man­ ner* Ian is a so c ia l creature* a so c ia l agent molded by the cu ltu re of h is so c ie ty , and, th e re fo re , the common ends, the experiences of the sharing group are of prise importance, as important as the individual d ifferen ces in men. Democ­ racy im plies a group p a rtic ip a tiv e and In te ra c tiv e and co­ operative to serve the purposes of the general w elfare. The actuations o f an individual or the conduct of a. group or com­ munity must be evaluated in re la tio n to i t s potency in pro­ moting shared common in te re s ts fo r the good of the maximum number. The growing interdependence In a community and of the la rg e r world community in a modern In d u stria liz e d c u ltu ra l framework w ill e n ta il more and more group a c tio n and d iscu s­ sio n , not le s s . The s c ie n tif ic and technological discoveries and inventions which have revolutionized tran sp o rta tio n and communication have sh riv eled distances; in d u s tria l and eco­ nomic production have subsequently increased s o c ia l problems, a l l of which fa cto rs have to be taken into any consideration of the w ork ab ility of democracy* Democracy does not de­ velop because of a m anifesto,, but lik e o th er le a rn in g s, i t i s developmental. Democracy is re a liz e d through constant prac­ tice In particip atio n of individuals in the cooperative in te r­ action of the group, in the d irection and co n tro l of shared in te r e s ts , in in te g ra tin g differences and claims of the

151 temporary m inority. In ®®ourlng re s u lts not by dictum but through eons ensue J o in tly arrived a t , and in the guarantee o f equal opportunities fo r the development of the f u ll p o ten ti­ a litie s of each person in recognition of the dignity of the individual consisten t w ith the common good, la so fa r m a society makes p a rtic ip a tio n in i t s good by a l l members on reciprocal terms, provides fo r p ersonality growth, and se­ cure® fle x ib le re in teg ratio n of eo n flictin g views by the In teractio n of the d iffe re n t forms of l i f t in th a t in te r­ re la te d so ciety , I t is to th at extent democratic. Members of th at so ciety are member® of a round table conference characterized by the free exchange and respect of idea® i r ­ re la tiv e to the s o c ia l, economic, or p o litic a l statu s of the member. Im plications for Education •?hat directions fo r education in a. modem society can be derived from, the re in te rp re ta tio n of democracy? what ob­ jectiv es of democratic education can we formulate? Any so­ ciety th a t gives the highest quality of experience both ma­ te r ia lly and c u ltu ra lly is grounded in democratic conception, and I t s a f fa irs are composed and patterned along democratic line®. Democratic process. Democracy emphasizes the impor­ tance of method In education. Democracy cannot develop by

158 d ic ta tio n s! processes* The schools lfshould proceed delib­ e ra te ly to fo s te r and strengthen a l l those physical , in te l­ le c tu a l! and moral t r a i t s which are the substance of democ­ racy—to incorporate into the behavior of boy® and g irls and youth the g reat patterns of democratic liv in g and fa ith , #24 P articipation, sharing, cooperative decisions* actual give and take, m m t be experienced in the educational system. Conflict® are bound to a rise in groups and between groups; adjustments should be resolved by inquiry, discussion, con­ ference, and the p rin cip le of rule by consensus, A ttitudes must be developed th at prepare people to attack problems co­ operatively, to liv e together harmoniously* and to build an ennivonment su itab le fo r the g re a te st u tilis a tio n of human resources and. the re a liz a tio n of human happiness. ■gal education* In order that the range of recruitment is wider and the c irc le of judgment is also wid­ ened—an equally important consideration in any democratic s o c i e t y , t h e r e should be a genuine extension of educational opportunity for a l l , upward, downward, and h o rizo n tally , to reach more people of wider age range and in terests* A demo­ c ra tic society is one In which the individual® enjoy the ^E ducational P olicies Commission, J0M*» P* 50♦ 2 bM m lm X m . i m M m t m R eport of a work Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, p* 37. g% erriam , o&. &JLJ,.» P* 58

155 s ta tu s o f ends mud In s titu tio n s the s ta tu s of means, fo r society tea no good o th er than the good of i t s members. The supreme te a t of democracy is i t s contribution to the a ll* round growth of the members of so ciety . In i t s 1944 year­ book, the Department of Supervision and Curriculum Develop­ ment of the n atio n al Education Association advanced the con­ clusion th a t while t h e ' schools of the country have made progress, they are s t i l l not tru ly democratic, for the costs and regulation® serve to b ar or elim inate many from the secondary schools. XSg I t e U f f m i 9.0.rtH s£ MS.- Berooerscsy embodies the principle th at each individual, i . e . , children as well as ad u lts, possess an in tr in s ic worth and d ig n ity . Therefore, education should u t i li z e the ch ild 's needs, in te r e s ts , and experiences In giving him a sense of competence and a fe e l­ ing of adequacy. Education should'not mortgage childhood for adult preparation* A b e lie f in the dignity and worth of an individual Implies th a t an individual Is a precious being, no m atter what h is ta le n ts . He should not be discrim inated against because he is not m entally keen or s o c ia lly p riv i­ leged, Rules and regulations should not be formulated th at work ag a in st a p erson's s e lf-re s p e c t and personal in te g rity nor any drawn up without the consent of thcae® concerned* Individual MffeTenoep. A respect for individual d if­ ferences and uniqueness encourages a healthy d iv e rsity , and

154 th is Implies a p lu ra lity of groups bM a d istrib u tio n of power* fo r education, th is means th a t the program formu­ la te d be adopted to permit freedom, o f choice and freedom to develop the Individual personalities* The necessity of dy­ namic leader® is of more consequence in a democratic society of thinking individuals than in a society of individuals th at are to ld yh&t to think. C learly, the schools should then discover, recognise, and develop those excellences in the youth to provide opportunities for the re alisa tio n of the various individual d iv e rs itie s , i f society is to be sup­ plied with democratic leadership* S t ppportuM iy* One of the p rin cip les of democracy pointed out e a r lie r #ia th at gains of c iv ilis a ­ tion are not merely economic gains but they cover the broad sweep of human values re la tin g to the common w elfare, and are s s e e n tia lly mass gains th at should be diffused among the community in accordance with the p rin cip le of so cial ju s tic e * *^7 Equality of opportunity is destroyed in the economic sphere when wealth becomes concentrated in the hands of a small class, The highly competitive p ro fit economy should be sup­ planted by a planning society where production is democrati­ cally controlled fo r the good of all* But while wealth is not equitably d istrib u te d and many lo c a litie s are unable to g7I b ia . . pp. 56-57.

155 supply the fin an c ia l resources necessary to support the es­ s e n tia l fu n ctio n s, education w ill remain undemocratic, re­ su ltin g from the in eq u ality of educational opportunity for children*

156 CHAPm VIII KEUTRD SADIES OK WDCMTJO k DUIHISTMTIOK What does democratic administration mean to an admin­ istra to r and to a teacher? To what extent is democratic ad* m inistration practiced in the field ?, what guiding principle® for administration should be formulated? what practice® of democratic administration are found in the schools? Such question® a® these are among the many that h&v® confronted students of adm inistration. The various studies reviewed deal with two aspect® of administration: studies th at in v estig ate democratic practices in administration and those th at endeavor to derive principles of administration from a study of le g is la tiv e enactments or from existing school conditions or from opinion® of experts. Divergent point® of view regarding democratic adm inistration have bean developed and expounded by many w rite r s , notwithstanding! the main thesis of the many studies on d iffe re n t aspects of educational adm inistration underscores the fact th at *democracy cannot be taught by a u to cratic methods: educational p ractices should themselves exemplify the values that are expected as d esir­ able outcomes of education. 3-Developing leaders f££ g.qucation, Report of a Sork Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, p* ! ”•

15? Studies of the Process of Administration The democratic id e a l* in a study completed in 1931* Albert wade E llio tt pointed out p rin cip ally the extent to which democracy mm practiced in the adm inistration of schools. The objectives of the study MThe Status of the Democratic Ideal in the Field of School A d m in istratio n /2 were: » . . (1) to develop &. c lea r and comprehensive definition of the democratic ideal* (2) to note its orig in and trace i t s evolution from i t s inception In the p o litic a l fie ld and through i t s philosophical and even In d u stria l im plications, (3) to demonstrate ob­ je c tiv e ly the extent to which the democratic ideal governs and controls the procedure and a c tiv itie s in school adm inistration today, and (4) to determine the degree to which'-our schools today are prepared to ac­ cept and adopt completely, as a workable * p ra c tic a l p rin c ip le , the ten ets of the democratic ideal as ad­ vanced by its leading proponents..3 E l l io t t s ta rte d w ith d e fin ite ides® regarding wh&t co n stitu ted democratic .practices and sought to support his contentions solely from 410 superintendents to whom ques­ tionnaires were sen t. Three hundred eighty-four superin­ tendents cooperated. The a c tiv itie s on which the question­ naire m&s baaed are the following: 1. lesson planning 3. curriculum making 2* student government 4, PTA 2mi0tt, A. ff.,Ihe Status s£ Jhg.Ijiassi&Ma iStai JM ffl»l& Q l School Adm inistration, unpublished Doctor4s dissertation. 3S i i ,

158 a, methods of teaching 12. provision for individ­ ual differences 6* teacher selection IS. supervised study 7, library fa cilities 8* supervision of in stru ctio n 14, socialised recitation 9, arrangement of classes 16. homogeneous grouping ID, opportunity rooms 16. survey of the free action 11* adjustment rooms of the democratic ideal E llio tt searched for the statu s of the democratic ideal in school adm inistration today. Mis findings are sum­ marised as follows} 1* The la rg e s t amount of personnel p articip atio n In school adm inistration was in the fie ld of curriculum construc­ tion* Approximately 90 per cent of the superintendents reported th e ir s ta ffs as engaging in th is ac tiv ity , 2, About 86 per cent of the school adm inistrators were comsidered as supervising th e ir teachers democratically, 10 per cent were au to cratic in supervising a c tiv itie s , and 4 per cent used the democratic ideal to s h ift re­ sponsibility* 3, A l i t t l e over 78 per cent of the superintendenta claimed th at there was a growing democratic tendency in teacher selectio n and placement through the p articip atio n of supervisors and p rincipals in th is area. 4, Lesson plans were required by approximately 76 per cent of the adm inistrators. Two-thirds of those requiring lesson plans were by inference considered democratic with regard to making lesson plans in as touch as no revisions of plans were demanded of teachers* 5# P articip atio n of pupils in student government a c tiv itie s was favored by more than 75 per cent of the superintendents* 6* Approximately 75 par cent of the superintendents reported parent-teacher associations working with the adm inistra­ tion. 7. Of the superintendents responding, more than 75 per cent asserted th at the individual differences of the pupils were provided for* In order to determine how well-equipped the schools

159 were for the re a liz a tio n of the democratic ideal* the super­ intendents were also asked to evaluate the adequacy of ex­ is tin g equipment and working conditions on the following item®} (X) standard of teaching s k i l l , {2} teacher-training program, {3} school records, (4) physical school equipment, (5) school buildings, (6) approval of the public, (7) health department, (8) approval of the teachers, (9) playgrounds, (10) l ib r a r ie s , (11) textbooks, (12) school su p p lies, (13) curriculum, (14) ex tra-cu rricu lar a c tiv itie s , (15) finances from tax es, (16) supervision, (17) guidance program, (18) state department of education requirements, (19) provisions for individual d ifferen ces, and (20) school objectives. lo s t of the school adm inistrators indicated that th eir schools were ipner&XXy f a ir ly adequate to accept and adopt as a p ra ctic al workable principle the democratic ideal. Only about one-sixth of the adm inistrators adjudged th e ir work oondltlons, equipment, and fin an c ia l conditions as wanting and in su ffic ie n t fo r the re a lisa tio n of the democratic ideal. Teacher participation. F ifty adm inistrative functions were item ised in a questionnaire which was sent to 103 Cali­ fornia schools by Wilbur K. Moser in an attempt to determine the extent of teacher p articip atio n ‘in administration.4 4Moeer, W. E ,, Teacher P articlcation In School Admin­ i s t r a t i o n ; J t i JJature, Extent, $mi Ingres of Advocacy, un­ published Doctor’s dissertatio n ,

160 According to Moser, p articip atio n In policy formation and In in stitu tin g changea In p ractices were democratic. Among the 50 Items of adm inistration lis te d are: supervision, ratin g sc a le s, in -serv ice tra in in g , te s tin g , marking system, promotion, guidance program, salary schedule, budgetary p ra c tic e s, recommendations to the board. Four types of p a rtic ip a tio n were lis te d by which the adm inistration of the 50 junctions In the schools were to be evaluated* Itoser c la ssifie d each type as follows: 1* type 1 Is called ardently democratic. Teachers and ad­ m in istrato rs cooperate both in program development and In making fin a l decisions. S. Type 2 is classed as mildly democratic. Teachers and administrators cooperate in program development but the making o f the fin a l decision is the re sp o n sib ility of the adm inistrator alone. 3* Type 3 is tensed watered, autocracy. Teachers merely give suggestions and criticism s'of administrative pro­ posals; fin a l decisions lie with the administrator. 4. Type 4 is labeled dictatorship. Teachers have no par­ tic ip a tio n at a ll; p o lic ie s , p ra c tic e s, and decisions are In the hands of the adm inistration alone. Seven hundred fo rty usable responses came from 79 adm inistrators and 861 teachers who had been requested to indicate which one of the four types of participation de­ scribed p ractices and p o licies concerning each of the 50 functions in th e ir schools, and which of the four types of administration would each individual recommend as the b e st. Moser found hardly any teacher p a rtic ip a tio n and that

la i giving suggestions and criticism s was larg e ly the nature of teacher p a rtic ip a tio n In adm inistration. Only 30 per cent of the 740 respondees described adm inistration in th e ir schools as defined by type® 1 and 2, Type 4 was the prev­ alen t p ra ctic e a® reported by 58 per cent of the teachers and concurred by 28 per cent of the adm inistrators. The recommendations of th© teachers and adm inistra­ tors were the reverse of the p ra c tic e s reported. Both the teachers and adm inistrators desired g re a te r p a rtic ip a tio n than was actually obtaining in C alifornia, S urprisingly, about 28 per cent of the teachers and 37 par cent of the adm inistrators advocated or approved the l a s t two types designated by lo se r as non-demo©ra tio adm inistration, Forty per cent of th© high school teachers and secondary adminis­ trato rs* 26 per cent of the elementary teachers, and 45 per cent of the elementary school adm inistrators recommended Type 1, Democratic nra.ctl.ces. In 1959, Mildred I), Babcock made a study called *Democratic P ractices In Educational Administration and S u p e r v i s i o n . T h e purpose of the study was to search fo r democratic p ractices in educational admin­ is tra tio n which were successfully operating or which had ^Babcock, M» l h , Democratic P ractices Educational Administration and Supervision, unpublished. Doctor1® d is­ sertation.

162 been trie d . As m outcome of her voluminous review of l i t ­ eratu re, Babcock worked out her d efin itio n of democracy by which she evaluated tradition® ! p ra c tic e s. Bhe said democ­ racy is a guarantee, a protected opportunity fo r each Indi­ vidual to work out in p erfect freedom his own id e a ls, to ex­ perience fre e ly , to share equally in a ll discussions which might concern him, to apply the (lolden Rule to a l l phases of his everyday liv in g , to express individually what he should desire the nation to express c o lle c tiv e ly , to think rig h t, and to be individually governed by his highest nature which c a lls fo r u n selfish devotion to the commongood. & questionnaire pertaining to adm inistration was sen t to 175 adm inistrators and teachers in In stitu tio n s of higher learning. In public and In private schools whom Babcock con­ sidered as outstanding in th e ir respective fie ld s . A precis of her conclusiona are as follows: 1. Both teachers and adm inistrators desire g re a te r p a r tic i­ pation In adm inistration. 2, Educational freedom is e sse n tia l in democracy. 3* Teacher organizations are necessary to p ro tect the interests of the teacher. 4. Educational adm inistration needs to be reorganized to function in a dynamic society. 5. The personality and Individual worth of teachers should be recognized and developed. 6. with rig h ts com® re sp o n s ib ilitie s . 7. Democratic adm inistration should be introduced gradually

without any element of force. 8* There are many degrees of p a rtic ip a tio n w ith no se t pat­ tern to follow. 9. Group ©pinion should not only he heard hut should be made to count. 10. There Is need for g re ater unity within the profession. The study concludes with a program fo r one year In teacher p articip atio n In adm inistration, Suggestions are given in the- areas of teacher meetings, community contacts, and building professional morale. Democracy In efluoatiopal adm inistration, M other study of p articip atio n ., in 1939, by Omer S. Williams, is \"Democracy in Educational A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e main object of the study was to analyze the p ractices and procedures of schools th a t were Incorporating democratic p a rtic ip a tio n In adm inistration, S p ecifically , the study has attempted; 1, To determine the points of view of teachers, p rin c ip a ls, and superintendents concerning adm inistrative problems. 8. To analyze p ractices and procedures. 3, To determine the extent of democratic participation* 4, To note problems, d if f ic u ltie s , and outcomes of democratic adm inistration, 5* To make recommendations for developing sore adequate democratic p articipation in the adm inistration of schools. Information fo r the study was secured prim arily through ft questionnaire supplemented by personal v i s its and observation©. W illia m s, 0. 8 ., Peso©racy .in' Education s i Adminlgt ra­ tion. unpublished Doctorfs d issertatio n .

164 According to Williams, teacher p a rtic ip a tio n f e ll into three groups: the advisory group* A group of teachers e ith e r appointed by the superintendent or elected by the facu lty or a combination of both, acts as an advisory body to the superintendent* |he ppep forum. The whole s ta f f participates In a Hewn-h a ll meeting* discussion of po licies end makes decisions* 6* The committee organizations. The committee is appointed by and held accountable to the superintendent, who is not obliged to follow the re contend at Ions of the group. Among the conclusions drawn from the study are th a t schools have fa ile d to provide fo r youth opportunities in democratic citizenship; that practices lag behind democratic adm inistrative Ideals; th at democratic a ttitu d e s are as es­ se n tia l as p a rtic ip a tio n ; that the lin e-an d -steff type of organization does not lend i t s e l f to democratic p a rtic ip a ­ tion; th a t teacher p articip atio n in some a c tiv itie s is no more than nominal; th a t pupil p articip atio n was more nominal than actu al; and th a t patrons, other than the board, were l e f t out of the democratic process* The w rite r makes certain recommendations fo r develop­ ing democratic participation. He says that p articip atio n should be protected by legal action and, as a corollary, th at teachers should be protected against rep risals and the su­ perintendent1s accountability re stric te d . Opinions of personnel. In 1950, Je ttis o n L, Story

165 reported a study ca lled *Democratic School Administration in Practice} A Study of D iffe re n tia ls in the Judgments end Opinions of School Personnel*? which aimed at an in v estig a­ tion of p re v ailin g conceptions of democracy in public school adm inistration* He asks whether there are sig n ific a n t d if ­ ferences of opinion among school personnel on the question of what co n stitu te s democratic school adm inistration in p rin ­ cip le and p ra ctic e and, further, i f such d ifferences e x is t, whether there are common points of agreement among personnel a t different adm inistrative levels* Eighty-one cooperating superintendents, together with the school systems which they represented, were the p a r ti c i ­ pants of the study* The basic content of the questionnaire on which opinion was sought was based on 14 %road areas of c o n te n tio n .tt Each superintendent, p rin c ip a l, supervisor, d ire c to r, or teacher gave his opinion regarding the extent of democratic adm inistration in each of the 14 problem a re a s, which are as follows: (1) pupil p a rtic ip a tio n In administra­ tion, (2) the participation of ley citizens in administra­ tion , {3} the p a rtic ip a tio n of n o n -in stru ctio n al employees In ad m in istratio n , (4) freedom of the teacher to discuss con­ tro v ersial issues in the classroom, (5) racial or religious ? Story, M. L . , Bemoc ra tic School Administration in P ra c tic e : A Study o f D ifferential# In the Judgments and Opinions of\"\"School Personnel, unpublished Doctor1s d isse r­ tation*

166 discrim ination In the employment of school personnel* (6) standards relatin g to personal behavior of teachers* (?) u tiliz a tio n of teach ers1 suggestions In adm inistration, (B) the dissemination of information about adm inistrative mat­ te rs to teachers* (9) methods of selecting and dismissing teaohers, {10} methodg of dism1ssing and s e le o ting ad®lnis- tra tiv e o ffic ia ls * (11) p a rticip atio n of teachers in policy- making, (12) p a rtic ip a tio n of teachers in policy-executing, (15) p a rtic ip a tio n of teachers in adm inistrative decisions, and (14) the d efin itio n of the adm inistrative function. Story discovered Interesting dlffer-enoea of opinion mad© evident by the responses to the questionnaire. A num­ ber of respondents a c tu a lly marked as ^undesirable8 certain p ractices which were considered \"essential* to democratic adm inistration by others. Superintendents tend to rank th e ir schools as more democratic on most items than do other personnel groups except with respect to p a rticip atio n of pu­ p ils , laymen, and non-Instructional employees, which super­ intendents thought were administered le ss dem ocratically. There Is a su b stan tial agreement among the four groups in th e ir choice of c r ite r ia of democratic adm inistration, a l­ though the teachers tend to choose the more democratic c r i ­ t e r i a , with supervisors ranking next, and with principals and superintendents following In th a t order. The conclusions drawn from the study by Story are th a t

167 school personnel d iffe r widely In th e ir Individual concep­ tio n s of what a c tu a lly co n stitu tes democracy in school ad­ m in istratio n ; th at among the various categories of personnel there was no consistent extreme or decisive differences of opinion; and th at individual Judgments on concepts of democ­ racy vary not because of the school systems themselves but because of the varying individual subjective standards ap­ plied. Skoggbgrg1a observations.8 To discover patterns of adm inistrative procedures, evaluated in terms of Mort*s p rin c ip le s, is the main purpose of Alfred B. Skogsberg'g study, Administrative Operational P attern s* Mors sp e c ifi­ c a lly , he searched fo r answers to three questions; ^ ir s t; what operational p rin cip les seem to have influenced most the recent changes in adm inistrative operation? Second; How la the in terac tio n of the other operational principles related to adaptability? Third; What are the signs th at might indicate a new design of school adm inistrative operation?*19 Data was obtained from d ire c t observation of six c itie s with 60,000 population in Metropolitan Hew Torlc. The re su lts of Skogsberg*® observations were w ritten as case studies. %kogsberg, A* H ., Admin1st native Onera tio n a l Hat- terns. Doctor*g d isse rta tio n . 9I b id .■ p. 18.

168 Skogaberg found th a t, in gen eral, the tendency has been g e ttin g away fro® the lin e -a n d -sta ff operation to the democratic operation of schools, th at the in stru ctio n al pro­ gram Is the core of school operations, that e ffo rts to meet the demands of democracy and ad a p ta b ility are being under­ taken, and th at the in te re s ts of boys and g ir ls are con­ sidered in the decisions mads. The p attern s of adm inistrative operation th at are being practiced in the schools observed are characterized by teamwork, give-and-take, and a recognition of the peculiar contributions each Individual csn make* One p attern reveals the use of a su p erin ten d en ts cabinet which discusses p o li­ cies and proposes adm inistrative arrangements to the board of education* The cooperative budget formulation undertaken by a group composed of the superintendent, representatives of the s ta f f , the board of education, and representatives of lay groups is another type of operation* V ertical sta ff committees of several kinds, which are given o f f ic ia l sta tu s by the board of .education, help In the adm inistration of the schools, p a rtic u la rly on problems of curriculum and on prob­ lems of personnel and th e ir welfare* toother pattern Is the trend towards sim p lificatio n of the machinery, in some cases by elim inating dual adm inistration, making the superintendent the chief executive o ffic e r; in other oases by abolishing the hierarchy of in sp ecto rial o ffic e rs. In some c it ie s , tie

169 I n d i v i d u a l schools ©.re considered semi-autonomous u n its: the p rin cip al ha® the re sp o n sib ility fo r fin a l decision®; the school u n it has i t s own group-formulated budget; and pur­ chase® are l e f t to the discretion of the local s ta f f . There are system® in which the board of education and the superin­ tendent regard themselves as a community ways-and-ase&ns com­ m ittee ra th e r than as mere tru ste e s of education, They open ways of communication between groups; they lo cate people who can be of most help to the school; they work with lay groups to meet the unmet needs of the community. In a l l these p a tte rn s, the p rinciples of democracy, prudence, f le x ib ility , and ju stic e were applied to f u l f i l l the need of adapting the schools to th e ir c u ltu ra l settings* Ae a re su lt o f his study, Skogsberg concludes th at the cooperative pattern of adm inistration, being s t i l l in a tran­ sitio n period, has to overcome the lim itatio n s of certain ch aracteristics of the old pattern of llne-ancl-steff; that the future adm inistrative pattern w ill incorporate the fo l­ lowing featureSi 1* The h eart of school operation w ill be the in stru c tio n a l situ a tio n to promote ad ap tab ility in the schools. 2. The p attern s of operation w ill e m p h a s i z e the balance of the operational p rin cip les, especially the principles of democracy and ad a p ta b ility , 3, 'lli® teacher and the adm inistrator w ill work on equal terms as professional colleagues. Teacher p articip atio n in policy formation and planning w ill be an o ffic ia lly recognised pattern.

170 4. The b u ilding p rin c ip a l w ill assume more re sp o n s ib ility fo r the f l e x i b i l it y and adaptability of the program in terms of Individual schools, £>* The area of actio n w ill b© the community* Communication among teach ers, the board of education, lay people, m d pupils w ill be two-way. The in te ra c tio n of the school and i t s community should re s u lt in an increased lay un­ derstanding of the school and In a la rg e r p a rtic ip a tio n in Improving I t . The six studies Ju st reviewed—E l l i o t t 1®, Moser’s , Babcock’s , w illiam s1, Story’s , and Skosberg’s—deal with the ap p licatio n of democracy in the administration of schools. The term democracy was Implied to mean particip atio n * admin­ istra tio n invariably was discussed In relation to p ractices and procedures and minutiae of the school system. Basic to the six d issertatio n s is the assumption that administrative p ra ctic es are ehar&eterlzed by au to cratic asthods and, th ere­ fo re , the crying need fo r democracy In contemporary school administration. ^Ive o f the dissertations re lie d on the questionnaire as the main source of th e ir data and Informa­ tion* Studies of P rinciples of Administration S tra v e r’s re se arc h . 10 Jb order to determine the tend­ encies toward cen tralizatio n in the administration of public lQstr&yer, i C entralizing Tendencies jji the AdmIniatratIon of Public Education« Doctor1a d is s e rta tio n .

171 education, George D* S trayer, J r . , In 1954, made a study of le g is la tio n fo r schools In North C arolina, Maryland, end Mew York, as the three s ta te s 1b which considerable c e n tra lisa ­ tion had occurred. He claimed th a t h is study *will examine in d e ta il the trends of the more important le g is la tio n af­ fecting the re la tio n sh ip of the s ta te government to education in each of the three s ta te s , and w ill consider these trends in the lig h t of c e rta in c r i t e r i a , M11 L egislation in the areas of (1) s ta te support, (2) building®, (3) the curriculum, and (4) teachers* train in g c e rtif ic a tio n and s a la rie s are evalu­ ated in the lig h t of the following c rite ria : 1. E qualisation of educational opportunity and sup­ port should be provided. £• Certain areas of local p a rtic ip a tio n should be preserved in order that adaptation of the edu­ catio n al program may be guaranteed and e ffic ie n ­ cy maintained, 3. The educational program should b® considered as a whole and sp ecial phase© or types of education should not be supported a t the expense of the re s t of the program. I 46 Among the facts found by Strayer in each of the three states are the following: 1. Worth Carolina15 a. C entralization of the financing of education has 11Ib id ., p. 8. l ^Ib ld . , pp* 9-15. » PP* 17*48.

172 been ca rried to the extreme of se ttin g up maxima ra th e r than minim®; of deciding by the s ta te of­ f i c i a l s how every d o llar s h e ll be spent; of a plan of sta te support rather than -state aid* Central!* sailo n of the financing of the public school system ha.® been the means of standardising length of term, requirements for school employees, salary schedules, and the control of Interna such as power to elim inate or c u rta il items of expenditure in local budgets* b* The standards established fo r re p air and construction arc minimum in nature * and local in itia tiv e and ex­ perimentation are given some opportunity to function* e# The c e n tra lisa tio n of curriculum requirements in the state a u th o ritie s re la tin g to the in ten ia of edu­ cation include what is taught and how i t i s taught* d* The control of the number of teachers and th e ir s a l­ a rie s is placed In the hands of the S tate School Com­ mission* State control of the number of teachers and o f the maximum sa la rie s hardly insures that every lo c a lity w ill be blessed with the balanced educational program which I t d esires. e. The fin a n c ia l power has been centered in a s ta te body larg ely p o litic a l In membership called the Stete School Commission ra th e r than In the State De­ partment of Education. a. C entralization of the adm inistration of the Maryland s ta te school system has come about by means of supere­ vision ra th e r than by administrative control* Only minimum standards are required in connection with the policy of state aid, b* with regard to buildings, lo cal I n itia tiv e is not discouraged to go beyond the minimum requirements set up by the s ta te . e. with many required subjects, i t is d if f ic u lt to In­ troduce an ad d itional subject If the prescribed course of study is being s tric tly followed. d. The c e n tra liz a tio n of teacher train in g and teacher certifica tio n did a great deal to advance the Ideal of equality of educational opportunity. It devel­ oped minimum requirements fo r certain educational

173 p o sitio n s and also the exact nature' of the pro fee* sional train in g th a t should be taken. e. The c o n tro llin g agency is the S tate Board of Educa­ tion whose by-laws have been as powerful as le g is ­ la tiv e enactments for centralisation . III. lo rk 3*® a. The minimum requirements which were s e t up in regard, to size of c la ss, length of tana, salary paid, course of study followed, and the lik e , are to a large de­ gree concerned w ith giving each ch ild as good school­ ing as th a t provided elsewhere In. the s ta te . The control over p u b lic ity fo r the accounting fo r school monies, bond Issu es, c ity salary schedules, and the te a c h e rs1 retirem ent system has been cen­ tr a liz e d with the Commissioner of Education as head of the State Education department. The progress of abolishing small school u n its has been f a c ilita te d by making consolidation p ro fita b le to the p articipatin g d is tric ts , b. The U niversity of the S tate of Hew fo r k through le g is ­ la tiv e actions has the a ll-in c lu s iv e licen sin g power over a l l types of classes and schools in Hew York-. c. The curriculum p re sc rip tio n s are few, but the Regents Examinations have profoundly influenced curriculum In the public school d is tr ic ts . I t Ms tended to lim it the c u rric u la r m aterial offered to th a t which w ill most adequately prepare fo r the examinations, The e f fe c t of the examinations upon lo cal school systems tends to be g reatest in units th at cannot secure ade­ quate educational leadership, &. The c e n tra liz in g tendencies w ith regard to teacher tra in in g provides fo r tra in in g enough individuals to f i l l the teaching po sitio n s in the s ta te . Hone of the a c ti v i t i e s of the s ta te are se t up o ther than by minimum standards. e. The ju d ic ia l power of the Commissioner of Education Is derived by law. His decisions are f i n a l , p a rtic u ­ la r ly on m atters of in te rn a l a.dmIn le t ra tio n . 15H > ii., PP. 68-107,

174 According to Btrayen, the development of a technical and competent state Department of Education to encourage local In itia tiv e Is the urgent need, not the enaction of m m legislation* Other fa c ts show th a t \"centralizing tendencies should be encouraged when they attempt to insure adequate f i ­ nancial support, competent personnel, necessary physical equipment, and essen tial school o r g a n iz a t io n \" whereas, freedom to experiment in organization of classe s, in c u rric ­ ulum, in method of teaching, and in the provision of special services should be l e f t to the local communities. Three conclusions based on 3trayer*s research are: 1* A study of leg isla tio n s enacted shows no evidence of a philosophy of government or of educational adm inistration co n tro llin g the development o f the ce n traliz in g ten- - dencica. 2. Administration u n its are not large enough to make I t reasonably certain th at competent o ffic ia ls w ill be employed. 3. The absence of competent leadership re su lts in demands fo r le g is la tio n to guarantee minimum efficiency. The author concludes hie study with a statement of p rin cip les by which le g is la to rs and adm inistrators may evalu­ ate proposed le g is la tio n s . They are: 1. The s ta te should guarantee support for lo cal school system® in order to make an acceptable foundation program of education. 2, The state* s program for financing should he in the *6 m a . . p. a ? .

175 nature of a minimum program in order to preserve lo cal in itia tiv e and opportunity fo r experimenta­ tion, 3, Control of minimus* standards fo r school s ite s , b u ild in g s, and equipment should be placed in the S tate Department of Education, 4, The s ta te should be made responsible fo r the es­ tablishment o f standards and for the a&mlni®trac­ tion of a system of c e rtif ic a tio n . 5, Local control should govern the d etailed content of courses of study and the selectio n of cu rricu la best adapted to the needs of the children. 6, The s ta te should provide leadership in m atters re­ latin g to the iatesfla. 7, The State Department of Education should be given le g is la tiv e au th o rity in regard to the minimum scope and organization of lo c a l school system s,^ study, X8 Although O liver H* Bias on* s study l.aptic,i.pat„i,QD o£ jjja te & E m m m l M Administration discusses teacher participation in school adm inistration, i t d iffers from those of Moser or Story by the importance i t places on principles ra th e r than on procedures of p a rtic ip a tio n . The study includes a discussion of the theories of school admin­ is tr a tio n , advantages and disadvantages of p a rtic ip a tio n , and methods of p a rtic ip a tio n . The need to formulate a democratic philosophy of par­ tic ip a tio n in adm inistration is emphasized, Bimson secured I 7 ib ia . . pp. 112-115. l®BlBson, 0. H.i Participation of School Personnel in Adm inistration. Doctor's dissertatio n .

1 (O„ {*■* the help of a Jury of educational-experts*9 (selected by four groups of educators fro® each sta te ) to evaluate the v a lid ity of his principles* Among the more Important p rin ­ ciples In his philosophy are: 1. democracy Is not only a mode o f liv in g to be taught In a school system, but i t la a c tu a lly r. l i f e process to be experienced dally in the work and achievement of the school* 2, P articip atio n is e s s e n tia lly an a ttitu d e of mind, not merely a form of organisation* 3* All who are concerned with carrying out a policy should p articip ate to the extent of th e ir respec­ tive a b ilitie s In the formulation of th a t policy* 4* A cooperative foxro of adm inistration must be rig ­ id ly impersonal* 5* All who accept the privilege of cooperating In the formulation o f educational policy must assume a corresponding resp o n sib ility for the re su lts of th a lr recomraendatlons * 0. A c le a r d istin c tio n must be made between the formu­ la tio n of a policy and the adm inistration of policy. 7* Coordination should not be thought of as being syn­ onymous with cooperation* Cooperation implies sh arin g .20 On the basis of the evaluation o f the jury of experts, Blaeon makes five recommendations: 1. All employees should have the opportunity to engage ^cubberley; Peweyj Engelhardt, N.; Moehlaan; Mortj Newlon; Smith, P .; Stoddard; Str&yer, S r.; and Studebaker* SoBi®eon, £&* ejL$* > PP* 65-93.

177 In a cooperative study of adm inistrative problems, 2, P a rtic ip a tio n in adm inistration la desirable and possible In a ll school systems regardless of size, 3. The plan of organization should be adapted to the needs of each school system, 4, P articip atio n should be employed only in connec­ tion with problems of importance# 5. P articip atio n can best be brought about by a com­ mon desire for cooperative action on the part of a l l persons involved,^1 C l l l l e 1s lnveat^gation»^ Three of the hypotheses foraulated by Mart formed the basis of the investigation by Francois 3, ClXXle in 1940, The hypotheses are the fo l­ lowing: 1, That certain adaptations prosper in a decentralized system of educational adm inistration; 2, That c e rta in fu rth e r adaptations prosper in a cen­ tra liz e d system of educational adm inistration: 3, That certain other adaptations prosper independent of the type of adm inistration*^ Taking the Hew York 01ty educational system to be representative of a cen tralized educational system, and using a l l the Hew York v illa g e s having an above-average educational SI I b id . . p. 115. S S c illle , F. S ., Centralization sx Decentralization? Doctor1s d isse rta tio n , 25 Ib ld . . p . 4.

178 expenditure, m above-average socio-economic s ta tu s , and under elected superintendents as the decentralized school systems fo r study, C illl e , by means of a survey, compared the two groups to te s t the three hypotheses s ta te d by Mort, Inform ation was g en erally obtained on the b a sis of a per­ sonal in terv iew . The presence of an adaptation in a school and not the degree of excellence of the adaptation was the m atter of main concern to the in v e stig a to r. In studying the a llo c a tio n of functiona, G illie c la s s ifie d in to seven main category group® the adaptation item® contained in Mort* 3 fluid.® fo r Self*Appraisal of School Systems, A daptability, to provide fo r (1) f le x ib ility , (8) the individual p upil, (3) the teaching personnel, (4) the cur­ riculum, (5) buildings and equipment, (6) the school and community, and (?) p ro fessionalized adm inistration was the Investigator*® sole criterio n in the allocation of functions, He claims th a t such c r i t e r i a as f l e x i b i l i t y , ” Min d iv id u a li­ zation , ” and ”e ffic ie n c y ” are not coordinate but subordinate to ad aptability. A summation of O ll l le 1® findings in adaptations under each category th at prosper in a fteqefttmllggd system are* 1* f l e x i b i l i t y in the capacity to changes. 2. The individual pupilj a. In d iv id u alizatio n in procedures and practice® to meet the needs of the pupils, b* Providing fo r the deviates in the high school, c. Providing for health services.

179 5, the teaching personnel In the democratization of ad­ m inistration. 4* The curriculum in the v ita lix a tio n of tra d itio n a l sub­ jects, 6* Buildings and equipment: a. The extension of supplies and equipment, b. The implementation of the a e sth e tic p rin c ip le , 6, School and community In the social o rien tatio n of the school* Adaptations under each category that prosper in a C M trillaed system are the following: 1* The individual pupil where the u n it cost v aries In d i­ rect proportion to the enrollment, 2, The teaching personnel In the economic se c u rity of the teacher, 3# P rofessionalised adm inistration, re la tin g mostly to bus in.©ss ad®inis t ra tio n . Adaptations under each category that prosper indepen­ dent of the type of administration are: 1, f le x ib ility , fa llin g In the realm of Xalssez fair©. 2, The individual pupil in providing for deviate® in the elementary schools* 3* The teaching personnel: a. In the excellence of personal standards, b. In the program of teacher improvement. 4* The curriculum: a. Enriching the curriculum* b. Extending the curriculum# 5* Buildings and equipment In the extension of building®* ©• School and community? a* Cooperation between the horn® and the school# b. Cooperation between the school and community agencies, 7# P rofessionalised adm inistration re la tin g to efficiency.

180 I f the conclusions advanced by O lllie are v alid , ce n traliz ed systems of s.dmIn le t r a ti on are of advantage only when adaptations are made in areas that involve fin an cial matters* The claims made through which decentralized sys­ tems make th e ir g re a te st contributions, such as enriching the curriculum or providing for individual differences, are accomplished, according to C illte , e ith e r in a centralized or d ecen trailze& sys tern. SAIlerl s s tu d y . to analysis o f p rin cip les and p ractices of educational admlnl a t ration from an extensive survey of educational lite r a tu r e was undertaken by Ward. Ira M iller in 1042 in his d is s e rta tio n ppmocracy %n Educational Adm inistration. The purpose of hi® study was to define the issu e s, in dicate the problems, and formulate p rin cip les by which the issues and problems were to be examined* More s p e c ific a lly , his work d ea lt In P art I with a discussion ”of the democratic sta te with its relatio n to the schools} with the developments which are affectin g m aterially the p atterns of educational adm inistration; and with a b r ie f review of sig n ifican t studies dealing with one or more aspects of co­ operative m a n a g e m e n t . M i l l e r also enumerate® the purpose® of p art XI in the following! ^ M ille r , v. I . , Democracy jn Educational tio n . Doctor1® d isse rta tio n . 26Ib id . . p. 31.

181 X* Examination o f the p rin cip les that have been stated and th e ir reforaimlation fo r fu rth e r study of the problem* 2* Examination of the basic issues and problems In- volved in the lig h t o f the principle accepted* 5# C la rific a tio n of the alias and values of democratic adm inistration and the Indication, of certain dangers. 4. Determination of the ch aracteristics of acceptable programs.«8 Many p rin cip les formulated by previous writer® in proceedings of educational conferencea, yearbooks, surveys, d is s e rta tio n s , books, and a r tic le s were evaluated in the lig h t of fiv e c r it e r ia which M iller evolved. As a r e s u lt, six broad p rin cip les of democratic adm inistration were re- formulated by M iller. The following is a concise summary of his principles. Principle Qt Demooraqy jBftmo&ratic\"educational .administration must seek to Dleaent Jh§ principle* s£ American aeaooimoy. These principle® include basic concepts such as the dig** n ity of individual p erso n ality , equality 'but not iden­ t i t y of opportunity, and p a rtic ip a tio n d ire c tly or through representation in the formation of p o lic ie s. Democracy In adm inistration must foe determined by i t s contribution to the common good* g- £&g Principle o£ Democratic educational adm inistration recognizes the olaoe o f au th o rity i a j f e ffiallm tipn. o f JhgL Dumo.ses o£ education in g a r M erlm a democracy. Powers must be delegated to m ajorities or responsible representatives. Authority in adm inistration le 36Ib id .. p. 32,

102 p a rtic u la rly n m m m r s in the execution of polls le i wMeh hewe been dOBear&iieeXXy deterained. S. au th o rity without m p c m lfe tlity would t$mn deetroy liberty* while raejpe& eiblllty w ithout a u th o rity mpm** *m%$ the ®m® o f f u tility * 4i .thet M fl IM M $m u &£ each Individtn*; m il stH rm m nm op ia e ie te th a t a ll persons effected by polio I ts afesll eher* in th e i r fo s w le ilo fu The peretme beet suited to engag# its sp ecific a c tiv ity mm% be eeleete&v ^ lin e s of authority end reeponeibility must be care* fu lly ep eeifled «<! n m m of participation clearly de«* fined* b* ffjhe Aft Ite i L e .i.^ tlc e a . A daptability 1# power of »<yuetnent to envlrcinentiti con- d ill on®* To abhlere lb# purpoeeep i t su et emerge from lo cal *teed% mn% be p m o tlc e i and ©e eimpl# a# ooeeibla* The ■p lm w ! be fle x ib le »o th a t continuous adjustment to ©hanging need# a»y be e a s ily aeoo&pllshed* 6, yprye 11“ Criteria for nmesurlng progresst a* .An Increasing number of person# participating in planning end neblag decisions* b* An increasing display of deBccr&tio behavior* o* #b increasing accept mce of d w o r a tic procedure# in e&inational processes*

165 &* An increasing o b je c tiv ity towards educational prob- lems. ©* An inoreaaing reeoguiticm of cooperation. f* A progressive harmony between school and community. i t study. B y using the h is to ric a l approach, Robert SU Gibson, in 1949# attempted to discover the values th at have emerged through the ages which m n have id e n tifie d m democratic id e a ls. Having discovered these id eals, the author trie d to re la te them to the developing theories of ad­ ministration, especially school administration* the begin­ nings of the id eals were traced from as f a r back as the an­ cien t tim es, a f te r which broad p rin cip les emerging from these discussions were s e t fo rth , Principle a of democracy, of curriculum construction, of personnel adm inistration, of busi­ ness adm inistration, of rules and regulations, and of school- community re la tio n s ere some of the areas touched on by the study* lik e Bimson, H ille r, and Moser, Gibson claims th a t p a rtic ip a tio n does not always nm&n democracy; b ut, unlike them, he in s is ts th a t in a democratic school adm inistration, the adm inistrative machinery and forme of organization are important. The following la an epitome of the p rin cip les s e t 2?<m>son, S. E ,, Principles, Techniques, and Organl- z.fttlon of Bomooratic School Admlnl at ration and Their Hela - lio n to Evolving Beiooracy, unpublished Doctor's dlsserta- tion.