["b\u1eb1ng s\u00f4ng Nile. \u201c\u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n ghi ch\u00e9p \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Ramses II v\u00e0 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a Pi-Ramses\u201d, nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 Mohammad Abdul Aksud tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1. T\u1ea5m \u0111\u00e1 c\u00f3 k\u00edch th\u01b0\u1edbc kh\u00f4ng to v\u00e0 b\u1ecb h\u1ecfng n\u1eb7ng, tr\u00ean \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 kh\u1eafc 11 d\u00f2ng ch\u1eef do tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh Anatolian Hittite g\u1eedi cho vua Ramses II. N\u00f3 ra \u0111\u1eddi ngay sau khi ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Ai C\u1eadp v\u00e0 Hittite l\u1eadp l\u1ea1i h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1287 sau nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m giao chi\u1ebfn. T\u1ea5m \u0111\u00e1 kh\u1eafc ch\u1eef h\u00ecnh n\u00eam, lo\u1ea1i ch\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Sumeria s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o v\u00e0o n\u0103m 3.300 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tr\u00ean kh\u1eafp Trung \u0110\u00f4ng cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. Khu khai qu\u1eadt t\u1ea1i Roman Forum C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 cho bi\u1ebft t\u1ea5m b\u1ea3ng n\u00e0y t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u1eefng t\u1ea3ng \u0111\u00e1 c\u0169ng kh\u1eafc ch\u1eef h\u00ecnh n\u00eam \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 \u1edf Tell Al-Amarna, mi\u1ec1n nam Ai C\u1eadp. Tell Al-Amarana l\u00e0 th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 cai tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a vua Akhenaton (1372-1354 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean). Vua Akhenaton \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed ghi nh\u1eadn l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh chuy\u1ec3n sang \u0110\u1ea1o m\u1ed9t th\u1ea7n, th\u1edd th\u1ea7n m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi Zeus. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 hy v\u1ecdng t\u1ea5m b\u1ea3ng \u1edf Quantir c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n \u1edf c\u00f9ng khu v\u1ef1c, n\u01a1i Ramses II cho x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7. Ramses II \u0111\u00e3 c\u01b0\u1edbi c\u00f4ng ch\u00faa Hittite \u0111\u1ec3 duy tr\u00ec h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Anatolian, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 t\u1eadp trung s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh v\u00e0o v\u00f9ng L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0, n\u01a1i tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Assyrian \u0111ang b\u1ecb suy vong. 13. T\u00ccM TH\u1ea4Y T\u1ea4M B\u00d9A H\u1ed8 M\u1ec6NH TH\u1edcI LA M\u00c3 C\u1ed4 \u0110\u1ea0I M\u1ed9t t\u1ea5m l\u00e1 m\u1ecfng b\u1eb1ng v\u00e0ng th\u1eddi La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u00f3 kh\u1eafc nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u th\u1ea7n ch\u00fa huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed v\u00e0 ch\u1eef vi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Latin \u2013 Hy L\u1ea1p m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y t\u1ea1i Mid - Norfolk, Anh. T\u1ea5m l\u00e1 c\u00f3 t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 b\u00f9a h\u1ed9 m\u1ec7nh, c\u1ea7u xin s\u1ef1 b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 t\u1eeb th\u1ea7n Abrasax c\u00f3 ph\u00e9p thu\u1eadt. T\u1ea5m v\u00e0ng d\u00e1t n\u00e0y d\u00e0i kho\u1ea3ng 4 cm, r\u1ed9ng 2 cm, d\u00e0y ch\u01b0a t\u1edbi 1 mm, c\u00f3 t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 II sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0m v\u01b0\u1eddn v\u00f4 t\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra. L\u00fac \u0111\u1ea7u, \u00f4ng l\u1ea7m t\u01b0\u1edfng n\u00f3 l\u00e0 t\u1ea5m l\u00e1 v\u00e0ng b\u1ecdc ngo\u00e0i n\u00fat chai champagne b\u1ecb v\u1ee9t \u0111i.","Nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1c chuy\u00ean gia \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng qu\u00fd hi\u1ebfm. V\u00e0 m\u1edbi c\u00f3 4 t\u1ea5m l\u00e1 m\u1ecfng nh\u01b0 v\u1eady \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf Anh cho t\u1edbi nay. Theo ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 Andrian Marsden, kho\u1ea3ng 1.900 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t th\u1ea7y ph\u00f9 th\u1ee7y kh\u1eafc cho m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng t\u00ean l\u00e0 Similis, con trai c\u1ee7a Marcellina (nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i t\u00ean n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u1eafc b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Latin \u1edf b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi). Similis c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 g\u1ea5p t\u1ea5m l\u00e1 v\u00e0 \u0111eo trong m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i bao \u1edf tr\u00ean c\u1ed5, sau \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00f4n n\u00f3 g\u1ea7n m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n. Th\u1ea7n Abrasax c\u00f3 chi\u1ebfc \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a g\u00e0 tr\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 m\u00ecnh r\u1eafn. V\u1ecb th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 t\u1eeb Ba T\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c du nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o La M\u00e3. M\u1ed9t t\u1ea3ng \u0111\u00e1 qu\u00fd c\u00f3 kh\u1eafc ch\u00e2n dung c\u1ee7a Abrasax \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1979. \u201cSimilus c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh. \u00d4ng \u1ea5y h\u1eb3n r\u1ea5t gi\u00e0u \u0111\u1ec3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1ea3 ti\u1ec1n cho m\u00f3n \u0111\u1ed3 n\u00e0y. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh th\u1eddi La M\u00e3 c\u0169ng lo l\u1eafng v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00fang ta v\u1eady\u201d, Marsden n\u00f3i. 14. NG\u01af\u1edcI AI C\u1eacP M\u1edaI L\u00c0 T\u00c1C GI\u1ea2 C\u1ee6A H\u1ec6 S\u1ed0 \u0110\u1ebeM M\u1ed9t nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u m\u1edbi cho th\u1ea5y ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 m\u01b0\u1ee3n h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00edch th\u00e2n ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n n\u00f3 nh\u01b0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1eabn ngh\u0129 \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y. H\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd h\u1ecdc Archimedes, tri\u1ebft gia Aristotle, nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc Euclid, c\u00f9ng nhi\u1ec1u thi\u00ean t\u00e0i kh\u00e1c. M\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c ph\u00e2n t\u00edch do ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 Stephen Chrisomalis t\u1ea1i \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc McGill \u1edf Montreal, Canada, \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y s\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1 gi\u1eefa ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p v\u00e0 con s\u1ed1 th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee7a Ai C\u1eadp, s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1eeb cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 VIII tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean cho \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 450 sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. C\u1ea3 2 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ec1u c\u00f3 9 k\u00fd hi\u1ec7u c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t t\u1eeb 1 \u0111\u1ebfn 9. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u thi\u1ebfu bi\u1ec3u t\u01b0\u1ee3ng s\u1ed1 0. Ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 Chrisomalis cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ee3t b\u00f9ng ph\u00e1t giao th\u01b0\u01a1ng gi\u1eefa Hy L\u1ea1p v\u00e0 Ai C\u1eadp sau n\u0103m 600 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p m\u01b0\u1ee3n h\u1ec7 s\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ebfm c\u1ee7a Ai C\u1eadp. Gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 David Joyce, nh\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc t\u1ea1i \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Clark \u1edf Worcester, M\u1ef9, ph\u00e1t bi\u1ec3u: \u201cNg\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp ban \u0111\u1ea7u s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 th\u1ea7y tu, sau \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng, m\u00e0 \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c k\u00fd hi\u1ec7u b\u1ed9i s\u1ed1 tr\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c k\u00fd hi\u1ec7u \u0111\u01a1n. Thay v\u00ec 7 n\u00e9t d\u1ecdc, m\u1ed9t d\u1ea1ng n\u00e9t cong \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 n\u00e9t t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed","d\u1ee5ng trong ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p\u201d. Theo quan ni\u1ec7m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, h\u1ec7 s\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ebfm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n \u1edf \u0110\u00f4ng Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1, Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 ng\u00e0y nay. V\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 475-325 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0a chu\u1ed9ng b\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 acrophonic. Nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 IV tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean tr\u1edf \u0111i, ch\u1eef s\u1ed1 l\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0a chu\u1ed9ng trong th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi n\u00f3i ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. N\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Byzantine s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XV. 15. AI C\u1eacP D\u00d9NG KHOA H\u1eccC X\u00d3A B\u1ece L\u1edcI NGUY\u1ec0N PHARAON C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a x\u1ee9 s\u1edf kim t\u1ef1 th\u00e1p s\u1ebd ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh ki\u1ec3m tra nh\u1eefng h\u1ea7m m\u1ed9 ch\u01b0a t\u1eebng b\u1ecb x\u00e2m ph\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm nh\u1eefng lo\u1ea1i h\u00f3a ch\u1ea5t, kh\u00ed ho\u1eb7c vi tr\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ed9c h\u1ea1i. N\u1ebfu th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng, h\u1ecd s\u1ebd d\u1ee1 b\u1ecf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1eddi nguy\u1ec1n v\u1ed1n b\u1ecb coi l\u00e0 g\u00e2y n\u00ean c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft b\u00ed \u1ea9n c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean xu\u1ed1ng c\u00e1c l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XX. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u ng\u00e0nh kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 Ai C\u1eadp Zahi Hawass cho bi\u1ebft: \u201cT\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec3m khai qu\u1eadt, t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y d\u00f2ng ch\u1eef kh\u1eafc \u201cB\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 ai n\u1ebfu ch\u1ea1m tay v\u00e0o ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a ta, k\u1ebb \u0111\u00f3 s\u1ebd b\u1ecb c\u00e1 s\u1ea5u, h\u00e0 m\u00e3 v\u00e0 s\u01b0 t\u1eed \u0103n th\u1ecbt\u201d. Nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a r\u1eb1ng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh hi\u1ec7n th\u1ef1c\u201d. \u201cV\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t khoa h\u1ecdc, ch\u00fang t\u00f4i mu\u1ed1n ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng, khi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i d\u00f2ng ch\u1eef tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9, h\u1ecd kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u00fd mu\u1ed1n l\u00e0m t\u1ed5n th\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ebfn h\u1eadu th\u1ebf \u2013 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1edf c\u1eeda ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 \u0111\u00f3\u201d, Hawass n\u00f3i. Chi\u1ebfc h\u1ed9p t\u1ecfa ra m\u00f9i kem n\u1eeda gi\u1ed1ng l\u01b0u hu\u1ef3nh, n\u1eeda gi\u1ed1ng pho m\u00e1t M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u s\u1ebd t\u1eadp trung v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng vi khu\u1ea9n nguy hi\u1ec3m c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 t\u00edch l\u0169y trong c\u00e1c x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 qua. Nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh Howard Carter v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00e0i tr\u1ee3 cho chuy\u1ebfn khai qu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, Lord Carnarvon, n\u1eb1m trong s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb c\u1ee7a thi\u1ebfu ni\u00ean Tutankhamun (tr\u1ecb v\u00ec Ai C\u1eadp h\u01a1n 3.000 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc) trong Thung l\u0169ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u00f4ng ho\u00e0ng v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1922. Lord Carnarvon \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebft kh\u00f4ng l\u00e2u sau \u0111\u00f3, v\u00ec m\u1ed9t v\u1ebft mu\u1ed7i c\u1eafn. C\u00e1c t\u1edd b\u00e1o khi \u0111\u00f3 loan tin m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi","nguy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a pharaon \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft ch\u1ebft \u00f4ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 n\u00e0y. C\u00f2n c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc th\u00ec cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t c\u0103n b\u1ec7nh n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 t\u1eebng ng\u1ee7 y\u00ean trong ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e3 c\u01b0\u1edbp \u0111i sinh m\u1ea1ng nh\u00e0 qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c Anh. \u201cC\u00f4ng vi\u1ec7c s\u1ebd s\u1edbm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng t\u1edbi. Nh\u01b0ng ch\u00fang t\u00f4i ch\u01b0a r\u00f5 th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m k\u1ebft th\u00fac... Ch\u00fang t\u00f4i s\u1ebd nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 c\u00f2n nguy\u00ean v\u1eb9n, ch\u01b0a b\u1ecb khai qu\u1eadt\u201d, Hawass n\u00f3i. 16. KH\u00c1M PH\u00c1 B\u00cd \u1ea8N V\u1ec0 HO\u00c0NG \u0110\u1ebe LA M\u00c3 H\u00e0ng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 nay, c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 v\u1eabn tranh c\u00e3i v\u1ec1 v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf th\u1ee9 3 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u1eb7t c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi \u00f4ng vua Caligula l\u1eadp d\u1ecb n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t k\u1ebb hoang t\u01b0\u1edfng d\u00e1m th\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n, hay nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n xung quanh t\u00ednh kh\u00ed th\u1ea5t th\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 do k\u1ebb x\u1ea5u ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i l\u00ean. Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf m\u1ea5t n\u0103m 33 tu\u1ed5i C\u00e1c s\u1eed gia c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 ch\u1ee9ng \u0111i\u00ean kh\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a Caligula, nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n khi\u1ebfn tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5 nhanh ch\u00f3ng. Caligula l\u00e0m ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf trong 4 n\u0103m, sau \u0111\u00f3 b\u1ecb nh\u1eefng c\u1eadn v\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh \u00e1m s\u00e1t v\u00e0o n\u0103m 41 sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. Nh\u1eefng t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 Caligula l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb vua \u0111i\u00ean kh\u00f9ng v\u00e0 th\u00e8m kh\u00e1t quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 phong ch\u1ee9c quan ch\u1ea5p ch\u00ednh t\u1ed1i cao cho con ng\u1ef1a c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh v\u00e0 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u d\u1ef1ng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u00ecnh trong c\u00e1c ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n linh thi\u00eang. Nh\u01b0ng v\u1ec1 sau, c\u00e1c s\u1eed gia v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 cho r\u1eb1ng: Nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ef1ng n\u00ean b\u1edfi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi mu\u1ed1n vu kh\u1ed1ng v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf hung b\u1ea1o. Hi\u1ec7n nay, m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 khai qu\u1eadt cung \u0111i\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Caligula (n\u1eb1m t\u1ea1i trung t\u00e2m th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 Italy) tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng cho th\u1ea5y \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb vua kh\u00f9ng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n t\u00f4n k\u00ednh nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh Rome th\u00e0nh c\u1ed5ng ch\u00ednh c\u01a1 ng\u01a1i c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. \u201cM\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1u bi\u1ebft Caligula kh\u00f4ng b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng. Nh\u01b0ng nay ch\u00fang t\u00f4i c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng ta ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n \u0111i\u00ean r\u1ed3, t\u1ef1 cho r\u1eb1ng m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n\u201d, Darius Arya, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c khai qu\u1eadt, tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1. Trong l\u1ea7n khai qu\u1eadt \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u1edf cung \u0111i\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Caligula kho\u1ea3ng 1 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc,","ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh dinh th\u1ef1 n\u1eb1m b\u00ean r\u00eca Roman Forum, \u1edf trung t\u00e2m th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 Italy. Ng\u00e0y nay cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e0o b\u1edbi m\u1edbi \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m l\u1ed9 ra n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng c\u1ed1ng r\u00e3nh ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf cung \u0111i\u1ec7n r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn h\u01a1n r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u. Theo Arya, dinh th\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Caligula c\u00f2n m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng v\u00e0o gi\u1eefa Forum v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e2m th\u1eb3ng v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ec1n Castor and Pollux. \u201cCu\u1ed9c khai qu\u1eadt cho th\u1ea5y cung \u0111i\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm g\u1ea7n k\u00edn lu\u00f4n c\u1ea3 ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n\u201d, Arya n\u00f3i, khi ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0o 3 chi\u1ebfc c\u1ed9t nh\u00f4 l\u00ean, tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y t\u1eebng l\u00e0 v\u1eadt trang tr\u00ed cho ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n, Caligula th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng n\u00f3i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n La M\u00e3: \u201cTa \u0111ang s\u1ed1ng c\u00f9ng c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n. Ta th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u00e0 c\u1ee7a ta c\u00e1c ng\u01b0\u01a1i ph\u1ea3i \u0111i qua ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n\u201d. 17. B\u00cd QUY\u1ebeT L\u00c0M \u0110\u1eb8P TH\u1edcI LA M\u00c3 C\u1ed4 \u0110\u1ea0I M\u1ed9t ch\u00fat m\u1ee1 c\u1eebu, m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat b\u1ed9t ch\u00ec..., t\u1eeb r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Maybe line xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n, ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 bi\u1ebft s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 th\u1ee9 n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f4n th\u00eam v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p. V\u00e0 sau khi h\u1ed9p kem 2.000 tu\u1ed5i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n La M\u00e3 \u1edf London, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00e0ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef \u0111\u00e3 d\u00f9ng m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m h\u00e0ng thi\u00ean ni\u00ean k\u1ef7 nay. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u cho r\u1eb1ng: Th\u1ee9 kem m\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t d\u01b0\u1ee1ng \u1ea9m l\u00e0m t\u1eeb s\u1eefa l\u1eeba, v\u00e0 n\u00f3 v\u1eabn ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e9t nghi\u1ec7m. N\u1ebfu \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u00fang l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 s\u1eafc \u0111\u1eb9p, lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t d\u01b0\u1ee1ng \u1ea9m c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0y s\u1ebd b\u1ed5 sung v\u00e0o b\u1ed9 s\u01b0u t\u1ea7m m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thu th\u1eadp qua c\u00e1c th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Hy l\u1ea1p \u2013 La M\u00e3 kh\u00e1c nhau. \u201cCh\u00fang t\u00f4i \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed3 t\u1ea1o t\u00e1c ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf con ng\u01b0\u1eddi r\u1ea5t quan t\u00e2m t\u1edbi di\u1ec7n m\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh\u201d, chuy\u00ean gia kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 Nansi Rosenberg n\u00f3i. 2.000 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y, n\u1ec1n v\u0103n h\u00f3a Hy L\u1ea1p \u2013 La M\u00e3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec9nh cao v\u1ec1 m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ed9 tinh x\u1ea3o \u2013 m\u1ea1ng l\u01b0\u1edbi Ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 v\u1edbi c\u00e1c ban ng\u00e0nh, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0\u1edbi ti\u00eau ti\u00ean ti\u1ebfn, c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n qu\u1ea7n ch\u00fang th\u01b0\u1eddng l\u1ec7, nh\u01b0 cu\u1ed9c so t\u00e0i gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c v\u00f5 s\u0129 gi\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea5u, thi \u0111\u1ea5u \u0111i\u1ec1n kinh, c\u00e1c bu\u1ed5i bi\u1ec3u di\u1ec5n ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt... \u201c\u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i mang t\u00ednh c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng cao, n\u01a1i di\u1ec7n m\u1ea1o \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng\u201d, Rosenberg n\u00f3i. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, t\u1eeb \u201ccosmetic\u201d (m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m) b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p \u201ccosmos\u201d, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp. Nh\u1eefng t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3 v\u1eadt c\u1ed5 cho th\u1ea5y ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef r\u1ea5t s\u00e1ng t\u1ea1o khi t\u00ecm ra c\u00e1ch t\u00e2n trang khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t. M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng b\u00ed quy\u1ebft l\u00e0 chi\u1ebft t\u00e1ch m\u1ed3 h\u00f4i v\u00e0 c\u1eb7n b\u1ea9n t\u1eeb l\u00f4ng c\u1eebu \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean kem l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng da m\u1eb7t. \u201cV\u1ec1 c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 m\u1ee1 l\u00f4ng c\u1eebu, m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i d\u1ea7u t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng trong nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m ng\u00e0y nay\u201d, Jenny Hall, t\u1ea1i B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng London, gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u0111\u00f4i m\u00f4i, ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef thu\u1ed9c t\u1ea7ng","l\u1edbp tr\u00ean th\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u00e1m m\u1ed9t \u00edt ho\u00e0ng th\u1ed5 (\u0111\u1ea5t son) \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat s\u1eafc \u0111\u1ecf. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c ch\u1eaft c\u1eb7n t\u1eeb r\u01b0\u1ee3u vang \u0111\u1ecf v\u00e0 l\u1ea5y th\u1ee9 ch\u1ea5t nh\u1edbt n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u1ed9t \u00edt s\u1eafc h\u1ed3ng l\u00ean \u0111\u00f4i m\u00f4i. L\u00e0m n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt \u0111\u00f4i m\u1eaft c\u0169ng r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i th\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u1ed9n m\u1ee1 g\u1ea5u v\u1edbi b\u1ed3 h\u00f3ng \u0111\u00e8n \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o ra mascara v\u00e0 ch\u00ec v\u1ebd l\u00f4ng m\u00e0y. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 l\u1ea1i b\u00f4i ngh\u1ec7 t\u00e2y l\u00ean m\u00ed m\u1eaft nh\u1eb1m t\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec3m nh\u1ea5n m\u00e0u cam s\u1eabm. \u0110\u1ec3 h\u00e0i h\u00f2a v\u1edbi \u0111\u00f4i m\u00f4i s\u00e1ng v\u00e0 m\u1eaft th\u1eabm, c\u00e1c qu\u00fd b\u00e0 La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t tr\u1eafng xanh. Lo\u1ea1i kem \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y \u1edf ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n t\u1ea1i London c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i kem l\u00e0m tr\u1eafng da. Nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1c ghi ch\u00e9p tr\u01b0\u1edbc cho th\u1ea5y c\u00f2n nhi\u1ec1u lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t kh\u00e1c nhau \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t tr\u1eafng. M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t khan hi\u1ebfm l\u00e0 ch\u1ea5t nhu\u1ed9m ch\u00ec tr\u1eafng, c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u00ec cacbonat. Sally Pointer, nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 chuy\u00ean v\u1ec1 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m, cho bi\u1ebft ch\u00ec cacbonat \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e2y h\u00e0nh ngh\u00ecn n\u0103m. D\u1ea5u t\u00edch c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 \u1edf L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0, n\u01a1i n\u1ec1n v\u0103n minh \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh h\u01a1n 6.000 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc. V\u00e0 m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 c\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u cho th\u1ea5y con ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh nguy hi\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng n\u00f3 v\u1eabn r\u1ea5t ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn. Th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Anh Elizabeth I c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng th\u1ee9 m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m n\u00e0y v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng l\u00e0n da l\u1ed7 ch\u1ed7 c\u1ee7a n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 do lo\u1ea1i m\u1ef9 ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u1ed9c h\u1ea1i n\u00e0y g\u00e2y ra. C\u00f2n c\u00e1c lo\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5t kh\u00e1c \u00edt \u0111\u1ed9c h\u1ea1i h\u01a1n \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ea1o ra khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t tr\u1eafng nh\u1ee3t. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef ch\u1ea5m ph\u00e2n c\u00e1 s\u1ea5u kh\u00f4 l\u00ean m\u1eb7t. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 d\u00f9ng ph\u1ea5n v\u00e0 r\u1ec5 c\u00e2y irit th\u01a1m, c\u0169ng r\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed9c. M\u1ed9t khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t t\u00e1i xanh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 mang phong c\u00e1ch qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c \u2013 kh\u00f4ng b\u1ecb \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng tia n\u1eafng m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi ch\u00f3i chang. \u201cM\u1ed7i giai \u0111o\u1ea1n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ki\u1ec3u trang \u0111i\u1ec3m ho\u1eb7c xu h\u01b0\u1edbng ri\u00eang, nh\u01b0ng m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh v\u1eabn b\u1ea5t bi\u1ebfn cho \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay. R\u00f5 r\u00e0ng l\u00e0 l\u00e0n da tr\u1eafng, m\u00f4i \u0111\u1ecf, l\u00f4ng m\u00e0y \u0111en v\u1eabn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ebb \u0111\u1eb9p ho\u00e0n h\u1ea3o, th\u1eadm ch\u00ed \u1edf nh\u1eefng n\u01a1i m\u00e0 y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 di truy\u1ec1n kh\u00f4ng mang t\u1edbi s\u1eafc m\u00e0u \u0111\u00f3\u201d, Pointer n\u00f3i. B\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u00e1n th\u00e2n Nefertiti. \u0110\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m \u0111\u1eb9p kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 d\u1eebng l\u1ea1i \u1edf vi\u1ec7c t\u00f4 \u0111i\u1ec3m. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 nh\u01b0 nh\u00edp t\u1ec9a l\u00f4ng m\u00e0y v\u00e0 mu\u1ed7ng l\u00e0m s\u1ea1ch tai. Nh\u1eefng thi\u1ebft b\u1ecb n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea3 \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng v\u00e0 ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng. C\u00f2n c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng trung t\u00e2m th\u1ec3 d\u1ee5c n\u01a1i di\u1ec5n ra c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u1ec3 thao nh\u01b0 ch\u1ea1y, n\u00e9m lao... \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng luy\u1ec7n t\u1eadp c\u01a1 th\u1ec3. H\u1ecd c\u0169ng t\u1eafm r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u. R\u00f5 r\u00e0ng h\u00ecnh th\u1ec3 c\u0169ng r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i.","18. M\u1ef8 PH\u1ea8M LA M\u00c3 C\u1ed4 \u0110\u1ea0I XU\u1ea4T HI\u1ec6N \u1ede LONDON C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 v\u1eeba t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfc h\u1ed9p k\u00edn c\u00f3 ch\u1ee9a kem tr\u1eafng, tr\u00ean \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f2n c\u1ea3 v\u1ebft v\u00e2n tay c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng c\u00f3 t\u1eeb c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e2y 2.000 n\u0103m, t\u1ea1i khu khai qu\u1eadt m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u1edf Lon don (Anh). Th\u1ee9 ch\u1ea5t \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 kem b\u00f4i m\u1eb7t ho\u1eb7c kem d\u01b0\u1ee1ng da. \\\"\u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ch\u01b0a h\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1. Ch\u00fang ta ng\u1ea1c nhi\u00ean kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 b\u1edfi ch\u1ea5t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng, c\u1ea5u t\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a chi\u1ebfc h\u1ed9p, m\u00e0 c\u1ea3 t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng \u0111\u00f3ng xi c\u00f2n nguy\u00ean v\u1eb9n c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi th\u1ee9 ch\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1 trong \u0111\u00f3\\\", ng\u01b0\u1eddi tr\u00f4ng nom B\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng London, Francis Grew n\u00f3i. Chi\u1ebfc h\u1ed9p to b\u1eb1ng n\u1eafm tay, l\u00e0m b\u1eb1ng thi\u1ebfc v\u00e0 c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh tr\u1ee5, kem trong \u0111\u00f3 v\u1eabn c\u00f2n m\u1ed9t n\u1eeda. Sau khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1edf l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean tr\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta cho bi\u1ebft n\u00f3 c\u00f3 m\u00f9i n\u1eeda gi\u1ed1ng l\u01b0u hu\u1ef3nh, n\u1eeda gi\u1ed1ng pho m\u00e1t. X\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Nefertiti Tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfc b\u00e0n \u0111\u00e1 c\u00f3 kh\u1eafc t\u00ean th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 London b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng La M\u00e3 t\u1ea1i khu khai qu\u1eadt n\u00e0y. N\u01a1i \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 t\u1eeb n\u0103m 50 sau C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, g\u1ed3m 2 ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n nh\u1ecf, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 ngh\u1ec9 cho du kh\u00e1ch, c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u b\u1ec7 t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u1ed9t \u0111\u00e1. 19. ALEXANDER \u0110\u1ea0I \u0110\u1ebe C\u00d3 TH\u1ef0C S\u1ef0 V\u0128 \u0110\u1ea0I? Ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf tr\u1ebb Alexander l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng n\u00ean \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Hy L\u1ea1p khi \u00f4ng ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ea7y 20 tu\u1ed5i, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 m\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c Trung \u0110\u00f4ng. C\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y cho th\u1ea5y, v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 4 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf tr\u1ebb Alexander v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m ch\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t Trung \u0110\u00f4ng v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh \u0111\u1eabm m\u00e1u nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. H\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh, cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 m\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng cho b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng nhanh ch\u00f3ng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p tr\u00ean v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t b\u1ecb chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u00f3ng. V\u00e0 \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do ch\u00ednh \u0111\u1ec3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta t\u00f4n Alexander l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf. Nh\u01b0ng theo m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u","m\u1edbi c\u1ee7a Andrew F.Steward (M\u1ef9) v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u1ed9ng s\u1ef1, th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Macedonia n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 kh\u00f4ng v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u01b0 c\u00e1i t\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. C\u00f3 nh\u1eefng b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng kh\u00e1 r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p v\u01b0\u01a1n t\u1ea7m \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a Israel \u00edt nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 tr\u01b0\u1edbc cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Alexander. B\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a 2 anh em sinh \u0111\u00f4i Rumulus v\u00e0 Remus Theo Steward, k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 m\u1edf ra nh\u1eefng nghi v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft cho r\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh Hy l\u1ea1p ho\u00e1, hay qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee7a v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy l\u1ea1p, di\u1ec5n ra m\u1ea1nh m\u1ebd nh\u1edd nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng c\u1ee7a Alexander. \\\"B\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng cho th\u1ea5y n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng, \u00edt nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c n\u00e0y d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi Alexander. N\u1ebfu c\u00f3, \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i c\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1, nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh lu\u1ef9\\\", Steward cho bi\u1ebft. Trong su\u1ed1t hai th\u1eadp k\u1ef7, Steward \u0111\u00e3 khai qu\u1eadt \u1edf v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t c\u00e1t x\u01b0a kia t\u1eebng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 th\u1ecbnh v\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Phoenicia b\u00ean b\u1edd \u0111\u00f4ng \u0110\u1ecba Trung H\u1ea3i \u2013 th\u00e0nh Dor, m\u00e0 nay ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 Israel. Khu v\u1ef1c r\u1ea5t \u00edt b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ebfn trong su\u1ed1t h\u01a1n hai thi\u00ean ni\u00ean k\u1ef7 qua. C\u00f3 v\u1ebb nh\u01b0 r\u1ea5t logic khi k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng v\u1ec1 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 \u1edf Iran. Afghanistan, Israel hay m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00f3ng kh\u00e1c d\u1eabn t\u1edbi s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng c\u1ee7a n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 v\u00e0 c\u00e1c gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c. Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 m\u1edbi (\u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng v\u1ec1 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 sau m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i) ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng ph\u1ebf t\u00edch c\u1ee7a Dor nh\u01b0 \u1edf nhi\u1ec1u n\u01a1i kh\u00e1c. Steward v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u1ed9ng s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra h\u01a1n 100.000 c\u1ed5 v\u1eadt \u1edf \u0111\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y, ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3 g\u1ed1m. Ch\u00fang \u0111\u00e3 k\u1ec3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng tranh v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng thay \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eeb n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 Hy l\u1ea1p (thi\u00ean v\u1ec1 s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t) v\u00e0o n\u0103m 400 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, c\u00f2n tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u1ea3 cu\u1ed9c x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ee7a ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Alexander v\u00e0o n\u0103m 336 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc cho \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 v\u1eadt th\u1ec3, v\u00ec kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a v\u0103n h\u1ecdc, hay ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng sang khu v\u1ef1c n\u00e0y. C\u00e1c c\u1ed5 v\u1eadt ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng \u1edf \u0111\u00f3, hay \u0111\u1ebfn n\u01a1i \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 m\u1edbi ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t ra ch\u00fang v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3 g\u1ed1m \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3 g\u1ed1m Hy L\u1ea1p. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y c\u01b0 d\u00e2n Dor l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p, ho\u1eb7c ch\u00ed \u00edt h\u1ecd c\u0169ng mu\u1ed1n gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p t\u1eeb r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi h\u1ecd nghe t\u00ean Alexander. Do v\u1eady, ti\u1ebfn tr\u00ecnh Hy L\u1ea1p ho\u00e1 \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng x\u1ea3y ra d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf","n\u00e0y tr\u1ecb v\u00ec. Nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 v\u0103n ho\u00e1 v\u1eadt th\u1ec3 Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 s\u1eb5n \u1edf nh\u1eefng n\u01a1i n\u00e0y, \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3n Alexander khi v\u1ecb vua tr\u1ebb l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u1ebfn \u0111\u00f3. V\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng s\u00e2u s\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 l\u1edbn th\u1eddi Alexander v\u00e0 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf n\u00e0y \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean l\u00e0 Alexander, nh\u01b0ng l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng v\u00f9ng xa x\u00f4i th\u00ec v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng. Dor \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i Alexander kh\u00e1 l\u00e2u, nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1c t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111i \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebft lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng li\u1ec7u th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u00f3 n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i t\u1ea7m ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf n\u00e0y hay kh\u00f4ng. C\u00f3 v\u1ebb nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c chuy\u1ec3n giao v\u0103n ho\u00e1 tr\u00ean h\u1ea7u kh\u1eafp v\u00f9ng Trung \u0110\u00f4ng, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng ai ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3. D\u01b0\u1edbi g\u00f3t gi\u00e0y c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i vi\u1ec5n chinh Alexander, m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n Dor \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb v\u1ee1 m\u1ed9ng v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb Hy L\u1ea1p. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 v\u1eadt ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng, \u0111\u00f4i khi, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ec3 quay v\u1ec1 v\u1edbi c\u1ed9i ngu\u1ed3n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd, b\u00e0i tr\u1eeb c\u1ea3 ki\u1ec3u c\u00e1ch l\u1eabn ch\u1ea5t li\u1ec7u g\u1ed1m s\u1ee9 Hy L\u1ea1p. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 ch\u00e1n gh\u00e9t Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf v\u00e0 c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1edbng l\u0129nh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. \\\"N\u00f3i cho c\u00f9ng, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb ch\u00faa t\u1ec3 c\u1ef1c k\u1ef3 t\u00e0n b\u1ea1o\\\", Steward n\u00f3i. Tuy nhi\u00ean, n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 Hy L\u1ea1p v\u1eabn kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ecbu bu\u00f4ng tha Dor. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f9ng nhau gh\u00e9p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n nh\u00e0 c\u1ed5 kh\u1ea3m, \u1edf gi\u1eefa b\u1ee9c kh\u1ea3m l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng Hy L\u1ea1p tr\u1ebb \u0111eo m\u1eb7t n\u1ea1 \u0111ang di\u1ec5n h\u00e0i k\u1ecbch v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea3i b\u0103ng bu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea7u kh\u00f3 hi\u1ec3u g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c m\u1ea3nh thu\u1ef7 tinh v\u00e0 g\u1ed1m s\u1eb7c s\u1ee1. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc tin r\u1eb1ng, b\u1ee9c kh\u1ea3m n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o ra \u1edf Dor kho\u1ea3ng 100 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u sau th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u00e0 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o b\u1edfi m\u1ed9t th\u1ee3 th\u1ee7 c\u00f4ng l\u01b0u \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb Hy L\u1ea1p. \\\"T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1u mang \u0111\u1ea7y b\u1ea3n s\u1eafc Hy L\u1ea1p\\\", Steward n\u00f3i. \u0110i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 cho th\u1ea5y, s\u1ef1 b\u00e0nh tr\u01b0\u1edbng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t n\u1ec1n v\u0103n ho\u00e1 kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o chi\u1ebfn tranh x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c, m\u00e0 ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p h\u01a1n th\u1ebf nhi\u1ec1u. Li\u1ec7u \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 qu\u00e1 cao v\u1ec1 Alexander? Kh\u00f4ng h\u1eb3n v\u1eady. Ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00f4n vinh \u00f4ng. Khi c\u00f2n nh\u1ecf, Alexander l\u00e0 h\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Aristotle. \u00d4ng l\u00ean ng\u00f4i tr\u1ecb v\u00ec v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c Macedonia khi cha \u00f4ng, vua Philip II, b\u1ecb \u00e1m s\u00e1t v\u00e0o m\u00f9a h\u00e8 n\u0103m 336 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 b\u1ecb k\u1ebb th\u00f9 bao v\u00e2y, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng c\u0169ng nhanh ch\u00f3ng n\u1eafm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t to\u00e0n Hy l\u1ea1p khi ch\u01b0a \u0111\u1ea7y 20 tu\u1ed5i. C\u00e1c nh\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc coi Alexander l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 thi\u00ean t\u00e0i v\u1edbi kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ch\u1ec9 huy qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i ngay c\u1ea3 trong t\u00ecnh hu\u1ed1ng tuy\u1ec7t v\u1ecdng nh\u1ea5t. V\u1edbi 35.000 l\u00ednh, \u00f4ng","\u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n \u0111\u00f4ng h\u01a1n g\u1ea5p b\u1ed9i, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 nhi\u1ec1u chuy\u00ean gia cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb th\u00f9 c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 cao h\u01a1n r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u so v\u1edbi th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf. Tuy nhi\u00ean, d\u00f9 b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn th\u1ebf n\u00e0o \u0111i ch\u0103ng n\u1eefa, th\u00ec ch\u1ec9 trong th\u1eddi gian 3 n\u0103m, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb m\u1ed9t l\u00e0nh th\u1ed5 r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn, t\u1eeb Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ebfn Ai C\u1eadp, l\u1eadt \u0111\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0. \u00d4ng b\u1ecb \u1ed1m \u1edf Babylon n\u0103m 323 v\u00e0 m\u1ea5t \u1edf tu\u1ed5i 33. 20. T\u00ccM TH\u1ea4Y X\u00c1C \u01af\u1edaP C\u1ee6A N\u1eee HO\u00c0NG AI C\u1eacP C\u1ed4 \u0110\u1ea0I 91 n\u0103m sau khi c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 khai qu\u1eadt \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u00e1n th\u00e2n b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e1 v\u00f4i c\u1ee7a ho\u00e0ng h\u1eadu Nefertiti, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng s\u1eafc \u0111\u1eb9p c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi Ai C\u1eadp c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, nay c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 Anh tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n b\u00e0 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c nh\u1ea5t trong tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Ai C\u1eadp th\u1ee9 18 n\u00e0y. Nefertiti, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \\\"ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n b\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb9p \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebfn\\\", l\u00e0 v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a pharaoh Akhennaten, tr\u1ecb v\u00ec Ai C\u1eadp trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 Amarna t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1353 \u0111\u1ebfn 1336 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean. N\u1ebfu k\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 t\u00ecm ki\u1ebfm l\u00e0 \u0111\u00fang, \u0111\u00e2y s\u1ebd l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u1ea5u m\u1ed1c kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 quan tr\u1ecdng, k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb sau ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ng\u00f4i m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a vua tr\u1ebb Tutankhamun, con ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a ch\u1ed3ng Nefertiti, v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1922. K\u1ebft lu\u1eadn tr\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra sau 12 n\u0103m nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ea7u m\u1ed1i nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t m\u1ea9u t\u00f3c gi\u1ea3 v\u00e0 l\u1ed7 tai tr\u00ean x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp. B\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ed9t ph\u00e1 b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m nay, khi c\u00e1c quan ch\u1ee9c Ai C\u1eadp l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean cho ph\u00e9p kh\u00e1m nghi\u1ec7m chi ti\u1ebft m\u1ed9t x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp c\u00f3 ni\u00ean \u0111\u1ea1i 3.500 n\u0103m. D\u01b0\u1edbi l\u1edbp v\u1ea3i t\u01a1i t\u1ea3, c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 kh\u1ea3o c\u1ed5 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1nh tay b\u1ecb g\u00e3y, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ebb ngo\u1eb7t theo t\u01b0 th\u1ebf ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p khi ch\u1ebft l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t pharaon, n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng hay mang ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 ho\u00e0ng gia. Joann Fletcher, \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u t\u1ea1i \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc York, cho bi\u1ebft: \u201c\u0110\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng gia s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i th\u1ee9 18 v\u00e0 c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c v\u00f4 h\u1ea1n. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 n\u00e0y. Ch\u00fang t\u00f4i tin r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Nefertiti\\\". X\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1898, n\u1eb1m trong m\u1ed9t c\u0103n ph\u00f2ng nh\u1ecf trong m\u1ed9t h\u1ea7m m\u1ed9 \u1edf Thung l\u0169ng c\u00e1c \u00f4ng Ho\u00e0ng. Khi \u1ea5y, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ch\u1ec9 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef tr\u1ebb v\u00e0 ch\u1ee5p \u1ea3nh n\u00f3 m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1907. Ti\u1ebfn s\u0129 Fletcher \u0111\u00e3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u quan t\u00e2m \u0111\u1ebfn x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp n\u00e0y sau khi b\u00e0 nh\u1eadn th\u1ea5y b\u1ee9c \u1ea3nh gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u00e1n th\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Nefertiti \u0111ang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i Berlin, \u0110\u1ee9c, t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1920. B\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00f3 h\u00ecnh m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef c\u00f3 chi\u1ebfc c\u1ed5 d\u00e0i,","g\u00f2 m\u00e1 cao v\u00e0 s\u1ed1ng m\u0169i th\u1eb3ng. S\u1ef1 t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed3ng gi\u1eefa \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m khu\u00f4n m\u1eb7t kh\u00f4ng cung c\u1ea5p \u0111\u1ee7 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi Fletcher \u2013 chuy\u00ean gia trong vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u00e1c ki\u1ec3u t\u00f3c c\u1ee7a Ai C\u1eadp c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u2013 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t m\u1ea9u t\u00f3c gi\u1ea3 \u1edf b\u1ea3o t\u00e0ng Cairo c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 \u1edf tr\u00ean x\u00e1c \u01b0\u1edbp. Ki\u1ec3u t\u00f3c \u0111\u00f3 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 \u1edf nh\u1eefng ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng gia thu\u1ed9c th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 c\u1ee7a Nefertiti. 21. TH\u00c0NH ROME \u0110\u01af\u1ee2C L\u1ea4Y T\u00caN C\u1ee6A M\u1ed8T PH\u1ee4 N\u1eee? M\u1ed9t \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n do nh\u00e0 th\u01a1 Stesichorus ng\u01b0\u1eddi Graeco- Sicilian vi\u1ebft kh\u00f4ng l\u00e2u sau khi th\u00e0nh La M\u00e3 ra \u0111\u1eddi cho th\u1ea5y Rome \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5y t\u00ean t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef Troa t\u00ean l\u00e0 Roma. Ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y m\u1eabu thu\u1eabn v\u1edbi truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn r\u1eb1ng Romulus l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp ra th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0y. Stesichorus (638-555 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean) \u0111\u00e3 mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 Roma c\u00f9ng \u0111o\u00e0n tu\u1ef3 t\u00f9ng ch\u1ea1y tr\u1ed1n kh\u1ecfi th\u00e0nh Troa b\u1ecb t\u00e0n ph\u00e1 b\u1edfi chi\u1ebfn tranh. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t m\u1ea3nh \u0111\u1ea5t xinh \u0111\u1eb9p n\u01a1i m\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u1ecb kh\u00e1ch \\\"b\u1ecb cu\u1ed1n h\u00fat v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 khi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0n gi\u00f3 nh\u1eb9 m\u01a1n tr\u1edbn th\u1ed5i v\u00e0o t\u1eeb bi\u1ec3n\\\". Roma y\u00eau th\u00edch m\u1ea3nh \u0111\u1ea5t n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i n\u00e0ng l\u1eadp m\u01b0u c\u00f9ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n b\u00e0 kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed1t h\u1ebft t\u00e0u thuy\u1ec1n bu\u1ed9c \u0111o\u00e0n qu\u00e2n ph\u1ea3i \u1edf l\u1ea1i. Nh\u01b0ng \u0111o\u00e0n qu\u00e2n c\u0169ng vui m\u1eebng v\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u1ea5y t\u00ean Roma \u0111\u1eb7t cho th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1. Eleanor Leach, gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc Indiana, Bloomington, M\u1ef9, cho bi\u1ebft c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i chi ti\u1ebft trong m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m l\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 V c\u00f3 t\u00ean \\\"Roman Antiquites\\\" m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 v\u0103n Hy L\u1ea1p. Nh\u00e0 v\u0103n c\u0169ng g\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Rome, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh trong ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. Trong khi l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00e0nh La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i v\u1eabn c\u00f2n b\u1ecb che ph\u1ee7 b\u1edfi b\u1ee9c m\u00e0n b\u00ed \u1ea9n, th\u00ec h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecdc v\u1ec1 truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft Rumulus v\u00e0 Remus. Hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi anh em sinh \u0111\u00f4i n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c sinh ra t\u1ea1i th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 Alba Longa c\u1ee7a Italy. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nu\u00f4i n\u1ea5ng t\u1eeb d\u00f2ng s\u1eefa c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t con s\u00f3i c\u00e1i. Sau \u0111\u00f3 2 anh em r\u1eddi qu\u00ea h\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi hy v\u1ecdng thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh. V\u00e0o n\u0103m 753 tr\u01b0\u1edbc C\u00f4ng nguy\u00ean, h\u1ecd ch\u1ecdn m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u00e0 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng bao quanh. Romulus \u0111\u00e3 l\u1ea5y t\u00ean m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean cho th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 n\u00e0y sau khi gi\u1ebft h\u1ea1i em trai. C\u00e1c chuy\u00ean gia cho r\u1eb1ng v\u1eabn c\u1ea7n nhi\u1ec1u nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u h\u01a1n n\u1eefa \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh xu\u1ea5t x\u1ee9 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh Rome.","C\u1ef1c t\u00e2y c\u1ee7a h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u201cph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y nh\u1eefng c\u1ed9t tr\u1ee5 m\u00e0 hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc v\u1edbi Alexander \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u1eafc tr\u00ean \u0111\u00f3\u201d. Arrian di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n l\u1ecfng l\u1ebbo: hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc, nh\u01b0 trong tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p c\u1ee7a Tenedos (xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y), ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u00fd k\u1ebft gi\u1eefa \u201cAlexander v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p\u201d, ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi Mitylene l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean minh Corinth. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi theo t\u00ean c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Sparta, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ecbu tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu trong vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e0m ph\u00e1n h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh n\u0103m 386. Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc n\u00e0y c\u0169ng th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi (m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1ng) l\u00e0 Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc H\u00f2a b\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf, v\u00ec ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e0nh quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh bang Hy L\u1ea1p \u1edf Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1, trong khi \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n l\u1ea1i quy \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh bang \u1edf Hy L\u1ea1p n\u00ean c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb, ng\u0103n ch\u1eb7n vi\u1ec7c s\u1ea3n sinh n\u00ean b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf th\u00f9 \u0111\u1ecbch n\u00e0o. Thymondas \u0111\u00e3 mang s\u1ed1 l\u00ednh n\u00e0y, di chuy\u1ec3n b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng bi\u1ec3n, t\u1edbi Tripolus v\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Darius t\u1ea1i Sochi. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u t\u1ea1i b\u1edd Issus. S\u1ef1 r\u00fat lui hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a h\u1ea3i qu\u00e2n. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh gi\u1ea3i t\u00e1n h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ed9i, m\u1ed9t l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng m\u00e0 ch\u1eafn ch\u1eafn s\u1ebd khi\u1ebfn ng\u00e0i ph\u1ea3i t\u1ed1n nhi\u1ec1u ti\u1ec1n b\u1ea1c \u0111\u1ec3 duy tr\u00ec, v\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m Memnon qua \u0111\u1eddi. Trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Alexander, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0. Phrygia nh\u1ecf h\u01a1n. V\u00f9ng Phrygia l\u1edbn h\u01a1n (sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Galatia) do Antigonus cai tr\u1ecb (xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t). C\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng. Sau \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng nghe \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00f4ng tin n\u00e0o kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u00e0y. Ng\u00e0y nay l\u00e0 Golek-Boghaz, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u00ednh b\u0103ng qua d\u00e3y Taurus, gi\u1eefa Cappadocia v\u00e0 Cilicia. Xem Xenophon Anabasis 1.2.20-1. Tr\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u1edbi c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed1i x\u1eed c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i v\u1edbi Philotas kho\u1ea3ng b\u1ed1n n\u0103m sau (xem Quy\u1ec3n ba). \u201cC\u1ed5ng th\u00e0nh Syrian\u201d (c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 c\u1ed5ng th\u00e0nh \u201cAssyria\u201d trong ph\u1ea7n sau) l\u00e0 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng Beilan, b\u0103ng qua d\u00e3y Amanus, ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng nam c\u1ee7a Alexandretta. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n ki\u1ec3u vi\u1ebft ch\u1eef h\u00ecnh n\u00eam. Nguy\u00ean v\u0103n: \u201cSardanapalus, son of Anakyndaraxes, built in one day Tarsus and Anchialus. O stranger, eat, drink, and play, for everything else in the life of a man is not worth this\u201d. T\u1eeb \u201cplay\u201d \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 vi\u1ec7c l\u00e0m t\u00ecnh. (ND) V\u1ec1 Orontobates, xem Quy\u1ec3n ba. Ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn l\u00f2ng bi\u1ebft \u01a1n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 v\u00ec s\u1ef1 h\u1ed3i ph\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a Alexander sau tr\u1eadn s\u1ed1t t\u1ea1i Tarsus. Theo Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon 164, Demosthenes c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t t\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 trong th\u1eddi gian n\u00e0y. T\u1eeb Cilicia, c\u00f3 hai con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng, b\u0103ng qua C\u1ed5ng th\u00e0nh Syrian g\u1ea7n Alexandretta v\u00e0 C\u1ed5ng th\u00e0nh Amanian (\u0110\u01b0\u1eddng Bogtche) \u1edf ph\u00eda b\u1eafc, \u0111i t\u1edbi Euphrates \u1edf Apamea. Alexander ho\u1eb7c kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u00e1o c\u00e1o v\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u00e3 ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng quan tr\u1ecdng; ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn tin t\u1ee9c v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c Darius ch\u1eb7n \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ea5t ng\u1edd \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ng\u00e0i. Plutarch (Alexander tr.20) vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u201chai l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ed9 nhau trong \u0111\u00eam\u201d, th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, khi Darius h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda b\u1eafc t\u1eeb Sochi, h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb chia t\u00e1ch b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a d\u00e3y Amanus. T\u1ea1i Cunaxa, c\u00e1ch Babylon kho\u1ea3ng","72 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Xem th\u00eam, ngo\u00e0i c\u00e1c s\u1eed gia vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 Alexander, Polybius 12.17-22, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Callisthenes v\u1ec1 tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn. Callisthenes cho bi\u1ebft chi\u1ec1u r\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng b\u1eb1ng kho\u1ea3ng 14 stade [stade l\u00e0 \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, 1 stade b\u1eb1ng kho\u1ea3ng 183 m\u00e9t]. V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng binh l\u00ednh n\u00e0y, xem Strabo 14.3.18. Fuller cho r\u1eb1ng h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft nh\u1eefng binh l\u00ednh n\u00e0y l\u00e0 b\u1ed9 binh h\u1ea1ng nh\u1eb9. Plutarch \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1. Diodorusand Justin 400.000, v\u00e0 Curtin 250.000. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edfng, nh\u01b0ng gi\u1edd \u0111\u00e2y ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia n\u00e0y l\u00e0 ai? N\u1ebfu \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb Macedonia, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd h\u1ecd l\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1c l\u00ednh trinh s\u00e1t\u201d. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng t\u1eeb \u201cMacedonia\u201d l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 thay th\u1ebf cho m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb kh\u00e1c, ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n nh\u01b0 Paeonia. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u1edf \u0111o\u1ea1n sau. Anabasis 1.8.21, 22. \u0110\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 hai \u0111\u1ed9i Chi\u1ebfn h\u1eefu v\u1eeba \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi, m\u00e0 theo Curtius (3.11.2) l\u00e0 \u201chai \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb k\u1ef5 binh\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi qu\u00e2n Agrianes \u1edf tr\u00ean. H\u1ecd ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn l\u00e0 l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea. Ch\u1ec9 huy m\u1ed9t ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n b\u1ed9 binh h\u1ea1ng n\u1eb7ng. Plutarch, Curtius v\u00e0 Diodorus th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng vong, nh\u01b0ng s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda qu\u00e2n Ba T\u01b0 th\u00ec kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin. S\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng vong c\u1ee7a Macedonia do Curtius (3.11.27) \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u00e0 450 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft v\u00e0 4.500 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng. V\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i chi ti\u1ebft, xem Plutarch, Alexander 20.11-13. Nh\u01b0 Fuller l\u01b0u \u00fd, Damascus c\u00e1ch Sochi h\u01a1n 300 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda nam l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn. N\u0103m 333 TCN. Vi\u1ec7c Alexander b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng nh\u1eb9 l\u00e0 ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. Tuy nhi\u00ean, Chares \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng v\u1ebft th\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u00e0y l\u00e0 do ch\u00ednh Darius g\u00e2y ra, \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 Plutarch (Alexander 20.9) cho l\u00e0 b\u1ecba \u0111\u1eb7t v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 tr\u00edch d\u1eabn l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u1ec3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c kh\u00f4ng \u00edt h\u01a1n 150 ta-l\u0103ng, m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ti\u1ec1n kh\u00e1 l\u1edbn n\u1ebfu ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng kho\u1ea3n l\u1ee3i t\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a Athens n\u0103m 431, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ed3 c\u1ed1ng n\u1ea1p t\u1eeb c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh bang l\u1ec7 thu\u1ed9c, ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng 1.000 ta-l\u0103ng. Plutarch (Alexander 22.5) tr\u00edch d\u1eabn m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 do Alexander vi\u1ebft cho Parmenio, trong \u0111\u00f3 ng\u00e0i kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng bao gi\u1edd t\u01a1 t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a Darius. Nhi\u1ec1u k\u1ef5 binh Ba T\u01b0 tr\u1ed1n t\u1edbi Cappadocia, n\u01a1i h\u1ecd li\u00ean k\u1ebft v\u1edbi c\u00e1c binh l\u00ednh \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng trong n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c gi\u00e0nh l\u1ea1i Phrygia nh\u01b0ng sau \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb Antigonus \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i. (Curtius 4.1.34- 5, \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y \u201cLydia\u201d b\u1ecb nh\u1ea7m sang \u201cPhrygia\u201d). L\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea Hy L\u1ea1p. Diodorus (17.48.2-5) v\u00e0 Curtius (4.1.27-33) \u0111\u01b0a ra nhi\u1ec1u chi ti\u1ebft h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n \u1edf Ai C\u1eadp. V\u00ec h\u1ecd ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi Amyntas v\u00e0 4.000 l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb chia nh\u1ecf. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 4.000 l\u00ednh kh\u00e1c ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cho Agis, vua Sparta; t\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n v\u1ecb vua n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 thu\u00ea 8.000 l\u00ednh tr\u1ed1n ch\u1ea1y t\u1eeb Issus. Xem E. Badian, JHS 1963, 25-6. Kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 nao n\u00fang khi nghe tin th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Darius t\u1ea1i Issus, Agis ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb cho cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn, v\u00e0 v\u00e0o m\u00f9a xu\u00e2n n\u0103m 331, \u00f4ng \u201c\u0111\u00e3 h\u00f4 h\u00e0o h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ea5u tranh v\u00ec t\u1ef1 do c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd\u201d (Diodorus 17.62.6). Sau nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng ban \u0111\u1ea7u, cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng Agis b\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn d\u01b0\u1edbi tay Antipater t\u1ea1i","Megalopolis v\u00e0o m\u00f9a thu n\u0103m 331. V\u1ec1 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng, xem Diodorus 17.48.1-2; 62.6-63.4; 73.5-6; Curtius 6.1; v\u00e0, v\u1ec1 ghi ch\u00e9p g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y v\u1ec1 Agis, xem E. Badian, Hermes 1967, t\u1eeb tr.170. Diodorus (17.39.2) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n l\u1ea1 l\u00f9ng r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea5u l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Darius v\u00e0 thay th\u1ebf b\u1eb1ng m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 kh\u00e1c \u201cph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p h\u01a1n v\u1edbi c\u00e1c quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i\u201d m\u00e0 ng\u00e0i \u0111\u1eb7t ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1c chi\u1ebfn h\u1eefu \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea3o \u0111\u1ea3m vi\u1ec7c b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u0111\u00e0m ph\u00e1n h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh. G. T. Griffith (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1968, t\u1eeb tr.33) cho r\u1eb1ng l\u00e1 th\u01b0 trong tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Arrian l\u00e0 gi\u1ea3 m\u1ea1o. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, \u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng, Darius kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng g\u1ee3i \u00fd v\u1ec1 t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh ho\u1eb7c l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 (nh\u01b0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 n\u00eau trong c\u00e1c l\u00e1 th\u01b0 trong tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Diodorus 17.39 v\u00e0 Curtius 4.1.7), v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u01b0a ra v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 t\u1ed9i \u00e1c chi\u1ebfn tranh l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng sai l\u1ea7m \u1edf v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a Darius. V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng tranh lu\u1eadn kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Griffith, xem hai ch\u00fa th\u00edch ti\u1ebfp theo. Ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00ec v\u1ec1 li\u00ean minh gi\u1eefa Philip v\u00e0 Artaxerxes trong m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi ch\u00e9p t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i chi ti\u1ebft. Ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, Demosthenes kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y. Artaxerxes III (Ochus) \u0111\u00e3 cai tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb n\u0103m 359-338, c\u00f2n con trai \u00f4ng, Arses, cai tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb n\u0103m 338 t\u1edbi n\u0103m 336. Darius nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1 c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n Macedonia v\u00e0o m\u00f9a xu\u00e2n n\u0103m 336. Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 v\u00f4 l\u00fd, v\u00ec ch\u00ednh Ba T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 Perinthus t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Philip v\u00e0o n\u0103m 340; tuy nhi\u00ean, Philip \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh k\u1ebb x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00e0o n\u0103m 342 khi li\u00ean minh v\u1edbi Hermeias c\u1ee7a Atarneus v\u00e0 h\u1eb3n Darius mu\u1ed1n nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi chi ti\u1ebft n\u00e0y. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng n\u00e0o cho vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y. Alexander (ho\u1eb7c Arrian) \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. Bagoas \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ed9c Arses c\u00f9ng c\u00e1c con c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, v\u00e0 gi\u00e0nh ngai v\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a Ba T\u01b0 cho Darius. Sau n\u00e0y, khi \u00f4ng ta toan t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ed9c Darius, nh\u00e0 vua \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e0nh l\u1ea1i \u01b0u th\u1ebf v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda m\u00ecnh. Xem Diodorus 17.5.3-6. Aeschines (Against Ctesiphon 239) kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng Darius \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eedi 300 ta-l\u0103ng cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens nh\u01b0ng h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i v\u00e0 Demosthenes \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf t\u00fai 70 ta-l\u0103ng trong s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00f3. Li\u1ec7u Alexander c\u00f3 b\u1ecb \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng b\u1edfi vi\u1ec7c \u00f4ng n\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i, Amyntas III, \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn anh trai c\u1ee7a Iphicrates l\u00e0m con nu\u00f4i? Aeschines, On the Legation 28. Vi\u1ec7c Iphicrates h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 v\u1ec1 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 cho Alexander l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn. T\u1ea1i Sidon, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ebf tru\u1ea5t Strato, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh vua Abdalonymus thay th\u1ebf v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a Strato. (Curtius 4.3.4.) Tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, \u201cHeracles\u201d n\u00e0y l\u00e0 th\u1ea7n Melcarh c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Tyria (th\u1ea7n Baal c\u1ee7a Syria). Diodorus (17.40.3) nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh l\u00f2ng trung th\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Darius. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0m l\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf \u1edf m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i \u0111\u1ec1n n\u1eb1m ngo\u00e0i th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1. Nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c d\u00f9ng v\u0169 l\u1ef1c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ra trong b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n b\u00ean d\u01b0\u1edbi. H\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o c\u00e1ch b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n g\u1ea7n 1 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Theo Diodorus (17.40), m\u0169i \u0111\u1ea5t r\u1ed9ng kho\u1ea3ng 60 m\u00e9t. Nh\u1eefng t\u1ea3ng \u0111\u00e1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5y t\u1eeb th\u00e0nh Tyre c\u0169 v\u00e0 c\u00e1c kh\u00fac g\u1ed7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5y t\u1eeb n\u00fai Libanus. \u0110\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o chi\u1ec1u s\u00e2u, 1 s\u1ea3i b\u1eb1ng 1,82 m\u00e9t. (ND) \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 b\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u1eb7t c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh. Antilibanus l\u00e0 ng\u1ecdn n\u00fai ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng trong s\u1ed1 hai d\u00e3y n\u00fai v\u00e2y quanh thung l\u0169ng Coele-Syria;","d\u00f9ng t\u1eeb \u1ea2 R\u1eadp c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ecba \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft kho\u1ea3ng 30 l\u00ednh Macedonia, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i ki\u1ebfm g\u1ed7 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m b\u00e8 v\u00e0 ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i. (Curtius 4.2.18; 4.3.1) Vua c\u1ee7a Salamis, m\u1ed9t trong ch\u00edn th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 tr\u1ee5 c\u1ed9t c\u1ee7a Syprus. C\u1ea3 hai th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ec1u n\u1eb1m \u1edf b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n ph\u00eda nam c\u1ee7a Cyprus. Agenor, cha c\u1ee7a Cadmus, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp c\u1ea3 Tyre v\u00e0 Sidon. Cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh k\u00e9o d\u00e0i b\u1ea3y th\u00e1ng, t\u1eeb th\u00e1ng M\u1ed9t t\u1edbi th\u00e1ng T\u00e1m n\u0103m 332. Theo Diodorus (20.14), nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Carthage \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e2ng m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n m\u01b0\u1eddi ng\u00e2n kh\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd cho th\u1ea7n Melcarth, v\u00e0 c\u1eed c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n tham d\u1ef1 l\u1ec5 h\u1ed9i h\u1eb1ng n\u0103m \u1edf Tyre. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n, h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ee9a gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Tyre v\u00e0o giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh, nh\u01b0ng sau \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n l\u1eddi h\u1ee9a v\u00ec cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Syracuse (Curtius 4.2.10; 4.3.19). Diodorus (17.46.4) \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 13.000 t\u00f9 nh\u00e2n, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng c\u0169ng l\u01b0u \u00fd r\u1eb1ng 2.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb tra t\u1ea5n. Curtius (4.4.15) b\u1ed5 sung (s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u n\u00e0y ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c) r\u1eb1ng c\u00f3 15.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t an to\u00e0n, do ng\u01b0\u1eddi Sidon \u0111\u00e3 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ee3t \u0111\u1ed9t k\u00edch cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng. Li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 tr\u00f9ng h\u1ee3p khi t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u n\u00e0y l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 30.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi? Diodorus (17.39.1) v\u00e0 Curtius (4.11.1) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i (c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 thi\u1ebfu ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c) r\u1eb1ng Darius \u0111\u00e3 c\u1eed s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 ngay tr\u01b0\u1edbc tr\u1eadn Gaugamela. V\u1ec1 c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n ph\u1ee9c t\u1ea1p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 m\u1ec7nh, xem th\u00eam C. B. Welles trong phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n Loeb [trong th\u01b0 vi\u1ec7n c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n Loeb] c\u1ee7a Diodorus. Plutarch (Alexander 25.4) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng con chim sau \u0111\u00f3 v\u01b0\u1edbng v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng s\u1ee3i d\u00e2y bu\u1ed9c m\u00e1y l\u0103ng \u0111\u00e1 v\u00e0 b\u1ecb m\u1eafc k\u1eb9t \u1edf \u0111\u00f3, Curtius (4.6.11) k\u1ec3 r\u1eb1ng con chim b\u1ecb k\u1eb9t trong m\u1ed9t ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i v\u00ec d\u00ednh ph\u1ea3i nh\u1ef1a \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 l\u01b0u hu\u1ef3nh. Do \u0111\u00f3, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111o\u00e1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1i sao Aristander l\u1ea1i ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n Alexander s\u1ebd h\u1ea1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh. Curtius k\u1ec3 r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 tr\u00e1nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t v\u1ee5 \u00e1m s\u00e1t c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea2 R\u1eadp ngay tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ng\u00e0i b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng. Furlong: \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i, 1 furlong b\u1eb1ng 1\/8 d\u1eb7m Anh, t\u1ee9c kho\u1ea3ng 201 m\u00e9t. (ND) Th\u00f4ng tin v\u1ec1 c\u00f4ng s\u1ef1 cao kho\u1ea3ng 17 m\u00e9t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa, v\u00ec trong b\u1ea3n th\u1ea3o ghi l\u00e0 \u201ckho\u1ea3ng 76 m\u00e9t\u201d. Ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n tin v\u00e0o c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n (Curtius 4.6.29) cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 k\u00e9o l\u00ea Batis, trong khi \u00f4ng ta v\u1eabn c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng, kh\u1eafp t\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00e0nh ph\u00eda sau chi\u1ebfn xa c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i nh\u01b0 Achilles \u0111\u00e3 k\u00e9o l\u00ea x\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Hector kh\u1eafp th\u00e0nh Troy (Homer, Iliad). Cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh k\u00e9o d\u00e0i hai th\u00e1ng (th\u00e1ng Ch\u00edn \u0111\u1ebfn th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi n\u0103m 332), v\u00e0 s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 th\u00e0nh b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft l\u00ean t\u1edbi 10.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c c\u0169, Sabaces, \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft t\u1ea1i Issus. Theo Curtius (4.7.4), Mazaces \u0111\u00e3 giao l\u1ea1i kho t\u00e0ng l\u00ean t\u1edbi 800 ta-l\u0103ng. M\u1ed9t ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc, c\u1eeda ng\u00f5 v\u00e0o Ai C\u1eadp, n\u01a1i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp \u0111\u00e3 v\u00e0i l\u1ea7n \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi qu\u00e2n x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c. Apis ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 th\u1ea7n Ptah c\u1ee7a Memphis. Alexander t\u00f4n tr\u1ecdng t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ai C\u1eadp (v\u00e0 c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c kh\u00e1c m\u00e0 ng\u00e0i chinh ph\u1ee5c) v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n l\u00e0m Pharaoh t\u1ea1i Thebes. Tr\u00e1i l\u1ea1i, Cambyses \u0111\u00e3 x\u00fac ph\u1ea1m th\u1ea7n Apis (Herodotus 3.27-8). N\u1eef th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a t\u00ecnh m\u1eb9, ph\u00e9p thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 sinh s\u1ea3n. (ND) \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean","v\u00e0 v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t trong nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 m\u00e0 Alexander s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ki\u1ebfn thi\u1ebft (kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1) \u0111\u1ec3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh trung t\u00e2m th\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1ea1i l\u1edbn. Plutarch (Alexander 26.4) \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Arrian r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 di\u1ec5n ra tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Alexander t\u1edbi th\u0103m Siwah, nh\u01b0ng c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng ghi ch\u00e9p kh\u00e1c (ti\u00eau bi\u1ec3u nh\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Curtius, Diodorus v\u00e0 Justin) cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra sau chuy\u1ebfn vi\u1ebfng th\u0103m. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c tranh lu\u1eadn thi\u00ean v\u1ec1 \u00fd ki\u1ebfn sau, xem C. B. Welles, Historia 11 (1962), t\u1eeb tr.271. \u0110o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 Alexander mu\u1ed1n ph\u00e1c th\u1ea3o l\u1ea1i s\u01a1 \u0111\u1ed3 c\u00e1c ch\u1ed1t ph\u00f2ng v\u1ec7, trong khi l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ph\u1ea5n ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ti\u1ec7n kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec3 v\u1ebd l\u1ea1i. (ND) Xem Quy\u1ec3n hai. T\u01b0\u1edbng qu\u00e2n ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ef1 nguy\u1ec7n xin quy h\u00e0ng v\u00e0o n\u0103m 335; l\u1ea7n cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00e0 v\u00e0o m\u00f9a xu\u00e2n n\u0103m sau \u0111\u00f3, khi \u00f4ng trao v\u01b0\u01a1ng mi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng v\u00e0ng cho Alexander t\u1ea1i Sigeium. Xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 s\u1eafc l\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a Alexander cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi Chios (Tod 192) v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng m\u1ed9t n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean minh Corinth n\u00ean x\u00e9t x\u1eed nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb ph\u1ea3n b\u1ed9i. \u0110\u1ec1n th\u1edd c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon, m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn trong h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ecd coi t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi th\u1ea7n Zeus, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t \u1edf \u1ed1c \u0111\u1ea3o Siwah c\u00e1ch Thebes kho\u1ea3ng 644 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Chuy\u1ebfn vi\u1ebfng th\u0103m n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nhi\u1ec1u s\u1eed gia m\u00f4 t\u1ea3, c\u1ee5 th\u1ec3 Diodorus 17.49-51, Curtius 4.7.5-30, Plutarch Alexander 26-27 v\u00e0 Strabo 17.1.43 (d\u1ef1a theo Callisthenes). Ng\u01b0\u1eddi anh h\u00f9ng trong Th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i Hy L\u1ea1p, \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft qu\u00e1i v\u1eadt t\u00f3c r\u1eafn Medusa Gorgon. (ND) T\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn \u0111\u1ea7y ho\u00e0i nghi n\u00e0y (c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Curtius \u0111\u01b0a ra) c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 Ptolemy, ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c Alexander tin r\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0i c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00f4n l\u00e0m Pharaoh t\u1ea1i Thebes, Alexander, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ecdi Pharaoh kh\u00e1c, \u0111\u1ec1u t\u1ef1 coi m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 con c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon. Mersa Matruh. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb Cyrene, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 th\u01b0\u01a1ng thuy\u1ebft v\u1edbi ng\u00e0i v\u1ec1 hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh v\u00e0 li\u00ean minh (Diodorus 17.49.2). V\u1ec1 mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 \u1ed1c \u0111\u1ea3o Siwah v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd th\u1ea7n Ammon, xem Diodorus 17.50, Curtius 4.7.16, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 H. W. Parke, The Oracles of Zeus, (Oxford, 1967) t\u1eeb tr.196. Arrian c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111ang nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Ptolemy, \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c v\u0103n h\u00f3a Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. \u201cNg\u00f3n tay\u201d c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111o l\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1ecf nh\u1ea5t, kho\u1ea3ng 1,8 centimet. Ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n v\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0 t\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 ch\u00e0o Alexander (v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 m\u1ed9t Pharaoh) l\u00e0 \u201ccon trai c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon\u201d (ho\u1eb7c \u201ccon trai c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus\u201d) v\u00e0 v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ed9t m\u00ecnh b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd. N\u1ebfu \u0111\u00fang nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ti\u00ean tri do Plutarch, Diodorus v\u00e0 Curtius thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c Alexander l\u00e0 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon v\u00e0 ng\u00e0i s\u1ebd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e1ng ng\u1edd, tr\u1eeb phi ch\u00fang ta gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c v\u1ecb t\u01b0 t\u1ebf ho\u1eb7c ch\u00ednh Alexander, sau \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u00e3 loan b\u00e1o th\u00f4ng tin n\u00e0y. Callisthenes r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 d\u00f2ng d\u00f5i th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a Alexander (ch\u1eb3ng h\u1ea1n, xem Plutarch Alexander 33.1) v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed3ng thu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Alexander. Plutarch (Alexander 28) v\u00e0 Arrian (7.29) coi","vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ee7 thu\u1eadt phi ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, l\u00e0m kinh s\u1ee3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f2n \u0111ang b\u1ed1i r\u1ed1i, trong khi ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u00edt nhi\u1ec1u cho th\u1ea5y ni\u1ec1m tin c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c ng\u00e0i th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 l\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon. Naucratis l\u00e0 c\u0103n c\u1ee9 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Milesia v\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p. V\u1ec1 l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Alexander g\u1eedi Cleomenes, xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y. Trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e2n chia theo d\u00f2ng d\u00f5i v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 gi\u00e0u c\u00f3. Hai \u0111\u1eb3ng c\u1ea5p cao nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp nguy\u00ean l\u00e3o v\u00e0 hi\u1ec7p s\u0129 (equites\/knight). C\u00e1c nguy\u00ean l\u00e3o th\u01b0\u1eddng l\u00e0 t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, n\u1ed5i l\u00ean th\u00f4ng qua con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, c\u00f2n c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7p s\u0129 n\u1ed5i l\u00ean th\u00f4ng qua con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng binh nghi\u1ec7p. (ND) Tin t\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a Agis (xem Quy\u1ec3n hai). Nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a Philoxenus c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 vi\u1ec7c thu \u201cph\u1ea7n \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p\u201d c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p \u1edf Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1 ch\u1eebng n\u00e0o h\u1ecd v\u1eabn c\u00f2n ti\u1ebfp t\u1ee5c ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u00f3ng thu\u1ebf. Sau n\u00e0y, Philoxenus c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n (ho\u1eb7c t\u1ef1 cho l\u00e0 m\u00ecnh c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n) can thi\u1ec7p v\u00e0o c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 n\u00e0y. V\u1ec1 th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 danh hi\u1ec7u v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, xem Badian, Ehrenberg Studies, t\u1eeb tr.55. Vi\u1ec7c \u00f4ng c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt Philoxenus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi trong ph\u1ea7n sau hay kh\u00f4ng v\u1eabn c\u00f2n l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u01b0a ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn. Kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng l\u1ea7n k\u1ebft h\u00f4n kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a vua Philip, l\u1ea7n k\u1ebft h\u00f4n n\u00e0y v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t n\u1eef qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia \u0111\u00e3 \u0111e d\u1ecda v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a Olympias v\u00e0 Alexander, v\u00e0 c\u1ea3nh t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u00e1ng x\u1ea5u h\u1ed5 t\u1ea1i ti\u1ec7c c\u01b0\u1edbi \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c hai m\u1eb9 con Alexander ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ed1n kh\u1ecfi Macedonia. Sau khi tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 t\u1eeb Illyria v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i n\u0103m, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c k\u1ebft th\u00e2n v\u1edbi Pixodarus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb Caria, \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i. Xem Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 9, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 10 cu\u1ed1n Alexander c\u1ee7a Plutarch. Ch\u00fa (v\u00e0 anh r\u1ec3) c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 Tarentine t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Lucania v\u00e0 Bruttium, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i v\u00e0 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft v\u00e0o n\u0103m 331\/330. Thay th\u1ebf Asander, anh trai c\u1ee7a Parmenio, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i Orontobates (xem Quy\u1ec3n hai); xem E. Badian, Transactions of the American Philological Association 91 (1960) 329. 331 TCN. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0i th\u00e1ng sau \u0111\u00f3, xem E. W. Marden, The Campaign of Gaugamela (Liverpool, 1964). M\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfn xa th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, bao g\u1ed3m m\u1ed9t c\u1ed7 xe ng\u1ef1a c\u00f3 c\u00e1c l\u01b0\u1ee1i dao s\u1eafc h\u00ecnh l\u01b0\u1ee1i li\u1ec1m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eafn v\u00e0o m\u1ed7i \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a tr\u1ee5c xe. L\u01b0\u1ee1i dao c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i kho\u1ea3ng 1 m\u00e9t, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t v\u0169 kh\u00ed. (ND) Ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 Curtius (4.12.13) \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u h\u1ee3p l\u00fd, 200.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho b\u1ed9 binh Ba T\u01b0, nh\u01b0ng d\u00f9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u n\u00e0y, c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng n\u00e0o cho th\u1ea5y n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean ngu\u1ed3n c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u \u0111\u00e1ng tin. Curtius cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 k\u1ef5 binh l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 45.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Marsden (tr.31-37) \u01b0\u1edbc l\u01b0\u1ee3ng s\u1ed1 \u0111\u00f3 kho\u1ea3ng 34.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Khazir, m\u1ed9t nh\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng Lycus. Tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf g\u1ea7n Tell Gomel, ph\u00eda b\u1eafc con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ho\u00e0ng gia Ba T\u01b0 \u0111i t\u1eeb Nineveh t\u1edbi Arbela (Erbil); xem Marsden, tr.20. Ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng nguy c\u01a1 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ed1i m\u1eb7t trong m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng ban \u0111\u00eam (xem Thucydides 7.43-4;","Xenophon, Anabasis 3.4.35), Alexander hi\u1ec3u r\u00f5 gi\u00e1 tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c lan truy\u1ec1n tin t\u1ee9c n\u1ebfu \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i qu\u00e2n Ba T\u01b0 trong \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n \u0111\u00f3. Darius c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea1i Issus, \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i v\u00ec thi\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng gian (xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t); c\u00f2n \u1edf l\u1ea7n n\u00e0y, Alexander kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 Darius c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 vi\u1ec7n d\u1eabn b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 l\u00fd do n\u00e0o nh\u1eb1m bi\u1ec7n h\u1ed9 cho s\u1ef1 y\u1ebfu k\u00e9m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng ta. M\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh vi\u1ebft tay n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ti\u1ebft l\u1ed9 s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng binh l\u00ednh trong l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng Ba T\u01b0. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb \u00e9p bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i chuy\u1ec3n t\u1edbi Trung \u00c1. Nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn xa c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng hi\u1ec7u qu\u1ea3 t\u1ea1i Cunaxa (Xenophon, Anabasis 1.8.19-20) V\u00ec vi\u1ec7c ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0a tin c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 b\u1eaft k\u1ecbp Alexander n\u1ebfu ng\u00e0i \u0111ang r\u00e1o ri\u1ebft truy \u0111u\u1ed5i Darius l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t chuy\u1ec7n kh\u00f3 tin, c\u00e2u h\u1ecfi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t ra l\u00e0: \u201cL\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 Alexander \u0111ang \u1edf \u0111\u00e2u?\u201d G. T. Griffith, JHS 1947, 87, cho r\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 quay l\u1ea1i ngay \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 c\u00e1nh tr\u00e1i \u0111ang b\u1ecb \u0111e d\u1ecda, c\u00f2n Marsden, t\u1eeb tr.58, cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 di chuy\u1ec3n sang c\u00e1nh tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ec3 bao v\u00e2y trung qu\u00e2n v\u00e0 c\u00e1nh ph\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n Ba T\u01b0. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Ba T\u01b0 n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u201cm\u1ed9t v\u00e0i k\u1ef5 binh \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 v\u00e0 Ba T\u01b0\u201d \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u1edf \u0111o\u1ea1n tr\u01b0\u1edbc. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi sau l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m nh\u1ecf, v\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u01b0\u1edbp b\u00f3c doanh tr\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Macedonia \u1edf c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0i kil\u00f4m\u00e9t r\u1ed3i tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ed1i \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi Alexander trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u00f3. L\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean l\u00e0 t\u1ea1i Issus (xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t). Ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u th\u1ea5p h\u01a1n th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf. Curtius (4.16.26) \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 300 ng\u01b0\u1eddi, Diodorus (17.61.3) \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 500 ng\u01b0\u1eddi, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi \u201cr\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng.\u201d S\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Diodorus (90.000) v\u00e0 Curtius (40.000) l\u00e0 h\u1ee3p l\u00fd h\u01a1n. Nguy\u1ec7t th\u1ef1c (xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y) \u0111\u00e3 di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o \u0111\u00eam ng\u00e0y 20\/21 th\u00e1ng Ch\u00edn v\u00e0 tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 1 th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y th\u1ee9 26 c\u1ee7a th\u00e1ng Boedromion theo l\u1ecbch Athens. (Plutarch, Alexander 31.4; Camillus 19.5). Alexander cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c chi\u1ebfm c\u1ee9 Babylon v\u00e0 Susa quan tr\u1ecdng h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb so v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c truy \u0111u\u1ed5i m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n b\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn kh\u1eafp m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ecba th\u1ebf hi\u1ec3m tr\u1edf. T\u00ean m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb vua Ba T\u01b0. (ND) \u0110i\u1ec7n th\u1edd th\u1ea7n Bel (Marduk) \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Alexander quay tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Babylon v\u00e0o n\u0103m 323. (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y) Mazaeus l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c. Li\u1ec7u \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n th\u01b0\u1edfng cho \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng t\u1ea1i Gaugamela (xem Tarn (Alexander2.109), tr\u00edch Curtius 5.1.18), ho\u1eb7c v\u00ec \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 giao n\u1ed9p Babylon? Arrian d\u00f9ng t\u1eeb \u201cChaldaean\u201d l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb t\u01b0 t\u1ebf c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Marduk. Harmodius v\u00e0 Aristogeiton (m\u1ea5t n\u0103m 514 TCN): l\u00e0 hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ebft ch\u1ebft b\u1ea1o ch\u00faa Hipparchus. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00e2n Athens t\u00f4n k\u00ednh v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c n\u1ec1n t\u1ef1 do cho h\u1ecd. (ND) Sau n\u00e0y, Arrian n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y) c\u00e1c b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eedi tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Athens v\u00e0o n\u0103m 323. V\u1ec1 Harmodius v\u00e0 Aristogeiton, xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n. Demeter v\u00e0 Persephone. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Abulites \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eedi con trai \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Oxathres cho Alexander. \u00d4ng v\u1eabn gi\u1eef v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. T\u1eeb Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u1ecbch th\u00e0nh \u201cth\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c\u201d l\u00e0 \u201cHyparchos\u201d, m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb","c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ecb tr\u00ed; xem Tarn, Alexander 2.173. \u201cMenes l\u00e0\u2026 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb t\u01b0\u1edbng, ch\u1ecbu tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n r\u1ea5t quan tr\u1ecdng trong th\u00f4ng tin li\u00ean l\u1ea1c\u201d (Tarn, 2.177). G\u1ea7n 15.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3, t\u00ednh c\u1ea3 6.000 b\u1ed9 binh Macedonia v\u00e0 500 k\u1ef5 binh Macedonia. Chi ti\u1ebft, xem Diodorus 16.65.1, Curtius 5.1.40-2. Fuller (tr.227) so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi kho\u1ea3n thu\u1ebf m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3 cho c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean b\u1ed9 l\u1ea1c \u1edf bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi T\u00e2y B\u1eafc \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. M\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a Alexander l\u00e0 ng\u0103n kh\u00f4ng cho Ariobarzanes di chuy\u1ec3n l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a c\u1ea3i kh\u1ed5ng l\u1ed3 ra kh\u1ecfi Persepolis. Kho\u1ea3n ti\u1ec1n n\u00e0y, theo Diodorus (17.71) v\u00e0 Curtius (5.6.9), l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 120.000 ta-l\u0103ng, c\u00f2n theo Plutarch (Alexander 37) v\u00e0 Strabo (15.3.9) l\u00e0 40.000 ta-l\u0103ng. Pasargadae l\u00e0 th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 c\u0169 c\u1ee7a Ba T\u01b0, do Cyrus s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp. Qu\u00e2n Macedonia \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 6.000 ta-l\u0103ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c, li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi t\u00ednh li\u00ean-Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh. Plutarch (Alexander 38), Diodorus (17.72) v\u00e0 Curtius (5.7) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ed1t ph\u00e1 cung \u0111i\u1ec7n l\u00e0 \u00fd c\u1ee7a Thais, m\u1ed9t g\u00e1i \u0111i\u1ebfm h\u1ea1ng sang ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens trong ti\u1ec7c r\u01b0\u1ee3u. Theo bi\u00ean ni\u00ean s\u1eed ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Curtius, vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o gi\u1eefa th\u00e1ng N\u0103m, v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian b\u1ed1n th\u00e1ng Alexander l\u01b0u l\u1ea1i Persepolis. V\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y Persepolis, xem c\u00e1c tranh minh h\u1ecda xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc trong Mortimer Wheeler, Flames over Persepolis, ho\u1eb7c Jean-Louis Huot, Persia (London, 1965) trong c\u00e1c seri Archaeologia Mundi. Ecbatana ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 Hamadan th\u1eddi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. C\u1ed5ng Caspian, con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng ch\u00ednh t\u1eeb Media b\u0103ng qua nh\u1eefng ng\u1ecdn n\u00fai Elburz t\u1edbi Hyrcania v\u00e0 Parthia, c\u00e1ch Teheran kho\u1ea3ng 64 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda t\u00e2y. L\u00fac n\u00e0y Alexander cho r\u1eb1ng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn Li\u00ean minh \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi h\u1ed3i k\u1ebft. S\u1ed1 t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eadp k\u1ebft t\u1ea1i Ecbatana, t\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n, l\u00ean t\u1edbi 180.000 ta-l\u0103ng (Diodorus 17.80; Strabo 15.3.9). Parmenio v\u1eabn c\u00f2n \u1edf Ecbatana cho t\u1edbi khi \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t. M\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u1ee7y b\u1ecf. 6.000 b\u1ed9 binh Macedonia d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 t\u00e1i nh\u1eadp v\u00e0o l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Alexander t\u1ea1i Susia \u1edf Aria (xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y). Rhagae (Rei) n\u1eb1m c\u00e1ch Teheran kho\u1ea3ng 8 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng nam, c\u00e1ch c\u1ed5ng Caspia kh\u00f4ng \u00edt h\u01a1n 70 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Darius b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft g\u1ea7n Damghan ho\u1eb7c Shahrud. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n kho\u1ea3ng 338 ho\u1eb7c 402 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t t\u1eeb C\u1ed5ng Caspian trong kho\u1ea3ng h\u01a1n m\u1ed9t tu\u1ea7n v\u00e0o gi\u1eefa m\u00f9a h\u00e8, rong ru\u1ed5i kh\u1eafp m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc m\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn l\u00e0 sa m\u1ea1c. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 ho\u00e0ng gia, xem Diodorus 17.71.2. N\u0103m 330 TCN. Barsine, th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Stateira. V\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0ng k\u1ebft h\u00f4n v\u1edbi Alexander, xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y. Bi\u1ec3n Caspian tuy \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng th\u1ef1c ch\u1ea5t l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i h\u1ed3. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 h\u1ed3 n\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. N\u01b0\u1edbc h\u1ed3 m\u1eb7n nh\u01b0 n\u01b0\u1edbc bi\u1ec3n v\u00e0 c\u00e1c sinh v\u1eadt s\u1ed1ng \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u0169ng l\u00e0 c\u00e1c sinh v\u1eadt bi\u1ec3n. (ND) Ng\u00e0y nay l\u00e0 Asterabad. C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 Meshed. C\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Zariaspa (Strabo 11.11.2), v\u00e0 l\u00e0 Balkh th\u1eddi hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i. Arrian c\u0169ng g\u1ecdi v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Drangiana, xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. V\u00f9ng n\u00e0y n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda t\u00e2y Arachotia. T\u1ea1i Phrada, sau n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi Prophthasia, \u00e2m m\u01b0u ph\u1ea3n lo\u1ea1n \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb","ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n. V\u1ec1 \u00e2m m\u01b0u c\u1ee7a Philotas, xem Plutarch, Alexander 48-9, Diodorus 17.79.1-80.2, Curtius 6.7-11, t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u n\u00f3i Philotas \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb tra t\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea5y l\u1eddi khai. Theo Plutarch, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Antigone, t\u00ecnh nh\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Philotas, cho bi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u00e2m m\u01b0u ph\u1ea3n lo\u1ea1n. Tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng n\u00e0o ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i Philotas, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 hai l\u1ea7n kh\u00f4ng s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp cho m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia t\u00ean l\u00e0 Cebalinus ti\u1ebfp ki\u1ebfn Alexander trong khi \u00f4ng ta kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00f3 th\u00f4ng tin quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ea7n b\u00e1o l\u00ean ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf. Vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c suy di\u1ec5n th\u00e0nh n\u00f3 c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi \u00e2m m\u01b0u ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i Alexander. Ho\u1eb7c b\u1ecb n\u00e9m \u0111\u00e1 cho t\u1edbi ch\u1ebft (Curtius 6.11.38). Chi ti\u1ebft, xem Curtius 7.2.11-35. Xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t. K\u1ef5 binh Thessaly \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n ch\u1ec9 huy c\u1ee7a Parmenio, k\u1ef5 binh Pharsalus t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi K\u1ef5 binh Ho\u00e0ng gia c\u1ee7a Alexander (xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y). V\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c x\u00e9t x\u1eed Amyntas, xem Curtius 7.1.10-2.10. Cleitus \u201c\u0110en\u201d, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ee9u m\u1ea1ng Alexander t\u1ea1i Granicus. Khi nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u201cCaucasus c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9\u201d, Arrian mu\u1ed1n nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi C\u00e1c ng\u1ecdn n\u00fai \u1edf \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 [Hindu Kush]; xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 Strabo 11.8.1. Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi v\u1edbi t\u00ean g\u1ecdi \u201cAlexanderia g\u1ea7n d\u00e3y Caucasus\u201d, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp \u1edf Begram, c\u00e1ch Kabul kho\u1ea3ng 40 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng b\u1eafc. C\u00e2y silphium thu\u1ed9c h\u1ecd th\u00ec l\u00e0, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng nhi\u1ec1u \u1edf v\u00f9ng b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n Cyrenaica (Lybia ng\u00e0y nay). T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n lo\u1ea1i c\u00e2y n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng thu\u1ed1c tr\u00e1nh thai c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. (ND) Lo\u00e0i c\u00e2y n\u00e0y xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ed3ng ti\u1ec1n Cyrene. V\u1ec1 Tanais, xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. V\u1ec1 Bactra, xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Nh\u1eefng th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n kh\u00e1c gi\u1edd l\u00e0 Kunduz v\u00e0 Tashkurgan. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 b\u0103ng qua Hindu Kush qua \u0111\u00e8o Khawak, c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed9 cao 3.536 m\u00e9t. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng d\u00f2ng Oxus (Amu Darya) \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o bi\u1ec3n Aral. L\u1eb7p l\u1ea1i c\u00e1ch b\u00e0y binh b\u1ed1 tr\u1eadn \u1edf Danube n\u0103m 335 (xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t). Hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 Samarcand. Orexartes l\u00e0 t\u00ean Aristobulus g\u1ecdi d\u00f2ng Jaxartes (Syr Darya), d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 s\u00f4ng Oxus, \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o bi\u1ec3n Aral. D\u00f2ng Tanais m\u00e0 Herodotus g\u1ecdi (4.45.57) l\u00e0 s\u00f4ng Don v\u00e0 h\u1ed3 Maeotis ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n Azov. Alexander v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t d\u00f2ng Jaxartes v\u1edbi d\u00f2ng Tanais (Plutarch, Alexander 45.5), v\u00e0 Strabo (11.7.4) cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a \u201c\u00e2m m\u01b0u\u201d kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 chinh ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 ch\u00e2u \u00c1. Gadeira hi\u1ec7n nay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Cadiz. Gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 nhi\u1ec1u s\u1eed gia c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i kh\u00e1c, Arrian coi Libya l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba \u00c1 ch\u00e2u. Iliad 13.6. \u201cAlexandria xa nh\u1ea5t\u201d ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 Chojend ng\u00e0y nay. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u00f3ng b\u1ea3y ch\u1ed1t bi\u00ean ph\u00f2ng n\u00e0y. Nhi\u1ec1u kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 suy ngh\u0129 l\u1ea1c quan v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c s\u1eafp \u0111\u1eb7t m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 h\u00f2a gi\u1ea3i chung. Chojend, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3. Xem Herodotus 4.122-142. Curtius 7.7.24-29 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Aristander \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i l\u1eddi ti\u00ean tri v\u00e0 tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 r\u1eb1ng ch\u01b0a bao gi\u1edd l\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf l\u1ea1i thu\u1eadn l\u1ee3i nh\u01b0 v\u1eady. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n ch\u1ed1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Scythia, xem Fuller,","tr.236-41. Kho\u1ea3ng 1.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi, theo Curtius (7.6.10). Curtius (4.7.30-9) \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Aristobulus r\u1eb1ng qu\u00e2n Macedonia \u0111\u00e3 r\u01a1i v\u00e0o \u1ed5 ph\u1ee5c k\u00edch, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t so v\u1edbi ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Arrian. C\u00f3 t\u1edbi 2.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 3.000 b\u1ed9 binh, 300 ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 800 k\u1ef5 binh thi\u1ec7t m\u1ea1ng. Hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 Zarafshan. N\u0103m 329\/328 TCN. V\u1ec1 chuy\u1ebfn kh\u1edfi h\u00e0nh t\u1eeb Nautaka m\u1ed9t n\u0103m sau \u0111\u00f3, xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Arrian vi\u1ebft thi\u1ebfu ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. Menes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed \u0111i t\u1eeb Susa v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i n\u0103m 331, Epocillus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed \u0111i t\u1eeb Ecbatana v\u00e0i th\u00e1ng sau \u0111\u00f3 (xem Quy\u1ec3n ba). N\u00f3i chung, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00ean Bessus \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 Bessus, k\u1ebb gi\u1ebft vua Darius, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi ngay tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3. D\u00f2ng s\u1eeda l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 \u201cAsclepiodorus, xatrap c\u1ee7a Syria, v\u00e0 Menes, \u201cth\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c\u201d\u201d (xem Tarn, Alexander 2.179-80). T\u1eeb Hy L\u1ea1p mang ngh\u0129a \u201cth\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c\u201d c\u0169ng l\u00e0 \u201cHyparchos\u201d; xem Quy\u1ec3n ba. Chi ti\u1ebft v\u1ec1 qu\u00e2n ti\u1ebfp vi\u1ec7n, t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 19.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi, xem Curtius 7.10.11-12. V\u1ec1 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c c\u1eaft x\u1ebbo \u201cd\u00e3 man\u201d n\u00e0y, xem Herodotus 3.154. Trong cu\u1ed1n Alexander, Plutarch n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn v\u00e0 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trang ph\u1ee5c pha tr\u1ed9n c\u1ee7a Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 Media, tr\u00e1nh nh\u1eefng y\u1ebfu t\u1ed1 \u201cd\u00e3 man\u201d c\u1ee7a trang ph\u1ee5c Media. Sau n\u00e0y, Arrian (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y) cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y l\u00e0 do \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u01a1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb. Vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra t\u1ea1i Markanda v\u00e0o m\u00f9a thu n\u0103m 328. V\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ghi ch\u00e9p kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 n\u01a1i di\u1ec5n ra, xem Plutarch, Alexander 50-2 v\u00e0 Curtius 8.1.20-2.12. Nh\u1eefng phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c T.S Brown ph\u00e2n t\u00edch trong AJP 1949, t\u1eeb tr.236. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n, h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 con c\u1ee7a Leda, nh\u01b0ng l\u1ea1i c\u00f3 hai \u00f4ng b\u1ed1 kh\u00e1c nhau: Castor l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9a con trai ph\u00e0m t\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a Tyndareus \u2013 vua Sparta, v\u00e0 Polydeuces l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9a con trai th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus \u2013 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ee5 d\u1ed7 v\u00e0 c\u01b0\u1ee1ng hi\u1ebfp Leda. Truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 h\u1ecd c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u d\u1ecb b\u1ea3n, c\u0169ng c\u00f3 d\u1ecb b\u1ea3n k\u1ec3 r\u1eb1ng c\u1eb7p song sinh n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c sinh ra t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t qu\u1ea3 tr\u1ee9ng, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t c\u1eb7p song sinh kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 ch\u1ecb em Helen v\u00e0 Clytemnestra. (ND) Tri\u1ebft gia n\u00e0y sinh ra \u1edf Abdera thu\u1ed9c Thrace v\u00e0 l\u00e0 th\u1ea7y d\u1ea1y tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7 c\u1ee7a Pyrrhon. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Callisthenes; xem Plutarch, Alexander 52-3. M\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa th\u1ea7n C\u00f4ng l\u00fd v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n Zeus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i t\u1eeb r\u1ea5t l\u00e2u \u0111\u1eddi, \u00edt nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 trong th\u01a1 ca c\u1ee7a Hesiod (Works and Days, t\u1eeb tr.256); Sophocles, Odeipus at Colonus, t\u1eeb tr.138; Anaxarchus ph\u00e2n t\u00edch th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i c\u1ed5 x\u01b0a theo h\u01b0\u1edbng ph\u00f9 h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng ta. R\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 n\u1ed7 l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u01b0a nghi l\u1ec5 ph\u1ee7 ph\u1ee5c (proskynesis) v\u00e0o trong tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 vi\u1ec7c ng\u00e0i s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trang ph\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0, l\u00e0 v\u00ec mong mu\u1ed1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 chung s\u1ed1ng h\u00f2a thu\u1eadn v\u1edbi nhau. Lu\u1eadn b\u00e0n s\u00e2u nh\u1ea5t v\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y l\u00e0 b\u00e0i b\u00e1o c\u1ee7a J.P.V.D. Balsdon trong Historia 1950, t\u1eeb tr.371. Xem th\u00eam T. S. Brown, AJP 1950, t\u1eeb tr.242. V\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y, xem Plutarch, Alexander 2-3. Hipparchus \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft v\u00e0o n\u0103m 514 v\u00e0 Hippias \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ecfi Athens v\u00e0o n\u0103m 510; xem Thucydides","6.54-9. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p coi vi\u1ec7c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nghi l\u1ec5 ph\u1ee7 ph\u1ee5c l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng th\u1edd c\u00fang; xem Herodotus 7.136. Th\u00e2n m\u1eabu c\u1ee7a Alexander, Olympias, l\u00e0 con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Neoptolemus, vua c\u1ee7a Epirus, v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean tr\u00f9ng t\u00ean v\u1edbi \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Neoptolemus, con trai c\u1ee7a Achilles, ch\u00e1u trai c\u1ee7a Aeacus. Xem Herodotus 1.204-14 v\u00e0 4.83-144. Theo Curtius (8.5.22), \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 Polyperchon, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebf nh\u1ea1o ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u00ean th\u1ecb th\u1ea7n ho\u00e0ng gia Chares thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i (Plutarch, Alexander 54.4-6). Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0 th\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00f4n l\u00ean m\u00f4i \u201ch\u1ecd h\u00e0ng\u201d c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh (Xenophon, Cyropaideia 1.4.27, 2.2.31; Herodotus 1.134). Plutarch (Alexander 55.1-2) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Hephaestion x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng Callisthenes \u0111\u00e3 t\u00e1n th\u00e0nh vi\u1ec7c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n nghi l\u1ec5 prokynesis r\u1ed3i sau \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1 b\u1ecf cam k\u1ebft n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb xu n\u1ecbnh Alexander l\u1ea1i c\u00e0ng khi\u1ebfn Callisthenes tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh c\u00e1i gai trong m\u1eaft ng\u00e0i. Xem th\u00eam Curtius 8.6.2-6. Vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf Bactra v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m 327. Curtius (8.6.8-8.23) c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch chi ti\u1ebft. \u00d4ng \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t danh s\u00e1ch c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ch\u00fat kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb d\u00ednh l\u00edu t\u1edbi v\u1ee5 n\u00e0y v\u00e0 c\u0169ng kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 chi ti\u1ebft so v\u1edbi Arrian. V\u00e0 theo Curtius. Plutarch (Alexander 55.6) tr\u00edch m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 Alexander vi\u1ebft cho c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1edbng l\u0129nh c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i l\u00e0 Craterus, Attalus, v\u00e0 Alcetas, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111ang tham gia chi\u1ebfn d\u1ecbch \u1edf Pareitacene, trong \u0111\u00f3 ng\u00e0i n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 Nh\u1eefng c\u1eadn th\u1ea7n tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i d\u00ednh l\u00edu t\u1edbi \u00e2m m\u01b0u \u00e1m s\u00e1t ng\u00e0i. V\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ed9 tin c\u1eady c\u1ee7a l\u00e1 th\u01b0 n\u00e0y, xem CQ 1955, t\u1eeb tr.219. Curtius (8.7) c\u0169ng \u0111i theo truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y. Plutarch (Alexander 55.7) x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 c\u00e1ch m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft ch\u1ebft. Curtius (8.8.20) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd b\u1ecb tra t\u1ea5n. Plutarch thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i c\u1ea3 hai d\u1ecb b\u1ea3n. H\u01a1n n\u1eefa, s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y c\u00f2n cho r\u1eb1ng, theo l\u1eddi Chares k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i, Callisthenes \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb giam gi\u1eef trong su\u1ed1t b\u1ea3y th\u00e1ng cho t\u1edbi khi \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi. V\u1ec1 d\u1ecbp ti\u1ebfp ki\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Chorasmia c\u01b0 tr\u00fa \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa v\u00f9ng Caspian v\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n Aral. T\u00ean g\u1ecdi th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a bi\u1ec3n Marmara, b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb t\u1eeb \u201cpro\u201d ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc, c\u00f2n \u201cpontos\u201d ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n \u0110en. S\u1edf d\u0129 c\u00f3 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi n\u00e0y l\u00e0 v\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p ph\u1ea3i \u0111i thuy\u1ec1n qua bi\u1ec3n n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ec3n \u0110en. Propontis l\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n n\u1eb1m s\u00e2u trong \u0111\u1ea5t li\u1ec1n, n\u1ed1i li\u1ec1n bi\u1ec3n \u0110en v\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n Aegean. (ND) \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi d\u1ea7u trong v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Hy L\u1ea1p. Massagetae l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Scythian, s\u1ed1ng \u1edf ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng Caspian, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i v\u00e0 gi\u1ebft Cyrus \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf (Herodotus 1.201-16). V\u00ec h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng anh h\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a Aristonicus, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 cho d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u00ecnh \u00f4ng t\u1ea1i Delphi, v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t tay \u00f4m \u0111\u00e0n lia, m\u1ed9t tay n\u00e2ng cao c\u00e2y gi\u00e1o (Plutarch, Moraliatr.334). Curtius (6.5.4) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Artabazus \u0111\u00e3 95 tu\u1ed5i v\u00e0o n\u0103m 330, nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 ch\u00fang ta n\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n ch\u1eebng r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed9 tu\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Artabazus l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng t\u1eeb 55 \u0111\u1ebfn 95. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 Cleitus k\u1ebf","nhi\u1ec7m Artabazus, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 qua \u0111\u1eddi tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi \u0111\u1ea3m nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ecb tr\u00ed n\u00e0y. Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi, tr\u1eeb phi, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i t\u1eeb tr\u01b0\u1edbc, b\u00e1o c\u00e1o v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi Bactra v\u00e0o m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc (xem Quy\u1ec3n ba) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn v\u00e0 l\u00fac n\u00e0y \u0111i c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi h\u1ecd l\u00e0 Arsames v\u00e0 Barzancs. Curtius (7.11) c\u0169ng m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 vi\u1ec7c chi\u1ebfm Ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u00e1, m\u00e0 \u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u00e1 c\u1ee7a Ariamazes. Curtius thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i, v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i l\u1ed9 li\u1ec5u, r\u1eb1ng ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u cao 5486 m\u00e9t. S\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o n\u0103m 327 TCN. T\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t ta-l\u0103ng. Cho d\u00f9 t\u00ecnh c\u1ea3m c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi Roxane c\u00f3 hay kh\u00f4ng th\u00ec ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn r\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 hy v\u1ecdng d\u00f9ng cu\u1ed9c h\u00f4n nh\u00e2n n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1ea3m t\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c Bactria. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh x\u1eed c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u1edbi ho\u00e0ng gia Ba T\u01b0, xem Quy\u1ec3n hai. V\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a Darius, Stateira, \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ea5t khi sinh con v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m 332 TCN (Plutarch, Alexander 30). \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c Curtius (4.10.25-34) v\u00e0 Plutarch (Alexander 30) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 Ahura Mazda. Theo Plutarch, ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c h\u01a1n l\u00e0 Darius \u0111\u00e3 g\u1ecdi t\u00ean c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Pareitacae s\u1ed1ng gi\u1eefa l\u01b0u v\u1ef1c hai con s\u00f4ng Oxus v\u00e0 Jaxartes. Curtius (8.2.19) g\u1ecdi h\u1ecd l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Chorienes Sisimithres. N\u0103m 327. Hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 s\u00f4ng Kabul. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Taxila, n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda t\u00e2y b\u1eafc c\u1ee7a Rawalpindi, v\u00e0 l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n v\u00e0 s\u00f4ng Hydaspes. Taxiles l\u00e0 t\u00ean hi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, t\u00ean ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Omphis (Ambhi); xem Curtius 8.12.14. T\u1ea1i Ohind, c\u00e1ch Attock 26 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a Bajaur v\u00e0 Swat. Alexander \u0111ang ti\u1ebfn v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n, ph\u00eda tr\u00ean Attock. \u201cC\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 Nawagai, th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Bajaur\u201d (Fuller, tr.126). Leonnatus ch\u1ecbu tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ec1 ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n b\u1ed9 binh c\u1ee7a Attalus v\u00e0 l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a Balacrus, Ptolemy qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n b\u1ed9 binh c\u1ee7a Philotas, v\u00e0 \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb c\u1ee7a Philip c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n khinh gi\u00e1p (xem Tarn, Alexander 2.144). Khu v\u1ef1c n\u00e0y ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh. Diodorus (17.84) cho r\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng b\u1ed9i b\u1ea1c n\u00e0y l\u00e0 do Alexander, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1m l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 k\u00edch \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00e0o; xem Plutarch Alexander 59.3-4. Diodorus v\u00e0 Curtius (8.10.22) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Cleophis xinh \u0111\u1eb9p \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ee5c h\u1ed3i t\u01b0\u1edbc v\u1ecb. C\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi (Curtius) c\u00f2n cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ee9a con trai v\u1edbi n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng. L\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t l\u00e0 Bir-kot v\u00e0 Ude-gram, theo Ng\u00e0i Aurel Stein, On Alexander\u2019s Track to the Indus (London, 1929), 43, t\u1eeb tr.59. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c Stein x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1926 l\u00e0 Pir-Sar, m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ec9nh n\u00fai c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u cao tr\u00ean 2.134 m\u00e9t, c\u00e1ch s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n kho\u1ea3ng 120 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda b\u1eafc Attock. Xem Fuller, tr.248-54. V\u1ec1 truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y, xem Diodorus 17.85.2 v\u00e0 Curtius 8.11.2. Arrian thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 Heracles trong ph\u1ea7n sau c\u1ee7a quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Fuller \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 ra t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 chi\u1ebfn thu\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u00e1 v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c h\u1ea1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng t\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 l\u00e2n c\u1eadn. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 Charsadda, th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 c\u1ee7a Gandhara. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a Kashmir. Arrian c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n sa \u0111\u00e0 khi n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Nysa, \u0111\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m chi\u1ebfn l\u01b0\u1ee3c","cho vi\u1ec7c v\u01b0\u1ee3t s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n, nh\u1eb1m l\u00e0m r\u00f5 th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft k\u1ec3 v\u1ec1 v\u1ecb vua trong v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. Nysa d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 n\u1eb1m \u1edf thung l\u0169ng Kabul, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 g\u1ea7n Jalalabad. Chuy\u1ebfn vi\u1ebfng th\u0103m th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Curtius (8.10.7-18) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i ngay sau nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n m\u00e0 Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi t\u1ea1i 4.23. Theo th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i Hy L\u1ea1p, Dionysus v\u1ed1n l\u00e0 \u201ccon r\u01a1i\u201d c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus v\u00e0 Semele. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n, Semele ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e0m nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 nhan s\u1eafc tuy\u1ec7t tr\u1ea7n. Th\u1ea7n Zeus t\u00ecm \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi Semele trong h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi r\u1ea5t y\u00eau nhau. Khi Semele mang thai Dionysus, b\u00e0 nghe theo l\u1eddi x\u00fai b\u1ea9y c\u1ee7a Hera \u2013 v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus, xin th\u1ea7n Zeus xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1eaft n\u00e0ng trong h\u00ecnh d\u1ea1ng c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n. Th\u1ea7n Zeus \u0111\u00e1p \u1ee9ng y\u00eau c\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a n\u00e0ng, v\u00e0 Selema ch\u1ebft ngay t\u1ee9c kh\u1eafc, do ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e0m kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng s\u00f3t n\u1ebfu nh\u00ecn th\u1eb3ng v\u00e0o th\u1ea7n Zeus. B\u00e0o thai Dionysus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Zeus gi\u1eef l\u1ea1i, kh\u00e2u v\u00e0o b\u1eafp \u0111\u00f9i, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee7 ng\u00e0y \u0111\u1ee7 th\u00e1ng th\u00ec Zeus r\u1ea1ch \u0111\u00f9i, \u201c\u0111\u1ebb\u201d ra v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n R\u01b0\u1ee3u nho. (ND) C\u00e2y th\u01b0\u1eddng xu\u00e2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng bi\u1ec3u t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Dionysus. (ND) Bacchus l\u00e0 t\u00ean c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Dionysus b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng La M\u00e3. (ND) Trong nguy\u00ean v\u0103n, nh\u1eefng s\u0129 quan n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 k\u00eau nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfng \u201cEuoi, Euoi\u201d, l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ti\u1ebfng k\u00eau say m\u00ea v\u00e0 sung s\u01b0\u1edbng trong nh\u1eefng l\u1ec5 h\u1ed9i vinh danh th\u1ea7n Dionysus c\u1ed5 x\u01b0a. (ND) Eratosthenes (276-195\/194 TCN): l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc trong nhi\u1ec1u l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c: to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc, \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd, thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc, th\u01a1 ca, v.v\u2026 (ND) Nh\u00e0 th\u00f4ng th\u00e1i v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 th\u1ee9 III TCN, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u th\u01b0 vi\u1ec7n Alexandria t\u1eeb n\u0103m 246, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb ghen t\u1ecb g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n h\u1ea1ng hai. Th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 cu\u1ed1n Geography, cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Strabo s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 so s\u00e1nh v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u Strabo n\u00f3i trong ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Quy\u1ec3n 15, cu\u1ed1n Geography, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 trong Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 7-9. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u00e0i nghi h\u01a1n Arrian r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u. Xem th\u00eam c\u00e1c b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Arrian trong cu\u1ed1n Indica (1.7; 5.10-13) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Taxila, c\u00e1ch Rawalpindi kho\u1ea3ng 32 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u00e2y b\u1eafc. Tr\u00ean th\u1ef1c t\u1ebf, s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb d\u00e3y Himalaya. L\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t l\u00e0 c\u00e1c d\u00f2ng Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi v\u00e0 Beas. Punjab l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ea3nh \u0111\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a N\u0103m d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng\u201d. Ctesias, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Cnidos, l\u00e0 ng\u1ef1 y c\u1ee7a Artaxerxes (404-359). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n l\u1ecbch s\u1eed v\u1ec1 Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch v\u1ec1 \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 m\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n nay ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i \u0111o\u1ea1n tr\u00edch ng\u1eafn. Ctesias l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 chuy\u1ec7n c\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111i\u1ec7u. Xem Aristotle, History of Animals 8.27. S\u00f4ng \u1ea4n kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 n\u01a1i n\u00e0o r\u1ed9ng h\u01a1n 4 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Xem Herodotus 3.102, 4.13; Strabo 15.1.44. Xem Xenophone, Cyropaideia 7.5.67. Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Arrian \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp t\u1edbi trong cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 The History of Indica (Indica). Tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c n\u00e0y v\u1eabn c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i cho t\u1edbi ng\u00e0y nay. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t l\u1ea1c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Arrian s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tri\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ec3 trong Indica. V\u1ec1 chuy\u1ebfn h\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh, xem c\u00e1c ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 17-43. Megasthenes (350- 290 TCN): m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c h\u1ecdc, nh\u00e0 th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m th\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. \u00d4ng c\u0169ng","c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m t\u00ean l\u00e0 Indica. (ND) Bi\u1ec3n Azov v\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n Caspian. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn trong th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Herodotus v\u00e0 Aristole (Meteorology 2.1.10) bi\u1ebft \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng sau \u0111\u00f3 Patrocles, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed \u0111i \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 v\u00f9ng bi\u1ec3n Caspian v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 284\/283, b\u00e1o c\u00e1o r\u1eb1ng v\u00f9ng bi\u1ec3n n\u00e0y th\u1ef1c ch\u1ea5t ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 v\u1ecbnh. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Eratosthenes th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i cho t\u1edbi t\u1eadn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIV. V\u1ec1 chuy\u1ebfn th\u00e1m hi\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y. Sandracottus l\u00e0 Chandragupta, ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp ra tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Mauryan, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia kh\u1ecfi Punjab sau khi Alexander qua \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 cai tr\u1ecb ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9, k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 ph\u00eda T\u00e2y s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n m\u00e0 Seleucus \u0111\u00e3 nh\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1ea1i cho \u00f4ng v\u00e0o n\u0103m 304. Megasthenes l\u00e0 s\u1ee9 gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a Seleucus v\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh n\u00ean ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c n\u1ec1n t\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p v\u1ec1 \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9; xem Strabo, Quy\u1ec3n 15 v\u00e0 Indica c\u1ee7a Arrian. Cybele, ph\u1ea7n n\u00fai Dindymus \u1edf Phrygia \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e1nh h\u00f3a. Xem Herodotus 2.5, v\u00e0 2.10-34. Theo th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i Hy L\u1ea1p, Menelaus l\u00e0 vua c\u1ee7a Sparta trong th\u1eddi k\u00ec Mycenae v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ch\u1ed3ng c\u1ee7a n\u00e0ng Helen. (ND) Odyssey 4.477, 581. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 n\u00eau t\u00ean c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y trong cu\u1ed1n Indica (4.8-12) c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. Herodotus 7.33-6; 4.83, 97. Vua c\u1ee7a Pauravas, v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa l\u01b0u v\u1ef1c s\u00f4ng Hydaspes v\u00e0 Acesines. \u0110\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m h\u1ea1 tr\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u00e0 n\u01a1i ng\u00e0i v\u01b0\u1ee3t s\u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi. D\u1ef1 \u0111o\u00e1n c\u00f3 v\u1ebb kh\u1ea3 quan nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 do Ng\u00e0i Aurel Stein \u0111\u01b0a ra. \u00d4ng cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eebng qu\u00e2n h\u1ea1 tr\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i Haranpur v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t s\u00f4ng t\u1ea1i Jalalpur. Th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec1u gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft, xem Fuller, tr.181-5. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Porus, xem Diodorus 17.87-89; Curtius 8.13-14; Plutarch, Alexander 60. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. Qu\u1ea3 th\u1ef1c, trong ph\u1ea7n sau, \u00f4ng thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn n\u1ed5 ra v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng N\u0103m. Theo Nearchus (Strabo 15.1.18; Arrian, Indica 6.5), v\u00e0o h\u1ea1 ch\u00ed, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng 21 th\u00e1ng B\u1ea3y, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ea1 tr\u1ea1i b\u00ean d\u00f2ng Acesines. T\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n b\u1ed9 binh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd (Tarn, Alexander 2.191). Seleucus Nicator \u0111\u00e3 l\u1eadp n\u00ean tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Seleucid, tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e3 cai tr\u1ecb ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 ch\u00e2u \u00c1 m\u00e0 Alexander \u0111\u00e3 chinh ph\u1ee5c. Ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Arrian l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. Tarn (Alexander 2.191-2) cho r\u1eb1ng Ptolemy \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft: \u201cAlexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1eb7t trung \u0111o\u00e0n v\u1ec7 qu\u00e2n Ho\u00e0ng gia v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng trung \u0111o\u00e0n v\u1ec7 qu\u00e2n kh\u00e1c d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n ch\u1ec9 huy c\u1ee7a Seleucus, v\u00e0 k\u1ec1 c\u1eadn v\u1edbi h\u1ecd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n phalanx, t\u00f9y theo t\u1eebng ng\u00e0y m\u00e0 l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn \u01b0u ti\u00ean c\u00e1c trung \u0111o\u00e0n v\u1ec7 qu\u00e2n hay c\u00e1c ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n b\u1ed9 binh.\u201d Nh\u1eefng \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb b\u1ed9 binh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c li\u1ec7t k\u00ea tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 kho\u1ea3ng h\u01a1n 6.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. V\u00ec Arrian vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c con thuy\u1ec1n \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng ch\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e0ng nhi\u1ec1u l\u00ednh b\u1ed9 binh c\u00e0ng t\u1ed1t n\u00ean c\u00f3 l\u1ebd to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 s\u1ed1 l\u00ednh b\u1ed9 binh kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chuy\u1ec3n qua s\u00f4ng trong th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y. \u0110i\u1ec1u l\u1ea1 l\u00f9ng l\u00e0 Alexander hy v\u1ecdng \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Porus ch\u1ec9 b\u1eb1ng k\u1ef5 binh c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i. Ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Plutarch (Alexander 60.7) c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Alexander l\u1ea1i vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3","d\u1ef1 t\u00ednh v\u1ec1 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng k\u1ef5 binh \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng. \u0110\u00f4i khi l\u1eddi b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 Aristobulus d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh Arrian ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a Ptolemy. Do \u0111\u00f3, \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 b\u1eb1ng ch\u1ee9ng cho th\u1ea5y Ptolemy vi\u1ebft sau Aristobulus. Theo Plutarch (Alexander 60.8), con trai c\u1ee7a Porus \u0111\u00e3 mang theo 1.000 k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 60 chi\u1ebfn xa. \u00d4ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Arrian r\u1eb1ng qu\u00e2n \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e3 thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i 400 k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 chi\u1ebfn xa. Curtius (8.14.2) cho r\u1eb1ng anh trai c\u1ee7a Porus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed \u0111i c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi 1.000 k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 100 chi\u1ebfn xa. Curtius (8.13.6) \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Arrian v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng b\u1ed9 binh v\u00e0 chi\u1ebfn xa, nh\u01b0ng kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 voi chi\u1ebfn (85 voi chi\u1ebfn). \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi k\u1ef5 binh. Diodorus (17.87.2) \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u00e0 50.000 b\u1ed9 binh, 3.000 k\u1ef5 binh, tr\u00ean 1.000 chi\u1ebfn xa v\u00e0 130 voi chi\u1ebfn; trong khi s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Plutarch (Alexander 62.1) l\u00e0 20.000 b\u1ed9 binh v\u00e0 2.000 k\u1ef5 binh. Diodorus (17.89.1-3), s\u1eed gia duy nh\u1ea5t ngo\u00e0i Arrian nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi s\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng vong, \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 12.000 qu\u00e2n \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 thi\u1ec7t m\u1ea1ng v\u00e0 9.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb b\u1eaft gi\u1eef; v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda Macedonia, thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i 280 qu\u00e2n k\u1ef5 v\u00e0 tr\u00ean 700 qu\u00e2n b\u1ed9. Diodorus (17.88.4) \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Arrian r\u1eb1ng Porus cao kho\u1ea3ng 5 cubit, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 2,3 m\u00e9t theo \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb cubit c\u1ee7a Athens. Tuy nhi\u00ean, Tarn (Alexander 2.170) cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb cubit c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia ch\u1ec9 kho\u1ea3ng 36 centimet. N\u1ebfu nh\u01b0 v\u1eady, Porus ch\u1ec9 cao kho\u1ea3ng 1,8 m\u00e9t. Xem Diodorus 17.89.6; Curtius 8.14.45; Plutarch, Alexander 60.15. 326 TCN. Diodorus (17.87.1) \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn khi n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn n\u1ed5 ra khi Chremes l\u00e0m quan ch\u1ea5p ch\u00ednh, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng B\u1ea3y n\u0103m 326 \u2013 th\u00e1ng S\u00e1u n\u0103m 325. Plutarch (Alexander 61) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn nh\u1eefng s\u1eed gia cho r\u1eb1ng Bucephalus ch\u1ebft v\u00ec v\u1ebft th\u01b0\u01a1ng, nh\u01b0ng Onesicritus thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng con th\u1ea7n m\u00e3 n\u00e0y ch\u1ebft v\u00ec tu\u1ed5i gi\u00e0 v\u00e0o n\u0103m n\u00f3 30 tu\u1ed5i. Ch\u00fang t\u00f4i kh\u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed9 tu\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Becephalus t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi tu\u1ed5i c\u1ee7a Alexander ho\u1eb7c Alexander kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u201cthu\u1ea7n h\u00f3a\u201d con ng\u1ef1a n\u00e0y cho t\u1edbi khi n\u00f3 16 tu\u1ed5i. Bucephalus c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 s\u1ed1ng t\u1edbi n\u0103m 30 tu\u1ed5i, v\u00e0 Alexander \u0111\u00e3 c\u01b0\u1ee1i n\u00f3 khi n\u00f3 kho\u1ea3ng 7 ho\u1eb7c 8 tu\u1ed5i. V\u1ec1 mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 c\u00f4ng cu\u1ed9c thu\u1ea7n h\u00f3a Bucephalus, xem Plutarch, Alexander 6. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa Susa v\u00e0 Persepolis. Plutarch (Alexander 44.3-4) cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf Hyrcania, Diodorus (17.76.5) v\u00e0 Curtius (6.5.18) cho r\u1eb1ng v\u1ee5 vi\u1ec7c x\u1ea3y ra \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Mardia, t\u1edbi ph\u00eda t\u00e2y Hyrcania. Diodorus (17.89.6) nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c d\u1eebng ch\u00e2n k\u00e9o d\u00e0i 30 ng\u00e0y. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Abisares, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb Kashmir. Strabo (15.1.30) cho r\u1eb1ng v\u1ecb Porus n\u00e0y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 ch\u00e1u c\u1ee7a Porus, vua Paurava. V\u00ec Nicanor \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0m th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 ph\u00eda t\u00e2y S\u00f4ng \u1ea4n (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n) v\u00e0 l\u1ea7n g\u1ea7n nh\u1ea5t Sisicottus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00e0 v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i g\u1ea7n Aornus (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n), c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 Sisicottus l\u00e0 c\u1ea5p d\u01b0\u1edbi c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb xatrap \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb s\u00e1t h\u1ea1i, Nicanor. Trong Indica (3.10), Arrian \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec3m giao v\u1edbi s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n c\u00f3 b\u1ec1 r\u1ed9ng kho\u1ea3ng 6 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t,","nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 sau khi n\u00f3 n\u1ed1i v\u1edbi d\u00f2ng Hydaspes v\u00e0 Hydraotes. C\u1ea3 Sangala l\u1eabn Pimprama (\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi sau \u0111\u00f3) \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c; d\u0129 nhi\u00ean ch\u00fang \u0111\u1ec1u n\u1eb1m trong \u0111\u1ecba h\u1ea1t Amritsar. T\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Malli v\u00e0 Oxydracae sinh s\u1ed1ng \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c xa h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda nam. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p chia \u0111\u00eam th\u00e0nh ba canh, ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 chia th\u00e0nh b\u1ed1n canh. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y Arrian vi\u1ebft theo ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3. Eumenes, ng\u01b0\u1eddi Cardia v\u00f9ng Thrace, l\u00e0 th\u01b0 k\u00fd c\u1ee7a Philip. Sau khi Alexander qua \u0111\u1eddi, \u00f4ng coi gi\u1eef v\u00f9ng Cappadocia v\u00e0 Paphlagonia, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00f3ng m\u1ed9t vai tr\u00f2 quan tr\u1ecdng trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ebf v\u1ecb cho t\u1edbi khi ch\u1ebft d\u01b0\u1edbi tay Antigonus v\u00e0o n\u0103m 316. C\u1ea3 Cornelius Nepos v\u00e0 Plutarch \u0111\u1ec1u vi\u1ebft ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed v\u1ec1 \u00f4ng. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u1ea7n duy nh\u1ea5t trong cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh Eumenes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 huy qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1. Strabo (15.1.27) cho r\u1eb1ng qu\u00e2n Macedonia \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ecbu t\u1ed5n th\u1ea5t n\u1eb7ng n\u1ec1 sau tr\u1eadn m\u01b0a d\u1eef d\u1ed9i. Tr\u1eadn m\u01b0a n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ed5 xu\u1ed1ng t\u1eeb khi h\u1ecd r\u1eddi Hydaspes; xem Diodorus 17.94.3. V\u1ec1 chuy\u1ec7n d\u1ecbch b\u1ec7nh, xem th\u00eam Diodorus 17.93-5; Curtius 9.2.1-3.19 (c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u00e0 Coenus); Plutarch, Alexander 62. Tarn (Alexander 2.287) nghi ng\u1edd r\u1eb1ng b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n c\u1ee7a Alexander c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ch\u1eafp v\u00e1, v\u00ec n\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng t\u00e1ch bi\u1ec7t r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng v\u1edbi l\u1eddi \u0111\u00e1p c\u1ee7a Coenus v\u00e0 Coenus \u0111\u00e3 \u1edf l\u1ea1i Acesines (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n), n\u01a1i \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi \u00edt l\u00e2u sau \u0111\u00f3. Nh\u01b0ng Coenus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp \u0111\u1ec3 g\u1eedi c\u00e1c nhu y\u1ebfu ph\u1ea9m, v\u00e0 gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 Porus, \u00f4ng ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ee3p nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Alexander. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ea5t t\u1ea1i Hydaspes. Tuy nhi\u00ean, b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n c\u00f3 nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u n\u00f3i m\u00e0 t\u00ednh x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang v\u1eabn c\u00f2n b\u1ecb nghi ng\u1edd; xem Tarn. Hi\u1ec3u bi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 s\u00f4ng Ganges c\u1ee7a Alexander l\u00e0 kh\u00e1 \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7, nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u nghi v\u1ea5n l\u00e0 Alexander v\u1eabn cho r\u1eb1ng bi\u1ec3n \u0110\u00f4ng \u1edf g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00f3, nh\u01b0 Aristotle c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ea1y ng\u00e0i. D\u00f9 trong ho\u00e0n c\u1ea3nh n\u00e0o, Nearchus \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh tr\u00ecnh \u0111i qua c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng b\u1eb1ng c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e3 m\u1ea5t b\u1ed1n th\u00e1ng (Strabo 15.1.12). Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m cho r\u1eb1ng bi\u1ec3n Hyrcanian (Caspian) l\u00e0 v\u1ecbnh kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Alexander m\u00e0 l\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a Eratosthenes (v\u00e0 Arrian). (Xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y). Xem Xenophon, Anabasis 1.7.4. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. L\u00ednh Thessaly \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho v\u1ec1 qu\u00ea t\u1eeb l\u00fac \u1edf Ecbatana ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i \u1edf Bactra. \u0110\u1ea7u n\u0103m 325, khi tin \u0111\u1ed3n lan t\u1edbi Bactria r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft \u1edf Malli, 3.000 l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n v\u00e0 cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng b\u1ecf ch\u1ea1y v\u1ec1 Hy L\u1ea1p (Curtius 9.7.1-11). Ngay sau c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Alexander, m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n c\u00f3 quy m\u00f4 l\u1edbn h\u01a1n c\u1ee7a l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed5 ra \u1edf Bactria (Diodorus 18.4.8; 7.1-9). Carthage l\u00e0 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ed5, thu\u1ed9c x\u1ee9 Tunisia ng\u00e0y nay. (ND) Diodorus (17.95.1) v\u00e0 Curtius (9.3.19) c\u0169ng x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn vi\u1ec7c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng 12 \u0111i\u1ec7n th\u1edd cho 12 v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n Olympia. Theo Diodorus, \u0111i\u1ec7n th\u1edd c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u cao 23 m\u00e9t. Kh\u00f4ng d\u1ea5u t\u00edch n\u00e0o c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec7n th\u1edd n\u00e0y c\u00f2n s\u00f3t l\u1ea1i, nh\u01b0ng v\u00ec c\u00e1c d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e3 thay \u0111\u1ed5i r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u sau th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Alexander n\u00ean \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec \u0111\u00e1ng ng\u1ea1c nhi\u00ean. Diodorus, Curtius v\u00e0 Plutarch (Alexander 62) c\u00f2n b\u1ed5 sung","r\u1eb1ng Alexander c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ea1 l\u1ec7nh x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng n\u01a1i \u0103n ng\u1ee7 cho binh l\u00ednh v\u00e0 chu\u1ed3ng ng\u1ef1a cho ng\u1ef1a chi\u1ebfn l\u1edbn h\u01a1n m\u1ee9c b\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1eb1m g\u00e2y \u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u1edbi h\u1eadu th\u1ebf. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3. Xem Quy\u1ec3n n\u0103m. C\u00e1c s\u1eed gia nh\u00ecn chung \u0111\u1ec1u x\u00e1c nh\u1eadn l\u00e1 th\u01b0 l\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1eadt, nh\u01b0ng r\u1ea5t kh\u00f3 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ai l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c g\u1ea1ch x\u00f3a trong \u0111\u00f3. Curtius (9.3.20) cho r\u1eb1ng Coenus qua \u0111\u1eddi t\u1ea1i Acesines, nh\u01b0ng v\u00ec \u00f4ng v\u00e0 Diodorus \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn khi cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 quay tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec3 g\u1eb7p h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i n\u00ean ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f3 l\u00fd do g\u00ec \u0111\u1ec3 nghi ng\u1edd Arrian. V\u1ec1 Coenus, xem Badian, JHS 1961, t\u1eeb tr.20, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n ph\u1ea3i gi\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Coenus l\u00e0 v\u00ec l\u00fd do kh\u00e1c ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ebft m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ef1 nhi\u00ean. Theo Nearchus (Arrian, Indica 19.5), t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 c\u00f3 120.000 l\u00ednh, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 \u201cnh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e3 man\u201d. \u0110\u1ecba \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh. Diodorus (17.91.4) v\u00e0 Curtius (9.1.24) \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn khi cho r\u1eb1ng v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a Sopeithe n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng Cathaei, gi\u1eefa hai d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng l\u00e0 Hydraotes v\u00e0 Hyphasis. Xem Strabo 15.1.30. Xem Arrian, Indica 18.9-10. Strabo (15.1.28) nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t r\u1eb1ng Onesicritus x\u1ee9ng \u0111\u00e1ng l\u00e0 hoa ti\u00eau ch\u00ednh trong s\u1ed1 t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng hoa ti\u00eau c\u1ee7a Alexander, v\u00e0 r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng ta v\u01b0\u1ee3t tr\u1ed9i h\u01a1n t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i theo Alexander trong vi\u1ec7c k\u1ec3 nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1. Trong Indica, Arrian \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 800 t\u00e0u thuy\u1ec1n, hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 t\u1eeb s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Nearchus. Diodorus v\u00e0 Curtius \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 1.000 t\u00e0u thuy\u1ec1n. Nearchus (Indica 18.11) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m l\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i theo ch\u1ec9 d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ti\u00ean tri, \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n: Poseidon, Amphitrite, c\u00e1c n\u1eef th\u1ea7n Nereid, th\u1ea7n Bi\u1ec3n c\u1ea3 v\u00e0 ba th\u1ea7n s\u00f4ng. Theo Aristobulus (Strabo 15.1.17), Alexander \u0111\u00e3 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng \u201cm\u1ed9t v\u00e0i ng\u00e0y tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ch\u00f2m Th\u1ea5t tinh xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n\u201d, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ed9t n\u0103m 326. Xem Indica 7.8-9. Theo Curtius, l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Malli v\u00e0 Oxydracae kho\u1ea3ng 90.000 b\u1ed9 binh, 10.000 k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 900 chi\u1ebfn xa. Diodorus cho r\u1eb1ng l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y g\u1ed3m 80.000 b\u1ed9 binh, 10.000 k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 700 chi\u1ebfn xa. Arrian ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi 50.000 qu\u00e2n Malli (xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y). Diodorus (17.97.2) so s\u00e1nh cu\u1ed9c v\u01b0\u1ee3t s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y v\u1edbi cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Achilles tr\u00ean s\u00f4ng Scamander (Iliad 21.228). Sa m\u1ea1c Sanda-Bar. Fuller ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng \u201cth\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n\u201d n\u00e0y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u00f4i l\u00e0ng \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 hi\u1ec7n nay \u2013 \u201c\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh t\u1eeb nhi\u1ec1u t\u00fap l\u1ec1u \u0111\u1eafp b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ea5t b\u00f9n, ch\u00fang t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 theo v\u00f2ng tr\u00f2n c\u00f3 chi\u1ec1u cao v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed9 d\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng l\u1edbn l\u1eafm.\u201d Xem Curtius 9.4.26. Strabo (16.1.3) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t ghi ch\u00e9p t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch t\u1ea1i sao Gaugamela (c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cn\u01a1i ch\u0103n th\u1ea3 l\u1ea1c \u0111\u00e0\u201d) l\u1ea1i mang c\u00e1i t\u00ean n\u00e0y. Curtius (9.5.14) nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi Timaeus v\u00e0 Aristonus c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 Peucestas v\u00e0 Leonnatus, Plutarch (Moralia 327b, 344d) nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi Ptolemy v\u00e0 Limnaeus. Peucestas v\u00e0 Leonnatus sau \u0111\u00f3 c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eadn v\u01b0\u01a1ng mi\u1ec7n b\u1eb1ng v\u00e0ng v\u00ec h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee9u m\u1ea1ng Alexander. Curtius (9.5.21) ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch Cleitarchus v\u00e0","Timagenes v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Ptolemy c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t trong tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn n\u00e0y. Trong cu\u1ed1n History, ch\u00ednh Ptolemy \u0111\u00e3 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3 \u00f4ng \u0111ang th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n m\u1ed9t nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 vi\u1ec5n chinh kh\u00e1c. Ptolemy nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c danh hi\u1ec7u \u201cV\u1ecb c\u1ee9u tinh\u201d t\u1eeb ng\u01b0\u1eddi Rhodian v\u00e0o n\u0103m 304 v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00fap \u0111\u1ee1 h\u1ecd trong su\u1ed1t cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh Rhodes c\u1ee7a Demetrius. Curtius (9.6.6) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Craterus \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh Alexander nh\u00e2n danh c\u00e1c s\u0129 quan c\u1ea5p cao, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Ptolemy c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c. M\u1ed9t \u0111o\u1ea1n thu\u1ed9c m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng v\u1edf bi k\u1ecbch \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t l\u1ea1c c\u1ee7a Aeschylus. Curtius (9.8.9) cho r\u1eb1ng t\u00ean c\u1ee7a v\u1ecb th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c c\u0169 l\u00e0 Terioltes v\u00e0 \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u00e3 qua \u0111\u1eddi. V\u1ec1 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Onesicritus, xem Strabo 15.1.34. Diodorus (17.102.5) v\u00e0 Curtius (9.8.11-13) ghi ch\u00e9p r\u1eb1ng Oxycanus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 h\u1ecd g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Porticanus, \u0111\u00e3 qua \u0111\u1eddi; c\u00e1c t\u00f9 binh \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb \u0111em b\u00e1n v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n trong v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y. Theo Diodorus v\u00e0 Curtius (ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Cleitatchus l\u00e0m c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh), trong v\u00f9ng n\u00e0y c\u00f3 80.000 l\u00ednh \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb b\u1eaft l\u00e0m t\u00f9 binh. Xem Arrian, Indica, Ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 11. Strabo (15.1.59) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi B\u00e0 La M\u00f4n, d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Megasthenes. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 Drangiana. Craterus c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 di chuy\u1ec3n th\u00f4ng qua con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o. Ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec3m cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ed3ng b\u1eb1ng s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Alexander. N\u00f3 th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn v\u1edbi t\u00ean g\u1ecdi Hyderabad ho\u1eb7c Bahmanabad. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng gi\u1eefa th\u00e1ng B\u1ea3y n\u0103m 325. Gi\u00f3 m\u00f9a t\u00e2y nam. Theo Plutarch (Alexander 66.1), Alexander g\u1ecdi h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Scillustis, c\u00f2n nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c g\u1ecdi n\u00f3 l\u00e0 Psiltucis. Nh\u1eefng l\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf n\u00e0y, gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng l\u1ec5 t\u1ebf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c h\u00e0nh tr\u00ecnh xu\u00f4i d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n (xem Quy\u1ec3n n\u0103m), l\u00e0 l\u1ec5 t\u1ea1 \u01a1n c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u00ec chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i. Xem Indica 20.10. Wilcken, Alexander 196, coi vi\u1ec7c hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf v\u00e0 r\u00f3t r\u01b0\u1ee3u c\u00fang l\u00e0 l\u1ec5 t\u1ea1 \u01a1n m\u00e0 Alexander th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ea1m t\u1edbi \u201cc\u1ef1c h\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi\u201d c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u1eddi c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n cho t\u01b0\u01a1ng lai. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u trong v\u0103n b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Arrian. Chuy\u1ebfn h\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a Nearchus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 trong Indica, ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 21-43. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Nearchus; Aristobulus cho r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c c\u1eeda s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00f3 kho\u1ea3ng 200 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t (Strabo 15.1.33). Nh\u00e1nh s\u00f4ng ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed5 v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda \u0111\u1ea7m l\u1ea7y Rann of Kutch. Kho\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ed9t. Nearchus \u0111\u00e3 r\u1eddi Pattala v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng ng\u00e0y 21 th\u00e1ng Ch\u00edn n\u0103m 325, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ee3i \u1edf nh\u00e1nh s\u00f4ng ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng \u1ea4n su\u1ed1t 24 ng\u00e0y cho t\u1edbi khi gi\u00f3 m\u00f9a \u0110\u00f4ng B\u1eafc xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n (Indica 21). S\u00f4ng Hab, kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 s\u00f4ng Purali. V\u1ec1 ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Alexander n\u00f3i chung, xem Ng\u00e0i Aurel Stein, Geographical Journal 1943. 193-227. V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1ef1c th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y Alexander h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n qua Gedrosia, hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 Makran, xem ph\u1ea7n sau trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. C\u00e1c s\u01b0 \u0111o\u00e0n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t d\u01b0\u1edbi","quy\u1ec1n ch\u1ec9 huy c\u1ee7a Leonnatus, Ptolemy v\u00e0 Alexander (Diodorus 17.104.6). Diodorus ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i khi vi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng \u201ch\u00e0ng ngh\u00ecn ng\u01b0\u1eddi\u201d \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft. V\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a Rhambacia ch\u01b0a \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh. Diodorus (17.104.8) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexandria m\u1edbi n\u1eb1m \u1edf b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n, nh\u01b0ng Stein (tr. 215) cho r\u1eb1ng th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n m\u1edbi n\u1eb1m \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c n\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ecba, g\u1ea7n Bela hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i. Arrian s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1eeb \u201cOreitae\u201d v\u00e0 \u201cOria\u201d m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u00f9y ti\u1ec7n. M\u1ed9t lo\u00e0i c\u00e2y nh\u1ecf, c\u00f3 gai, c\u00f3 m\u00f9i th\u01a1m m\u00e1t r\u1ea5t d\u1ec5 ch\u1ecbu. Nh\u1ef1a c\u1ee7a c\u00e2y m\u1eadt nhi l\u1ea1p c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i n\u01b0\u1edbc hoa, l\u00e0m thu\u1ed1c, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u1ec3 x\u1ee9c cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft. (ND) Lo\u00e0i c\u00e2y n\u00e0y, m\u00e0 t\u1eeb n\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta t\u1ea1o ra \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i d\u1ea7u th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi trong Kinh th\u00e1nh, m\u1ecdc nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ed7i ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00f3t gi\u01b0\u1eddng ng\u1ee7 (Strabo 15.2.3). Xem th\u00eam Strabo 15.2.6-7. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ichthyphagi. H\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Arrian m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 chi ti\u1ebft h\u01a1n trong cu\u1ed1n Indica (ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 29). Xem Strabo 15.2.2; Diodorus 17.105.3-5; Curtius 9.10.8-10; Plutarch, Alexander66.6. M\u1ed9t th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n \u1edf Thrace c\u1ea1nh bi\u1ec3n \u0110en, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi khai kh\u1ea9n \u0111\u1ea5t m\u1edbi t\u1eeb Miletus x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng. Bampur, n\u1eb1m c\u1ea1nh m\u1ed9t con s\u00f4ng c\u00f9ng t\u00ean, g\u1ea7n bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi Carmania. Th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u00e0 Alexander h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n t\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 v\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ed9t n\u0103m 325. Theo truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft, Semiramis l\u00e0 ho\u00e0ng h\u1eadu c\u1ee7a vua Ninus v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ebf t\u1ee5c ngai v\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Assyria. (ND) S\u1ef1 k\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u1edbi Hercules v\u00e0 Perseus c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1ef1c khi\u1ebfn ng\u00e0i \u0111i t\u1edbi Siwah. Arrian (Indica 9) nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn vi\u1ec7c t\u1eebng c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c (ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Hercules v\u00e0 Dionysus) \u0111\u00e3 x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc Alexander; xem Strabo 15.1.6. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i b\u1ecf tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 c\u1ee7a Plutarch (Alexander 66.4) r\u1eb1ng Alexander mang theo 120.000 b\u1ed9 binh v\u00e0 15.000 k\u1ef5 binh. Nearchus (Arrian, Indica 19.5) \u0111\u00e1ng tin h\u01a1n khi thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 mang theo 120.000 binh l\u00ednh khi b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c h\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh xu\u00f4i d\u00f2ng Hydaspes. T\u1eeb s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u n\u00e0y, ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tr\u1eeb \u0111i s\u1ed1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng vong \u1edf \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9, s\u1ed1 binh l\u00ednh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eedi tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Craterus, s\u1ed1 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 v\u00e0 s\u1ed1 binh l\u00ednh c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Leonnatus \u1edf l\u1ea1i l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Oreitae. \u01af\u1edbc t\u00ednh s\u1ed1 l\u00ednh m\u00e0 Alexander mang theo c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 trong kho\u1ea3ng t\u1eeb 8-10.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi (Tarn, Alexander 1.107) \u2013 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng qu\u00e1 th\u1ea5p \u2013 t\u1edbi 60-70.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi (H. Strasburger, Hermes 1952, t\u1eeb tr.486). Trong b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p n\u00e0o, ch\u00fang ta \u0111\u1ec1u kh\u00f4ng bi\u1ebft r\u00f5 t\u1ef7 l\u1ec7 s\u1ed1ng s\u00f3t sau cu\u1ed9c h\u00e0nh qu\u00e2n \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 bao nhi\u00eau. Plutarch (Alexander 42.7) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c di\u1ec5n ra trong cu\u1ed9c truy \u0111u\u1ed5i Darius, Curitus (7.5.10) cho r\u1eb1ng n\u01a1i x\u1ea3y ra s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y l\u00e0 \u1edf Sogdiana g\u1ea7n s\u00f4ng Oxus. Ch\u00f2m Ti\u1ec3u H\u00f9ng Tinh c\u00f3 Sao B\u1eafc \u0110\u1ea9u; \u0110\u1ea1i H\u00f9ng Tinh c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ch\u00f2m G\u1ea5u L\u1edbn, ho\u1eb7c C\u00e1i C\u00e0y, m\u00e0 t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y Sao B\u1eafc \u0110\u1ea9u. Apollophanes \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft ngay sau chuy\u1ebfn kh\u1edfi h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a Alexander trong m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea1i chi\u1ebfn ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi Oreitae (Arrian, Indica 23.5). C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a Apollophanes l\u00e0 cung c\u1ea5p c\u00e1c nhu y\u1ebfu ph\u1ea9m cho","qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a Alexander. Vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u00e0 Alexander qua \u0111\u1eddi, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 18 th\u00e1ng sau \u0111\u00f3. Curtius (10.1.1) c\u00f2n th\u00eam v\u00e0o Agathon. \u00d4ng thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 b\u1ed1n ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb giam gi\u1eef v\u00e0 600 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111i theo h\u1ecd b\u1ecb x\u1eed t\u1eed. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 Curtius kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i g\u00ec h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a b\u1ed1n s\u0129 quan n\u00e0y nh\u01b0ng ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb t\u1eed h\u00ecnh. V\u1ec1 \u201cth\u1eddi gian cai tr\u1ecb kinh ho\u00e0ng\u201d c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c xatrap c\u1ee7a Alexander trong th\u1eddi gian n\u00e0y, xem E. Badian, JHS 1961, t\u1eeb tr.16. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c minh nh\u1edd v\u00e0o l\u00e1 th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Alexander g\u1eedi Cleomenes (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y). Theo Diodorus (17.105.7) v\u00e0 Curtius (9.10.17), Alexander \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 th\u1ecb cho Phrataphernes v\u00e0 Stasanor cung c\u1ea5p th\u1ef1c ph\u1ea9m cho qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i. Phrataphernes ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb nh\u1ea7m sang Pharismanes; \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y kh\u00f4ng th\u1ea5y nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c Phrataphernes \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi n\u01a1i v\u00e0 t\u00e1i h\u1ee3p v\u1edbi l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Alexander. Xem nh\u1eefng m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 t\u1ec9 m\u1ec9 trong Curtius (9.10. t\u1eeb tr.24), Plutarch (Alexander 67) v\u00e0 Diodorus (17.106.1). C\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi l\u1ec5 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u1edf \u0111o\u1ea1n sau. Arrian \u0111\u00e3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 sinh \u0111\u1ed9ng bu\u1ed5i g\u1eb7p g\u1ee1 c\u1ee7a Nearchus v\u1edbi Alexander t\u1ea1i Harmozeia (Hormuz) trong Indica (ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 33-6). Diodorus (17.106) cho r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p nhau \u1edf m\u1ed9t th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n ven bi\u1ec3n c\u00f3 t\u00ean l\u00e0 Salmus. Ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 cu\u1ed1n Indica, ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 18-43. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi hai n\u0103m 325. T\u1ee9c Aria. Orxines l\u00e0 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a Cyrus (Curtius 10.1.22). L\u0103ng m\u1ed9 n\u00e0y ng\u00e0y nay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a th\u00e2n m\u1eabu vua Solomon. N\u00f3 th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u00f4 ph\u1ecfng l\u1ea1i, xem Jean-Louis Huot, Persia (London, 1965). C\u00e1c Magus thu\u1ed9c giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ea7y tu ng\u01b0\u1eddi Media. B\u00ean c\u1ea1nh nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 canh gi\u1eef l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Cyrus, h\u1ecd c\u00f2n l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00e1c gi\u1ea5c m\u01a1 v\u00e0 khi m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0 mu\u1ed1n th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n l\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf, h\u1ecd c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u1edd t\u1edbi m\u1ed9t Magus. Xem Herodotus 1.120.132. Cyrus \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf l\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a Cambyses I v\u00e0 l\u00e0 cha c\u1ee7a Cambyses II. (ND) Ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 Persepolis; xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc. Curtius (10.1.22-38) k\u1ec3 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n kh\u00e1c. Theo s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y, Orxines v\u00f4 t\u1ed9i v\u00e0 c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 do Alexander nghe theo l\u1eddi s\u00e0m t\u1ea5u c\u1ee7a ho\u1ea1n quan Bagoas, k\u1ebb \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn h\u1ed1i l\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c nguy\u00ean c\u00e1o \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a ra ch\u1ee9ng c\u1ee9 sai l\u1ea7m. E. Badian (CQ 1985, t\u1eeb tr.147) cho r\u1eb1ng d\u1ecb b\u1ea3n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n chu\u1ea9n x\u00e1c h\u01a1n. Tuy nhi\u00ean, qu\u00e2n Macedonia l\u1ea1i l\u1ea5y l\u00e0m t\u1ee9c gi\u1eadn tr\u01b0\u1edbc l\u1ed1i s\u1ed1ng ng\u00e0y c\u00e0ng theo l\u1ed1i ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a Peucestas (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ea3y). Xem Curtius 10.1.17-19 v\u00e0 Plutarch, Alexander 68.1. Trong s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch (Hypomnemata) c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i sau c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Alexander c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Carthage, B\u1eafc Phi, T\u00e2y Ban Nha, v\u00e0 b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n n\u01b0\u1edbc \u00dd t\u1edbi Sicily (Diodorus 18.4.4). Tranh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch n\u00e0y, xem E. Badian, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 1968, t\u1eeb tr.183. Ch\u00e2u \u00c1, \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y th\u01b0\u1eddng bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 ch\u00e2u Phi. M\u1ed9t c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 v\u1ec1 Calanus c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Plutarch nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn (Alexander 65.6). Diogenes l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e0nh ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi m\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ec3 s\u1ed1ng tha h\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1edf","Athens. M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 \u00f4ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p Alexander t\u1ea1i Corinth v\u00e0o n\u0103m 336, giai tho\u1ea1i n\u00e0y, c\u0169ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u00e1c giai tho\u1ea1i kh\u00e1c trong \u0111\u00f3 tri\u1ebft gia lu\u00f4n kh\u00f4n ngoan h\u01a1n ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 h\u01b0 c\u1ea5u. Trong tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Plutarch (Alexander 14) v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng s\u1eed gia kh\u00e1c \u2013 kh\u00f4ng \u00edt h\u01a1n 22 l\u1ea7n nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi c\u00e2u nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t c\u1ee7a Alexander: \u201cN\u1ebfu ta kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 Alexander, ta mu\u1ed1n l\u00e0 Diogenes.\u201d Arrian d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Aristobulus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Strabo (15.1.61) \u0111\u01b0a ra. Strabo (15.1.63-5) gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Onesicritus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed t\u1edbi th\u0103m c\u00e1c tri\u1ebft gia \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. C\u00e1c h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd l\u00e0 \u201ch\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft theo tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7\u201d. (T. S. Brown, Onesicritus 45). Plutarch (Alexander 65.5-6) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng t\u00ean c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft gia n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Sphines, nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p kh\u00e1c g\u1ecdi \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Calanus b\u1edfi \u00f4ng s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng l\u1eddi ch\u00e0o l\u00e0 \u201cCale\u201d theo ti\u1ebfng \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 thay v\u00ec t\u1eeb \u201cChaire\u201d theo ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. Theo Strabo (15.1.68), Calanus m\u1ea5t \u1edf Pasargadae, nh\u01b0ng Diodorus (17.107.1) l\u1ea1i cho r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng m\u1ea5t \u1edf v\u00f9ng bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi gi\u1eefa Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 Susiane. C\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y r\u1ea5t ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn trong th\u1eddi x\u01b0a; xem M. Hadas, Hellenistic Culture, t\u1eeb tr.178. Arrian, Indica 10. Xem Plutarch, Alexander 69.8, v\u00e0 Strabo 15.1.68. Chares v\u00e0 Onesicritus thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Calanus \u0111\u00e3 lao m\u00ecnh v\u00e0o ng\u1ecdn l\u1eeda. Atropates l\u00e0 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a Media. Abulites v\u00e0 Oxathres l\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t cai tr\u1ecb Susiane v\u00e0 Paraetacene (xem Quy\u1ec3n ba). Theo Plutarch (Alexander 68.7), nh\u00e0 vua \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00f3ng c\u00e2y sarissa hay c\u00e2y th\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00e0o ng\u01b0\u1eddi Oxathres. Xem Curtius 10.1.39. V\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c x\u1eed t\u1eed c\u00e1c th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y, xem E. Badian, JHS 1961, 16. Barsine l\u00e0 t\u00ean ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c. C\u00f2n th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, c\u00f4 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Stateira. Nh\u1edd vi\u1ec7c k\u1ebft h\u00f4n v\u1edbi c\u00e1c c\u00f4 g\u00e1i d\u00f2ng d\u00f5i qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ef1 k\u1ebft n\u1ed1i ng\u00e0i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c nh\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a ho\u00e0ng gia Ba T\u01b0. Artaxerxes III Ochus \u0111\u00e3 cai tr\u1ecb Ba T\u01b0 t\u1eeb n\u0103m 359 t\u1edbi 338 TCN. Chares, vi\u00ean th\u1ecb th\u1ea7n ho\u00e0ng gia, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 chi ti\u1ebft c\u00e1c l\u1ec5 h\u1ed9i, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 92 ch\u00fa r\u1ec3; xem Athenaeus 12.538b-539a. V\u1ec1 m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem Wilcken, Alexander 208. Xem Diodorus 17.109-1-2; Curtius 10.2.9-11; Plutarch, Alexander 70.3. Plutarch v\u00e0 Curtius \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0a ra con s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 9.870 ta-l\u0103ng, trong khi Diodorus n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 n\u00e0y \u201c\u00edt h\u01a1n 10.000 ta-l\u0103ng\u201d. Xem Arrian, Indica 23.5; Curtius 9.10.19. Curtius (8.5.1) x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m g\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y l\u00e0 v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 327; t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 v\u1edbi Plutarch (Alexander 47.6). Diodorus (17.108) cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y x\u1ea3y ra sau cu\u1ed9c binh bi\u1ebfn \u1edf Hyphasis. Xem th\u00eam Ph\u1ee5 l\u1ee5c A. C\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa nh\u1ecf trong v\u0103n b\u1ea3n (xem E. Badian, JHS 1965, 161). \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y n\u00ean hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 \u201c\u0111\u1ea1o qu\u00e2n k\u1ef5 binh th\u1ee9 m\u01b0\u1eddi l\u0103m h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft l\u00e0 l\u00ednh ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng, n\u00ean s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a to\u00e0n k\u1ef5 binh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gia t\u0103ng nh\u1edd v\u00e0o l\u01b0\u1ee3ng binh l\u00ednh n\u01b0\u1edbc ngo\u00e0i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00eam v\u00e0o.\u201d Sau khi n\u1ed1i v\u1edbi d\u00f2ng Coprates, d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u1ebft t\u1edbi v\u1edbi t\u00ean g\u1ecdi Pasitigris, m\u00e0 v\u00e0o th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Alexander n\u00f3 \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o v\u1ecbnh Ba T\u01b0. Nearchus \u0111\u00e3 giong bu\u1ed3m ng\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f2ng Pasitigris t\u1edbi khu v\u1ef1c l\u00e2n c\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Susa;","xem Arrian, Indica 42. D\u00f2ng Pasitigris ng\u00e0y nay \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o s\u00f4ng Shatt-al-Arab, nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ee3p l\u01b0u c\u1ee7a d\u00f2ng Euphrates v\u00e0 Tigris. Trong th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, hai d\u00f2ng s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o v\u1ecbnh Ba T\u01b0 qua nh\u1eefng c\u1eeda s\u00f4ng kh\u00e1c nhau, nh\u01b0 Arrian \u0111\u00e3 thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i. Xem Strabo 16.1.9-10; Herodotus 1.193. Strabo (16.1.11) m\u00f4 t\u1ea3, d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Aristobulus, c\u00e1ch Alexander c\u1ea3i thi\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ec7c t\u01b0\u1edbi ti\u00eau c\u1ee7a v\u00f9ng n\u00e0y. Xem Strabo 16.1.9. Curtius (10.2.12-30) v\u00e0 Diodorus (17.109), ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb b\u1eaft gi\u1eef sau b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n c\u1ee7a Alexander, n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ef1 tay b\u1eaft nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb c\u1ea7m \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n. V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y, xem Plutarch, Alexander 71. Nh\u1eefng m\u1ecf v\u00e0ng m\u1ecf b\u1ea1c t\u1ea1i n\u00fai Pangaeum g\u1ea7n Philippi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 mang l\u1ea1i h\u01a1n 1.000 ta-l\u0103ng m\u1ed7i n\u0103m cho v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf n\u00e0y (Diodorus 16.8.6). V\u00e0o n\u0103m 346 TCN. Ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn, Alexander mu\u1ed1n nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh trong tr\u1eadn Chaeroneia v\u00e0o n\u0103m 338; xem Plutarch, Alexander 9.2-4; Diodorus 16.86. Demosthenes (Halonnesus 12) cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 th\u1eddi gian ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia ph\u1ea3i n\u1ed9p c\u1ed1ng v\u1eadt cho Athens. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thebes d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ch\u1ec9 huy c\u1ee7a Pelopidas \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0n x\u1ebfp \u1ed5n th\u1ecfa c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 v\u1ee5 v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia v\u00e0o n\u0103m 368. Philip \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 con tin t\u1ea1i Thebes v\u00e0o c\u00e1c n\u0103m 368-365 TCN. V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n sau tr\u1eadn Chaeroneia, xem Wilcken, Alexander, t\u1eeb tr.41. Xem Curtius 10.2.24; Plutarch, Alexander 15.2. V\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem A. R. Bellinger, Essays on the Coinage of Alexander the Great (New Yorck, 1963) tr.35. V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 xa hoa c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1edbng l\u0129nh d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n Alexander, xem Plutarch, Alexander 42; Athenaeus 12.539; Aelian, Varia Historia 9.3. Plutarch \u0111\u00e3 li\u1ec7t k\u00ea nh\u1eefng v\u1ebft th\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Alexander trong Moralia 327a-b v\u00e0 341a-c. Ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i. Ch\u00fang ta ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nghe v\u1ec1 l\u1ec5 k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m t\u1ea1i Susa (xem Quy\u1ec3n ba). Nh\u01b0ng d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 25 Chi\u1ebfn h\u1eefu hy sinh trong tr\u1eadn Granicus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00fac t\u01b0\u1ee3ng. Plutarch (Alexander 71.9) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1ee3 c\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t kho\u1ea3n ti\u1ec1n cho con c\u00e1i c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 hy sinh trong cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh. \u201cNg\u01b0\u1eddi th\u00e2n\/h\u1ecd h\u00e0ng\u201d [Kinsman] l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t danh hi\u1ec7u m\u00e0 vua Ba T\u01b0 ban cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc n\u00e0y. Curtius (3.3.14) cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y l\u00ean t\u1edbi 15.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. V\u1ec1 n\u1ee5 h\u00f4n theo phong t\u1ee5c, xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n. T\u00ean g\u1ecdi sau l\u00e0 d\u00e0nh cho v\u1ec7 qu\u00e2n (hypaspists). Diodorus (17.57.2) s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u00ean g\u1ecdi Nh\u1eefng t\u1ea5m khi\u00ean b\u1ea1c cho v\u1ec7 qu\u00e2n trong tr\u1eadn Gaugamela. Xem Tarn, Alexander 2.151-2. \u0110\u00e2y r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 ph\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea1i, tr\u1eeb phi \u201cnh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c hi\u1ec3u l\u00e0 c\u00e1c s\u0129 quan ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia. D\u1ea1 y\u1ebfn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec3 k\u1ef7 ni\u1ec7m s\u1ef1 h\u00f2a gi\u1ea3i gi\u1eefa Alexander v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ed3ng h\u01b0\u01a1ng Macedonia c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 (hy v\u1ecdng l\u00e0) gi\u1eefa ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0. E. Badian (Historia 1958, t\u1eeb tr.428) \u0111\u00e3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Tarn (Alexander 2. t\u1eeb tr.434) r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n cho \u201cs\u1ef1 \u0111o\u00e0n k\u1ebft c\u1ee7a to\u00e0n nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i.\u201d V\u1ec1 b\u00e0i t\u1ee5ng ca sau d\u1ea1 y\u1ebfn, xem Xenophon, Symposium 2.2.1. Theo mong mu\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a Alexander; xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong","quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Xem Diodorus 17.114.1; Plutarch, Alexander 47.9-10; Curtius 6.8.2. Craterus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 (Plutarch, Eumenes 6.3) s\u0129 quan \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c binh l\u00ednh Macedonia qu\u00fd m\u1ebfn h\u01a1n c\u1ea3 v\u00ec s\u1ef1 ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1edbi cung c\u00e1ch ng\u00e0y m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng h\u00f3a c\u1ee7a Alexander. Ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 thay th\u1ebf Antipater, tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ee7y quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Alexander trong vi\u1ec7c l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o Li\u00ean minh Corinth. V\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m Alexander qua \u0111\u1eddi, kho\u1ea3ng ch\u00edn th\u00e1ng sau, Craterus v\u1eabn ch\u01b0a \u0111i qu\u00e1 v\u00f9ng Cilicia. V\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i b\u1ea5t h\u00f2a gi\u1eefa Antipater v\u00e0 Olympias, xem Diodorus 17.118.1, Plutarch, Alexander 40.11-13; Curtius 10.10.14. V\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa Alexander v\u00e0 Antipater, xem E. Badien, JHS 1961, t\u1eeb tr.36 v\u00e0 G. T. Griffith, Proceedings of the African Classical Associations 1965, t\u1eeb tr.12. C\u00f3 m\u1ed9t trang b\u1ecb m\u1ea5t k\u1ec3 t\u1eeb d\u1ea5u (*) Xem Plutarch, Eumenes 2. T\u1eeb Opis t\u1edbi Ecbatana (Hamadan). V\u1ec1 ng\u1ef1a Nesaea, xem Herodotus 7.40.2; Strabo 11.13.7. Diodorus (17.110.6) \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u00f3 ch\u00fat kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t; s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng ng\u1ef1a tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u0103n th\u1ea3 \u1edf \u0111\u1ed3ng b\u1eb1ng Nesaea l\u00e0 160.000 con v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n kho\u1ea3ng 60.000 con khi Alexander \u0111\u1eb7t ch\u00e2n t\u1edbi v\u00f9ng n\u00e0y. Nhi\u1ec1u s\u1eed gia thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng N\u1eef ho\u00e0ng Amazon \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi th\u0103m Alexander t\u1ea1i Hyrcania ho\u1eb7c khu v\u1ef1c g\u1ea7n Jaxartes; Diodorus 17.77.1, Curtius 6.5.24-32, g\u1ecdi n\u1eef ho\u00e0ng l\u00e0 Thalestris. Plutarch (Alexander 46) \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t danh s\u00e1ch d\u00e0i c\u00e1c s\u1eed gia ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn ho\u1eb7c ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y. Xenophon c\u00f3 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi trang b\u1ecb v\u0169 kh\u00ed c\u1ee7a n\u1eef t\u1ed9c Amazon trong Anabasis (4.4.16) nh\u01b0ng \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 ai trong s\u1ed1 h\u1ecd. Kh\u00f4ng m\u1ed9t s\u1eed gia c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i n\u00e0o nghi ng\u1edd s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a n\u1eef t\u1ed9c Amazon trong qu\u00e1 kh\u1ee9, k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ho\u00e0i nghi nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 Strabo (11.5.3). Xem Plutarch, Theseus 27. Tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn th\u1ee9 hai l\u00e0 tr\u1eadn Marathon v\u00e0o n\u0103m 490. C\u1ea3 hai b\u1ee9c tranh \u0111\u1ec1u do Micon, m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u1ed5i danh v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 460, v\u1ebd v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y t\u1ea1i Stoa Poikile \u1edf Athens. Xem Pausanias 1.15, 8.11; Aristophanes, Lysistrata 678. Ch\u00fang ta c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec3u r\u1eb1ng \u201cCimon\u201d \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cMicon\u201d, cho d\u00f9 r\u1ea5t c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 sai s\u00f3t c\u1ee7a Arrian. Xem Herodotus 4.110-17; 9.27. Xem Lysias, Epitaphios 1; Isocrates, Panegyricus 19; Plato, Menexenus 239B. Xem Plutarch, Alexander 72.1; Diodorus 17.110.7-8. Xem Plutarch, s\u0111d. V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ganh \u0111ua c\u1ee7a Alexander v\u1edbi Achilles, v\u00e0 v\u1ec1 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i v\u1edbi Hephaestion, xem Quy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9t. V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ti\u1ebfc th\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a Achilles tr\u01b0\u1edbc c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Patroclus, xem Homer, Illiad 23.141, 152. Xem Herodotus 7.35. Theo s\u1eed gia Herodotus, trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Xerxes \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p, v\u1ecb vua n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 cho x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t c\u00e2y c\u1ea7u t\u1eeb c\u00e2y lanh v\u00e0 c\u00e2y c\u00f3i \u0111\u1ec3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua eo bi\u1ec3n Hellespont. Khi c\u00e2y c\u1ea7u s\u1eafp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh th\u00ec m\u1ed9t c\u01a1n b\u00e3o d\u1eef d\u1ed9i k\u00e9o t\u1edbi khi\u1ebfn n\u00f3 b\u1ecb ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n. V\u00f4 c\u00f9ng t\u1ee9c gi\u1eadn v\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, Xerxes \u0111\u00e3 ra l\u1ec7nh ch\u00e9m \u0111\u1ea7u c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 s\u01b0 x\u00e2y c\u1ea7u v\u00e0 th\u1eadm ch\u00ed c\u00f2n \u201ctr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t\u201d eo bi\u1ec3n Hellespont b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch d\u00f9ng roi qu\u1ea5t v\u00e0o m\u1eb7t n\u01b0\u1edbc 300 l\u1ea7n, v\u1eeba \u0111\u00e1nh v\u1eeba l\u1edbn ti\u1ebfng \u0111\u1ecdc c\u00e1c tuy\u00ean c\u00e1o s\u1ec9 nh\u1ee5c. (ND) Trung t\u00e2m c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c","th\u1edd c\u00fang Asclepius thu\u1ed9c v\u00f9ng Argolid. \u1ede ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc, Arrian thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y l\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1eadt. Plutarch c\u0169ng k\u1ec3 r\u1eb1ng gi\u00e0n thi\u00eau \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 gi\u00e1 10.000 ta-l\u0103ng, nh\u01b0ng Diodorus l\u1ea1i n\u00f3i l\u00e0 12.000 ta-l\u0103ng. V\u1ec1 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 chi ti\u1ebft \u201cgi\u00e0n thi\u00eau\u201d, xem Diodorus 17.115. Plutarch cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ed9t l\u0103ng m\u1ed9\u201d, v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3n nhi\u00ean n\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u1ec3 vinh danh Hephaestion; xem Wilcken, Alexander 234-6. Xem Diodorus 17.114.4-5; Plutarch, Alexander 72.3; 75.3; Eumenes 2; Pelopidas 34.2; Aelian, Varia Historia 7-8. Xem ph\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc trong quy\u1ec3n n\u00e0y. Ghi ch\u00e9p v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c tranh c\u00e3i c\u1ee7a hai s\u0129 quan n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb m\u1ea5t. Cu\u1ed9c chinh ph\u1ea1t k\u00e9o d\u00e0i 40 ng\u00e0y. Plutarch (Alexander 72.4) cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Cossaea \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea3m s\u00e1t nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u201cl\u1ec5 hi\u1ebfn t\u1ebf\u201d d\u00e2ng l\u00ean Hephaestion. Tuy nhi\u00ean, trong cu\u1ed1nIndica (40.6-8), Arrian n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ec3 khuy\u1ebfn kh\u00edch ng\u01b0\u1eddi Cossaea \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 v\u00e0 chung s\u1ed1ng h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh; xem Diodorus 17.111.6. Diodorus (17.113.1-2) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t danh s\u00e1ch t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0ng kh\u00f4ng gi\u1ed1ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n. C\u00f4ng tr\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a hai s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t l\u1ea1c. Aristus, thu\u1ed9c v\u00f9ng Salamis c\u1ee7a Cyprus, \u0111\u00e3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Cyrus (Strabo 15.3-8), v\u00e0 c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u1ed3ng nh\u1ea5t v\u1edbi m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tin t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Antiochus II. Cleitarchus (trong Pliny, Natural History 3.57) c\u0169ng thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eedi s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n t\u1edbi ti\u1ebfp ki\u1ebfn Alexander. Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y v\u1ec1 bi\u1ec3n Caspian, xem Quy\u1ec3n n\u0103m. Alexander ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Aristotle k\u1ec3 r\u1eb1ng Caspian kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 v\u1ecbnh, nh\u01b0ng vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 ra v\u1ecbnh Ba T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn ng\u00e0i nghi ng\u1edd \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y. V\u1ec1 \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y, xem Tarn, Alexander 2.11. C\u00e1c v\u1ecb t\u01b0 t\u1ebf c\u1ee7a Bel (Marduk). Euripides (480- 406 TCN): nh\u00e0 bi k\u1ecbch n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng th\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. (ND) Tr\u00edch t\u1eeb m\u1ed9t v\u1edf bi k\u1ecbch \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ea5t truy\u1ec1n. C\u00e2u n\u00e0y th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00edch d\u1eabn m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 nh\u01b0ng Plutarch (Moralia 432c) cho r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Euripides. Xem Herodotus 1.32; Plutarch, Solon 27. Xem Strabo 16.1.5. Herodotus (1.181) m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd, v\u00e0 n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 v\u1eabn c\u00f2n t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i cho t\u1edbi th\u1eddi c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng (xem ch\u00fa th\u00edch c\u1ee7a How v\u00e0 Well cho \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y). V\u1ec1 m\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem Quy\u1ec3n ba. Diodorus (17.112.2) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch l\u1ea1 l\u00f9ng r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c v\u1ecb t\u01b0 t\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 n\u00f3i v\u1edbi Alexander r\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0i c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tho\u00e1t kh\u1ecfi nguy hi\u1ec3m nh\u1edd v\u00e0o vi\u1ec7c t\u00e1i x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd. Xem Quy\u1ec3n ba. V\u1ec1 c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y, xem th\u00eam Plutarch, Alexander 73.3-5; Appian, Civil Wars 2.639. Xem Cicero, On Divination 1.119, 2.32. Perdicas b\u1ecb ch\u00ednh binh l\u00ednh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh gi\u1ebft h\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i Memphis v\u00e0o n\u0103m 321 (Diodorus 18.36). C\u00f2n tr\u1eadn Ipsus di\u1ec5n ra t\u1ea1i Phrygia v\u00e0o m\u00f9a h\u00e8 n\u0103m 301. Xem Plutarch, Alexander 69.7; Cicero, On Divination 1.47. V\u00ec l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u00f9a xu\u00e2n n\u0103m 323, th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y c\u00f3 v\u1ebb mu\u1ed9n h\u01a1n so v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n Hy L\u1ea1p g\u1eedi c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n t\u1edbi ch\u00fac m\u1eebng Alexander. Diodorus (17.113.3-4) cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n v\u00e0o th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m \u0111\u00f3 v\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch kh\u00e1c nhau, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u01b0a ra nh\u1eefng tranh lu\u1eadn ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i vi\u1ec7c tri\u1ec7u","h\u1ed3i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ecfi th\u00e0nh bang c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd, nh\u01b0 Alexander \u0111\u00e3 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u. V\u1ec1 m\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh n\u00e0y, xem Diodorus 18.8.2 (17.109.1), Curtius 10.2.4; Tod, c\u00e1c trang 201, 202. Xem c\u00e1c quy\u1ec3n tr\u01b0\u1edbc. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y Arrian d\u1ef1a v\u00e0o tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Aristobulus; xem Strabo 16.1.11. T\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb trong nguy\u00ean t\u00e1c, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu nh\u1eb1m ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea2 R\u1eadp.\u201d Strabo (16.1.11) s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Aristobulus l\u00e0m c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh cho nh\u1eefng tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 cho r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea2 R\u1eadp \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 c\u1eed s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n t\u1edbi ti\u1ebfp ki\u1ebfn Alexander v\u00e0 v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i \u201c\u0111ang nu\u00f4i tham v\u1ecdng tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ch\u00faa t\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a to\u00e0n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi\u201d. Arrian d\u0129 nhi\u00ean ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Alexander. Xem Herodotus 3.8 (c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi ch\u00fa th\u00edch c\u1ee7a How v\u00e0 Wells). M\u1eb7c d\u00f9 kh\u00f4ng ghi r\u00f5 ngu\u1ed3n \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y, nh\u01b0ng trong \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y ngu\u1ed3n c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Arrian v\u1eabn l\u00e0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Aristobulus (Strabo, S\u0111d). M\u1ed9t h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o thu\u1ed9c qu\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea3o Sporades, ph\u00eda T\u00e2y Samos, hi\u1ec7n nay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Nikaria. V\u1ec1 c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Daedalus v\u00e0 Icarus, xem Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.21-96. Hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i l\u00e0 Bahrein. B\u00e1o c\u00e1o v\u1ec1 chuy\u1ebfn h\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Theophrastus s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1ec1 th\u1ef1c v\u1eadt c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Ras Mussandam (Maketa), m\u00e0 Nearchus \u0111\u00e3 nh\u00ecn th\u1ea5y t\u1eeb Hormuz. Arrian, Indica 32. Nh\u00e1nh s\u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed5 v\u00e0o v\u1ecbnh Ba T\u01b0 g\u1ea7n Teredon. Strabo 16.1.9-11. Kho\u1ea3ng m\u1ed9t n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 (th\u00e1ng T\u01b0\/N\u0103m n\u0103m 324) Alexander \u0111\u00e3 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n Alexandria (sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Charax) gi\u1eefa hai c\u1eeda s\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng Tigris v\u00e0 s\u00f4ng Eulaeus; xem Pliny, Natural History 6.138. Diodorus (17.116.5- 7) vi\u1ebft l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e8o thuy\u1ec1n\u201d. \u00d4ng kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i g\u00ec v\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y. Menidas \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi g\u1ea7n nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 v\u00e0o m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng n\u0103m 328\/327, khi \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed \u0111i t\u1eeb Nautaca t\u1edbi Macedonia \u0111\u1ec3 mang vi\u1ec7n qu\u00e2n t\u1edbi (xem Quy\u1ec3n b\u1ed1n). \u0110i\u1ec3m quan tr\u1ecdng l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ed9i tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7u nh\u1eefng v\u00f2ng hoa theo nghi l\u1ec5. \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y h\u1ecd l\u00e0 c\u00e1c theoroi, nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n linh v\u00e0 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a Alexander. Plutarch (Moralia 219e) v\u00e0 Aelian (Varia Historia 2.19) nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c ch\u00ednh Alexander \u0111\u00e3 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u h\u1ecd th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn ng\u00e0i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n. V\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 g\u00e2y tranh c\u00e3i n\u00e0y, xem J. P. V. D. Balson, Historia 1950, t\u1eeb tr.383 v\u00e0 t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n n\u1eefa l\u00e0 xem Wilcken, Alexander tr.209-215. Xtat\u01a1 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb ti\u1ec1n t\u1ec7 Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5. (ND) \u0110\u1ed3ng xtat\u01a1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 xtat\u01a1 b\u1ea1c, t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed3ng tetradrachm c\u1ee7a Athens, v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u00ednh \u201cm\u01b0\u1eddi-xtat\u01a1\u201d nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 40 \u0111racma m\u1ed7i th\u00e1ng. L\u00ednh \u201cl\u01b0\u01a1ng-\u0111\u00fap\u201d c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 60 \u0111racma, c\u00f2n l\u00ednh th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00ec nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c 30 \u0111racma m\u1ed7i th\u00e1ng. Theo m\u1ed9t ghi ch\u00e9p r\u1eddi r\u1ea1c, s\u1ed1 ti\u1ec1n ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3 h\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0y cho m\u1ed9t Hypaspist trong l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng vi\u1ec5n chinh l\u00e0 1 \u0111racma. V\u1ec1 th\u00f4ng \u0111i\u1ec7p c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c s\u1ee9 th\u1ea7n, xem tr. 372. Plutarch (Alexander 72.2) \u0111\u1ed3ng \u00fd v\u1edbi Arrian, tuy nhi\u00ean Diodorus (17.115.6) thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng th\u1ea7n Ammon cho ph\u00e9p vinh danh Hephaestion nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n. V\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Cleomenes, xem","Quy\u1ec3n ba. Cleomenes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Alexander b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m l\u00e0m th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c (xatrap) c\u1ee7a Ai C\u1eadp. \u0110\u00e2y ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn n\u1ea1n \u0111\u00f3i \u1edf Hy L\u1ea1p (330-26) th\u00eam tr\u1ea7m tr\u1ecdng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed9c quy\u1ec1n xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ea9u ng\u0169 c\u1ed1c t\u1eeb Ai C\u1eadp v\u00e0 b\u00e1n ch\u00fang v\u1edbi gi\u00e1 cao; ngo\u00e0i ra Cleomenes c\u00f2n chi\u1ebfm \u0111o\u1ea1t m\u1ed9t l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u1edbn t\u00e0i s\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c t\u01b0 t\u1ebf (Ng\u1ee5y Aristotle, Oeconomica 2.33; Ng\u1ee5y Demosthenes 56.7). Cleomenes sau n\u00e0y b\u1ecb kh\u00e9p v\u00e0o t\u1ed9i ch\u1ebft d\u01b0\u1edbi tay c\u1ee7a Ptolemy, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Ai C\u1eadp b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch chia r\u1ebd c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecba h\u1ea1t sau khi Alexander qua \u0111\u1eddi. Pharos n\u1eb1m c\u00e1ch b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n kho\u1ea3ng 1,6 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t, c\u00e1ch ch\u00e2u th\u1ed5 s\u00f4ng Nile kho\u1ea3ng 32 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda t\u00e2y. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 n\u1ed1i h\u00f2n \u0111\u1ea3o n\u00e0y v\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea5t li\u1ec1n b\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00ea ch\u1eafn s\u00f3ng, v\u00e0 nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng hai c\u1ea3ng bi\u1ec3n cho Alexandria. Ng\u1ecdn h\u1ea3i \u0111\u0103ng do Ptolemy II x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng. Xem m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a Strabo v\u1ec1 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1, 17.1.6-10. V\u1ec1 t\u00ednh x\u00e1c th\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a l\u00e1 th\u01b0 n\u00e0y, xem CQ 1953, t\u1eeb tr.157. Plutarch (Alexander 73) n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi Messenia t\u00ean l\u00e0 Dionysius. C\u1ea3 \u00f4ng v\u00e0 Diodorus (17.116) \u0111\u1ec1u n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u00f9 nh\u00e2n \u0111ang ch\u1ecbu \u00e1n treo, n\u00ean vi\u1ec7c giam gi\u1eef anh ta c\u00f3 ph\u1ea7n l\u01a1i l\u1ecfng. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta cho r\u1eb1ng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a t\u00f9 nh\u00e2n n\u00e0y ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 t\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t ho\u1eb7c l\u00e0 do th\u1ea7n linh d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ed9ng. Plutarch v\u00e0 Diodorus n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb kh\u00e9p t\u1ed9i ch\u1ebft. Trong cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u1ea2 R\u1eadp ti\u1ebfp theo. Xem Plutarch, Alexander 75.4, Diodorus 17.117.1. Plutarch (Alexander 76) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n kh\u00e1c v\u1ec1 nh\u1eadt k\u00fd ho\u00e0ng gia m\u00e0 \u00f4ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn l\u00e0 tr\u00edch d\u1eabn nguy\u00ean v\u0103n. B\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Plutarch ch\u1ec9 kh\u00e1c m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i chi ti\u1ebft so v\u1edbi b\u1ea3n m\u00e0 Arrian \u0111\u01b0a ra. Aelian (Varia Historia 3.23) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t b\u1ea3n th\u1ee9 ba \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Eumenes, ng\u01b0\u1eddi gi\u1eef Nh\u1eadt k\u00fd. B\u1ea3n n\u00e0y c\u00f3 \u00edt \u0111i\u1ec3m gi\u1ed1ng v\u1edbi hai b\u1ea3n tr\u01b0\u1edbc. V\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 li\u1ec7u Nh\u1eadt k\u00fd n\u00e0y c\u00f3 ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u \u0111\u00e1ng tin v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0y cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a Alexander hay kh\u00f4ng, xem Pearson, Historia 3 (1954\/55), t\u1eeb tr.429, v\u00e0 A. E. Samuel, Historia1965. V\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng \u1ea2 R\u1eadp. Demophon v\u00e0 Cleomenes \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ti\u00ean tri ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia l\u1ed7i l\u1ea1c, Attalus l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 huy m\u1ed9t ti\u1ec3u \u0111o\u00e0n v\u00e0 l\u00e0 anh r\u1ec3 c\u1ee7a Perdiccas. Th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta cho r\u1eb1ng Sarapis (ho\u1eb7c Serapis) l\u00e0 t\u00ean hi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Ptolemy I v\u00e0 v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n c\u00f3 t\u00ean Separis ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n c\u00f3 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 ho\u1eb7c c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n n\u0103ng gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ea7n Bel (Marduk). V\u1ec1 Sarapis, xem W. W. Tarn (Historia 1962 t\u1eeb tr.238). Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u0169ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u tranh lu\u1eadn cho r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp n\u00ean gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i Sarapis, m\u00e0 ng\u00e0y nay v\u1eabn t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u1edf Ai C\u1eadp, v\u00e0 sau \u0111\u00f3 mang gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i n\u00e0y t\u1edbi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0110\u00f4ng c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi ng\u00e0i. C\u1ee5m t\u1eeb n\u00e0y c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1ea1nh nh\u1ea5t\u201d. Xem Diodorus (17.117.4-5) v\u00e0 Curtius (10.5.4-5), ng\u01b0\u1eddi thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0a nh\u1eabn c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i cho Perdiccas. Xem Diodorus 17.118; Curtius 10.10.14; Plutarch, Alexander 77.2. Kh\u00f4ng th\u1ee9 n\u00e0o trong s\u1ed1 n\u00e0y c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ee9a thu\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9c. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta th\u01b0\u1eddng k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc s\u00f4ng Styx, con s\u00f4ng b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n \u1edf g\u1ea7n Nonacris \u1edf ph\u00eda b\u1eafc Arcadia; xem Pliny, Natural History 30.149;","Pausanias 8.17.6. N\u00f3i chung, gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c Alexander b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u1ed9c kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e1ng tin l\u1eafm. Tuy nhi\u00ean, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 tham kh\u1ea3o t\u00e0i li\u1ec7u R. D. Milns, Alexander the Great (London, 1968) 255-8, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cho r\u1eb1ng thu\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9c l\u00e0 m\u00e3 ti\u1ec1n v\u1edbi li\u1ec1u l\u01b0\u1ee3ng th\u1ea5p. V\u1ec1 \u201cchi\u1ebfc c\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a Hercules\u201d, xem Diodorus 17.117.1-2 (c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi ch\u00fa th\u00edch c\u1ee7a Welles trong phi\u00ean b\u1ea3n Loeb). Plutarch (Alexander 75.5) \u0111\u00e3 ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ph\u1ee7 nh\u1eadn c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n n\u00e0y. Theo l\u1ecbch hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, Alexander m\u1ea5t v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 10 th\u00e1ng S\u00e1u n\u0103m 323 TCN. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c v\u00ed d\u1ee5 cho vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y, xem Plutarch, Alexander 39. Plutarch (Alexander 28.6) c\u0169ng cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed9ng l\u1ef1c th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y Alexander kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh ng\u00e0i l\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus. Tuy nhi\u00ean, h\u00e3y xem CQ 1953, t\u1eeb tr.151 v\u1ec1 t\u1ea7m quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a l\u00e1 th\u01b0 Alexander \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eedi cho ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens m\u00e0 Plutarch \u0111\u00e3 tr\u00edch d\u1eabn trong c\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t ch\u01b0\u01a1ng. Arrian tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 th\u00f3i nghi\u1ec7n r\u01b0\u1ee3u c\u1ee7a Alexander. Xem nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Plutarch (Alexander 2) k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i. JHS 83 (1963), 27-46. C\u00e2u tr\u00edch d\u1eabn n\u1eb1m \u1edf tr. 29. Nh\u01b0 G. T. Griffith \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh trong \u201cA Note on the Hipparchies of Alexander\u201d trong JHS 83 (1963), 68-74, t\u1ea1i tr.71. Trong Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 7 (1966), 159-166. Trong JHS 85 (1965), tr.160-161. V\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 III SCN, c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c truy\u1ec1n thuy\u1ebft, huy\u1ec1n tho\u1ea1i xung quanh c\u00e1c cu\u1ed9c chinh ph\u1ea1t c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf v\u1edbi nhan \u0111\u1ec1 l\u00e0 Alexander Romance, trong \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n ghi t\u00ean t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 l\u00e0 Callisthenes. Tuy nhi\u00ean, s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ebft khi Alexander c\u00f2n ch\u01b0a qua \u0111\u1eddi n\u00ean \u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t ghi ch\u00e9p \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi c\u1ee7a Alexander. T\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 khuy\u1ebft danh c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed1n Alexander Romance, b\u1edfi v\u1eady, th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Ng\u1ee5y Callisthenes. (ND) S\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp Alexandria th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u01b0\u1edbc chuy\u1ebfn vi\u1ebfng th\u0103m Siwah theo c\u1ee9 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Arrian. Tuy nhi\u00ean, xem th\u00eam C. B. Welles, Historia 1962, t\u1eeb tr.276. Theo Curtius (5.6.12), vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ed1t cung \u0111i\u1ec7n di\u1ec5n ra sau cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Mardi, s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng ng\u00e0y 6 th\u00e1ng T\u01b0 v\u00e0 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i kho\u1ea3ng 30 ng\u00e0y. Xem D. M. Lewis trong Classical Review 1969, tr. 272. Nh\u1eefng ch\u00fa th\u00edch c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ecbch (ND) v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi bi\u00ean t\u1eadp (BT) s\u1ebd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi ch\u00fa r\u00f5. Nh\u1eefng ch\u00fa th\u00edch kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 ch\u00fa th\u00edch c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch ti\u1ebfng Anh. Epictetus (50-120 SCN): tri\u1ebft gia v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i thu\u1ed9c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ph\u00e1i Kh\u1eafc k\u1ec9 [Stoicism]. Tri\u1ebft l\u00fd n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1 cao s\u1ef1 tri t\u00fac [contentment \u2013 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ee7]. Tri t\u00fac \u0111em \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng l\u1eb7ng l\u1ebd, b\u00ecnh y\u00ean, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec \u0111\u00e1ng \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1eadn t\u00e2m phi\u1ec1n n\u00e3o. S\u1ef1 b\u00ecnh an t\u00e2m h\u1ed3n l\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u \u0111\u00e1ng qu\u00fd tr\u1ecdng h\u01a1n c\u1ea3. Ni\u1ec1m an l\u1ea1c \u1ea5y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y th\u00f4ng qua s\u1ef1 t\u1ef1 ki\u1ec1m ch\u1ebf [self- control] hay t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 [self-mastery]; \u0111\u00f3 l\u00e0 kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ch\u1ebf ng\u1ef1 l\u00f2ng ham mu\u1ed1n v\u00e0 l\u00e0m ch\u1ee7 b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n, kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec3 m\u00ecnh bu\u00f4ng th\u1ea3 theo d\u1ee5c v\u1ecdng. (ND) Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Hadrian (76-138 SCN): Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf La M\u00e3 tr\u1ecb v\u00ec t\u1eeb n\u0103m 117 cho \u0111\u1ebfn khi \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0o n\u0103m 138 SCN. (ND) H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng Areopagus c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng C\u00f4ng t\u1ed1 hay H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng Qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c, l\u00e0 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u01b0 ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 l\u1eadp ph\u00e1p cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a","Athens th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. (ND) Cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u1eddi t\u1ef1a c\u1ee7a b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch ti\u1ebfng Anh do Aubrey de Selincourt chuy\u1ec3n ng\u1eef. Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Marcus Aurelius (121-180 SCN): ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf La M\u00e3, tr\u1ecb v\u00ec t\u1eeb n\u0103m 161 cho t\u1edbi khi \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi v\u00e0o n\u0103m 180. Cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc \u0111\u1ebfn \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 cu\u1ed1n Meditation (t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch: Suy ng\u1eabm), m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u00e1nh gi\u00e1 l\u00e0 kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7. (ND) Appian (95-165 SCN): s\u1eed gia ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ee7a La M\u00e3. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed1n Roman History (t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch: L\u1ecbch s\u1eed La M\u00e3) g\u1ed3m 24 quy\u1ec3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) Pausanias (n\u1ed5i danh v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng 143-176 SCN): nh\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) Galen (129-200\/ 217- 216 SCN): th\u1ea7y thu\u1ed1c, nh\u00e0 v\u0103n, nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 g\u1ed1c Hy L\u1ea1p. \u00d4ng c\u00f3 vi\u1ebft m\u1ed9t t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m nh\u1ecf mang t\u00ean That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher (t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch: Th\u1ea7y thu\u1ed1c gi\u1ecfi c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc). H\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 chi ph\u1ed1i v\u00e0 g\u00e2y \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng t\u1edbi y h\u1ecdc ch\u00e2u \u00c2u t\u1eeb th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 cho \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XVII. (ND) Lucian (125\/120- sau 180 SCN): m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 tr\u00e0o ph\u00fang, nh\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 vi\u1ebft lu\u1eadn b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) \u00dd n\u00f3i vi\u1ec7c Arrian v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 nh\u00e0 v\u0103n c\u00f9ng th\u1eddi v\u1edbi \u00f4ng c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng m\u00f4 ph\u1ecfng ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ba, b\u1ed1n tr\u0103m n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc. (ND) Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ng\u1eef Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u1edf v\u00f9ng Altica, Athens v\u00e0 Ionia. (ND) Thomas North (1535-1604): d\u1ecbch gi\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ecbch cu\u1ed1n Parallel Lives (t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch: Nh\u1eefng cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi song h\u00e0nh) c\u1ee7a Plutarch sang ti\u1ebfng Anh. (ND) Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792- 1822): nh\u00e0 th\u01a1, nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Anh, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 th\u01a1 l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 XIX. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 d\u1ecbch t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Symposium c\u1ee7a Plato sang ti\u1ebfng Anh. (ND) Philip A. Stader (Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 8, 1967, t\u1eeb tr.155) \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ec9 ra r\u1eb1ng Xenophon kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 t\u00ean hi\u1ec7u, m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n trong t\u00ean c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 s\u1eed h\u1ecdc. Arrian \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u l\u00e0m quan ch\u1ea5p ch\u00ednh v\u00e0o n\u0103m 129 ho\u1eb7c 130 SCN, v\u00e0 trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m gi\u1eef v\u1ecb tr\u00ed n\u00e0y ph\u1ea3i v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng 42 tu\u1ed5i; xem JRS55 (1965), tr.142. N\u1eef th\u1ea7n N\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p, m\u1ed9t trong m\u01b0\u1eddi hai v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n tr\u00ean \u0111\u1ec9nh Olympus. (ND) C\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 n\u1eef th\u1ea7n Persephone, con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Zeus v\u00e0 n\u1eef th\u1ea7n n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p Demeter. (ND) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Flavia, m\u1ed9t tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i La M\u00e3 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i t\u1eeb n\u0103m 69 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 96 SCN. Nh\u1eefng ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Flavia bao g\u1ed3m Vespasian (tr\u1ecb v\u00ec t\u1eeb n\u0103m 69-79 SCN), v\u00e0 hai con trai c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Titus (tr\u1ecb v\u00ec t\u1eeb n\u0103m 79-81 SCN) v\u00e0 Domitian (tr\u1ecb v\u00ec t\u1eeb n\u0103m 81-96 SCN). (ND) Ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 t\u1ea1i sao Arrian l\u1ea1i ch\u1ecdn theo h\u1ecdc tri\u1ebft gia Epictetus t\u1ea1i Athens. Trong m\u1ed9t b\u00e0i b\u00e1o quan tr\u1ecdng v\u1ec1 vai tr\u00f2 th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a Arrian \u0111\u0103ng tr\u00ean t\u1edd English Historical Review n\u0103m 1896 (\u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c in l\u1ea1i trong cu\u1ed1n Essays c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, F. Haverfield bi\u00ean t\u1eadp, Oxford, 1906), Gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 H. F. Pelham cho r\u1eb1ng Arrian ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n ch\u1ecbu \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng b\u00ean d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd ngo\u1ea1i, \u201cgen\u201d Arrian, m\u1ed9t d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1ec1 Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Kh\u1eafc k\u1ef7 La M\u00e3.","Gi\u00e1o s\u01b0 \u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng t\u00ean hi\u1ec7u Arrianus l\u00e0 ng\u1ea7m ch\u1ec9 h\u1ecd c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u1eb9, m\u1ed9t ki\u1ec3u th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ea5y v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 I v\u00e0 th\u1ee9 II SCN. Trong m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 g\u1eedi Lucius Gellius, Arrian \u0111\u01b0a ra l\u00fd do cho vi\u1ec7c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7y m\u00ecnh. Ch\u00fang ta bi\u1ebft r\u1eb1ng v\u1ecb Gellius n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh Corinth, L. Gellius Menander, ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi con trai m\u00ecnh, L. Gellius Iustus, \u0111\u00e3 cho x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t v\u0103n bia vinh danh Arrian t\u1ea1i Corinth; xem G. W. Bowersock trong Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 8 (1967), tr. 279-280. Tr\u00edch d\u1eabn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5y t\u1eeb trang 218, d\u00f2ng th\u1ee9 3, trong m\u1ed9t b\u00e0i b\u00e1o c\u1ee7a Pelham. Dion (408-305 TCN): b\u1ea1o ch\u00faa v\u00f9ng Syracuse, thu\u1ed9c Sicily. (ND) Timoleon (411-337 TCN): t\u01b0\u1edbng l\u0129nh, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) \u0110i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y khi\u1ebfn Arrian c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cXenophon th\u1ee9 hai\u201d. B\u1ea3n th\u00e2n \u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 \u201cAlexander gi\u1eefa c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 v\u0103n\u201d. (ND) Quy\u1ec3n th\u1ee9 17 c\u1ee7a Diodorus \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c C. Bradford Welles d\u1ecbch (c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ch\u00fa th\u00edch b\u1ed5 \u00edch) trong b\u1ed9 s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0 vi\u1ec7n s\u00e1ch kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n Loeb (The Loeb Classical Library), cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Curtius c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c J. C. Rolfe d\u1ecbch trong c\u00f9ng b\u1ed9 n\u00e0y, v\u00e0 Justin (c\u00f9ng Cornelius Nepos v\u00e0 Eutropius) \u1edf Th\u01b0 vi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a Bohn. T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m v\u1ec1 Alexander c\u1ee7a Plutarch l\u00e0 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chuy\u1ec3n ng\u1eef, b\u1ea3n d\u1ecbch g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed1n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 c\u1ee7a d\u1ecbch gi\u1ea3 Ian Scott-Kilvert, c\u00f3 t\u00ean The Age of Alexander (Penguin Books). Nh\u1eefng t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 n\u00e0y l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed1i t\u01b0\u1ee3ng nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u chi ti\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Lionel Pearson trong cu\u1ed1n The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great (New York, 1960). Callisthenes \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 s\u1eed gia ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a Alexander cho t\u1edbi khi \u00f4ng b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t s\u1ee7ng v\u00e0 b\u1ecb h\u00e0nh h\u00ecnh v\u00ec t\u1ed9i m\u01b0u ph\u1ea3n. (ND) V\u1ec1 ph\u1ea7n n\u00e0y, xem th\u00eam nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a t\u00f4i, Plutarch Alexander: A Commentary (Oxford, 1969), lx-lxii. Xem th\u00eam ph\u00e2n t\u00edch thuy\u1ebft ph\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a C. B. Welles trong b\u00e0i \u201cThe reliability of Plotemy as an historian\u201d, Miscellanae\u2026 A. Rostagni (Turin, 1963), t\u1eeb tr.101. Curtius, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ecdc cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Ptolemy, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh n\u00e0y v\u1ec1 t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u1ee7a Ptolemy khi \u00f4ng m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 Ptolemy (9.5.21) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng \u201cch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng n\u00f3i gi\u1ea3m nh\u1eb9 s\u1ef1 v\u1ebb vang c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh\u201d. R. M. Errington, \u201cBias in Plotemy\u2019s History of Alexander\u201d, CQ, 1969, t\u1eeb tr.233, \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i v\u00ed d\u1ee5 v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c Ptolemy k\u1ec3 sai s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt. Errington nh\u1eadn \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng Aristonous b\u1ecb t\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111o\u1ea1t \u0111i ni\u1ec1m vinh d\u1ef1 l\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ee9u s\u1ed1ng Alexander, nh\u01b0ng \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i kh\u00f4ng th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn quan \u0111i\u1ec3m ph\u1ed5 bi\u1ebfn cho r\u1eb1ng Ptolemy \u0111\u00e3 \u201cph\u1edbt l\u1edd\u201d nh\u1eefng chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng vang d\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a Antigonus tr\u01b0\u1edbc nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb s\u1ed1ng s\u00f3t \u1edf Issus, v\u00ec s\u1ef1 k\u00ecnh \u0111\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a Ptolemy v\u1edbi Antigonus ch\u1ec9 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n sau n\u0103m 314. Proskynesis l\u00e0 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00fai ch\u00e0o ho\u1eb7c qu\u1ef3 l\u1ea1y. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 phong t\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0, nh\u1eb1m th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n l\u00f2ng k\u00ednh tr\u1ecdng v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb cao h\u01a1n. Nghi l\u1ec5 n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p ch\u1ea5p thu\u1eadn v\u00ec h\u1ecd cho r\u1eb1ng vi\u1ec7c qu\u1ef3 l\u1ea1y l\u00e0 nghi l\u1ec5 ch\u1ec9 d\u00e0nh cho th\u1ea7n linh. S\u1ef1 b\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed3ng quan \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3","d\u1eabn t\u1edbi \u00e2m m\u01b0u s\u00e1t h\u1ea1i Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf, m\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ee7 m\u01b0u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 Philotas v\u00e0 Callishthenes. (ND) Strabo (63\/64 TCN-24 SCN): s\u1eed gia, nh\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd v\u00e0 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) Quintus Curtius Rufus: m\u1ed9t s\u1eed gia La M\u00e3, vi\u1ebft d\u01b0\u1edbi tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Claudius (41-54 SCN) ho\u1eb7c Vespasian (69-79 SCN). T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m c\u00f2n l\u1ea1i duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Historiae Alexandri Magni, m\u1ed9t ti\u1ec3u s\u1eed b\u1eb1ng ti\u1ebfng Latinh v\u1ec1 Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf g\u1ed3m m\u01b0\u1eddi quy\u1ec3n. Trong \u0111\u00f3, hai quy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t l\u1ea1c. (ND) Polypius (200-118 TCN): s\u1eed gia Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) Xem P. A. Brunt, \u201cPersian Accounts of Alexander\u2019s Campaigns\u201d trong CQ, 1962, t\u1eeb tr.141. Tr\u00edch d\u1eabn n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea5y trong tr.141. Bessus (m\u1ea5t v\u00e0o m\u00f9a h\u00e8 n\u0103m 329 TCN): xatrap (t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi ch\u1ee9c th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c ho\u1eb7c ph\u00f3 v\u01b0\u01a1ng) v\u00f9ng Bactria, sau t\u1ef1 x\u01b0ng l\u00e0 Vua c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c v\u1ecb vua Ba T\u01b0. N\u0103m 329 TCN, Bessus b\u1ecb b\u1eaft. Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t \u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng c\u00e1ch ra l\u1ec7nh c\u1eaft b\u1ecf tai v\u00e0 m\u0169i c\u1ee7a Bessus, h\u00ecnh ph\u1ea1t d\u00e0nh cho nh\u1eefng k\u1ebb n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i nh\u00e0 vua theo t\u1eadp t\u1ee5c c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0. (ND) \u1ed0c \u0111\u1ea3o Siwah n\u1eb1m trong v\u00f9ng sa m\u1ea1c ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng Ai C\u1eadp l\u00e0 n\u01a1i c\u00f3 \u0111\u1ec1n th\u1edd th\u1ea7n Ammon. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n r\u1eb1ng v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng Hai n\u0103m 332, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 t\u1edbi \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ecfi \u00fd ki\u1ebfn c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 ti\u00ean tri c\u1ee7a Ammon. Kh\u00f4ng ai bi\u1ebft v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ecfi g\u00ec v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u1ea3 l\u1eddi ra sao, nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb sau chuy\u1ebfn \u0111i n\u00e0y, Alexander b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1ef1 coi m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 con trai c\u1ee7a th\u1ea7n Ammon. (ND) Li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn nh\u1eefng chi ti\u1ebft v\u1ec1 binh l\u00ednh c\u1ee7a c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem th\u00eam Trung t\u01b0\u1edbng J. F. C. Fuller, The Generalship of Alexander the Great (London, 1958); E. W. Marsden, The Campaign of Gaugamela (Liverpool, 1964), Ph\u1ee5 l\u1ee5c I v\u00e0 II; A. R. Burn, \u201cThe Generalship of Alexander\u201d, trong Greece and Rome 1965, tr.140- 54. Sarissa (ho\u1eb7c sarisa) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00e2y gi\u00e1o d\u00e0i kho\u1ea3ng 4-7 m\u00e9t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong chi\u1ebfn tranh Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. V\u0169 kh\u00ed n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vua Philip, cha c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf, \u0111\u01b0a v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ed9i h\u00ecnh phalanx truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Macedonia. (ND) Xem G. T. Griffith, Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Association, 4 (1956\/7), t\u1eeb tr.3. Gukhas theo ti\u1ebfng Nepal ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 chi\u1ebfn binh. H\u1ecd n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u00ec s\u1ef1 thi\u1ec7n chi\u1ebfn v\u00e0 l\u00f2ng trung th\u00e0nh. (ND) P. A. Brunt, \u201cAlexander\u2019s Macedonian Cavalry\u201d, trong JHS 83 (1963), tr.27-46, th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 nhi\u1ec1u v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9i k\u1ef5 binh c\u1ee7a Alexander. R. D. Milns \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ee9ng minh trong Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 7 (1966), tr.159-166. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c trung \u0111o\u00e0n (Hipparchy), xem Ph\u1ee5 l\u1ee5c A. T\u00ean m\u1ed9t d\u00e3y n\u00fai n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa Afghanistan v\u00e0 Pakistan. T\u00ean g\u1ecdi Hindu Kush c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng \u1ea2 r\u1eadp, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cC\u00e1c ng\u1ecdn n\u00fai \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9\u201d. (ND) E. Badian trong JHS (1965), tr.161. M\u1ed9t c\u1ea5p b\u1eadc qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 th\u1eddi c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, ch\u1ec9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 huy m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n g\u1ed3m 1.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. (ND) JHS 83 (1963), tr.39. V\u1ec1 Ptolemy v\u00e0 Aristobulus, xem ph\u1ea7n D\u1eabn nh\u1eadp. Vua Philip b\u1ecb \u00e1m s\u00e1t v\u00e0o m\u00f9a h\u00e8 n\u0103m 336 TCN. K\u1ebb \u00e1m s\u00e1t nh\u00e0 vua l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c tr\u1ebb tu\u1ed5i t\u00ean l\u00e0 Pausanias, ng\u01b0\u1eddi nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb Attalus, cha m\u1ed9t","th\u1ee9 phi c\u1ee7a Philip, x\u00fac ph\u1ea1m. T\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n r\u1eb1ng, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00fd do khi\u1ebfn Pausanias ra tay \u00e1m s\u00e1t v\u1ecb ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh l\u00e0 Pausanias l\u1ea5y l\u00e0m o\u00e1n h\u1eadn vi\u1ec7c Philip kh\u00f4ng cho ph\u00e9p anh ta ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i Attalus. Alexander v\u00e0 m\u1eb9 \u00f4ng, Olympias, l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 xa c\u00e1ch v\u1edbi vua Philip, b\u1ecb nghi ng\u1edd d\u00ednh l\u00edu t\u1edbi v\u1ee5 vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y, d\u00f9 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi anh em c\u1ee7a Alexander \u1edf v\u00f9ng Lyncestis \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb h\u00e0nh h\u00ecnh v\u00ec t\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng l\u00f5a, v\u00e0 sau n\u00e0y Alexander \u0111\u00e3 bu\u1ed9c t\u1ed9i vua Ba T\u01b0 v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 khoe khoang r\u1eb1ng \u00f4ng ta \u0111\u00e3 mua chu\u1ed9c Pausanias. V\u1ec1 chi ti\u1ebft, xem Diodorus 16.93-4; Aristotle Politics 1311b2. E. Badian, Phoenix 17 (1963) t\u1eeb tr.244, cung c\u1ea5p nh\u1eefng th\u1ea3o lu\u1eadn t\u1ed1t nh\u1ea5t g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y. Ngo\u00e0i ra, xem th\u00eam A. B. Bosworth, CQ 1971, t\u1eeb tr.93. Trong t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m Alexander (3.5), Plutarch \u0111\u01b0a ra ng\u00e0y sinh c\u1ee7a Alexander l\u00e0 v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng 20 th\u00e1ng B\u1ea3y n\u0103m 356 TCN. T\u00f3m t\u1eaft c\u1ee7a Arrian qu\u00e1 ng\u1eafn g\u1ecdn n\u00ean d\u1ec5 g\u00e2y hi\u1ec3u l\u1ea7m. Theo ghi ch\u00e9p c\u1ee7a Diodorus (17.3-4), Alexander, khi \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ea7u v\u1edbi t\u00ecnh tr\u1ea1ng b\u1ea5t \u1ed5n \u1edf Hy L\u1ea1p, \u0111\u00e3 gi\u00e0nh \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 th\u1eeba nh\u1eadn v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u201cng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o\u201d c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean minh Corinth t\u1eeb Li\u00ean minh Thessaly v\u00e0 Li\u00ean minh Amphictyonic t\u1ea1i Delphi, c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng qu\u1ed1c gia ri\u00eang l\u1ebb \u1edf b\u00ean trong v\u00e0 b\u00ean ngo\u00e0i v\u00f9ng Peloponnese. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c g\u1eb7p g\u1ee1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i Corinth v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0 \u201cT\u1ed5ng ch\u1ec9 huy\u201d c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean minh. T\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c chinh ph\u1ea1t n\u00e0y, xem Fuller t\u1eeb tr.219. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Triballia s\u1ed1ng \u1edf ph\u00eda nam s\u00f4ng Danube, m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n t\u1ea1i thu\u1ed9c Pleven. Nh\u01b0 trong nhi\u1ec1u b\u1ea3n ghi ch\u00e9p d\u00f9ng c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb \u201cnh\u1eefng th\u01b0\u01a1ng gia\u201d (trader), Alexander c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111\u00e3 g\u1eb7p m\u1ed9t \u0111o\u00e0n l\u00e1i bu\u00f4n c\u00f3 v\u0169 trang. Kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i Philotas, con trai c\u1ee7a Parmenio, th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh c\u1ee7a k\u1ef5 binh Li\u00ean minh. Nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u1edf ph\u1ea7n sau. Arrian mi\u00eau t\u1ea3 (t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f4ng sang t\u00e2y) nh\u1eefng t\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng d\u1ecdc b\u1edd b\u1eafc c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng Danube trong th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 th\u1ee9 II TCN, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i trong th\u1eddi \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a Alexander. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 \u1edf bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi Danube, (Indica 4.15). Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Getae l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thrace m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Daci. Cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng, h\u1ecd b\u1ecb khu\u1ea5t ph\u1ee5c b\u1edfi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Trajan v\u00e0o th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 II SCN. L\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ed9p v\u00e0o khu v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a Dacia. Herodotus thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd tin r\u1eb1ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 khu\u1ea5t kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 m\u1ea5t \u0111i m\u00e0 tham d\u1ef1 v\u00e0o nh\u00f3m c\u00e1c v\u1ecb th\u1ea7n Salmoxis. Alexander r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00ean k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch cho m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t m\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 l\u00ean k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch \u0111\u1ec3 thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp d\u00f2ng Danube nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi ph\u00eda b\u1eafc cho l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 l\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean Arrian s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1eeb \u201cpothos\u201d, \u201ckhao kh\u00e1t, h\u1ea5p d\u1eabn\u201d, m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb m\u00e0 \u00f4ng v\u00e0 c\u00e1c s\u1eed gia v\u1ec1 Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 khao kh\u00e1t chinh ph\u1ee5c, kh\u00e1m ph\u00e1 \u0111i\u1ec1u ch\u01b0a bi\u1ebft v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u b\u00ed \u1ea9n. Victor Ehrenberg, Alexander and the Greeks, t\u1eeb tr.52, cho r\u1eb1ng t\u1eeb n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00ednh Alexander s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng. Tuy nhi\u00ean, \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i cho r\u1eb1ng \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ngo\u1ea1i l\u1ec7. C\u00e1c v\u1ecb vua c\u1ee7a Macedonia tin r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a Heracles. Kho\u1ea3ng g\u1ea7n 50 n\u0103m tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Celtic x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c Macedonia v\u00e0 Hy L\u1ea1p.","Cleitus \u0111\u00e3 quy ph\u1ee5c Philip v\u00e0o n\u0103m 349. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Taulanti v\u00e0 Autariates \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng t\u1ed9c ng\u01b0\u1eddi Illyria, ng\u01b0\u1eddi Taulanti s\u1ed1ng g\u1ea7n Epidamnus (Durazzo), ng\u01b0\u1eddi Autariates s\u1ed1ng \u1edf v\u00f9ng l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 xa h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda b\u1eafc, \u1edf bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi Paeonia. Cyna l\u00e0 em g\u00e1i c\u00f9ng cha kh\u00e1c m\u1eb9 v\u1edbi Alexander, con g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a vua Philip v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef ng\u01b0\u1eddi Illyria. V\u1ec1 s\u1ed1 v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a Philip, xem Athenaeus 13.557c. Erigon l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e1nh s\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a Axius (Vardar), gi\u1edd l\u00e0 Tzerna. Pelium l\u00e0 ph\u00e1o \u0111\u00e0i bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi c\u1ee7a Macedonia \u0111\u1eb7t \u1edf ph\u00eda nam h\u1ed3 Lychnitis. Diodorus (17.8-14) \u0111\u01b0a ra m\u1ed9t ghi ch\u00e9p chi ti\u1ebft h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf Thebes, \u00edt \u01b0u \u00e1i Alexander h\u01a1n nhi\u1ec1u. T\u1eeb n\u0103m 338, Cadmeia, th\u00e0nh l\u0169y c\u1ee7a Thebes, \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed3n tr\u00fa c\u1ee7a Macedonia chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u00f3ng. Timolaus l\u00e0 th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m Macedonia (Demosthenes, On the Crown295). V\u1ec1 Amyntas, c\u00f3 l\u1ebd n\u00ean \u0111\u1ecdc Anemoitas, ng\u01b0\u1eddi m\u00e0 Demothenes nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Timolaus nh\u01b0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t k\u1ebb ph\u1ea3n b\u1ed9i ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thebes. T\u1eeb \u201ct\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb\u201d (autonomy) kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 trong b\u1ea3n th\u1ea3o, nh\u01b0ng c\u1ea7n thi\u1ebft ph\u1ea3i cho t\u1eeb n\u00e0y v\u00e0o. \u201cT\u1ef1 do ng\u00f4n lu\u1eadn\u201d \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp t\u1edbi (nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb \u201ct\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb\u201d d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u01b0a th\u00edch h\u01a1n). \u201cT\u1ef1 do\u201d v\u00e0 \u201ct\u1ef1 tr\u1ecb\u201d lu\u00f4n \u0111i c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi nhau, v\u00e0 c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh bang Hy L\u1ea1p r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng mu\u1ed1n b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 nh\u1eefng quy\u1ec1n n\u00e0y trong \u201cHi\u1ebfn ch\u01b0\u01a1ng\u201d c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean minh Corinth (xem Ng\u1ee5y Demosthenes 17.8). (Ng\u1ee5y Demosthenes l\u00e0 t\u00ean th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u1ec3 \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3 khuy\u1ebft danh c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 b\u00e0i di\u1ec5n v\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u00e1n cho nh\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n Demosthenes.) Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng \u1edf Athens, Demosthenes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111em \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00ednh, ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u0103ng kh\u0103ng kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf m\u1ea1ng trong m\u1ed9t tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn m\u00e0 c\u0169ng trong tr\u1eadn \u0111\u00f3, anh ta \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb th\u01b0\u01a1ng. Onchestus n\u1eb1m tr\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n L. Copais, c\u00e1ch Thebes kho\u1ea3ng g\u1ea7n 10 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u00f4ng b\u1eafc. Kho\u1ea3ng c\u00e1ch t\u1eeb Pelium t\u1edbi Onchestus kh\u00f4ng \u00edt h\u01a1n 400 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. \u201cNh\u1eefng c\u1ed5ng th\u00e0nh\u201d m\u00e0 Arrian nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1edbi Thermopyl\u00e6. Diodorus v\u00e0 Plutarch \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh vi\u1ec7c Alexander tr\u00ec ho\u00e3n t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Thebes. Plutarch thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i (Alexander 11.7) r\u1eb1ng ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u giao n\u1ed9p nh\u1eefng th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia, Phoenix v\u00e0 Prothytes, v\u00e0 h\u1ee9a r\u1eb1ng s\u1ebd tha th\u1ee9 cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y. Tuy nhi\u00ean, ng\u00e0i ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 l\u0103ng m\u1ea1. Theo Diodorus (17.12.3), Perdiccas h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng theo m\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a Alexander. Kho\u1ea3ng 6.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thebes \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft v\u00e0 h\u01a1n 30.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb b\u1eaft l\u00e0m t\u00f9 binh. S\u1ed1 ti\u1ec1n thu \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb vi\u1ec7c b\u00e1n c\u00e1c t\u00f9 binh n\u00e0y l\u00e0 kho\u1ea3ng 440 ta-l\u0103ng (Diodorus 17.14; Plutarch,Alexander 11.12). Cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh Sicily l\u00e0 cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens t\u1edbi Sicily v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 415 TCN t\u1edbi n\u0103m 413 TCN, v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 chu\u1ed1c l\u1ea5y th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i th\u1ea3m h\u1ea1i. Cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh n\u00e0y c\u00f2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 th\u1ea3m h\u1ecda Sicily. Kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 t\u00ednh to\u00e1n m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c nh\u1eefng thi\u1ec7t h\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens trong cu\u1ed9c vi\u1ec5n chinh Sicily (415- 13) v\u00ec ch\u00fang ta kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 trong s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c th\u1ee7y th\u1ee7 \u0111o\u00e0n c\u1ee7a h\u01a1n 200 thuy\u1ec1n chi\u1ebfn ba t\u1ea7ng ch\u00e8o, h\u01a1n 40.000 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi, c\u00f3 bao nhi\u00eau ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens. Tuy","nhi\u00ean, \u00edt nh\u1ea5t c\u0169ng c\u00f3 4.000 k\u1ef5 binh, b\u1ed9 binh h\u1ea1ng n\u1eb7ng v\u00e0 h\u1ea1ng nh\u1eb9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecf m\u1ea1ng. V\u1ec1 l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea \u1edf Sicily, xem c\u00e1c \u0111o\u1ea1n v\u0103n c\u1ee7a Thucydides \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c N. G. L. Hammond tr\u00edch d\u1eabn trong History of Greece 390, ch\u00fa th\u00edch 1. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 b\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0o cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn n\u0103m 412 v\u00e0 d\u00e2n Athens \u0111\u00e3 ch\u1ed1ng c\u1ef1 ki\u00ean tr\u00ec cho t\u1edbi m\u00f9a xu\u00e2n n\u0103m 404. Th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i Aegospotami (th\u00e1ng T\u00e1m n\u0103m 405) \u0111\u00e3 khi\u1ebfn vi\u1ec7c quy ph\u1ee5c Athens tr\u1edf n\u00ean b\u1ea5t kh\u1ea3. Nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n quy ph\u1ee5c bao g\u1ed3m \u201cph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Th\u00e0nh v\u00e0 c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng s\u1ef1 Peiraeus, giao l\u1ea1i h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ed9i 12 t\u00e0u chi\u1ebfn, b\u1ecf quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n, tri\u1ec7u h\u1ed3i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi l\u01b0u \u0111\u00e0y, v\u00e0 tu\u00e2n ph\u1ee5c Sparta trong m\u1ecdi v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch ngo\u1ea1i giao\u201d (Hammond, tr.418). C\u00f3 th\u1ec3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh ni\u00ean \u0111\u1ea1i cho vi\u1ec7c kh\u00f4i ph\u1ee5c s\u1ee9c m\u1ea1nh tr\u00ean bi\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Athens t\u1eeb th\u00e1ng T\u00e1m n\u0103m 394, khi Conon \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i h\u1ea1m \u0111\u1ed9i Sparta t\u1ea1i Cnidus. Vi\u1ec7c t\u00e1i x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Th\u00e0nh, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u ngay tr\u01b0\u1edbc th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u00e0y, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng n\u0103m 391. C\u1ea3 hai vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y ph\u1ea7n nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ec1u nh\u1edd v\u00e0o s\u1ef1 tr\u1ee3 gi\u00fap c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0. Li\u00ean minh c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Boeotia d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o c\u1ee7a Thebes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i Sparta t\u1ea1i Leuctra v\u00e0o n\u0103m 371 v\u00e0 t\u1ea1i Mantinea v\u00e0o n\u0103m 362. Cu\u1ed9c x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c Sparta di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o n\u0103m 369. V\u1ec1 c\u00e1c s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y, xem Xenophon, History of Greece 6.4.4-15, 7.5.18-27; v\u00e0 7.1.15-22. C\u1ea3 ba th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n n\u00e0y \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb \u00e9p quy ph\u1ee5c trong su\u1ed1t cu\u1ed9c Chi\u1ebfn tranh Peloponnesia. Sau m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi gian v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh k\u00e9o d\u00e0i, Plataea quy ph\u1ee5c Sparta v\u00e0o n\u0103m 427, Melos v\u00e0 Scione quy ph\u1ee5c Athens l\u1ea7n l\u01b0\u1ee3t v\u00e0o c\u00e1c n\u0103m 415 v\u00e0 421. Trong c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ee3p n\u00e0y, \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft, c\u00f2n ph\u1ee5 n\u1eef v\u00e0 tr\u1ebb em b\u1ecb b\u00e1n l\u00e0m n\u00f4 l\u1ec7. Qu\u00e2n Thebes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ed9t k\u00edch Plataes v\u00e0o th\u00e1ng Ba n\u0103m 431, nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u00e3 bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i r\u00fat lui kh\u1ecfi th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n. G\u1ea7n Plataea, v\u00e0o n\u0103m 479, ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i qu\u00e2n Ba T\u01b0 do Mardonius ch\u1ec9 huy v\u00e0 khi\u1ebfn h\u1ecd ph\u1ea3i r\u00fat qu\u00e2n kh\u1ecfi Hy L\u1ea1p. Thebes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t c\u0103n c\u1ee9 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea1o qu\u00e2n Thebes c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u b\u00ean phe Ba T\u01b0. V\u00e0o cu\u1ed1i cu\u1ed9c Chi\u1ebfn tranh Peloponnesia, Erianthus ng\u01b0\u1eddi Thebes \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y Athens v\u00e0 \u0111em gi\u1ebft b\u1ecf ho\u1eb7c b\u00e1n l\u00e0m n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 c\u00e1c c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh bang n\u00e0y. Sparta, v\u1edbi th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh, \u0111\u00e3 b\u00e1c b\u1ecf \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb n\u00e0y. Diodorus (17.10) \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u \u0111i\u1ec1m b\u00e1o x\u1ea5u. Tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 Alexander, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec7 tr\u00ecnh quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh cho c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed3ng minh. Cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n \u0111\u00e3 g\u00e2y ra m\u1ed1i b\u1ea5t h\u00f2a trong Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc H\u00f2a b\u00ecnh v\u00e0 Alexander (v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 m\u1ed9t th\u1ed1ng l\u0129nh) \u0111\u00e3 k\u00eau g\u1ecdi c\u00e1c binh l\u00ednh \u0110\u1ed3ng minh m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 c\u00e1c khu v\u1ef1c l\u00e2n c\u1eadn Thebes g\u1eedi qu\u00e2n t\u1edbi \u2013 bao g\u1ed3m ng\u01b0\u1eddi Plataca, Phocia, Thespiae v\u00e0 Orchomenus. Nh\u01b0ng Alexander kh\u00f4ng sai khi nh\u1eadn ra r\u1eb1ng h\u00ecnh ph\u1ea1t d\u00e0nh cho Thebes khi\u1ebfn nhi\u1ec1u k\u1ebb th\u00f9 c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh bang n\u00e0y c\u1ea3m th\u1ea5y nhi\u1ec1u \u00e2n o\u00e1n c\u0169 \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft. Ng\u00e0i ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n c\u0169ng mong mu\u1ed1n l\u1ea5y s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Thebes l\u00e0m l\u1eddi c\u1ea3nh b\u00e1o ch\u1ebft ch\u00f3c cho b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 th\u00e0nh bang n\u00e0o c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i ng\u00e0i. Sau Chaeroneia,","Philip c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng l\u1ea1i Plataea v\u00e0 Orchomenus, nh\u1eefng th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n b\u1ecb Thebes ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y hai l\u1ea7n v\u00e0o n\u0103m 373 v\u00e0 n\u0103m 364, nh\u01b0ng r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n. M\u1ed9t nghi l\u1ec5 c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Trong nghi l\u1ec5 n\u00e0y, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng r\u01b0\u1ee3u v\u00e0 c\u00e1c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt th\u00f4i mi\u00ean \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u1ec1 tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i b\u1ea3n n\u0103ng nh\u1ea5t. (ND) Nghi l\u1ec5 Huy\u1ec1n b\u00ed vinh danh th\u1ea7n Demeter \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c t\u1ea1i Eleusis t\u1eeb ng\u00e0y 15 t\u1edbi ng\u00e0y 23 th\u00e1ng Boedromion theo l\u1ecbch Athens, t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u1ee9ng v\u1edbi th\u00e1ng Ch\u00edn\/th\u00e1ng M\u01b0\u1eddi. Theo Plutarch (Demosthenes 23.3), nh\u1eefng s\u1eed gia \u0111\u00e1ng tin nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u01b0a ra t\u00e1m c\u00e1i t\u00ean, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c th\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi 10 ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Nh\u1eefng t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u01b0u l\u1ea1i n\u00e0y c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t. T\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 nh\u1eefng s\u1eed gia m\u00e0 Arrian nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ec1u l\u00e0 c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 h\u00f9ng bi\u1ec7n, ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb c\u00e1c t\u01b0\u1edbng qu\u00e2n Chares, Charidemus v\u00e0 Ephialtes. Arrian c\u00f3 l\u1ebd \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ednh t\u1edbi nh\u1eefng c\u1ed1ng hi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Demosthenes v\u1ec1 l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Pausanias, v\u1ee5 \u00e1m s\u00e1t Philip (Aeschines 3.160), v\u00e0 trao \u0111\u1ed5i th\u01b0 t\u1eeb c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng v\u1edbi t\u01b0\u1edbng qu\u00e2n Macedonia, Attalus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Parmenio m\u1edf chi\u1ebfn d\u1ecbch t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng Ba T\u01b0 v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m 336. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c c\u0169ng r\u1eddi kh\u1ecfi Athens. Chares g\u1eb7p Alexander t\u1ea1i Sigeum v\u00e0o n\u0103m 334, trong khi Ephialtes v\u00e0 Thrasybulus (nh\u1eefng c\u00e1i t\u00ean m\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta ngh\u0129 r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb b\u1ecf qua trong danh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Arrian) chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u b\u00ean phe Ba T\u01b0 t\u1ea1i Halicarnassus (Diodorus 17.25.6). Vua c\u1ee7a Macedonia t\u1eeb n\u0103m 413 t\u1edbi n\u0103m 399 TCN. \u00d4ng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3o tr\u1ee3 cho v\u0103n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt, ch\u00ednh d\u01b0\u1edbi tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng, Euripides \u0111\u00e3 d\u00e0nh nh\u1eefng n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec3 vi\u1ebft cu\u1ed1n Bacchae. C\u00e1c n\u1eef th\u1ea7n th\u01a1 ca. (ND) M\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i th\u01a1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00ecnh b\u00e0y r\u1ea5t oai nghi\u00eam v\u00e0 trang tr\u1ecdng. (ND) Hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y, x\u1ea3y ra do s\u1ef1 h\u00f3a \u0111\u1eb7c h\u01a1i \u1ea9m, th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi trong v\u0103n h\u1ecdc c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y x\u1ea3y ra v\u00e0o \u0111\u00fang th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m Alexander t\u1edbi Thebes. Aristander l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 ti\u00ean tri m\u00e0 Alexander (c\u0169ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 c\u1ea3 Philip) t\u00edn nhi\u1ec7m nh\u1ea5t, l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Arrian nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi th\u01b0\u1eddng xuy\u00ean v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng ch\u00ednh x\u00e1c. C\u00e1c c\u01b0 d\u00e2n c\u1ee7a Telmissus \u1edf Caria \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi kh\u00e1 s\u1edbm, v\u00e0o kho\u1ea3ng gi\u1eefa th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 th\u1ee9 VI, do kh\u1ea3 n\u0103ng ti\u00ean \u0111o\u00e1n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd (Herodotus 1.78). Antipater nh\u1eadn l\u1ec7nh \u1edf l\u1ea1i c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi 12.000 b\u1ed9 binh v\u00e0 1.500 k\u1ef5 binh. Nh\u1eefng s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Arrian c\u0169ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Diodorus kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh (17.17) khi \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0a m\u1ed9t danh s\u00e1ch c\u00e1c l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Alexander sau khi v\u01b0\u1ee3t eo bi\u1ec3n t\u1edbi l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba \u00c1 ch\u00e2u: 32.000 b\u1ed9 binh v\u00e0 5.100 k\u1ef5 binh. Nh\u1eefng s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u cao h\u01a1n cho b\u1ed9 binh (43.000; 40.000) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c s\u1eed gia kh\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0a ra, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 bao g\u1ed3m 10.000 binh l\u00ednh, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c1 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 335, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y, trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u00e3 r\u00fat lui. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta kh\u00f4ng t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch th\u1ecfa \u0111\u00e1ng n\u00e0o cho c\u00e1c s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u \u0111\u01b0a ra s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng k\u1ef5 binh \u00edt h\u01a1n. V\u1ec1 v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 n\u00e0y, g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y nh\u1ea5t, xem P. A. Brunt, JHS 1963, t\u1eeb tr.33, v\u00e0 E. W. Marsden, The Campaign of Gaugamela (Liverpool, 1964), t\u1eeb tr.24. M\u1ed9t eo bi\u1ec3n h\u1eb9p thu\u1ed9c t\u00e2y b\u1eafc Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3, n\u1ed1i li\u1ec1n bi\u1ec3n Aegean v\u00e0 bi\u1ec3n","Marmama. (ND) Homer, Iliad 2.701; Herodotus 9.116. Ph\u00eda t\u00e2y b\u1eafc c\u1ee7a th\u00e0nh Troy, g\u1ea7n M\u0169i \u0111\u1ea5t Sigeium. Diodorus (17.17.2), thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i r\u1eb1ng Alexander, tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi \u0111\u1eb7t ch\u00e2n l\u00ean b\u1edd, \u0111\u00e3 qu\u1eb3ng c\u00e2y th\u01b0\u01a1ng c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i xu\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba \u00c1 ch\u00e2u l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n th\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn. N\u1ebfu \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 th\u1eadt, n\u00f3 ch\u1ee9ng t\u1ecf r\u1eb1ng Alexander \u0111\u00e3 quy\u1ebft t\u00e2m chinh ph\u1ee5c \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Ba T\u01b0. T\u1ea5m khi\u00ean n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Peucestas mang theo trong cu\u1ed9c t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng v\u00e0o th\u00e0nh l\u0169y c\u1ee7a th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n Malli. Con trai c\u1ee7a Achilles v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u1ea1i Moloosian. Alexander kh\u1eb3ng \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u00ecnh thu\u1ed9c d\u00f2ng d\u00f5i c\u1ee7a Neoptolemus, th\u00f4ng qua m\u1eb9 ng\u00e0i l\u00e0 Omlypias. Hephaestion l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n th\u00e2n thi\u1ebft nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Alexander t\u1eeb thu\u1edf thi\u1ebfu ni\u00ean. Vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ed9i v\u00f2ng hoa t\u1ea1i l\u0103ng m\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a Achilles v\u00e0 Patroclus t\u01b0\u1ee3ng tr\u01b0ng cho m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 gi\u1eefa hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Ch\u00ednh v\u00ec \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, khi Hephaestion qua \u0111\u1eddi, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng \u0111au kh\u1ed5. Hieoro v\u00e0 Gelo \u0111\u00e3 cai tr\u1ecb Syracuse v\u00e0 Thero Acragas (Agrigentum) v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 th\u1ee9 V. Nh\u1eefng th\u00e0nh t\u1ef1u c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Pindar v\u00e0 Bacchylides vinh danh. Trong Anabasis c\u1ee7a Xenophon, s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Clearchus \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thu\u1eadt l\u1ea1i trong Quy\u1ec3n hai. Ch\u1ec9 huy c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p. (ND) Memnon kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u01b0\u1edbng l\u0129nh [condottiere] c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea m\u00e0 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi thu\u1ed9c giai c\u1ea5p th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a Ba T\u01b0, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 k\u1ebft h\u00f4n v\u1edbi em g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Artabazus. V\u00e0o n\u0103m 335, Memnon \u0111\u00e3 ng\u0103n ch\u1eb7n th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng m\u0169i ti\u1ebfn qu\u00e2n c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n Macedonia t\u1edbi Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1, v\u00e0 c\u0169ng trong th\u1eddi gian n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 t\u00e1n th\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn x\u00e2m l\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00e2u \u00c2u (Diod, 17.18.12). V\u1ec1 nh\u1eefng h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng sau \u0111\u00f3 v\u00e0 c\u00e1i ch\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Memnon, xem Quy\u1ec3n hai. C\u00f3 l\u1ebd m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u01a1 th\u00fac \u0111\u1ea9y c\u00e1c xatrap t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch c\u1ee7a Memnon l\u00e0 do l\u00f2ng ghen t\u1ecb c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi \u00f4ng. Kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 g\u00ec l\u00e0m Alexander h\u00e0i l\u00f2ng h\u01a1n l\u00e0 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0. Ng\u00e0i hi\u1ec3u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng s\u1ebd c\u00f3 t\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed9ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh bang Hy L\u1ea1p \u1edf Ti\u1ec3u \u00c1, v\u00e0 hy v\u1ecdng r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c th\u1ee7 l\u0129nh Ba T\u01b0 kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u1eddi bi\u1ec7n h\u1ed9 n\u00e0o cho \u0111i\u1ec1u m\u00e0 ng\u00e0i coi l\u00e0 th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 v\u00ed d\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong s\u1ed1 nhi\u1ec1u v\u00ed d\u1ee5 cho vi\u1ec7c Alexander t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i l\u1eddi khuy\u00ean c\u1ee7a l\u00e3o t\u01b0\u1edbng Parmenio, m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i v\u00ed d\u1ee5 trong s\u1ed1 n\u00e0y, \u00edt nh\u1ea5t, c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 do tr\u00ed t\u01b0\u1edfng t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Callisthenes, v\u1edbi vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 s\u1eed gia ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a Alexander, \u0111\u1ec3 l\u00e0m gi\u1ea3m nh\u1eb9 nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi ch\u00ea tr\u00e1ch Alexander v\u00ec \u0111\u00e3 x\u1eed t\u1eed Parmenio trong m\u1ed9t v\u1ee5 n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n sau n\u00e0y. Do \u0111\u00f3, vi\u1ec7c n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 t\u01b0\u1edbc b\u1ecf c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a k\u1ef5 binh v\u00e0 b\u1ed9 binh (m\u1ed9t l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng kho\u1ea3ng 20.000 ng\u01b0\u1eddi). L\u00fd do cho sai l\u1ea7m ng\u1edb ng\u1ea9n n\u00e0y kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00eau r\u00f5. V\u1ee5 th\u1ea3m s\u00e1t n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t sai l\u1ea7m, v\u00ec theo th\u1ecfa thu\u1eadn v\u1edbi Li\u00ean minh Corinth, s\u1ed1 t\u00f9 binh Hy L\u1ea1p ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1eedi \u0111i lao \u0111\u1ed9ng kh\u1ed5 sai. Ngay t\u1eeb giai \u0111o\u1ea1n \u0111\u1ea7u khi v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh Miletus, Alexander \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn ra \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y v\u00e0 cho ph\u00e9p 300 l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u00fd \u0111\u1ecbnh ch\u1ed1ng tr\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ebfn c\u00f9ng, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tuy\u1ec3n m\u1ed9 v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n c\u1ee7a ng\u00e0i. Nh\u00e0 t\u1ea1c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng Hy L\u1ea1p n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng. C\u00f9ng v\u1edbi Scopas v\u00e0 Praxiteles, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 \u0111i\u00eau","kh\u1eafc v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. (ND) Arrian d\u01b0\u1eddng nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. Theo Velleius (1.11.4), nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1ee3ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Metellus Macedonicus chuy\u1ec3n t\u1edbi La M\u00e3 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 148. Nh\u1eefng s\u1ed1 li\u1ec7u v\u1ec1 t\u1ed5n th\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n Macedonia th\u1ea5p m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch \u0111\u00e1ng ng\u1edd, v\u00ec h\u1ecd th\u01b0\u1eddng kh\u00f4ng t\u00ednh \u0111\u1ebfn l\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1nh thu\u00ea. Theo quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m nh\u1ecf trong s\u1ed1 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Hy L\u1ea1p \u0111\u00e3 tham gia tr\u1eadn chi\u1ebfn, l\u1eddi kh\u1eafc (c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c b\u1ecf qua, kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 nh\u1eafc g\u00ec t\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Macedonia) ch\u1eafc h\u1eb3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi nh\u01b0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 tuy\u00ean truy\u1ec1n h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u1edbi c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed3ng minh Hy L\u1ea1p. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh s\u1ef1 v\u1eafng m\u1eb7t c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Sparta. Zeleia l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p, nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 \u0111o\u00e1n r\u1eb1ng h\u1ecd c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu c\u00e1c kho\u1ea3n thu\u1ebf t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c c\u01b0 d\u00e2n kh\u00e1c trong v\u00f9ng. V\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n trong ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch ngo\u1ea1i giao h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u1edbi c\u00e1c th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ee7a Alexander, xem E. Badian, \u201cAlexander the Great and the Greeks of Asia\u201d, trong Ancient Society and Institutions. Studies Presented to Victor Ebrenberg, Oxford, 1966, t\u1eeb tr.37. Nh\u01b0 s\u1eafp x\u1ebfp c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u00e3 cho th\u1ea5y, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ed1i x\u1eed gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 tr\u01b0\u1edbc kia, kh\u00f4ng \u01b0u \u00e1i h\u01a1n c\u0169ng kh\u00f4ng t\u1ec7 b\u1ea1c h\u01a1n. M\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Troad. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec1 ngh\u1ecb x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec7n th\u1edd m\u1edbi \u2013 \u0111i\u1ec7n th\u1edd c\u0169 \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb \u0111\u1ed1t ch\u00e1y ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n v\u00e0o \u0111\u00eam ng\u00e0i ra \u0111\u1eddi \u2013 nh\u01b0ng nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ephesian \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i. L\u01b0u \u00fd r\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ed3 c\u1ed1ng n\u1ea1p kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ho\u00e0n l\u1ea1i. Vi\u1ec7c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp c\u00e1c n\u1ec1n d\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ee5 thu\u1ed9c v\u00e0o thi\u00ean ki\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Alexander \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n d\u00e2n s\u1ef1 (th\u1ef1c s\u1ef1 th\u00ec t\u1ea1i sao Alexander l\u1ea1i th\u00edch ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3u n\u00e0y h\u01a1n?) m\u00e0 l\u00e0 v\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 c\u00e1c t\u1eadp \u0111o\u00e0n ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb \u0111\u1ea7u s\u1ecf. Miletus c\u00e1ch c\u1eeda s\u00f4ng Maeander kho\u1ea3ng 16 kil\u00f4m\u00e9t. Alexander ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn kh\u00f4ng h\u1ec1 tin t\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00f2ng trung th\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ed3ng minh Hy L\u1ea1p. Ng\u00e0i \u0111\u00e3 gi\u1eef l\u1ea1i hai m\u01b0\u01a1i t\u00e0u thuy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Athens m\u00e0 th\u1ee7y th\u1ee7 \u0111o\u00e0n c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi nh\u01b0 nh\u1eefng con tin. V\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ghi ch\u00e9p kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng giai \u0111o\u1ea1n cu\u1ed1i, xem Diodorus 17.23-27. Myndus n\u1eb1m \u1edf c\u1ef1c t\u00e2y c\u1ee7a b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o, n\u01a1i c\u00f3 th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n Halicarnassus. Theo Diodorus, nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb gi\u1ebft khi chi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ea5u b\u00ean phe Macedonia. Hecatomnus, ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb Caria, \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i ba ng\u01b0\u1eddi con trai: Mausolus, Hidrieus, Pixodarus v\u00e0 hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi con g\u00e1i: Artemisia v\u00e0 Ada. Artemisia k\u1ebft h\u00f4n v\u1edbi Mausolus, c\u00f2n Ada k\u1ebft h\u00f4n v\u1edbi Hidrieus, v\u00e0 h\u1ecd th\u1eeba k\u1ebf ngai v\u00e0ng c\u1ee7a Hecatomnus. S\u1ef1 kh\u00e1ng c\u1ef1 duy nh\u1ea5t di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf Marmara, n\u01a1i c\u01b0 d\u00e2n \u0111\u00e3 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ed1t b\u1ecf th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n (Diodorus 17.28). Milyas l\u00e0 t\u00ean c\u0169 c\u1ee7a Lycia, nh\u01b0ng t\u00ean Lycia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng \u0111\u1ec3 ch\u1ec9 v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t cao, m\u1edf r\u1ed9ng v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng b\u1eafc t\u1edbi t\u1eadn Pisidia. C\u1ea3 hai \u0111\u1ec1u b\u1ecb x\u1eed t\u1eed. Hellespontine Phrygia. Alexander \u0111\u00e3 giao v\u00f9ng n\u00e0y cho Calas. Plutarch (Alexander 17.6) nh\u1eadn x\u00e9t r\u1eb1ng nhi\u1ec1u s\u1eed gia \u0111\u00e3 t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong s\u1ef1 ki\u1ec7n n\u00e0y c\u01a1 h\u1ed9i n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 c\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh x\u1eed \u201c\u1ea5n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng v\u00e0 khoa tr\u01b0\u01a1ng\u201d, v\u00e0 vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u201cc\u00fa \u0111\u00e1nh may m\u1eafn c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ec7nh\u201d. S\u1eed gia n\u00e0y tr\u00edch m\u1ed9t l\u00e1 th\u01b0 m\u00e0 trong \u0111\u00f3, Alexander kh\u00f4ng n\u00f3i b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c k\u1ef3 l\u1ea1 n\u00e0y, nh\u01b0ng","Callisthenes ch\u1eafc ch\u1eafn \u0111\u00e3 vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec1u n\u00e0y, d\u0129 nhi\u00ean l\u00e0 v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 ch\u1ea5p thu\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Alexander. Badian (Ehrenberg Studies, 65, ch\u00fa th\u00edch 50) b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn r\u1eb1ng 50 ta- l\u0103ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 ti\u1ec1n qu\u00e1 l\u1edbn m\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Hy L\u1ea1p ph\u1ea3i c\u1ed1ng n\u1ea1p v\u00e0 y\u00eau c\u1ea7u n\u00e0y cho th\u1ea5y nhu c\u1ea7u v\u1ec1 ti\u1ec1n b\u1ea1c c\u1ee7a Alexander trong th\u1eddi gian \u0111\u00f3. Th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Termessus, nh\u01b0ng c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 Arrian \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1ea7m l\u1eabn. B\u1ea5t ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a Antigonus trong vi\u1ec7c gi\u1eef v\u1eefng ph\u00f2ng tuy\u1ebfn Phrygia cho Alexander \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf \u2013 Curtius (4.1.35) ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi ba chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng tr\u01b0\u1edbc qu\u00e2n Ba T\u01b0 sau tr\u1eadn Issus \u2013 trong Anabasis, ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 duy nh\u1ea5t m\u1ed9t l\u1ea7n s\u1eed gia n\u00e0y nh\u1eafc t\u1edbi Antigonus \u201cm\u1ed9t m\u1eaft\u201d, cha c\u1ee7a Demetrius Ng\u01b0\u1eddi v\u00e2y th\u00e0nh. Tarn (Alexander 2.110) cho r\u1eb1ng s\u1ef1 im l\u1eb7ng n\u00e0y l\u00e0 do Ptolemy l\u00e0 k\u1ebb th\u00f9 c\u1ee7a Antigonus trong Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ebf v\u1ecb. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u1ea3 v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u n\u0103m 331, sau khi Alexander tr\u1edf v\u1ec1 t\u1eeb Ai C\u1eadp. 1. David Hume (1711\u20131776): Nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, s\u1eed h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 kinh t\u1ebf h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Xc\u1ed1tlen. C\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Lu\u1eadn thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 b\u1ea3n ch\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi (A Treatise of Human Nature), Nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 nh\u1eadn th\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a con ng\u01b0\u1eddi (An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding), Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n v\u1ec1 kinh t\u1ebf ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb (A discourse on political economy). 2. Th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Philadenphia thu\u1ed9c ti\u1ec3u bang Pennsylvania n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t New England, c\u0103n c\u1ee9 phe c\u1ee7a Hamilton v\u00e0 th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Richmond, th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 ti\u1ec3u bang Virginia, c\u0103n c\u1ee9 phe C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 c\u1ee7a Madison v\u00e0 Jefferson. 1. Sau n\u00e0y, Ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng Qu\u1ed1c gia nh\u01b0 Hamilton \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t h\u1ebft h\u1ea1n hi\u1ec7u l\u1ef1c sau \u0111\u00f3 20 n\u0103m, \u0111\u00fang v\u00e0o nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean Madison gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng M\u1ef9, n\u0103m 1811. Nh\u01b0ng sang nhi\u1ec7m k\u1ef3 th\u1ee9 hai, ch\u00ednh Madison l\u1ea1i y\u00eau c\u1ea7u Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i M\u1ef9 th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp Ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng th\u1ee9 2, th\u1ef1c hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00fang nh\u1eefng ch\u1ee9c n\u0103ng nh\u01b0 ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng th\u1ee9 1 m\u00e0 Madison t\u1eebng b\u00e1c b\u1ecf. 2. 'Quan \u0111i\u1ec3m v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh h\u1ee3p hi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng qu\u1ed1c gia': Opinion as to the Cosntituionality of the Bank of the United States. 3. Ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng Qu\u1ed1c gia (The First Bank of The United States), th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1791 v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t s\u1ef1 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i n\u0103m 1811. N\u0103m 1816, m\u1ed9t ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng Trung \u01b0\u01a1ng kh\u00e1c \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp (The Second Bank of The United States), t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1836. Qua nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng, ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng qu\u1ed1c gia t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c kh\u00e1c nhau, n\u0103m 1913, \u0110\u1ea1o lu\u1eadt d\u1ef1 tr\u1eef Qu\u1ed1c gia \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00ea chu\u1ea9n thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng D\u1eef tr\u1eef Li\u00ean bang (FED) bao g\u1ed3m 12 ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng khu v\u1ef1c do m\u1ed9t ban l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111i\u1ec1u h\u00e0nh do ch\u00ednh T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m nh\u01b0 ng\u00e0y nay nh\u1eb1m \u0111\u1ed1i ph\u00f3 v\u1edbi t\u00ecnh h\u00ecnh kh\u00f3 kh\u0103n v\u1ec1 kinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh. 1. William Howe (1729-1814): Hi\u1ec7p s\u0129 v\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea1i t\u01b0\u1edbng, l\u00e0 vi\u00ean t\u01b0\u1edbng Anh c\u00f3 binh nghi\u1ec7p s\u00e1ng ch\u00f3i. N\u0103m 1759-1780, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u v\u00e0o Ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n Anh, ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e0n \u00e1p c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba M\u1ef9, nh\u01b0ng tu\u00e2n l\u1ec7nh Vua George III sang l\u00e0m T\u1ed5ng t\u01b0 l\u1ec7nh qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i Anh t\u1ea1i M\u1ef9, th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn Germantown (th\u00e1ng 10\/1777), Howe xin t\u1eeb ch\u1ee9c. 2. Horatio Gates (1727- 1806): Sinh t\u1ea1i Anh r\u1ed3i tham gia qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i Anh, c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t trong nhi\u1ec1u tr\u1eadn \u0111\u00e1nh","v\u1edbi qu\u00e2n Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Da \u0110\u1ecf t\u1ea1i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba M\u1ef9. Khi cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9 b\u00f9ng n\u1ed5, \u00f4ng tham gia phe thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba ch\u1ed1ng Anh, c\u00f3 c\u00f4ng lao l\u1edbn trong tr\u1eadn Saratoga. N\u0103m 1780, Gates \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c giao ch\u1ec9 huy \u0111\u1ed9i qu\u00e2n mi\u1ec1n Nam nh\u01b0ng b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i \u1edf Camden, S.C. r\u1ed3i b\u1ecb c\u00e1ch ch\u1ee9c. V\u1ee3 v\u00e0 con trai duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ec1u ch\u1ebft trong chi\u1ebfn tranh. 3. John Burgoyne (1722-1792) : C\u00f3 m\u1eb7t trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh 7 n\u0103m, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u v\u00e0o Ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n n\u0103m 1761. N\u0103m 1776, Burgoyne t\u1eeb Canada \u0111\u00e1nh chi\u1ebfm New York nh\u01b0ng th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i, b\u1ecb t\u01b0\u1edbng Horatio Gates b\u1eaft t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn Saratoga n\u0103m 1777. Khi tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i Anh, \u00f4ng b\u1ecb ch\u1ec9 tr\u00edch d\u1eef d\u1ed9i n\u00ean chuy\u1ec3n sang l\u0129nh v\u1ef1c v\u0103n h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, sau n\u00e0y tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 vi\u1ebft k\u1ecbch l\u1edbn. 4. George Clinton (1739-1812): Lu\u1eadt s\u01b0, \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i New York, \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba l\u1ea7n 2, Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c ti\u1ec3u bang New York (1777). Sau n\u00e0y, Clinton k\u1ecbch li\u1ec7t ch\u1ed1ng b\u1ea3n Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p M\u1ef9 v\u00ec e s\u1ee3 m\u1ea5t quy\u1ec1n h\u00e0nh. Trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1790, Clinton \u0111\u1ee9ng v\u1ec1 phe C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0-D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7. N\u0103m 1804, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng cho Thomas Jefferson. Th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111ua T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng n\u0103m 1808, \u00f4ng l\u1ea1i ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn l\u00e0m Ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng cho James Madison. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbch th\u1ee7 trong su\u1ed1t nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m c\u1ee7a Hamilton. 5. Benjamin Franklin (1706- 1790) : Nh\u00e0 ngo\u1ea1i giao, ch\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch, h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3, nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u00e0 b\u00e1o n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u1edf c\u1ea3 M\u1ef9 v\u00e0 ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. N\u0103m 1775, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba kho\u00e1 1; tham gia u\u1ef7 ban so\u1ea1n th\u1ea3o Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n \u0110\u1ed9c l\u1eadp; Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Pennsylvania. Nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1776-79, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong ba \u0111\u1eb7c s\u1ee9 k\u00fd k\u1ebft hi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ecbnh li\u00ean minh v\u1edbi Ph\u00e1p; c\u00f9ng John Jay v\u00e0 John Adams \u0111\u00e0m ph\u00e1n Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc Paris (1783) ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t chi\u1ebfn tranh. N\u0103m 1785, l\u00e0 Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng H\u00e0nh ph\u00e1p T\u1ed1i cao Pennsylvania; tham d\u1ef1 H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn v\u00e0 c\u00f3 \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p to l\u1edbn. 6. Henry Clinton (1738-1795): Trung t\u01b0\u1edbng, Hi\u1ec7p s\u0129, t\u1eebng tham gia Ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n Anh. Trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh, Clinton l\u00e0 ph\u00f3 T\u01b0 l\u1ec7nh qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i Anh t\u1ea1i M\u1ef9 cho t\u01b0\u1edbng William Howe. N\u0103m 1778, \u00f4ng thay Howe l\u00e0m T\u1ed5ng t\u01b0 l\u1ec7nh qu\u00e2n Anh nh\u01b0ng g\u1eb7p nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i n\u00ean t\u1eeb ch\u1ee9c n\u0103m 1781. 7. T\u01b0\u1edbng Charles Cornwallis (1738- 1805): H\u1ea7u t\u01b0\u1edbc, \u0110\u1ea1i t\u01b0\u1edbng, \u00f4ng tham gia ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 gi\u1eef nhi\u1ec1u ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 quan tr\u1ecdng. \u00d4ng gi\u00e0nh nhi\u1ec1u chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng l\u1edbn tr\u01b0\u1edbc qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 nh\u01b0ng b\u1ecb \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh \u1edf Yorktown, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea7u h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y 19\/10\/1781. Sau n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 C\u00f4ng s\u1ee9 t\u1ea1i Ph\u1ed5, To\u00e0n quy\u1ec1n t\u1ea1i \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 (1786-1793). N\u0103m 1795, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m v\u00e0o N\u1ed9i c\u00e1c Anh; gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Qu\u1ed1c ph\u00f2ng; T\u1ed5ng tr\u1ea5n Aix\u01a1len (1798). 8. Benedict Arnold (1741-1801): Arnold tham gia qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i L\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c phong ch\u1ee9c Thi\u1ebfu t\u01b0\u1edbng n\u0103m 1776. Arnold ph\u1ea3n b\u1ed9i l\u1ea1i qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 trao n\u1ed9p v\u00f9ng West Point cho qu\u00e2n Anh. V\u1ee5 vi\u1ec7c b\u1ea1i l\u1ed9 nh\u01b0ng Arnold may m\u1eafn tr\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t. 9. H\u1ea7u t\u01b0\u1edbc, \u0110\u1ea1i t\u01b0\u1edbng, \u00f4ng tham gia ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 gi\u1eef nhi\u1ec1u ch\u1ee9c v\u1ee5 quan tr\u1ecdng. \u00d4ng gi\u00e0nh nhi\u1ec1u chi\u1ebfn th\u1eafng l\u1edbn tr\u01b0\u1edbc qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 nh\u01b0ng b\u1ecb \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh \u1edf Yorktown, v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea7u h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y 19\/10\/1781. Sau","n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 C\u00f4ng s\u1ee9 t\u1ea1i Ph\u1ed5, To\u00e0n quy\u1ec1n t\u1ea1i \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 (1786-1793). N\u0103m 1795, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ed5 nhi\u1ec7m v\u00e0o N\u1ed9i c\u00e1c Anh; gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Qu\u1ed1c ph\u00f2ng; T\u1ed5ng tr\u1ea5n Aix\u01a1len (1798). Benedict Arnold (1741-1801): Arnold tham gia qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i L\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c phong ch\u1ee9c Thi\u1ebfu t\u01b0\u1edbng n\u0103m 1776. Arnold ph\u1ea3n b\u1ed9i l\u1ea1i qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 trao n\u1ed9p v\u00f9ng West Point cho qu\u00e2n Anh. V\u1ee5 vi\u1ec7c b\u1ea1i l\u1ed9 nh\u01b0ng Arnold may m\u1eafn tr\u1ed1n tho\u00e1t. 1. B\u1ed9 lu\u1eadt C\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n H\u1ee3p bang: The Articles of Confederation, ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu do John Dickinson so\u1ea1n th\u1ea3o, c\u00f3 hi\u1ec7u l\u1ef1c t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1781 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1789, khi ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Washington \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp theo b\u1ea3n Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p m\u1edbi cho \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay. 2. Robert Morris (1734-1806): M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o quan tr\u1ecdng c\u1ee7a C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9, tham gia \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba Kho\u00e1 1 v\u00e0 2, t\u1eebng k\u00fd t\u00ean v\u00e0o b\u1ea3n Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n \u0110\u1ed9c l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1776. \u00d4ng l\u00e0m Gi\u00e1m s\u00e1t T\u00e0i ch\u00ednh cho H\u1ee3p bang (1781-84) v\u00e0 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p to l\u1edbn cho n\u1ec1n t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng; tham gia h\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb Annapolis v\u00e0 H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn; l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 Li\u00ean bang (1789-95). Cu\u1ed1i \u0111\u1eddi do bu\u00f4n b\u00e1n th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i n\u00ean \u00f4ng b\u1ecb ph\u00e1 s\u1ea3n v\u00e0 su\u00fdt ph\u1ea3i v\u00e0o t\u00f9. 1. Adam Smith (1723-1790): Nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 kinh t\u1ebf h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'S\u1ef1 gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia' (1776). 1. Francis Baron (1561\u20131626): Hi\u1ec7p s\u0129, lu\u1eadt s\u01b0, ch\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch \u0111\u1ed3ng th\u1eddi l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'L\u1ee3i \u00edch c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c h\u1ecdc' (The Advancement of Learning, 1605 v\u00e0 'Nh\u1eefng b\u00e0i lu\u1eadn v\u0103n' (Essayes) r\u1ea5t n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng. 2. Gaius Julius Caesar (100 BC\u201344 BC): Th\u1ed1ng ch\u1ebf, ch\u00ednh kh\u00e1ch La M\u00e3, l\u00e0 T\u1ed5ng t\u00e0i t\u1eeb 58-56 (B.C), l\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u chi\u1ebfn c\u00f4ng l\u1edbn, chinh ph\u1ee5c x\u1ee9 Gaules, sau n\u00e0y b\u1ecb \u00e1m s\u00e1t. \u00d4ng c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1eed gia l\u1edbn v\u1edbi nhi\u1ec1u t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 chi\u1ebfn tranh nh\u01b0 'B\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Gaules' v\u00e0 'Cu\u1ed9c n\u1ed9i chi\u1ebfn La M\u00e3'. 3. Venable (1758-1811): H\u1ea1 ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 r\u1ed3i l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 phe C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0, Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch Ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng Virginia. 4. Muhlenberg (1750-1801), \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba (1779-1780); Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch H\u1ea1 vi\u1ec7n Pennsylvania (1780-1783); Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb ph\u00ea chu\u1ea9n Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p \u1edf Pennsylvania (1787); Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch H\u1ea1 vi\u1ec7n Li\u00ean bang M\u1ef9 (1789-1791; 1793-1795). 1. Gouverneur Morris (1752-1816): \u0110\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba kho\u00e1 2. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u tr\u1ebb nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t ch\u00fang nh\u1ea5t v\u00e0 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p l\u1edbn cho cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9. Morris c\u00f3 vai tr\u00f2 n\u1ed5i b\u1eadt trong H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn, t\u00edch c\u1ef1c \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a qu\u1ed1c gia, ch\u00ednh \u00f4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1eafp b\u00fat vi\u1ebft b\u1ea3n Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p. Sau n\u00e0y, Morris l\u00e0 C\u00f4ng s\u1ee9 t\u1ea1i Ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129, b\u1ea1n th\u00e2n v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3ng vi\u00ean Li\u00ean bang nhi\u1ec7t th\u00e0nh \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 c\u00e1c ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Hamilton. 2. Edmund Randolph (1753-1813): t\u1eebng l\u00e0 tu\u1ef3 t\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a Washington r\u1ed3i tham gia ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n ti\u1ec3u bang Virginia, \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba. D\u01b0\u1edbi ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Washington, Edmund Randolph gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c T\u1ed5ng ch\u01b0\u1edfng l\u00fd Li\u00ean bang, r\u1ed3i thay Thomas Jefferson l\u00e0m Ngo\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edfng (1794- 95). Trong cu\u1ed9c xung \u0111\u1ed9t Jefferson-Hamilton, \u00f4ng c\u1ed1 g\u1eafng gi\u1eef quan \u0111i\u1ec3m"]
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