SachMoi.net-bi-an-cua-nhan-loai-minh-anh

["trung l\u1eadp. 3. Hamilton \u0111\u1ec1 xu\u1ea5t r\u1eb1ng c\u1ea3 n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 s\u1ebd chia th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 qu\u1eadn b\u1ea7u c\u1eed nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh b\u1eb1ng nhau kh\u00f4ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi ti\u1ec3u bang \u0111\u1ec3 b\u1ea7u ch\u1ecdn Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00e2n b\u1eb1ng. 4. H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn h\u1ecdp theo c\u00e1ch th\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ec1 ra nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3i ph\u00e1p r\u1ed3i c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u b\u1ecf phi\u1ebfu th\u00f4ng qua hay c\u1ea7n s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i t\u1eebng \u0111i\u1ec3m m\u1ed9t, nh\u01b0ng m\u1ed7i bang ch\u1ec9 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t phi\u1ebfu b\u1ea7u chung cho c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u. V\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00f4ng qua n\u1ebfu c\u00f3 \u0111a s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c bang b\u1ecf phi\u1ebfu thu\u1eadn, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i c\u0103n c\u1ee9 theo s\u1ed1 l\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u b\u1ecf phi\u1ebfu thu\u1eadn. V\u00ec v\u1eady, Hamilton lu\u00f4n \u1edf th\u1ebf thi\u1ec3u s\u1ed1 so v\u1edbi Yates v\u00e0 Lansing, n\u00ean phi\u1ebfu c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng h\u1ea7u nh\u01b0 ch\u1eb3ng c\u00f3 t\u00e1c d\u1ee5ng g\u00ec. 5. Yates l\u00e0 Th\u1ea9m ph\u00e1n to\u00e0 \u00e1n t\u1ed1i cao New York c\u00f2n Lansing l\u00e0 lu\u1eadt s\u01b0 v\u00e0 l\u00e0 Th\u1ecb tr\u01b0\u1edfng th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Albany. Vi\u1ec7c x\u1eed \u00e1n khi \u0111\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t v\u00e0i th\u1eddi \u0111i\u1ec3m nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh, ch\u1ee9 kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c li\u00ean t\u1ee5c trong n\u0103m. .sup 1. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821): L\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc nh\u1ea5t th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi, t\u1ef1 l\u00ean ng\u00f4i Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Ph\u00e1p n\u0103m 1804, t\u1eebng c\u00f3 tham v\u1ecdng x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng m\u1ed9t V\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. 2. William Pitt (1759-1806), Th\u1ee7 t\u01b0\u1edbng Anh tr\u1ebb nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed, nh\u1eadn ch\u1ee9c n\u0103m 1783 khi m\u1edbi 24 tu\u1ed5i. 3. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (1754-1838): C\u00f3 vai tr\u00f2 l\u1edbn trong cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng Ph\u00e1p, B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Ngo\u1ea1i giao Ph\u00e1p d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi Napoleon, ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc, \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n cho Ph\u00e1p t\u1ea1i H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb Vienna (1814-1815). 1. \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 (Republic Party) do Thomas Jefferson s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp, l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 ti\u1ec3u n\u00f4ng, ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ed3n \u0111i\u1ec1n t\u1eadp trung ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu \u1edf c\u00e1c bang mi\u1ec1n Trung T\u00e2y, v\u00e0 mi\u1ec1n Nam n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9, gi\u00e0nh quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1801 \u0111\u1ebfn 1815. Sau nhi\u1ec1u bi\u1ebfn \u0111\u1ed9ng, ng\u00e0y nay l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 M\u1ef9. Th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a - D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 \u0111\u1ec3 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 ng\u00e0y nay th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1854 tr\u00ean c\u01a1 s\u1edf \u0111\u1ea3ng Li\u00ean bang tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e2y. \u0110\u1ea3ng D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a c\u1ef1u T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng Bill Clinton. 2. Khi m\u1edbi th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp, 13 ti\u1ec3u bang c\u1ee7a n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 r\u1ea5t kh\u00e1c nhau v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1eb7c \u0111i\u1ec3m kinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i. Trong khi c\u00e1c bang mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc c\u00f3 n\u1ec1n kinh t\u1ebf v\u00e0 ng\u00e0nh th\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1ea1i kh\u00e1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n th\u00ec c\u00e1c bang mi\u1ec1n Nam l\u1ea1i m\u1ea1nh v\u1ec1 n\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p v\u1edbi c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ed3n \u0111i\u1ec1n v\u1edbi r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u lao \u0111\u1ed9ng n\u00f4 l\u1ec7. \u0110i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf ti\u1ebfn t\u1edbi ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n vi\u1ec7c bu\u00f4n b\u00e1n n\u00f4 l\u1ec7 th\u1eadt s\u1ef1 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn \u0111\u1ebfn n\u1ec1n s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a mi\u1ec1n Nam \u0111\u00e3 l\u00e0m h\u1ecd r\u1ea5t lo ng\u1ea1i. 3. \u0110\u1ea3ng Li\u00ean bang: Federal Party. Ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t s\u1ef1 ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng sau khi Hamilton qua \u0111\u1eddi. Sau n\u00e0y, n\u0103m 1865, nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng li\u00ean bang t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p l\u1ea1i d\u01b0\u1edbi m\u1ed9t c\u00e1i t\u00ean m\u1edbi l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0. V\u00e0 t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea3ng c\u1ee7a T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng nhi\u1ec7m George Bush (con). 1. Sau n\u00e0y, m\u00e3i t\u1edbi n\u0103m 1812 d\u01b0\u1edbi quy\u1ec1n T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a Madison, khi n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 chu\u1ea9n b\u1ecb t\u1ed1t h\u01a1n v\u1ec1 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 s\u1eb5n s\u00e0ng cho m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u00ec nh\u1eefng xung \u0111\u1ed9t v\u00e0 b\u1ee9c b\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n Anh m\u1edbi ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t. 2. Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p khi \u0111\u00f3 qui \u0111\u1ecbnh ai c\u00f3 phi\u1ebfu b\u1ea7u nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1eed tri s\u1ebd tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng. 3. Nh\u01b0ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb M\u1ef9 kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1ef1 m\u00e2u thu\u1eabn gi\u1eefa hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi","l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o cao nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea5t n\u01b0\u1edbc thu\u1ed9c hai \u0111\u1ea3ng kh\u00e1c sau v\u00ec th\u1ebf sau n\u00e0y s\u1eeda ch\u1eefa \u0111i\u1ec1u ki\u1ec7n r\u1eb1ng T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 Ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng ph\u1ea3i l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f9ng m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea3ng. 4. John Curtis Marshall (1755-1835). Ngo\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edfng M\u1ef9 d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi Adams (1800- 1801); Ch\u00e1nh \u00e1n To\u00e0 \u00e1n T\u1ed1i cao M\u1ef9 cho t\u1edbi khi m\u1ea5t. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 Ch\u00e1nh \u00e1n v\u0129 \u0111\u1ea1i nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed t\u01b0 ph\u00e1p Hoa K\u1ef3, ng\u01b0\u1eddi k\u1ebf t\u1ee5c t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a Hamilton v\u1ec1 m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n li\u00ean bang v\u1eefng m\u1ea1nh. 5. Elbridge Gerry (1744-1814). M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9. N\u0103m 1789, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u v\u00e0o Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i kho\u00e1 \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean, Gerry \u1ee7ng h\u1ed9 nh\u1eefng ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a phe Li\u00ean bang; Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Massachusetts (1810); Ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng cho James Madison (1813). 6. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney (1746-1825). S\u1edbm tham gia c\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng, \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u H\u1ea1 vi\u1ec7n (1778 v\u00e0 1782) v\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng vi\u1ec7n ti\u1ec3u bang Nam Carolina (1779). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 \u1ee9ng c\u1eed vi\u00ean Ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea3ng Li\u00ean bang (1800), \u1ee9ng c\u1eed vi\u00ean T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng (1804 v\u00e0 1808) nh\u01b0ng \u0111\u1ec1u th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i. 1. S\u1ef1 b\u1ebf t\u1eafc trong cu\u1ed9c b\u1ea7u c\u1eed T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 d\u1eabn t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i M\u1ef9 v\u00e0 n\u0103m 1804 \u0111\u00e3 th\u00f4ng qua \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p th\u1ee9 12, qui \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i c\u1eed tri ph\u1ea3i ghi r\u00f5 r\u00e0ng t\u00ean c\u1eed T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 Ph\u00f3 T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng m\u00e0 m\u00ecnh l\u1ef1a ch\u1ecdn. 1. Timothy Pickering (1745- 1829): ng\u01b0\u1eddi bang Massachusetts, t\u1eebng gi\u1eef ch\u1ee9c Ngo\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edfng d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi Washington, b\u1ecb Adams sa th\u1ea3i sau khi ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra \u00f4ng c\u00e2u k\u1ebft v\u1edbi Hamilton ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i c\u00e1c ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh. 2. Nguy\u00ean v\u0103n c\u00e2u c\u1ee7a Troupe l\u00e0 'Delenda est Carthago'. Cathagie l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i do ng\u01b0\u1eddi Phoenici th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp h\u1ed3i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 IX tr\u01b0\u1edbc CN \u1edf b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n B\u1eafc Phi. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c th\u01b0\u01a1ng m\u1ea1i gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 v\u1edbi l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn bao g\u1ed3m t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c mi\u1ec1n ven bi\u1ec3n \u0110\u1ecba Trung H\u1ea3i, \u0111\u1ecbch th\u1ee7 l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3. 'Delenda est Carthago' l\u00e0 c\u00e2u n\u00f3i n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng c\u1ee7a Cata, ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 Vi\u1ec7n Nguy\u00ean l\u00e3o La M\u00e3. C\u1ee9 m\u1ed7i l\u1ea7n n\u00f3i chuy\u1ec7n hay di\u1ec5n thuy\u1ebft b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u1ec1u k\u1ebft th\u00fac b\u1eb1ng l\u1eddi k\u00eau g\u1ecdi 'Delenda est Carthago', c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh ph\u1ea3i ti\u00eau di\u1ec7t Carthage. Carthage b\u1ecb ng\u01b0\u1eddi La M\u00e3 ph\u00e1 hu\u1ef7 n\u0103m 146 tr\u01b0\u1edbc CN. 1. Samuel Adams (1722 - 1803): L\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 ch\u1ee7 ch\u1ed1t c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9. \u00d4ng h\u1ecdc tr\u01b0\u1eddng Harvard, tham gia nhi\u1ec1u ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i n\u01b0\u1edbc Anh, l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp H\u1ed9i nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi con T\u1ef1 do (Sons of Liberty). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u00e1c th\u1ea3o h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c ch\u1ec9 th\u1ecb c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng, l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 ch\u00ednh th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp c\u00e1c U\u1ef7 ban Li\u00ean l\u1ea1c li\u00ean Thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba, ch\u1ec9 huy v\u1ee5 L\u00f4 ch\u00e8 Boston (1773), g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n so\u1ea1n th\u1ea3o C\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n H\u1ee3p bang; sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Massachusetts (1794 -1797). 2. Elias Boudiot, sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t vi\u00ean t\u01b0\u1edbng xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh gi\u00e0nh \u0110\u1ed9c l\u1eadp, r\u1ed3i l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i M\u1ef9. 3. John Adams (1735-1826): T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng th\u1ee9 2 c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9. \u00d4ng n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi v\u1ee5 b\u00e0o ch\u1eefa cho l\u00ednh Anh trong v\u1ee5 th\u1ea3m s\u00e1t \u1edf Boston n\u0103m 1770, v\u00e0 vi\u1ebft nhi\u1ec1u b\u00e0i b\u00e1o n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba M\u1ef9. John Adams tham gia \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba l\u1ea7n 1; tham gia U\u1ef7 ban so\u1ea1n th\u1ea3o Tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n \u0110\u1ed9c l\u1eadp; l\u00e0 Ch\u1ee7","t\u1ecbch U\u1ef7 ban H\u1eadu c\u1ea7n v\u00e0 Chi\u1ebfn tranh. N\u0103m 1783, \u00f4ng tham gia k\u00fd Hi\u1ec7p \u0111\u1ecbnh Paris k\u1ebft th\u00fac chi\u1ebfn tranh. 4. William Blackstone(1723-1780): Hi\u1ec7p s\u0129, lu\u1eadt s\u01b0 xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh, n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'Nh\u1eefng l\u1eddi b\u00ecnh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 lu\u1eadt ph\u00e1p n\u01b0\u1edbc Anh'. 5. John Lock (1632-1704): Tri\u1ebft gia n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Anh v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'B\u00e0n v\u1ec1 l\u00f2ng khoan dung' (1689), 'B\u00e0n v\u1ec1 tr\u00ed tu\u1ec7 con ng\u01b0\u1eddi' (1690), 'Lu\u1eadn v\u0103n v\u1ec1 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c, s\u1ef1 ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5m d\u1ee9t c\u1ee7a ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n'. \u00d4ng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ph\u1ea3i c\u00f3 ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt m\u00e0 vua ch\u00faa c\u0169ng ph\u1ea3i tu\u00e2n theo, n\u1ebfu kh\u00f4ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n s\u1ebd c\u00f3 quy\u1ec1n n\u1ed5i d\u1eady. 6. Montesquieu (1689-1755): Tri\u1ebft gia xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p c\u1ee7a Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 \u00c1nh s\u00e1ng, n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng v\u1edbi c\u00e1c t\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'Nh\u1eefng b\u1ee9c th\u01b0 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ba T\u01b0' (1721), 'B\u00e0n v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb' (1723), 'Suy ngh\u0129 v\u1ec1 ch\u00ednh th\u1ec3 qu\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng' 1724, 'Tinh th\u1ea7n ph\u00e1p lu\u1eadt' (1748). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 x\u01b0\u1edbng ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng Tam quy\u1ec1n ph\u00e2n l\u1eadp. 7. Patrick Henry (1736-1797): M\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9. N\u0103m 1774, Henry k\u00eau g\u1ecdi c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba kh\u00e1c c\u1eed \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba l\u1ea7n th\u1ee9 1. C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng n\u1ed5 ra, Henry l\u00e0 T\u01b0 l\u1ec7nh qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i Virginia v\u00e0 g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n so\u1ea1n th\u1ea3o Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean cho ti\u1ec3u bang; Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Virginia (1776-79, 1784-1786) nh\u01b0ng t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i tham d\u1ef1 H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1787, l\u00e0 l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 phe ch\u1ed1ng Li\u00ean bang nhi\u1ec1u n\u0103m sau \u0111\u00f3. 8. Richard Henry Lee (1756-1818): m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a cu\u1ed9c C\u00e1ch m\u1ea1ng M\u1ef9, ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 x\u01b0\u1edbng n\u1ec1n \u0110\u1ed9c l\u1eadp cho c\u00e1c thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba. Sau n\u00e0y l\u00e0 Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Virginia (1792-1795) v\u00e0 l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 M\u1ef9 (1799- 1801). 9. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826): T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng th\u1ee9 3 c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9 (1801- 1809). L\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3, ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac s\u01b0, nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc l\u1edbn, \u00f4ng c\u0169ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi s\u00e1ng l\u1eadp Tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc T\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p Virginia. 10. T\u01b0\u1edbng Henry Knox (1750-1806): Vi\u00ean t\u01b0\u1edbng xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i M\u1ef9, c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t t\u1ea1i h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c tr\u1eadn \u0111\u00e1nh l\u1edbn trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh. Trong th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 1785 - 1994, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Chi\u1ebfn tranh trong ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n H\u1ee3p bang c\u0169ng nh\u01b0 ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Li\u00ean bang c\u1ee7a George Washington. Knox ho\u00e0n to\u00e0n t\u00e1n th\u00e0nh quan \u0111i\u1ec3m Li\u00ean bang c\u1ee7a Hamilton. 11. T\u01b0\u1edbng Nathanael Greene (1742-1786): Vi\u00ean t\u01b0\u1edbng xu\u1ea5t s\u1eafc c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i M\u1ef9, ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ee9ng sau Washington. Sau khi qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 \u1edf mi\u1ec1n Nam th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn Camden, S.C. (1780), Greene \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u1eed thay th\u1ebf t\u01b0\u1edbng Horatio Gates v\u00e0 l\u1eadp nhi\u1ec1u chi\u1ebfn c\u00f4ng l\u1edbn. 1. James Madison (1751-1836): T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng th\u1ee9 4 c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3 r\u1ea5t uy\u00ean th\u00e2m. Tham gia ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb t\u1eeb khi c\u00f2n r\u1ea5t tr\u1ebb; \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 quan tr\u1ecdng t\u1ea1i H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb Annapolis (1786) v\u00e0 H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1787, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ec7nh danh l\u00e0 \u201cCha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p M\u1ef9\u201d v\u00ec nh\u1eefng \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p to l\u1edbn. L\u00e0 H\u1ea1 ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 Li\u00ean bang (1789- 97), Madison tham gia x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng tuy\u00ean ng\u00f4n Nh\u00e2n quy\u1ec1n, g\u00f3p ph\u1ea7n t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c c\u00e1c c\u01a1 quan h\u00e0nh ph\u00e1p v\u00e0 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng thu\u1ebf li\u00ean bang. L\u00e0 l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 phe ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i c\u00e1c ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Hamilton, \u00f4ng v\u00e0 Jefferson th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp \u0110\u1ea3ng C\u1ed9ng","ho\u00e0 - D\u00e2n ch\u1ee7 (1791). \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ngo\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edfng M\u1ef9 d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng Jefferson. Sau n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch t\u1ea1i H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb L\u1eadp hi\u1ebfn c\u1ee7a Virginia n\u0103m 1829-30, Hi\u1ec7u tr\u01b0\u1edfng Tr\u01b0\u1eddng \u0110\u1ea1i h\u1ecdc T\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p Virginia. 2. B\u1ed9 lu\u1eadt C\u00e1c \u0111i\u1ec1u kho\u1ea3n H\u1ee3p bang qui \u0111\u1ecbnh r\u1eb1ng, b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea1o lu\u1eadt quan tr\u1ecdng n\u00e0o mu\u1ed1n c\u00f3 hi\u1ec7u l\u1ef1c ph\u1ea3i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 13 ti\u1ec3u bang th\u00f4ng qua, v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u1ea7n 1 ti\u1ec3u bang ch\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1i th\u00ec d\u1ef1 lu\u1eadt kh\u00f4ng th\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ban h\u00e0nh. 3. T\u01b0\u1edbng Anthony Wayne (1745-1796): tham gia qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i thu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ecba v\u00e0 c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t t\u1ea1i nhi\u1ec1u tr\u1eadn \u0111\u00e1nh l\u1edbn, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 t\u1ea1i tr\u1eadn Yorktown. N\u0103m 1792, Wayne l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 huy qu\u00e2n M\u1ef9 trong cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn ch\u1ed1ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Da \u0110\u1ecf \u1edf v\u00f9ng T\u00e2y B\u1eafc; tham gia \u0111\u00e0m ph\u00e1n hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc Greenville v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Da \u0110\u1ecf. Sau Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc Jay, n\u0103m 1796 Wayne ch\u1ec9 huy qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i M\u1ef9 t\u1ea1i v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t n\u00e0y. 4. James Monroe (1758-1834): T\u1eebng tham d\u1ef1 nhi\u1ec1u tr\u1eadn \u0111\u00e1nh quan tr\u1ecdng v\u00e0 c\u00f3 m\u1eb7t t\u1ea1i Thung l\u0169ng Forge. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i bi\u1ec3u t\u1ea1i Qu\u1ed1c h\u1ed9i H\u1ee3p bang cho t\u1edbi n\u0103m 1786, l\u00e0 Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng ngh\u1ecb s\u0129 M\u1ef9 thu\u1ed9c phe C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 k\u1ecbch li\u1ec7t ch\u1ed1ng ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Hamilton. Sau n\u00e0y, \u00f4ng l\u00e0 C\u00f4ng s\u1ee9 t\u1ea1i Ph\u00e1p; Th\u1ed1ng \u0111\u1ed1c Virginia, C\u00f4ng s\u1ee9 t\u1ea1i Anh, Ngo\u1ea1i tr\u01b0\u1edfng M\u1ef9; B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Chi\u1ebfn tranh, tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh T\u1ed5ng th\u1ed1ng th\u1ee9 5 c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9 (1816-1825). 5. Ph\u1ed1 Wall: Wall Street, thu\u1ed9c qu\u1eadn Manhattan, th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 New York, nay l\u00e0 Trung t\u00e2m T\u00e0i ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a M\u1ef9 v\u00e0 th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. 6. Phocion: (402 - 318 tr\u01b0\u1edbc CN): M\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi anh h\u00f9ng Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Phocion \u0111\u00e3 c\u1ee9u d\u00e2n ch\u00fang th\u00e0nh bang Athens kh\u1ecfi s\u1ef1 s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5. \u00d4ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi r\u1ea5t d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ee9c h\u1ea1nh, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Plato r\u1ea5t ca ng\u1ee3i. Trong ti\u1ebfng Trung, t\u1eeb \u201cDoanh\u201d \u0111\u1ecdc l\u00e0 \/y\u00edng\/, T\u00f4 Duy\u1ec7t Duy\u1ec7t nghe th\u00e0nh \/y\u00edn\/, ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cD\u00e2m\u201d n\u00ean g\u00e1n cho anh ta c\u00e1i t\u00ean n\u00e0y. Human Resource oficer: chuy\u00ean vi\u00ean nh\u00e2n s\u1ef1. Jianshang: phi\u00ean \u00e2m ti\u1ebfng Trung, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 gian th\u01b0\u01a1ng. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y, T\u00f4 Duy\u1ec7t Duy\u1ec7t mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i T\u1eadp \u0111o\u00e0n JS l\u00e0 vi\u1ebft t\u1eaft c\u1ee7a T\u1eadp \u0111o\u00e0n gian th\u01b0\u01a1ng. H\u00e0n T\u00edn: c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Ho\u00e0i \u00c2m H\u1ea7u, l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t danh t\u01b0\u1edbng b\u00e1ch chi\u1ebfn b\u00e1ch th\u1eafng, m\u1ed9t trong \u201ctam ki\u1ec7t nh\u00e0 H\u00e1n\u201d th\u1eddi H\u00e1n S\u1edf tranh h\u00f9ng. Trong ti\u1ebfng Trung, T\u00f4 \u0111\u1ecdc l\u00e0 \/su\/, \u0111\u1ecdc l\u00e1i ra l\u00e0 Sue. Gi\u00f3 T\u00e2y B\u1eafc: gi\u00f3 kh\u00f4 n\u00f3ng, hay c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 gi\u00f3 L\u00e0o, l\u00e0 lo\u1ea1i th\u1eddi ti\u1ebft t\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111\u1ed1i nguy hi\u1ec3m. Logistics: l\u00e0 qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh l\u00ean k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch, \u00e1p d\u1ee5ng v\u00e0 ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t c\u00e1c lu\u1ed3ng chuy\u1ec3n d\u1ecbch c\u1ee7a h\u00e0ng h\u00f3a hay th\u00f4ng tin li\u00ean quan t\u1edbi nguy\u00ean li\u1ec7u v\u1eadt t\u01b0 (\u0111\u1ea7u v\u00e0o) v\u00e0 s\u1ea3n ph\u1ea9m cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng (\u0111\u1ea7u ra) t\u1eeb \u0111i\u1ec3m xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1edbi \u0111i\u1ec3m ti\u00eau th\u1ee5. M\u1ed9t tr\u00f2 ch\u01a1i b\u1eafn bong b\u00f3ng c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n v\u00e0 tuy\u1ec7t v\u1eddi nh\u1ea5t, r\u1ea5t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c gi\u1edbi tr\u1ebb \u01b0a chu\u1ed9ng. \u0110\u00e0n \u00f4ng ngo\u1ea1i t\u00ecnh th\u01b0\u1eddng mua xe Polo cho b\u1ed3, n\u00ean xe Polo \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 xe nh\u00e2n t\u00ecnh. M\u00ec qua c\u1ea7u l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t m\u00f3n m\u00ec \u1edf V\u00e2n Nam. Nhi\u1ec1u qu\u00e1 ch\u0103ng, kh\u00f4ng nhi\u1ec1u. Gi\u00e0 L\u01b0u: m\u1ed9t nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt trong truy\u1ec7n H\u1ed3ng l\u00e2u m\u1ed9ng,l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 c\u00e1 t\u00ednh trong s\u00e1ng, tr\u00e0n \u0111\u1ea7y s\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng. M\u1ee5 S\u00f3i \u0110\u1ecf l\u00e0 nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt trong phim ho\u1ea1t h\u00ecnh C\u1eebu vui v\u1ebb v\u00e0 S\u00f3i x\u00e1m. Zilgo: t\u00ean m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i b\u0103ng d\u00e1n v\u1ebft th\u01b0\u01a1ng. Ch\u1ed7 d\u1ef1a v\u1eefng ch\u1eafc. Kim \u1ed0c: m\u1ed9t cu\u1ed1n ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u1edf Trung Qu\u1ed1c. A Ki\u1ec1u l\u00e0 Tr\u1ea7n A Ki\u1ec1u, nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt n\u1eef ch\u00ednh c\u00f3 s\u1ed1 ph\u1eadn h\u1ea9m hiu. T\u1ea7ng kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p","h\u00fat thu\u1ed1c. \u00dd ch\u1ec9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e0n \u00f4ng \u0111\u1ed9c th\u00e2n ki\u1ec7t xu\u1ea5t. C\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0: ngo\u00e0i s\u00e1ng gi\u1ea3 v\u1edd l\u00e0m vi\u1ec7c kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec3 che gi\u1ea5u vi\u1ec7c ch\u00ednh trong b\u00f3ng t\u1ed1i, ch\u1ecdn c\u00e1ch t\u1ea5n c\u00f4ng kh\u00f4ng ai ngh\u0129 t\u1edbi. M\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i m\u00ec x\u00e0o Durex l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t h\u00e3ng s\u1ea3n xu\u1ea5t bao cao su n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng. Ch\u1ee9ng r\u1ed1i lo\u1ea1n t\u00e2m l\u00fd sau khi b\u1ecb t\u1ed5n th\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u1eb7ng n\u1ec1. V\u1ecb th\u1ea7n truy\u1ec1n d\u1ecbch b\u1ec7nh. Anh ch\u00e0ng \u0111\u1eb9p trai MicroBlog: trang blog c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n, ng\u1eafn g\u1ecdn, c\u00f4ng c\u1ee5 giao ti\u1ebfp h\u1eefu hi\u1ec7u v\u00e0 \u0111\u00e1ng tin c\u1eady trong c\u00e1c doanh nghi\u1ec7p. (*) Cu\u1ed9c h\u1ecdp tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh. V\u1ea1n th\u1eb7ng: x\u01b0a \u1edf Trung Qu\u1ed1c, thi\u00ean t\u1eed c\u00f3 mu\u00f4n c\u1ed7 binh xa, g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 v\u1ea1n th\u1eb7ng. (*) \u00c1c s\u00e1o:c\u0169ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Song L\u1ee5c k\u1ef3 - M\u1ed9t tr\u00f2 ch\u01a1i gi\u1ed1ng nh\u01b0 c\u1edd t\u01b0\u1edbng. T\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch: Ti\u1ebfng c\u01b0\u1eddi ai \u0111\u00f3 kh\u00e1 khen thay Quy\u1ebfn r\u0169 qu\u00e2n v\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u1eafng cay. N\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ea5t b\u00ean ch\u00e2n \u0111\u1ea7u ng\u00f3 l\u1ea1i C\u00f2n vui s\u0103n b\u1eafn h\u00e1t \u0111\u00e0n say. (*) H\u1ed1t l\u00fd \u0111\u00e0i \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ed9i: ti\u1ebfng M\u00f4ng C\u1ed5 c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 h\u1ecdp tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh. (*) Thanh t\u1eeb: m\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 v\u0103n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng \u1edf \u0111\u1eddi Minh, xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb l\u1ed1i vi\u1ebft v\u0103nc\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ea1o gia. (*) Nhi nam l\u00e0 hai thi\u00ean chu nam v\u00e0 thi\u00ean nam trong Kinh thi n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 t\u00ecnh y\u00eau v\u1ee3 ch\u1ed3ng. (*) B\u1eafc D\u01b0\u01a1ng l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 c\u00e1c t\u1ec9nh duy\u00ean h\u1ea3i mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc nh\u01b0 Li\u00eau Ninh, H\u00e0 B\u1eafc,S\u01a1n \u0110\u00f4ng. (1) Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi m\u00e3i m\u00e3i bao la, T\u00e2m t\u01b0 theo \u0111u\u1ed5i cho gi\u00e0 t\u00ecnh s\u00e2u. Th\u1ef1c t\u00e2m th\u01b0\u1eddng, h\u1ea1nh ban \u0111\u1ea7u. C\u00e0ng th\u01b0\u01a1ng y\u00eau l\u1eafm c\u00e0ng gi\u00e0u ngh\u0129a \u00e2n. (2) L\u1eadp ch\u00ed sao cho t\u1ea7n ti\u1ec7n, T\u00e0i gi\u1edbi l\u00f2ng ch\u1edb tham lam. L\u1ea5y bi\u1ebft l\u00e0m t\u00e2m ni\u1ec7m, B\u1edbt \u0111i l\u1ea1m d\u1ee5ng l\u1ee3i danh. * M\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u1edf T\u00e2n C\u01b0\u01a1ng Trung Qu\u1ed1c. 1. V\u0103n b\u1ea3n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u01b0a ra sau H\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb Postdam (\u0110\u1ee9c). N\u1ed9i dung ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a h\u1ed9i ngh\u1ecb l\u00e0 quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u00e1c ch\u00ednh s\u00e1ch v\u1ec1 vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3i quy\u1ebft n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0110\u1ee9c ph\u00e1t x\u00edt sau chi\u1ebfn tranh, y\u00eau c\u1ea7u Nh\u1eadt \u0111\u1ea7u h\u00e0ng v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0a ra ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ch\u00e2m qu\u1ea3n l\u00ed n\u01b0\u1edbc Nh\u1eadt th\u1eddi h\u1eadu chi\u1ebfn - ND. 2. Quan ch\u1ee9c ph\u1ee5 tr\u00e1ch h\u00e0nh ch\u00ednh gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c qu\u1ed1c gia ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng. Gi\u00e1m h\u1ecdc c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec7m v\u1ee5 th\u1ecb s\u00e1t gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, gi\u00e1m s\u00e1t vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3ng d\u1ea1y, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t c\u00e1c gi\u00e1m h\u1ecdc \u1edf \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng n\u1eafm quy\u1ec1n quy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecbnh nh\u00e2n s\u1ef1 gi\u00e1o vi\u00ean. Ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 n\u00e0y b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1871 d\u01b0\u1edbi th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb - ND. 3. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng ty \u0111\u1ed9c quy\u1ec1n thao t\u00fang n\u1ec1n kinh t\u1ebf Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n. C\u00e1c c\u00f4ng ty n\u00e0y th\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1ed9c quy\u1ec1n ki\u1ec3m so\u00e1t c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd v\u00e0 c\u00f3 m\u1ed1i quan h\u1ec7 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, kinh t\u1ebf r\u1ea5t m\u1eadt thi\u1ebft v\u1edbi ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 - ND. 4. C\u01a1 s\u1edf gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i mang t\u00ednh t\u1ed5ng h\u1ee3p, x\u00fac ti\u1ebfn c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng giao l\u01b0u v\u0103n h\u00f3a, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp c\u1ee7a c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u01b0 d\u00e2n s\u1ed1ng trong khu v\u1ef1c - ND 5. L\u01b0u C\u1ea7u l\u00e0 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi c\u0169 c\u1ee7a Okinawa \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng nh\u01b0 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1372 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1879 - ND 6. V\u0103n b\u1ea3n h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn v\u1ec1 kh\u00f3a tr\u00ecnh gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c t\u1eeb ti\u1ec3u h\u1ecdc t\u1edbi trung h\u1ecdc do B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng B\u1ed9 Gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1 - ND 7. Vi\u1ebft t\u1eaft c\u1ee7a c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb Government Approriation for Relief in Coccupied Area (Ng\u00e2n s\u00e1ch ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 c\u1ee9u tr\u1ee3 cho cho c\u00e1c khu v\u1ef1c b\u1ecb chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u00f3ng) - ND 1. Vi\u1ebft t\u1eaft c\u1ee7a c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng t\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u1ee3 kinh t\u1ebf) - ND 2. Hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u00ed ng\u00e0y 8 th\u00e1ng 9 n\u0103m 1951 v\u1edbi s\u1ef1 tham gia c\u1ee7a Nh\u1eadt v\u00e0 48 n\u01b0\u1edbc kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean H\u1ee3p Qu\u1ed1c - ND 3. Qu\u1ed1c k\u00ec v\u00e0 qu\u1ed1c ca Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n. Sau Chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ee9 hai m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn kh\u00f4ng nh\u1ecf ng\u01b0\u1eddi Nh\u1eadt c\u1ef1 tuy\u1ec7t qu\u1ed1c k\u00ec v\u00e0","qu\u1ed1c ca v\u00ec cho r\u1eb1ng, n\u00f3 c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a ph\u00e1t x\u00edt \u2013 ND. 4. Ch\u1ee9c quan ph\u1ee5 tr\u00e1ch gi\u00fap vi\u1ec7c cho t\u01b0 l\u1ec7nh qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i \u1edf nh\u1eefng v\u00f9ng qu\u00e2n Nh\u1eadt chi\u1ebfm \u0111\u00f3ng - ND 5. Hanshin l\u00e0 c\u00e1ch n\u00f3i g\u1ecdn cho hai \u0111\u1ecba danh Osaka v\u00e0 Kobe - ND 6. Shinkansen l\u00e0 t\u00e0u \u0111i\u1ec7n cao t\u1ed1c h\u00ecnh vi\u00ean \u0111\u1ea1n. \u201cGi\u1edd h\u1ecdc Shinkansen\u201d c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 \u201cgi\u1edd h\u1ecdc c\u01b0\u1ee1i ng\u1ef1a xem hoa\u201d trong ti\u1ebfng Vi\u1ec7t - ND 7. Tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 th\u1eddi \u00ca-\u0111\u00f4 (1603-1868), trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i Nh\u1eadt t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u1ecba v\u1ecb x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i theo tr\u1eadt t\u1ef1 \u201cs\u0129-n\u00f4ng-c\u00f4ng-th\u01b0\u01a1ng\u201d - ND 8. Th\u1eddi k\u00ec t\u1ec9 l\u1ec7 sinh \u0111\u1ed9t ng\u1ed9t t\u0103ng cao. \u0110\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng n\u0103m sau Chi\u1ebfn tranh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ee9 hai (kho\u1ea3ng t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1947-1949) - ND 9. C\u00e1c trung t\u00e2m h\u1ecdc th\u00eam, luy\u1ec7n thi v\u01b0\u1ee3t c\u1ea5p - ND 1. Gia \u0111\u00ecnh g\u1ed3m v\u1ee3, ch\u1ed3ng v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi con ch\u01b0a k\u1ebft h\u00f4n - ND 2. Paul Lengrand (1910-2003), nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c Ph\u00e1p - ND 1. Gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 n\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c c\u00f3 t\u1eeb th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb tr\u1edf \u0111i - ND. 1. \u1ede Nh\u1eadt sau Chi\u1ebfn tranh Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi th\u1ee9 hai, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chia ra l\u00e0m Ti\u1ec3u h\u1ecdc (6 n\u0103m), Trung h\u1ecdc b\u1eadc th\u1ea5p (4 n\u0103m) v\u00e0 Trung h\u1ecdc b\u1eadc cao (3 n\u0103m). \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y \u0111\u1ec3 d\u1ec5 hi\u1ec3u s\u1ebd th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t d\u1ecbch l\u00e0 Ti\u1ec3u h\u1ecdc, Trung h\u1ecdc c\u01a1 s\u1edf v\u00e0 Trung h\u1ecdc ph\u1ed5 th\u00f4ng \u2013 ND. 2. Yutori trong ti\u1ebfng Nh\u1eadt c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 nh\u00e0n nh\u00e3, thong th\u1ea3 - ND. 3. S\u1eafc ch\u1ec9 th\u1ec3 hi\u1ec7n ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a qu\u1ed1c d\u00e2n, tri\u1ebft l\u00ed c\u01a1 b\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c qu\u1ed1c d\u00e2n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng Minh Tr\u1ecb ban b\u1ed1 ng\u00e0y 30 th\u00e1ng 10 n\u0103m 1890 (n\u0103m Minh Tr\u1ecb th\u1ee9 23) - ND. 1. C\u00e1c cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch gi\u00e1o khoa s\u01a1 c\u1ea5p \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng t\u1eeb cu\u1ed1i th\u1eddi Heian (th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 8-th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 12) t\u1edbi \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb - ND. 2. Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh di\u1ec5n ra gi\u1eefa qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Minh Tr\u1ecb v\u1edbi binh l\u00ednh M\u1ea1c ph\u1ee7 di\u1ec5n ra trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian t\u1eeb n\u0103m 1868 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1969-ND. 3. Th\u1ed1ng nh\u1ea5t gi\u1eefa t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb-ND. 4. C\u01a1 quan h\u00e0nh ch\u00ednh t\u1ed1i cao trong ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Minh Tr\u1ecb. C\u01a1 quan n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1868 sau hai l\u1ea7n c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 tam vi\u1ec7n: T\u1ea3 vi\u1ec7n, H\u1eefu vi\u1ec7n v\u00e0 Ch\u00ednh vi\u1ec7n trong \u0111\u00f3 Ch\u00ednh vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 trung t\u00e2m-ND. 5. Cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch g\u1ed3m 6 quy\u1ec3n do Fukuzawa Yukichi bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n, xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n n\u0103m 1869. S\u00e1ch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c vi\u1ebft d\u01b0\u1edbi d\u1ea1ng x\u01b0\u1edbng ca n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd, l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi - ND. 6. Cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch v\u1ec1 v\u1eadt l\u00fd th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u1ee9c do Fukuzawa Yukichi bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n. S\u00e1ch c\u00f3 m\u1ed9t t\u1eadp \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1868 - ND. 7. Kana l\u00e0 v\u1ea7n trong ti\u1ebfng Nh\u1eadt. Ti\u1ebfng Nh\u1eadt c\u00f3 hai h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng ch\u1eef \u201cHira- gana\u201d v\u00e0 \u201cKatakana\u201d - ND. 8. Nguy\u00ean t\u00e1c c\u1ee7a \u0111o\u1ea1n n\u00e0y l\u1ea5y t\u1eeb t\u1eadp v\u0103n v\u1ea7n \u201cWilson Reader\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong c\u00e1c tr\u01b0\u1eddng ti\u1ec3u h\u1ecdc \u1edf mi\u1ec1n \u0110\u00f4ng n\u01b0\u1edbc M\u1ef9 do \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 n\u1ed9i dung c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 c\u00e1ch kh\u00e1 xa c\u00e1ch s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng t\u1eeb ng\u1eef th\u00f4ng d\u1ee5ng h\u00e0ng ng\u00e0y. 9. S\u1ee9 \u0111o\u00e0n do Iwakura \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Minh Tr\u1ecb ph\u00e1i sang c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc \u00c2u M\u0129 trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian t\u1eeb 1871-1873 ti\u1ebfn h\u00e0nh c\u00e1c ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng ngo\u1ea1i giao, \u0111i\u1ec1u tra ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 cho vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u00e0m ph\u00e1n s\u1eeda \u0111\u1ed5i l\u1ea1i c\u00e1c hi\u1ec7p \u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00e3 k\u00ed v\u1edbi c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y tr\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u00f3-ND. 10. Cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh ch\u1ed1ng ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Minh Tr\u1ecb do Saigo Takamori (1827-1877) l\u00e3nh \u0111\u1ea1o - ND. 11. Nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Th\u1ee5y s\u0129","(1746-1827)-ND. 12. Mori Arinori (1847-1889), ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb gia th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb, B\u1ed9 tr\u01b0\u1edfng Gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong N\u1ed9i c\u00e1c c\u1ee7a Th\u1ee7 t\u01b0\u1edbng Ito Hirobumi v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1885 - ND. 13. C\u01a1 quan t\u1ed1i cao ra \u0111\u1eddi sau khi Vi\u1ec7n Th\u00e1i ch\u00ednh b\u1ecb \u0111\u00ecnh ch\u1ec9 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1877-ND. 1. T\u00f2a nh\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft k\u1ebf theo ki\u1ec3u ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u kh\u1edfi c\u00f4ng x\u00e2y d\u1ef1ng n\u0103m 1881 v\u00e0 ho\u00e0n th\u00e0nh v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1883 \u1edf Tokyo. N\u01a1i \u0111\u00e2y di\u1ec5n ra nhi\u1ec1u ho\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u0103n h\u00f3a v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a gi\u1edbi th\u01b0\u1ee3ng l\u01b0u trong x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi -ND 2. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u c\u01a1 quan t\u01b0 v\u1ea5n l\u1eadp ph\u00e1p v\u1ed1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1eadp ra t\u1eeb th\u00e1ng 3 n\u0103m 1869-ND. 3. Ch\u1ec9 th\u1ec3 ch\u1ebf nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc - ND 4. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c h\u1ecdc \u0110\u1ee9c - ND. 5. C\u00e1c s\u1eafc ch\u1ec9 n\u00e0y v\u1edbi t\u01b0 c\u00e1ch l\u00e0 m\u1ec7nh l\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng theo quy \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u1ee7a Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n th\u00f4ng qua \u2013 ND. 6. \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp n\u0103m 1888 v\u1edbi m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch b\u00e0n th\u1ea3o c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ec1 \u00e1n. Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p quy \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u00e2y l\u00e0 c\u01a1 quan t\u01b0 v\u1ea5n c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng \u2013 ND. 7. Motoda Nagazane (1818-1891) nh\u00e0 Nho h\u1ecdc xu\u1ea5t th\u00e2n \u1edf Kumamoto. Th\u1eeba l\u1ec7nh c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n nhi\u1ec1u s\u00e1ch, v\u0103n b\u1ea3n li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb - ND. 8. Hi sinh l\u1ee3i \u00edch b\u1ea3n th\u00e2n ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 l\u1ee3i \u00edch nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc - ND. 9. Uchimura Zou (1861-1930) nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng Thi\u00ean ch\u00faa gi\u00e1o, nh\u00e0 b\u00e1o, nh\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n gi\u00e1o th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb. \u00d4ng c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p trong cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1ea5u tranh ch\u1ed1ng chi\u1ebfn tranh, b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 m\u00f4i tr\u01b0\u1eddng v\u00e0 h\u00f2a b\u00ecnh - ND. 10. Di\u1ec5n ra trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian 1894 -1895 - ND 11. M\u1ed9t nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1eddi Nam-B\u1eafc tri\u1ec1u \u1edf Nh\u1eadt (th\u1ebf k\u1ec9 14) - ND 1. Mutsu Munemitsu ( 1844-1897). \u00d4ng c\u00f3 vi\u1ebft cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch mang t\u1ef1a \u0111\u1ec1 \u201cKenken Roku\u201d (Ki\u1ec3n ki\u1ec3n l\u1ee5c) \u2013 ND. 2. S\u1ef1 th\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1ea3o gi\u1eefa ba n\u01b0\u1edbc Nga, \u0110\u1ee9c, Ph\u00e1p xoay quanh vi\u1ec7c ph\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ed1i Nh\u1eadt chi\u1ebfm b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Li\u00eau \u0110\u00f4ng sau chi\u1ebfn tranh Nh\u1eadt-Thanh - ND 3. T\u00ean g\u1ecdi khu v\u1ef1c ph\u00eda t\u00e2y Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n (Quan T\u00e2y) bao g\u1ed3m Kyoto, Osaka v\u00e0 c\u00e1c t\u1ec9nh ph\u1ee5 c\u1eadn-ND. 4. Misson-School-ND 5. Tsuda Umeko (1864-1929), nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c th\u1eddi Minh Tr\u1ecb, Taisho. N\u0103m 8 tu\u1ed5i, b\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebfn M\u0129 du h\u1ecdc v\u00e0 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh n\u1eef du h\u1ecdc sinh \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean c\u1ee7a Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n. Sau khi v\u1ec1 n\u01b0\u1edbc b\u00e0 \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u00f3ng g\u00f3p cho gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n - ND. 6. Yoshioka Yayoi (1871-1959), b\u00e1c s\u0129, nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c Nh\u1eadt - ND.. 7. V\u1ee5 \u00e1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan \u0111\u1ebfn k\u1ebf ho\u1ea1ch \u00e1m s\u00e1t Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng Minh Tr\u1ecb. C\u00f3 r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb b\u1eaft v\u00e0 b\u1ecb x\u1eed t\u1eed trong v\u1ee5 \u00e1n n\u00e0y \u2013 ND. 8. Tranh lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 t\u00ednh ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng c\u1ee7a hai v\u01b0\u01a1ng tri\u1ec1u Nam v\u00e0 B\u1eafc t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian t\u1eeb 1336 \u0111\u1ebfn 1392 \u2013 ND. 9. H\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng c\u00f3 h\u1ea1t nh\u00e2n trung t\u00e2m l\u00e0 t\u00f4n v\u01b0\u01a1ng lu\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c h\u00ecnh th\u00e0nh \u1edf phi\u00ean (han) Mito th\u1eddi \u00ca-\u0111\u00f4 \u2013 ND. 1. Natsume Soseki (1867-1916), ti\u1ec3u thuy\u1ebft gia, nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Anh \u2013 ND. 2. N\u1eb1m \u1edf c\u1ef1c nam b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Li\u00eau \u0110\u00f4ng (Trung Qu\u1ed1c) \u2013 ND. 3. John Dewey (1859-1952) nh\u00e0 tri\u1ebft h\u1ecdc, nh\u00e0 c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, nh\u00e0 t\u01b0 t\u01b0\u1edfng x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i M\u0129 - ND 4. Alfred Binet, nh\u00e0 t\u00e2m l\u00ed h\u1ecdc ng\u01b0\u1eddi Ph\u00e1p (1857-1911), ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p ki\u1ec3m tra tr\u00ed th\u00f4ng minh \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean tr\u00ean th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean th\u00e0nh","qu\u1ea3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u c\u1ee7a T.Simon (1873-1961) \u2013 ND. 5. Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c m\u1edbi do nh\u00e0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c h\u1ecdc Helen Parkhurst (1887-1973) \u0111\u1ec1 x\u01b0\u1edbng n\u0103m 1920 t\u1ea1i th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 Dalton, bang Massachu- set, M\u0129. Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong c\u00e1c ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp c\u00e1 bi\u1ec7t, \u1edf \u0111\u00f3 c\u00e1c ph\u00f2ng th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m cho t\u1eebng m\u00f4n h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp v\u00e0 h\u1ecdc sinh s\u1ebd t\u1ef1 ch\u1ee7 h\u1ecdc t\u1eadp d\u01b0\u1edbi s\u1ef1 h\u01b0\u1edbng d\u1eabn c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o vi\u00ean. Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p n\u00e0y \u0111\u00e3 c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn tr\u00ean ph\u1ea1m vi th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u2013 ND. 6.Tr\u01b0\u1eddng h\u1ecdc t\u1ef1 do \u2013 ND. 7. H\u1ecdc vi\u1ec7n v\u0103n h\u00f3a \u2013 ND. 8. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Meijo \u2013 ND. 9. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Tezukayama \u2013 ND. 10. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng t\u1ef1 do Mino \u2013 ND. 11. Tr\u01b0\u1eddng Showa \u2013 ND. 12. V\u1ee5 b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed1t c\u00f4ng vi\u00ean Hibiya \u1edf Tokyo di\u1ec5n ra v\u00e0o ng\u00e0y 5\/9\/1905 xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb nh\u1eefng b\u1ea5t m\u00e3n xung quanh v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 ti\u1ec1n b\u1ed3i th\u01b0\u1eddng sau chi\u1ebfn tranh Nh\u1eadt-Nga \u2013 ND 13. G\u1ed1c ti\u1ebfng Anh l\u00e0 Settlement ch\u1ec9 c\u01a1 s\u1edf \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c thi\u1ebft l\u1eadp c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ecbnh \u1edf m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3 v\u1edbi c\u00e1c d\u1ecbch v\u1ee5 x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i ph\u1ee5c v\u1ee5 \u0111\u1eddi s\u1ed1ng to\u00e0n di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u00e2n nh\u01b0 gi\u00e1o d\u1ee5c, nh\u00e0 tr\u1ebb, y t\u1ebf... \u2013 ND. 14. Suihei trong ti\u1ebfng Nh\u1eadt c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ch\u00e2n tr\u1eddi, n\u1eb1m ngang. \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y n\u00f3 \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 s\u1ef1 c\u00f4ng b\u1eb1ng, kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 s\u1ef1 ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t \u2013 ND. 15. Cu\u1ed9c b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed9ng do nguy\u00ean nh\u00e2n ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 gi\u00e1 g\u1ea1o qu\u00e1 cao. N\u0103m 1890, 1897 phong tr\u00e0o n\u1ed5 ra \u1edf c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecba ph\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1918 th\u00ec tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh cu\u1ed9c b\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u00f3 quy m\u00f4 to\u00e0n qu\u1ed1c \u2013 ND. 1. Ch\u1eef V\u0169 ( ch\u1ec9 n\u00f3c nh\u00e0) di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t \u00fd nh\u00f3m h\u1ecdp th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi l\u1ea1i th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 c\u00e2u kh\u1ea9u hi\u1ec7u ch\u00ednh ph\u1ee7 Nh\u1eadt hay d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 nh\u1ea5n m\u1ea1nh t\u00ednh ch\u00ednh \u0111\u00e1ng c\u1ee7a qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i Nh\u1eadt trong cu\u1ed9c Chi\u1ebfn tranh Th\u00e1i B\u00ecnh D\u01b0\u01a1ng. Ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a c\u00e2u kh\u1ea9u hi\u1ec7n n\u00e0y b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb s\u00e1ch Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n th\u01b0 k\u1ec9 - cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch g\u1ed3m 30 quy\u1ec3n, t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i v\u1ec1 n\u01b0\u1edbc Nh\u1eadt v\u00e0 Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bi\u00ean so\u1ea1n v\u00e0o n\u0103m 720 -ND. 2. Trong Hi\u1ebfn ph\u00e1p \u0110\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n c\u00f3 ghi ch\u1ee7 th\u1ec3 n\u1eafm quy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00e0 Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc. Mi- nobe Tatsukichi v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00e1c c\u00f3 ch\u1ee7 tr\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u0103ng c\u01b0\u1eddng v\u1ecb tr\u00ed c\u1ee7a n\u1ed9i c\u00e1c v\u00e0 ngh\u1ecb vi\u1ec7n \u0111\u00e3 g\u00e2y ra s\u1ef1 \u0111\u1ed1i l\u1eadp v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00f4n s\u00f9ng, b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 Thi\u00ean ho\u00e0ng. K\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 l\u00e0 n\u0103m 1935 \u00f4ng bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb nhi\u1ec7m ngh\u1ecb vi\u00ean Vi\u1ec7n qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c v\u00e0 c\u00e1c cu\u1ed1n s\u00e1ch do \u00f4ng vi\u1ebft b\u1ecb c\u1ea5m ph\u00e1t h\u00e0nh - ND 3. T\u00ean \u0110o\u00e0n Thi\u1ebfu ni\u00ean c\u1ed9ng s\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Li\u00ean X\u00f4 (Pioner = ti\u1ec1n phong) \u2013 ND. Edom l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c l\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Semite thu\u1ed9c mi\u1ec1n Nam Levant n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda nam c\u1ee7a x\u1ee9 Judea v\u00e0 Bi\u1ec3n Ch\u1ebft, ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn \u1edf Negev. N\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong c\u00e1c h\u1ed3 s\u01a1Kinh Th\u00e1nh l\u00e0 V\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c Edom th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 \u0111\u1ed3 s\u1eaft t\u1ea1i thi\u00ean ni\u00ean k\u1ef7 1 TCN. C\u1ef1u Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi (The Old World): bao g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a tr\u00e1i \u0111\u1ea5t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u bi\u1ebft \u0111\u1ebfn tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi Christopher Columbus trong chuy\u1ebfn h\u1ea3i h\u00e0nh c\u1ee7a m\u00ecnh ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra ch\u00e2u M\u1ef9 v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1492, bao g\u1ed3m: ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, ch\u00e2u \u00c1 v\u00e0 ch\u00e2u Phi (m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch t\u1ed5ng th\u1ec3 g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i l\u1ee5c Phi-\u00c1 \u2013 \u00c2u) v\u00e0 c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea3o bao quanh. Thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng ph\u00e2n bi\u1ec7t v\u1edbi thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef T\u00e2n Th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi (The New World), g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 ch\u00e2u M\u1ef9. Sephardic Jews \/ Sephardi Jews \/ Sephardim: nh\u00f3m ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i c\u00f3 t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean s\u1ed1ng \u1edf T\u00e2y","Ban Nha hay B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha. Nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi n\u00e0y b\u1ecb tr\u1ee5c xu\u1ea5t kh\u1ecfi T\u00e2y Ban Nha v\u00e0o n\u0103m 1492 v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ea1y tr\u1ed1n sang c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o thu\u1ed9c \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Ottoman, t\u1ea1o ra ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u1ee7a ri\u00eang m\u00ecnh ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu l\u00e0 ti\u1ebfng T\u00e2y Ban Nha pha l\u1eabn v\u1edbi m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 t\u1eeb Hebrew. Baron von Rothschild: thu\u1ed9c Gia t\u1ed9c Rothschild l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t gia t\u1ed9c Do Th\u00e1i c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb Frankfurt, \u0110\u1ee9c. H\u1ecd \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o n\u00ean m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf t\u00e0i ch\u00ednh \u2013 ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng t\u1ea1i ch\u00e2u \u00c2u b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1eeb cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 18. Kh\u1ea3 H\u00e3n (Khan): m\u1ed9t danh hi\u1ec7u d\u00e0nh cho nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi cai tr\u1ecb v\u00e0 c\u00e1c quan ch\u1ee9c \u1edf c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng Trung \u00c1, Afghanistan v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 qu\u1ed1c gia H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o kh\u00e1c. Dhimmi: l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef l\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u1ed1i v\u1edbi c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o s\u1ed1ng t\u1ea1i m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o. Theo ngh\u0129a \u0111en c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7.\u201d Theo c\u00e1c h\u1ecdc gi\u1ea3, quy\u1ec1n l\u1ee3i c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c dhimmis \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea3o v\u1ec7 \u0111\u1ea7y \u0111\u1ee7 trong c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd, nh\u01b0ng trong vai tr\u00f2 l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng c\u00f4ng d\u00e2n trong qu\u1ed1c gia H\u1ed3i gi\u00e1o, h\u1ecd ph\u1ea3i ch\u1ecbu nh\u1eefng h\u1ea1n ch\u1ebf nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ecbnh v\u00e0 ph\u1ea3i tr\u1ea3 thu\u1ebf jizya. Great Schism: S\u1ef1 chia r\u1ebd ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c (1054) gi\u1eefa Ch\u00ednh th\u1ed1ng gi\u00e1o \u0110\u00f4ng Ph\u01b0\u01a1ng (Eastern Orthodox Church) v\u00e0 Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i C\u00f4ng gi\u00e1o R\u00f4ma (Roman Catholic Church). Mizrahic Jews \/ Mizrahim: nh\u00f3m ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i s\u1ed1ng trong c\u00e1c c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u1edf Trung \u0110\u00f4ng v\u00e0 B\u1eafc Phi. Gen: m\u1ed9t \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb di truy\u1ec1n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c chuy\u1ec3n t\u1eeb cha m\u1eb9 sang con c\u00e1i v\u00e0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec3 x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh m\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 \u0111\u1eb7c t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a con c\u00e1i. Khazars: l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Turkic b\u00e1n du m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00e3 t\u1ea1o ra m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ebf ch\u1ebf gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng n\u0103m cu\u1ed1i th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 7 v\u00e0 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 10 (650-965). \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Khazars th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb khu v\u1ef1c r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn k\u00e9o d\u00e0i t\u1eeb Th\u1ea3o nguy\u00ean Volga-Don \u0111\u1ebfn \u0110\u00f4ng Crimea v\u00e0 B\u1eafc Caucasus. DNA ty th\u1ec3: mitochondrial DNA \u2013 mtDNA. DNA ty th\u1ec3 l\u00e0 c\u01a1 s\u1edf c\u1ee7a nh\u00e2n t\u1ed1 di truy\u1ec1n ngo\u00e0i nh\u00e2n. Ch\u00e2u Phi h\u1ea1-Sahara (Sub-Saharan Africa): v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd, l\u00e0 khu v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba ch\u00e2u Phi n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda nam c\u1ee7a sa m\u1ea1c Sahara. Y-chromosome: nhi\u1ec5m s\u1eafc th\u1ec3 Y. L\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ea5u tr\u00fac c\u00f3 t\u1ed5 ch\u1ee9c c\u1ee7a ADN v\u00e0 protein n\u1eb1m trong c\u00e1c t\u1ebf b\u00e0o. Haplotype: l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a DNA n\u1eb1m d\u1ecdc theo s\u1ee3i nhi\u1ec5m s\u1eafc th\u1ec3. Khazar Khaganate (H\u00e3n qu\u1ed1c Kazan): l\u00e0 t\u00ean m\u1ed9t li\u00ean minh c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c du m\u1ee5c thu\u1ed9c c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Turk \u1edf khu v\u1ef1c d\u00e3y n\u00fai Altai v\u00e0 c\u0169ng l\u00e0 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi m\u1ed9t h\u00e3n qu\u1ed1c h\u00f9ng m\u1ea1nh \u1edf Trung \u00c1 trong giai \u0111o\u1ea1n t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 6 t\u1edbi th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 7. C\u00e1ch ly di truy\u1ec1n: genetic isolation. Lowlands (c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t th\u1ea5p): c\u00e1c khu v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a Scotland n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda nam v\u00e0 ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a v\u00f9ng cao nguy\u00ean. Ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Slavic: m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef li\u00ean quan kh\u00e1 ch\u1eb7t ch\u1ebd c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Slav\u01a1 v\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m nh\u1ecf c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef \u1ea4n \u2013 \u00c2u, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng \u1edf h\u1ea7u h\u1ebft c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0110\u00f4ng \u00c2u, ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc v\u00f9ng Balkan, c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a Trung \u00c2u v\u00e0 v\u00f9ng B\u1eafc c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c1. Anusim l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i, theo lu\u1eadt Do Th\u00e1i (halakha), \u0111\u00e3 b\u1ecb bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i t\u1eeb b\u1ecf \u0111\u1ea1o Do Th\u00e1i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u1ea1i \u00fd mu\u1ed1n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd, th\u01b0\u1eddng khi bu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3i chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed5i sang t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o kh\u00e1c. Thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef n\u00e0y xu\u1ea5t ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb c\u1ee5m t\u1eeb Talmudic \u201c`averah b\u2019ones (Hebrew: \u202b\u201d) \u200b\u05e2\u05d1\u05d9\u05e8\u05d4\u05d1\u05d0\u05d5\u05e0\u05e1\u202c, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 \u201cm\u1ed9t s\u1ef1 vi","ph\u1ea1m b\u1eaft bu\u1ed9c\u201d. Krymchaks: l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c \u2013 t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a v\u00f9ng Crimea b\u1eaft ngu\u1ed3n t\u1eeb c\u00e1c t\u00edn \u0111\u1ed3 n\u00f3i ti\u1ebfng Turkic c\u1ee7a Rabbinic Judaism. Theo l\u1ecbch s\u1eed h\u1ecd s\u1ed1ng \u1edf g\u1ea7n g\u0169i v\u1edbi ng\u01b0\u1eddi Crimean Karaites. Crimean Karaites: l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh Karaism l\u00e0 h\u00ecnh th\u1ee9c ban \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o theo m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa trong Kinh Torah. Karaite Judaism t\u1eeb ch\u1ed1i nh\u1eefng b\u1ed5 sung sau n\u00e0y c\u1ee7a Tanakh (Kinh Th\u00e1nh Hebrew nh\u01b0 Kh\u1ea9u Lu\u1eadt Rabbinic (Rabbinic Oral Law) v\u00e0 \u0111\u1eb7t tr\u00e1ch nhi\u1ec7m cu\u1ed1i c\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a vi\u1ec7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch Th\u00e1nh Kinh cho t\u1eebng c\u00e1 nh\u00e2n. Turkic: C\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Turkic l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m c\u00e1c s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng \u1edf mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc, \u0110\u00f4ng, Trung v\u00e0 T\u00e2y \u00c1, T\u00e2y B\u1eafc Trung Qu\u1ed1c v\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a \u0110\u00f4ng \u00c2u. Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Rabbinic hay Rabbinism l\u00e0 d\u00f2ng ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 6, sau khi Talmud Babylon \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c quy \u0111i\u1ec3n h\u00f3a. Ph\u00e1t tri\u1ec3n t\u1eeb Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Pharisaic, Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Rabbinic d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean ni\u1ec1m tin r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea1i n\u00fai Sinai, Moses \u0111\u00e3 nh\u1eadn \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1eeb Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa \u201cTorah Vi\u1ebft\u201d, c\u00f9ng v\u1edbi l\u1eddi gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch b\u1eb1ng mi\u1ec7ng, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cTorah N\u00f3i\u201d m\u00e0 Moses \u0111\u00e3 truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i cho m\u1ecdi ng\u01b0\u1eddi. Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Karaite hay Karaism l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i \u0111\u1eb7c tr\u01b0ng b\u1edfi s\u1ef1 c\u00f4ng nh\u1eadn Tanakh l\u00e0 th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n ph\u00e1p l\u00fd t\u1ed1i cao duy nh\u1ea5t trong Halakha v\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc. \u0110\u00f3 l\u00e0 kh\u00e1c bi\u1ec7t c\u1ee7a Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Karaite v\u1edbi Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Rabbinic. Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Rabbinic coi Torah N\u00f3i, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 h\u1ec7 th\u1ed1ng h\u00f3a trong Talmud v\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u0103n b\u1ea3n ti\u1ebfp theo, l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u00f3 th\u1ea9m quy\u1ec1n c\u1ee7a Torah. C\u00f2n Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Karaite gi\u1eef th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ed9 r\u1eb1ng t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c gi\u1edbi r\u0103n m\u00e0 Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa truy\u1ec1n l\u1ea1i cho Moses \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi nh\u1eadn trong Torah Vi\u1ebft m\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng c\u1ea7n b\u1ed5 sung ho\u1eb7c gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch c\u1ee7a Torah N\u00f3i. K\u1ebft qu\u1ea3 l\u00e0, ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i Karaite kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn c\u00e1c truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng truy\u1ec1n mi\u1ec7ng trong Talmud v\u00e0 c\u00e1c v\u0103n b\u1ea3n kh\u00e1c. Ch\u00e2u Phi H\u1ea1 Sahara (Sub-Saharan Africa): v\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd, l\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n l\u1ee5c \u0111\u1ecba ch\u00e2u Phi n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda nam c\u1ee7a sa m\u1ea1c Sahara. V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb, n\u00f3 bao g\u1ed3m t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 c\u00e1c n\u01b0\u1edbc ch\u00e2u Phi to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 hay m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n n\u1eb1m \u1edf ph\u00eda nam c\u1ee7a sa m\u1ea1c Sahara (ngo\u1ea1i tr\u1eeb Sudan). \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Songhai (Songhai Empire): l\u00e0 qu\u1ed1c gia Songhai \u0111\u00e3 th\u1ed1ng tr\u1ecb T\u00e2y Sahel trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 15 v\u00e0 16. Sahel l\u00e0 v\u00f9ng kh\u00ed h\u1eadu sinh th\u00e1i v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecba sinh h\u1ecdc c\u1ee7a qu\u00e1 tr\u00ecnh chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed5i \u1edf ch\u00e2u Phi gi\u1eefa sa m\u1ea1c Sahara \u1edf ph\u00eda b\u1eafc v\u00e0 Sudanian Savanna \u1edf ph\u00eda nam. Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o quy ph\u1ea1m (normative Judaism): theo truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng, vi\u1ec7c th\u1ef1c h\u00e0nh Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00e0nh cho vi\u1ec7c nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Kinh Torah v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5p h\u00e0nh c\u00e1c lu\u1eadt l\u1ec7 v\u00e0 \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u0103n. Trong Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o quy ph\u1ea1m, Torah v\u00e0 lu\u1eadt Do Th\u00e1i l\u00e0 kh\u00f4ng thay \u0111\u1ed5i, nh\u01b0ng c\u00e1ch di\u1ec5n gi\u1ea3i c\u1ee7a lu\u1eadt l\u00e0 c\u1edfi m\u1edf h\u01a1n. N\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t mitzvah (gi\u1edbi lu\u1eadt) \u0111\u1ec3 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u v\u00e0 hi\u1ec3u lu\u1eadt. The Syrian Malabar Nasrani l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m ethno-religious t\u1eeb Kerala, \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9. N\u00f3 \u00e1m ch\u1ec9 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh Kit\u00f4 h\u1eefu \u1edf b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n Malabar trong nh\u1eefng ng\u00e0y \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, bao g\u1ed3m c\u1ea3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea3n \u0111\u1ecba v\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i Diaspora \u1edf Kerala. T\u00ean g\u1ecdi Nasrani \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t","ph\u00e1t t\u1eeb t\u00ean Nazar\u00e9t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng b\u1edfi c\u00e1c Kit\u00f4 h\u1eefu Do Th\u00e1i c\u1ed5 x\u01b0a \u1edf v\u00f9ng C\u1eadn \u0110\u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 tin v\u00e0o thi\u00ean t\u00ednh c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa Jesus, nh\u01b0ng v\u1eabn b\u00e1m v\u00edu v\u00e0o r\u1ea5t nhi\u1ec1u c\u00e1c nghi l\u1ec5 Mosaic. Nhi\u1ec5m s\u1eafc th\u1ec3 Y Aaron (Y-chromosomal Aaron): l\u00e0 t\u00ean \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t cho gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean chung g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong t\u1ea7ng l\u1edbp t\u01b0 t\u1ebf Do Th\u00e1i (Jewish priestly caste) theo ph\u1ee5 h\u1ec7 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Kohanim (s\u1ed1 \u00edt l\u00e0 \u201cKohen\u201d, \u201cCohen\u201d, ho\u1eb7c Kohane). Theo Kinh Torah, t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh l\u00e0 Aaron, anh em trai c\u1ee7a Moses. Do \u0111\u00f3, t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean chung g\u1ea7n \u0111\u00e2y nh\u1ea5t theo gi\u1ea3 thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t t\u00ean l\u00e0 \u201cnhi\u1ec5m s\u1eafc th\u1ec3 Y Aaron\u201d, t\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 v\u1edbi \u201cnhi\u1ec5m s\u1eafc th\u1ec3 Y Adam\u201d. Amerindian: l\u00e0 b\u1ea5t k\u1ef3 th\u00e0nh vi\u00ean c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c s\u1ed1ng \u1edf B\u1eafc hay Nam M\u1ef9 tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u00e2u \u00c2u \u0111\u1ebfn. Sabra (Hebrew: \u202b )\u05e6\u05d1\u05e8\u202cl\u00e0 m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb l\u00f3ng kh\u00f4ng ch\u00ednh th\u1ee9c d\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ec1 ch\u1ec9 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i Israel sinh ra t\u1ea1i Israel. Sephardic Haredim l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i g\u1ed1c Sephardi v\u00e0 Mizrahi theo Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Heradi. Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t tri\u1ebft gia Do Th\u00e1i \u0110\u1ee9c, l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 kh\u1edfi ngu\u1ed3n Haskalah. Yishuv l\u00e0 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i \u1edf V\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t Israel gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1880 v\u00e0 1948, khi Israel tuy\u00ean b\u1ed1 tr\u1edf th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp. C\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng Do Th\u00e1i Yishuv \u0111\u00f3ng vai tr\u00f2 quan tr\u1ecdng trong vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1eb7t n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng cho m\u1ed9t Nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc Israel \u0111\u00e3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tr\u00f9 li\u1ec7u. Trong khi truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 l\u1ecbch s\u1eed Do Th\u00e1i l\u00e0 l\u1edbp n\u1ec1n m\u00f3ng \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong vi\u1ec7c \u0111\u1ecbnh h\u00ecnh Nh\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc Israel hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, Yishuv l\u00e0 l\u1edbp th\u1ee9 hai. Con \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c cho l\u00e0 b\u1eaft \u0111\u1ea7u t\u1eeb n\u01a1i Ch\u00faa Jesus b\u1ecb x\u00e9t x\u1eed t\u1edbi n\u01a1i Ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111inh v\u00e0 ch\u00f4n c\u1ea5t t\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ed3i Golgotha. Halutz trong ti\u1ebfng Hebrew c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ti\u00ean phong. Hindu \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn b\u1ea5t c\u1ee9 ai t\u1ef1 coi m\u00ecnh nh\u01b0 v\u0103n h\u00f3a, s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c ho\u1eb7c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o g\u1eafn li\u1ec1n v\u1edbi c\u00e1c kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh c\u1ee7a \u1ea4n \u0110\u1ed9 gi\u00e1o (Hindusm). Intifada: phong tr\u00e0o n\u1ed5i d\u1eady c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Palestine ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i Israel. Um Kulthoum: m\u1ed9t ca s\u1ef9, nh\u1ea1c s\u1ef9 v\u00e0 n\u1eef di\u1ec5n vi\u00ean \u0111i\u1ec7n \u1ea3nh Ai C\u1eadp n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng qu\u1ed1c t\u1ebf trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1920-1970. Trong \u00fd ngh\u0129a ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a n\u00f3, mitzvah trong ti\u1ebfng Hebrew \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1edbi lu\u1eadt v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u0103n c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa. N\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c s\u1eed d\u1ee5ng trong Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o Rabbinic \u0111\u1ec3 n\u00f3i \u0111\u1ebfn 613 \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u0103n trong Torah \u1edf n\u00fai Sinai v\u00e0 c\u1ed9ng th\u00eam b\u1ea3y \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u0103n kh\u00e1c \u0111\u1eb7t ra sau \u0111\u00f3, t\u1ed5ng s\u1ed1 l\u00e0 620. Aggadah \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp \u0111\u1ebfn v\u0103n b\u1ea3n ch\u00fa gi\u1ea3i kh\u00f4ng mang t\u00ednh ph\u00e1p l\u00fd trong v\u0103n h\u1ecdc c\u1ed5 \u0111i\u1ec3n c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o \u0111o\u00e0n Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o, \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ghi l\u1ea1i trong Talmud v\u00e0 Midrash. Midrash l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u01b0\u01a1ng ph\u00e1p gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n Kinh Th\u00e1nh v\u01b0\u1ee3t ra ngo\u00e0i nh\u1eefng ch\u1eaft l\u1ecdc \u0111\u01a1n gi\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a gi\u00e1o l\u00fd t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o, ph\u00e1p l\u00fd, ho\u1eb7c \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c. Nh\u1eefng gi\u1ea3i th\u00edch n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00e1c Rabbi \u0111i\u1ec1n v\u00e0o nh\u1eefng \u201ckho\u1ea3ng tr\u1ed1ng\u201d \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u00ecm th\u1ea5y trong Kinh Torah. Beatnik l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t khu\u00f4n m\u1eabu truy\u1ec1n th\u00f4ng th\u1ecbnh h\u00e0nh trong su\u1ed1t nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1950 \u0111\u1ebfn gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1960, tr\u01b0ng b\u00e0y nh\u1eefng kh\u00eda c\u1ea1nh n\u00f4ng c\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a phong tr\u00e0o v\u0103n h\u00f3a Beat trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1950. \u0110\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 Pale (The Pale of Settlement): l\u00e0 thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb7t cho m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Nga, trong","\u0111\u00f3 ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ph\u00e9p th\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u00fa, c\u00f2n v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua \u0111\u00f3 th\u00ec b\u1ecb c\u1ea5m. Nickelodeon: r\u1ea1p chi\u1ebfu phim nh\u1ecf, v\u00e9 n\u0103m xu, th\u1ecbnh h\u00e0nh \u1edf M\u1ef9 trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1905-1915. Miriam l\u00e0 ch\u1ecb g\u00e1i c\u1ee7a Moses v\u00e0 Aaron, v\u00e0 l\u00e0 con g\u00e1i duy nh\u1ea5t c\u1ee7a Amram v\u00e0 Jochebed. B\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ti\u00ean tri v\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea7u ti\u00ean trong S\u00e1ch Xu\u1ea5t H\u00e0nh trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh Hebrew. Deborah l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ti\u00ean tri c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa c\u1ee7a Israel, Th\u1ea9m ph\u00e1n th\u1ee9 t\u01b0 c\u1ee7a Israel th\u1eddi ti\u1ec1n qu\u00e2n ch\u1ee7, c\u0169ng l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t chi\u1ebfn binh v\u00e0 l\u00e0 v\u1ee3 c\u1ee7a Lapidoth theo S\u00e1ch Th\u1ea9m Ph\u00e1n. L\u00e0 n\u1eef th\u1ea9m ph\u00e1n duy nh\u1ea5t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh, Deborah d\u1eabn \u0111\u1ea7u cu\u1ed9c ph\u1ea3n c\u00f4ng th\u00e0nh c\u00f4ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i c\u00e1c l\u1ef1c l\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u1ee7a Jabin \u2013 Vua Canaan \u2013 v\u00e0 ch\u1ec9 huy qu\u00e2n \u0111\u1ed9i c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng l\u00e0 Sisera. C\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ec3 l\u1ea1i trong ch\u01b0\u01a1ng 4 S\u00e1ch Th\u1ea9m Ph\u00e1n. Amidah c\u0169ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Shmoneh Esreh (18\u201c ,\u202b \u05e9\u05de\u05e0\u05d4 \u05e2\u05e9\u05e8\u05d4\u202cl\u1eddi c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n\u201d), l\u00e0 kinh c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a nghi l\u1ec5 Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i gi\u00e1o c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n Amidah t\u1ea1i m\u1ed7i trong ba l\u1ec5 c\u1ea7u nguy\u1ec7n trong m\u1ed9t ng\u00e0y \u0111i\u1ec3n h\u00ecnh: bu\u1ed5i s\u00e1ng, bu\u1ed5i chi\u1ec1u, v\u00e0 bu\u1ed5i t\u1ed1i. B\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng \u00c2m thanh ch\u00ednh l\u00e0 t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a \u00e2m thanh truy\u1ec1n trong kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed, kho\u1ea3ng 336m\/s. Khi t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t v\u1eadt di chuy\u1ec3n trong kh\u00f4ng kh\u00ed t\u1eeb th\u1ea5p h\u01a1n, t\u0103ng d\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ee9c \u0111\u1ea1t v\u00e0 v\u01b0\u1ee3t t\u1ed1c \u0111\u1ed9 n\u00e0y th\u00ec ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta n\u00f3i r\u1eb1ng n\u00f3 \u0111\u00e3 v\u01b0\u1ee3t qua \u201cb\u1ee9c t\u01b0\u1eddng \u00e2m thanh\u201d. Indie rock l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t th\u1ec3 lo\u1ea1i nh\u1ea1c alternative (Alternative rock) c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb V\u01b0\u01a1ng qu\u1ed1c Anh trong nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1980. Haggadah l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u0103n b\u1ea3n Do Th\u00e1i quy \u0111\u1ecbnh th\u1ee9 t\u1ef1 c\u1ee7a b\u1eefa \u0103n t\u1ed1i trong ng\u00e0y l\u1ec5 V\u01b0\u1ee3t Qua. Shtetls l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng th\u1ecb tr\u1ea5n nh\u1ecf v\u1edbi d\u00e2n s\u1ed1 Do Th\u00e1i l\u1edbn t\u1ed3n t\u1ea1i \u1edf Trung v\u00e0 \u0110\u00f4ng \u00c2u tr\u01b0\u1edbc Holocaust. Arcade: h\u00e0nh lang c\u00f3 m\u00e1i che v\u1edbi c\u00e1c c\u1eeda h\u00e0ng v\u00e0 qu\u1ea7y \u1edf hai b\u00ean. Mesopotamia: v\u00f9ng L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0 n\u1eb1m gi\u1eefa hai con s\u00f4ng Euphrates v\u00e0 Tigris, ng\u00e0y nay bao g\u1ed3m l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 Iraq, Kuwait, \u0110\u00f4ng B\u1eafc Syria, v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n nh\u1ecf c\u1ee7a \u0110\u00f4ng Nam Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 v\u00e0 T\u00e2y Nam Iran. \u0110\u00e2y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 \u201cc\u00e1i n\u00f4i c\u1ee7a v\u0103n minh\u201d nh\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i. \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c La M\u00e3 (Roman Empire) (th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 1 TCN \u2013 th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 5, 6 CN): l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi bao g\u1ed3m l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5 c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia bao quanh \u0110\u1ecba Trung H\u1ea3i ng\u00e0y nay c\u1ee7a ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, ch\u00e2u Phi v\u00e0 ch\u00e2u \u00c1. Ba th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 l\u1edbn c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 l\u00e0 Rome (thu\u1ed9c \u00dd), Alexandria (thu\u1ed9c Ai C\u1eadp) v\u00e0 Antioch (thu\u1ed9c Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3). N\u0103m 285, Ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ebf Diocletianus ph\u00e2n chia \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf th\u00e0nh \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c T\u00e2y La M\u00e3 (Western Roman Empire) v\u00e0 \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c \u0110\u00f4ng La M\u00e3 (Eastern Roman Empire). \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c T\u00e2y La M\u00e3 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 476; c\u00f2n \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c \u0110\u00f4ng La M\u00e3 (c\u00f2n c\u00f3 t\u00ean g\u1ecdi kh\u00e1c l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Byzantine) k\u00e9o d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ebfn n\u0103m 1453. Aliyah l\u00e0 s\u1ef1 nh\u1eadp c\u01b0 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i t\u1eeb c\u00e1c c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng Diaspora v\u1ec1 l\u1ea1i V\u00f9ng \u0111\u1ea5t Israel. Palestine: trong th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 th\u1ee9 nh\u1ea5t, \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3 \u0111\u00e1nh b\u1ea1i d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c Judea 1.000- n\u0103m-tu\u1ed5i, ph\u00e1 h\u1ee7y \u0110\u1ec1n Th\u1edd Jerusalem v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea7y \u1ea3i h\u00e0ng tr\u0103m ngh\u00ecn ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i. \u0110\u1ec3 x\u00f3a t\u1ea5t c\u1ea3 k\u00fd \u1ee9c v\u1ec1 x\u1ee9 Judea, Rome \u0111\u1ed5i t\u00ean Judea th\u00e0nh \u2018Palestine\u2019 theo t\u00ean k\u1ebb th\u00f9 c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh \u2013 Philistines \u2013 l\u00e0 d\u00e2n","t\u1ed9c \u0111\u00e3 t\u1eebng \u0111\u1ecbnh c\u01b0 d\u1ecdc theo b\u1edd bi\u1ec3n x\u1ee9 Canaan. V\u1ec1 sau, ng\u01b0\u1eddi ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y g\u1ecdi \u0110\u1ea5t Th\u00e1nh Do Th\u00e1i-Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o l\u00e0 Palestine. D\u00e2n t\u1ed9c \u1ea2r\u1eadp \u0111\u00e3 kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i t\u00ean \u2018Palestine\u2019 cho \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 20. Plato (424\/423 TCN \u2013 348\/347 TCN): Tri\u1ebft gia Hy l\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. Aristotle (384 TCN \u2013 322 TCN): Tri\u1ebft gia Hy l\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. H\u1ecdc tr\u00f2 c\u1ee7a Plato. Jehovah: trong Kinh Th\u00e1nh Torah, Jehovah l\u00e0 t\u00ean ri\u00eang c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0110\u1ebf, nh\u01b0 \u0111\u00e3 m\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i cho Moses tr\u00ean n\u00fai Sinai. (xem C\u00e2u chuy\u1ec7n Do Th\u00e1i: l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u0103ng tr\u1ea7m c\u1ee7a m\u1ed9t d\u00e2n t\u1ed9c) Noah: theo S\u00e1ch S\u00e1ng Th\u1ebf, \u00f4ng Noah \u0111\u00f3ng con t\u00e0u l\u1edbn m\u00e0 ng\u00e0y nay g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 t\u1ea7u Noah \u0111\u1ec3 t\u1ef1 c\u1ee9u \u00f4ng v\u00e0 gia \u0111\u00ecnh, b\u1ea3o t\u1ed3n th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi \u0111\u1ed9ng v\u1eadt, th\u1ef1c v\u1eadt kh\u1ecfi b\u1ecb di\u1ec7t vong b\u1edfi tr\u1eadn tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t \u0111\u1ea1i h\u1ed3ng th\u1ee7y c\u1ee7a Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa. Mari Letters: l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t b\u1ed9 s\u01b0u t\u1eadp c\u00e1c th\u01b0 t\u1eeb ho\u00e0ng gia t\u1eeb Mari, m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u1ed5 tr\u00ean s\u00f4ng Euphrates. Amarna Letters: th\u01b0 t\u1eeb ngo\u1ea1i giao, tr\u00ean b\u1ea3ng \u0111\u1ea5t s\u00e9t, ch\u1ee7 y\u1ebfu gi\u1eefa ch\u00ednh quy\u1ec1n Ai C\u1eadp v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd \u1edf Canaan v\u00e0 Amurru trong kho\u1ea3ng th\u1eddi gian nh\u1eefng n\u0103m 1300 TCN. Semitic: nh\u00f3m c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef c\u00f3 li\u00ean quan v\u1edbi nhau \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i b\u1edfi 470 tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ea1i T\u00e2y \u00c1, B\u1eafc Phi v\u00e0 S\u1eebng ch\u00e2u Phi. Ch\u00fang l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00e1nh c\u1ee7a h\u1ecd ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Phi \u2013 \u00c1. Ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Semitic \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c n\u00f3i nhi\u1ec1u nh\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 ti\u1ebfng \u1ea2r\u1eadp, Amharic, Hebrew, Tigrinia v\u00e0 Aramaic. Babylon: m\u1ed9t th\u00e0nh qu\u1ed1c c\u1ee7a L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i, n\u1eb1m \u1edf Al Hillah, t\u1ec9nh Babil, Iraq, kho\u1ea3ng 85km v\u1ec1 ph\u00eda nam th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 Baghdad (Iraq). Pharaoh: t\u01b0\u1edbc hi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a vua Ai C\u1eadp c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. M\u1eb7c kh\u1ea3i: m\u1ed9t t\u1eeb th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc hay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f9ng trong Kit\u00f4 gi\u00e1o, c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 v\u00e9n m\u1edf ra b\u1ee9c m\u00e0n b\u00ed m\u1eadt \u0111\u1ec3 cho th\u1ea5y m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec1u g\u00ec \u0111\u00f3. Ba T\u01b0 (Persia): m\u1ed9t qu\u1ed1c gia c\u1ed5 \u1edf ph\u00eda t\u00e2y nam ch\u00e2u \u00c1, nay l\u00e0 Iran. Jericho: th\u00e0nh c\u1ed5 n\u1eb1m g\u1ea7n B\u1edd T\u00e2y c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng Jordan. V\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd, Transjordan g\u1ed3m c\u00e1c khu v\u1ef1c ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng c\u1ee7a s\u00f4ng Jordan, bao ph\u1ee7 ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn Jordan ng\u00e0y nay. X\u1ee9c d\u1ea7u (anointing) di\u1ec5n t\u1ea3 h\u00e0nh \u0111\u1ed9ng xoa d\u1ea7u tr\u00ean c\u01a1 th\u1ec3, hay \u0111\u1ed5 d\u1ea7u l\u00ean \u0111\u1ea7u nh\u1eb1m m\u1ed9t m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch n\u00e0o \u0111\u00f3. S\u1ef1 x\u1ee9c d\u1ea7u bao g\u1ed3m nhi\u1ec1u m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch v\u00e0 \u00fd ngh\u0129a kh\u00e1c nhau. Trong th\u1eddi C\u1ef1u \u01b0\u1edbc, x\u1ee9c d\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c xem l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nghi th\u1ee9c quan tr\u1ecdng nh\u1eb1m x\u00e1c ch\u1ee9ng r\u1eb1ng: ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c x\u1ee9c d\u1ea7u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0110\u1ee9c Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u1ecbnh \u0111\u1ec3 thi h\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t s\u1ee9 m\u1ec7nh \u0111\u1eb7c bi\u1ec7t. Samaritans l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t nh\u00f3m s\u1eafc t\u1ed9c-t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a Levant, h\u1eadu du\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a c\u01b0 d\u00e2n Semitic c\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a khu v\u1ef1c. \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Byzantine (Byzantine Empire) (330-1453): c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c \u0110\u00f4ng La M\u00e3, \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111\u00f4 \u1edf Constantinople (nay l\u00e0 Istanbul, th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 c\u1ee7a Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3). Gnosticism: Thuy\u1ebft Ng\u1ed9 \u0110\u1ea1o (t\u1eeb ti\u1ebfng Hy L\u1ea1p c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i: gnostikos \u03b3\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, \u201ch\u1ecdc\u201d, t\u1eeb Gnosis \u03b3\u03bd\u1ff6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2, ki\u1ebfn th\u1ee9c) m\u00f4 t\u1ea3 m\u1ed9t t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ed5 x\u01b0a xa l\u00e1nh th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi v\u1eadt ch\u1ea5t \u2013 m\u00e0 h\u1ecd xem nh\u01b0 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c t\u1ea1o b\u1edfi c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea5ng t\u1ea1o h\u00f3a \u2013 v\u00e0 ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi t\u00e2m linh. Th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5: giai \u0111o\u1ea1n gi\u1eefa s\u1ef1 s\u1ee5p \u0111\u1ed5 c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c La M\u00e3 v\u00e0 s\u1ef1 tr\u1ed7i d\u1eady c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia ch\u00e2u \u00c2u hi\u1ec7n \u0111\u1ea1i, t\u1ee9c l\u00e0 t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 5 k\u00e9o d\u00e0i \u0111\u1ebfn th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 15. Levant l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef l\u1ecbch s\u1eed \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd \u0111\u1ec1 c\u1eadp ph\u1ecfng ch\u1eebng \u0111\u1ebfn m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c r\u1ed9ng l\u1edbn \u1edf T\u00e2y Nam \u00c1","bao b\u1ecdc b\u1edfi d\u00e3y n\u00fai Taurus c\u1ee7a Anatolia \u1edf mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc, Bi\u1ec3n \u0110\u1ecba Trung H\u1ea3i \u1edf ph\u00eda t\u00e2y, v\u00e0 sa m\u1ea1c mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc \u1ea2r\u1eadp v\u00e0 Mesopotamia \u1edf ph\u00eda \u0111\u00f4ng. M\u1ed9t s\u1ed1 c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia ho\u1eb7c c\u00e1c b\u1ed9 ph\u1eadn c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia n\u1eb1m trong khu v\u1ef1c Levant l\u00e0 Cyprus, Ai C\u1eadp, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3. \u0110\u00f4i khi b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Sinai c\u0169ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bao g\u1ed3m, m\u1eb7c d\u00f9 ph\u1ea7n nhi\u1ec1u \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c coi l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng trung gian, ngo\u1ea1i bi\u00ean t\u1ea1o th\u00e0nh m\u1ed9t c\u1ea7u n\u1ed1i gi\u1eefa Levant v\u00e0 B\u1eafc Ai C\u1eadp. Aramaic: thu\u1ed9c c\u1eadn h\u1ecd Semitic, n\u1eb1m trong h\u1ecd ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Phi \u2013 \u00c1 (Afro-asiatic). Ti\u1ebfng Aramaic l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n trong nh\u00f3m ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef T\u00e2y-B\u1eafc Semitic, trong nh\u00f3m n\u00e0y c\u00f2n c\u00f3 c\u00e1c ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef Canaanite nh\u01b0 ti\u1ebfng Hebrew v\u00e0 ti\u1ebfng Phoenicia. Aramaic l\u00e0 ng\u00f4n ng\u1eef ch\u00ednh c\u1ee7a x\u1ee9 Syria. B\u1ed9 Lu\u1eadt Do Th\u00e1i: (Hebrew: \u202b \u05b2\u05d4\u05dc\u05b8\u05db\u05b8\u05d4\u202c, Sephardic: (hala\u03c7a); phi\u00ean \u00e2m nh\u01b0 halacha ho\u1eb7chalachah) ho\u1eb7c halocho (Ashkenazic: (halo\u03c7o)) l\u00e0 t\u1eadp h\u1ee3p c\u00e1c lu\u1eadt t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i c\u00f3 ngu\u1ed3n g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb Torah Vi\u1ebft v\u00e0 Torah N\u00f3i. Bao g\u1ed3m 613 \u0111i\u1ec1u r\u0103n, lu\u1eadt Talmudic v\u00e0 Rabbinic, c\u00e1c phong t\u1ee5c v\u00e0 truy\u1ec1n th\u1ed1ng bi\u00ean d\u1ecbch trong Shulchan Aruch (th\u01b0\u1eddng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 \u201cCode of Jewish Law\u201d \u2013 \u201cB\u1ed9 Lu\u1eadt Do Th\u00e1i\u201d). B\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Iberia n\u1eb1m \u1edf c\u1ef1c t\u00e2y nam ch\u00e2u \u00c2u, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c bao quanh b\u1edfi \u0110\u1ecba Trung H\u1ea3i v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u1edbng \u0111\u00f4ng v\u00e0 nam, v\u00e0 b\u1edfi \u0110\u1ea1i T\u00e2y D\u01b0\u01a1ng v\u1ec1 h\u01b0\u1edbng t\u00e2y v\u00e0 b\u1eafc. D\u00e3y n\u00fai Pyrenees l\u00e0m th\u00e0nh bi\u00ean gi\u1edbi \u0111\u00f4ng b\u1eafc c\u1ee7a b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o. Gibraltar, \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ef1c nam c\u1ee7a b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c ng\u0103n c\u00e1ch v\u1edbi ch\u00e2u Phi b\u1edfi eo bi\u1ec3n c\u00f9ng t\u00ean. \u0110\u00e2y l\u00e0 b\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t ch\u00e2u \u00c2u v\u1edbi di\u1ec7n t\u00edch 582.860km\u00b2. B\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Iberia g\u1ed3m c\u00f3 c\u00e1c qu\u1ed1c gia v\u00e0 v\u00f9ng l\u00e3nh th\u1ed5: T\u00e2y Ban Nha, B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha, Andorra v\u00e0 Gibraltar. Sephardi Jews hay Sephardic jews hay Sephardim: nh\u00f3m ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i c\u00f3 t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean s\u1ed1ng \u1edf T\u00e2y Ban Nha hay B\u1ed3 \u0110\u00e0o Nha. Ashkenazi Jews hay Ashkenazic Jews hay Ashkenazim: nh\u00f3m ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i g\u1ed1c \u0110\u1ee9c s\u1ed1ng trong c\u00e1c c\u1ed9ng \u0111\u1ed3ng \u1edf Trung v\u00e0 \u0110\u00f4ng \u00c2u m\u00e0 hi\u1ec7n nay l\u00e0 mi\u1ec1n B\u1eafc n\u01b0\u1edbc Ph\u00e1p, \u0110\u1ee9c v\u00e0 Th\u1ee5y S\u1ef9. B\u00e1n \u0111\u1ea3o Balkan l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c \u0111\u1ecba l\u00fd c\u1ee7a khu v\u1ef1c \u0110\u00f4ng Nam ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. bao g\u1ed3m to\u00e0n b\u1ed9 ho\u1eb7c m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Albania, Bosnia v\u00e0 Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hy L\u1ea1p, Kosovo, C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, v\u00e0 ph\u1ea7n ch\u00e2u \u00c2u c\u1ee7a Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3. Novorossiya l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t thu\u1eadt ng\u1eef l\u1ecbch s\u1eed c\u1ee7a \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf Nga bi\u1ec3u th\u1ecb m\u1ed9t khu v\u1ef1c ph\u00eda b\u1eafc c\u1ee7a Bi\u1ec3n \u0110en (nay l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t ph\u1ea7n c\u1ee7a Ukraina). \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Ottoman: c\u00f2n g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 Turkish Empire \u2013 \u0110\u1ebf qu\u1ed1c Th\u1ed5 Nh\u0129 K\u1ef3 theo l\u1ecbch s\u1eed. Mizrahi l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi Do Th\u00e1i \u0111\u1ebfn t\u1eeb Trung \u0110\u00f4ng v\u00e0 B\u1eafc Phi. Zionist: Ng\u01b0\u1eddi theo Ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a Ph\u1ee5c qu\u1ed1c Do th\u00e1i (1) G\u0101ius J\u016blius Caesar (ph\u00e1t \u00e2m nh\u01b0 \u201cGai-us Giu-li-us X\u00ea- da\u201d; trong ti\u1ebfng Latin nh\u01b0 \u201cKhai- x\u01a1\u201d; 12 th\u00e1ng 7 ho\u1eb7c 13 th\u00e1ng 7 n\u0103m 100 TCN 15 th\u00e1ng 3 n\u0103m 44 TCN) l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t l\u00e3nh t\u1ee5 qu\u00e2n s\u1ef1 v\u00e0 ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a La M\u00e3 v\u00e0 l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi c\u00f3 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng l\u1edbn nh\u1ea5t trong l\u1ecbch s\u1eed th\u1ebf gi\u1edbi. \u00d4ng \u0111\u00f3ng m\u1ed9t vai tr\u00f2 then ch\u1ed1t trong s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed5i C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a La M\u00e3 th\u00e0nh \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf La M\u00e3. 1. Ph\u00e1p n\u1ed9: c\u00e1i gi\u1eadn c\u1ee7a","ph\u00e1p. 2. H\u1ed3i th\u1eed ng\u1ea1n: tr\u1edf l\u1ea1i b\u1edd n\u00e0y. 1. H\u1ea1c n\u1ed9i kh\u00f4ng c\u00f3 l\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1ef1c m\u00e0 \u0111\u1ea5t tr\u1eddi r\u1ed9ng r\u00e3i. 1. Ba c\u00f5i kh\u00f4ng an, nh\u01b0 \u1edf trong nh\u00e0 l\u1eeda. 2. Th\u00e2n ng\u01b0\u1eddi kh\u00f3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c, Ph\u1eadt ph\u00e1p kh\u00f3 nghe (kh\u00f3 v\u00ec \u0111i ng\u01b0\u1ee3c d\u00f2ng \u0111\u1eddi) 1. Ph\u1eadt m\u1ed9t th\u01b0\u1edbc, Ma m\u1ed9t tr\u01b0\u1ee3ng. 1. D\u1ecbch t\u1eeb c\u00e2u th\u01a1:<br \/> \u201cNh\u1ea5t b\u00e1t thi\u00ean gia ph\u1ea1m<br \/> C\u00f4 th\u00e2n v\u1ea1n l\u00fd du<br \/> K\u1ef3 vi sinh t\u1eed s\u1ef1<br \/> Gi\u00e1o h\u00f3a \u0111\u1ed9 xu\u00e2n thu.\u201d (1) L\u1ec7 h\u1ecdc \u1edf l\u00e0ng C\u00e2u Hoan x\u01b0a, B\u00f9i Th\u1ecb T\u00e2n - C\u1eeda Vi\u1ec7t s\u1ed1 15 (B\u1ed9 c\u0169) tr. 86. (*) Ch\u1eef d\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a H\u1ed3 Ch\u00ed Minh cho b\u1ecdn tham \u00f4, l\u00e3ng ph\u00ed, quan li\u00eau. * Tr\u1ecdng Th\u1ec9: ch\u1eef d\u00f9ng c\u1ee7a L\u1ec7 Th\u1ea7n Tr\u1ea7n Tr\u1ecdng Kim (*): GS- KTS Ho\u00e0ng \u0110\u1ea1o K\u00ednh - Ph\u00f3 Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch Th\u01b0\u1eddng tr\u1ef1c H\u1ed9i Ki\u1ebfn tr\u00fac s\u01b0 Vi\u1ec7t Nam, \u1ee6y vi\u00ean H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng Di s\u1ea3n v\u0103n h\u00f3a Qu\u1ed1c gia, \u1ee6y vi\u00ean H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng l\u00fd lu\u1eadn v\u00e0 ph\u00ea b\u00ecnh V\u0103n h\u1ecdc Ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt Trung \u01b0\u01a1ng. 1\\\\. Xem b\u00e0i vi\u1ebft c\u1ee7a H\u1ed3 Ch\u1ee7 t\u1ecbch n\u0103m 1952, s\u00e1ch V\u00ec \u0111\u1ed9c l\u1eadp t\u1ef1 do, v\u00ec ch\u1ee7 ngh\u0129a x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i, Nh\u00e0 xu\u1ea5t b\u1ea3n S\u1ef1 Th\u1eadt, 1970, trang 131. (1) Creatio dei (ti\u1ebfng La tinh): t\u1ea1o v\u1eadt c\u1ee7a Th\u01b0\u1ee3ng \u0111\u1ebf. (2) Trong nguy\u00ean b\u1ea3n 'Galuleh' cho h\u1ee3p v\u1ea7n \u0111i\u1ec7u v\u00e0 b\u00e0i ba-l\u00e1t th\u00eam h\u00e0i h\u01b0\u1edbc. Ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ecbch gi\u1eef nguy\u00ean. (1) Th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5 vi\u1ec7c m\u1ed5 x\u1ebb x\u00e1c ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i nghi\u00eam c\u1ea5m. (2) \u00dd n\u00f3i \u00edt c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ea1o. (3) T\u01b0\u01a1ng t\u1ef1 nh\u01b0 ta c\u00f3 c\u00e2u: \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1eb1ng ch\u00e2n, l\u00e2n \u0111\u1eb1ng \u0111\u1ea7u! (1) Ph\u1ea7n l\u1edbn n\u01b0\u1edbc \u00dd b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd b\u1ecb T\u00e2y Ban Nha chi\u1ebfm. Khi d\u00e2n ch\u00fang v\u00f9ng Nam \u00dd n\u1ed5i lo\u1ea1n, Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng l\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ee9ng v\u1ec1 phe T\u00e2y Ban Nha. (2) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 cu\u1ed9c chi\u1ebfn tranh ba m\u01b0\u01a1i n\u0103m (d\u01b0\u1edbi danh ngh\u0129a t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o) di\u1ec5n ra \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c v\u00e0o \u0111\u1ea7u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17 - d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean b\u1ed1i c\u1ea3nh n\u00e0y Brecht \u0111\u00e3 s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u1edf k\u1ecbch 'B\u00e0 m\u1eb9 d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m v\u00e0 nh\u1eefng ng\u01b0\u1eddi con'. (3) Phong tr\u00e0o c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch t\u00f4n gi\u00e1o \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5, \u0111\u01b0a t\u1edbi vi\u1ec7c th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp c\u00e1c gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Tin L\u00e0nh. (4) Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng b\u00ed m\u1eadt li\u00ean k\u1ebft v\u1edbi vua Th\u1ee5y \u0110i\u1ec3n Gustav Adolf II (theo \u0111\u1ea1o Tin L\u00e0nh) v\u00ec quy\u1ec1n l\u1ef1c Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i b\u1ecb d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd Habsburg (\u00c1o) thu\u1ed9c phe Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa \u0111e d\u1ecda. (5) Ph\u00e1i Luther: \u0111\u1ea1o Tin L\u00e0nh (b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd b\u1ecb g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 'ph\u1ea3n Ch\u00faa') theo \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng l\u1ed1i c\u1ea3i c\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a Martin Luther (1483-1546). (6) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 Galilei. (7) L\u1eddi Kinh Th\u00e1nh (xem m\u00e0n 6). (8) Zither: m\u1ed9t lo\u1ea1i \u0111\u00e0n v\u1edbi kho\u1ea3ng 30 d\u00e2y, g\u1ed1c t\u1eeb Trung \u00c1 (9) Wien (Vienne): th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 n\u01b0\u1edbc \u00c1o. (10) \u00dd t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3: nh\u1eefng d\u1ee5ng c\u1ee5 \u0111\u1ec3 tra kh\u1ea3o \u1edf T\u00f2a \u00e1n T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o. (1) Discorsi (ti\u1ebfng \u00dd): m\u1ea1n \u0111\u00e0m. (2) N\u01b0\u1edbc C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a Venedig. (3) Hieme et aestate... (ti\u1ebfng Latin): 'trong m\u00f9a \u0111\u00f4ng v\u00e0 m\u00f9a h\u1ea1, g\u1ea7n v\u00e0 xa, bao l\u00e2u ta c\u00f2n s\u1ed1ng v\u00e0 c\u1ea3 sau \u0111\u00f3 n\u1eefa.' (4) Elle: \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb chi\u1ec1u d\u00e0i c\u1ed5, kho\u1ea3ng t\u1eeb 60 \u0111\u1ebfn 80 cm. (1) Kinh Th\u00e1nh (T\u00e2n \u01b0\u1edbc). (2) T\u00e1c ph\u1ea9m 'De imitatione Christi' (N\u1ed1i b\u01b0\u1edbc Ch\u00faa C\u1ee9u th\u1ebf) c\u1ee7a Thomas von Kempen (1379-1471). (3) \u00dd n\u00f3i Kinh Th\u00e1nh. (4) Nh\u1eefng n\u01b0\u1edbc theo \u0111\u1ea1o Tin l\u00e0nh \u1edf Ch\u00e2u \u00c2u. (5) Mailand (Milano): th\u00e0nh ph\u1ed1 c\u00f4ng nghi\u1ec7p l\u1edbn th\u1ee9 hai \u1edf \u00dd hi\u1ec7n nay. (6) \u0110\u1ea1i c\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edbc Florenz. (7) \u0110\u01b0\u1ee3c v\u00f9ng L\u01b0\u1ee1ng H\u00e0 (Tigris v\u00e0 Euphrat) th\u1edd l\u00e0 n\u1eef th\u1ea7n ph\u1ed3n th\u1ef1c. (8) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 ch\u1ebf \u0111\u1ed9 Hitler \u0111ang l\u1ed9ng h\u00e0nh \u1edf \u0110\u1ee9c - khi Brecht s\u00e1ng t\u00e1c v\u1edf 'Cu\u1ed9c \u0111\u1eddi Galilei' n\u00e0y. (1) Toscana: m\u1ed9t v\u00f9ng \u1edf Trung \u00dd, nay g\u1ed3m ch\u00edn t\u1ec9nh, th\u1ee7 ph\u1ee7 l\u00e0 Florenz (Florence). (2) Quan n\u1ed9i qu\u1ea3n:","t\u1ea1m d\u1ecbch t\u1eeb Hofmarschall (mar\u00e9chal du palais), vi\u00ean quan qu\u1ea3n l\u00fd sinh ho\u1ea1t trong ho\u00e0ng cung. (3)Th\u01b0\u1eddng th\u00ec r\u1ea5t \u00edt ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00f3c \u0111\u1ecf, n\u00ean h\u1ecd b\u1ecb coi l\u00e0 ph\u00f9 th\u1ee7y! (4)\u0110\u01b0\u1eddng ngo\u1ea1i lu\u00e2n (Epizykloide): \u0111\u01b0\u1eddng do m\u1ed9t \u0111i\u1ec3m n\u1eb1m tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t v\u00f2ng tr\u00f2n v\u1ea1ch ra khi v\u00f2ng tr\u00f2n n\u00e0y l\u0103n tr\u00ean m\u1ed9t v\u00f2ng tr\u00f2n kh\u00e1c c\u1ed1 \u0111\u1ecbnh. (5)Ti\u1ebfng La tinh: V\u0169 tr\u1ee5 c\u1ee7a Aristoteles th\u1ea7n th\u00e1nh. (1)M\u1ed9t d\u00f2ng t\u1eeb thi\u1ec7n do b\u00e0 th\u00e1nh Angela Merici (1474-1540) th\u00e0nh l\u1eadp. (1) Ti\u1ebfng La tinh: nh\u1eb9 d\u1ea1, c\u1ea3 tin t\u1edbi m\u1ee9c th\u00e0nh kh\u1edd kh\u1ea1o, m\u00ea mu\u1ed9i. (2) Venus: v\u1eeba l\u00e0 sao Kim, v\u1eeba l\u00e0 t\u00ean c\u1ee7a n\u1eef th\u1ea7n \u00e1i t\u00ecnh - th\u1ea7n 'V\u1ec7 n\u1eef' (th\u1ea7n tho\u1ea1i La M\u00e3). (3) Brecht ch\u01a1i ch\u1eef; 'Schwindel' v\u1eeba c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a ch\u00f3ng m\u1eb7t, v\u1eeba c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a s\u1ef1 l\u1eeba g\u1ea1t. Do \u0111\u00f3, c\u00e2u 'T\u00f4i b\u1ecb ch\u1ee9ng ch\u00f3ng m\u1eb7t' c\u00f3 th\u1ec3 thay b\u1eb1ng: 'T\u00f4i \u0111au kh\u1ed5 v\u00ec b\u1ecb l\u1eeba g\u1ea1t.' (4) Nh\u01b0 ch\u00fa th\u00edch tr\u00ean. C\u00e2u n\u00e0y ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 'Trong Collegium Romanum th\u00ec \u0111\u1eebng h\u00f2ng m\u00e0 l\u1eeba g\u1ea1t \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c.' (5) Tycho Brahe (1546-1691): nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n v\u00e0 to\u00e1n h\u1ecdc \u0110an M\u1ea1ch. N\u0103m 1572, \u00f4ng ph\u00e1t hi\u1ec7n ra m\u1ed9t ng\u00f4i sao m\u1edbi, tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi c\u00f3 k\u00ednh vi\u1ec5n v\u1ecdng. (6) Ti\u1ebfng La tinh: H\u00e3y \u0111\u1ea5u tranh ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i ngay t\u1eeb l\u00fac s\u1ef1 vi\u1ec7c c\u00f2n manh nha. (7) Kinh Th\u00e1nh, C\u1ef1u \u01b0\u1edbc, Josua 10:12. (8) Kinh Th\u00e1nh: \u0110\u1ee9c Ch\u00faa Cha g\u1eedi con l\u00e0 Ch\u00faa Gi\u00easu xu\u1ed1ng th\u1ebf gian, ch\u1ecbu \u0111\u00f3ng \u0111inh \u0111\u1ec3 c\u1ee9u lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u1ed9i l\u1ed7i. (1) C\u00f3 hai n\u00e0ng Thais: m\u1ed9t l\u00e0 v\u0169 n\u1eef, g\u00e1i \u0111i\u1ebfm \u1edf Ath\u00e8nes (Hy L\u1ea1p), th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 4 tr.TL, ng\u01b0\u1eddi t\u00ecnh c\u1ee7a \u0111\u1ea1i \u0111\u1ebf Alexandre; n\u00e0ng kia l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t c\u00f4 g\u00e1i giang h\u1ed3 Ai C\u1eadp, h\u1ed1i c\u1ea3i, \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1ed9t \u1ea9n s\u0129 c\u1ea3i \u0111\u1ea1o, sau \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c phong th\u00e1nh. Kh\u00f4ng r\u00f5 \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y Brecht n\u00f3i v\u1ec1 n\u00e0ng Thais n\u00e0o. (2) Salomo (965-926 tr.TL): vua Do Th\u00e1i, t\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n r\u1eb1ng r\u1ea5t s\u00e1ng su\u1ed1t. (3) Nh\u1eefng c\u00e2u H\u1ed3ng y Barberini 'ngh\u0129 th\u1ea7m' \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c in nghi\u00eang \u0111\u1eadm cho r\u00f5 \u00fd. (4) 'Das Heillige Offizium': c\u01a1 quan t\u1ed1i cao ph\u1ee5 tr\u00e1ch c\u00e1c v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 thu\u1ed9c v\u1ec1 '\u0110\u1ee9c tin' - v\u1ea5n \u0111\u1ec1 h\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ea7u c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i. (5) Bi\u1ebfn t\u01b0\u1ee3ng (Phase): nh\u1eefng tr\u1ea1ng th\u00e1i kh\u00e1c nhau c\u1ee7a m\u1eb7t tr\u01b0ng hay m\u1ed9t h\u00e0nh tinh kh\u00f4ng t\u1ef1 chi\u1ebfu s\u00e1ng, d\u1ea1ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n c\u1ee7a n\u00f3 t\u00f9y theo \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi chi\u1ebfu s\u00e1ng nh\u01b0 th\u1ebf n\u00e0o. (6) Nguy\u00ean v\u0103n: \u0111\u1eebng n\u00ean v\u00ec mu\u1ed1n \u0111\u1ecf ch\u1eadu n\u01b0\u1edbc t\u1eafm m\u00e0 h\u1ea5t lu\u00f4n c\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ee9a b\u00e9 \u0111i. (1) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 c\u00e1c Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng. (2) Kinh Th\u00e1nh (S\u00e1ng th\u1ebf k\u00fd): Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi t\u1ea1o ra con ng\u01b0\u1eddi mang h\u00ecnh \u1ea3nh c\u1ee7a Ng\u01b0\u1eddi. (3) \u1ede \u0111\u00e2y Brecht c\u0169ng cho Galilei g\u1ecdi khi th\u00ec '\u00f4ng', khi th\u00ec 'c\u1eadu'. (4) Priap: th\u1ea7n ph\u1ed3n th\u1ef1c. (5) Horace (65-8 tr.TL): nh\u00e0 th\u01a1 La M\u00e3 c\u1ed5 \u0111\u1ea1i. (6) Esquilin: t\u00ean m\u1ed9t trong b\u1ea3y ng\u1ecdn \u0111\u1ed3i \u1edf Rom. (7) Kinh Th\u00e1nh (C\u1ef1u \u01b0\u1edbc): B\u1ecb qu\u1ef7 d\u1eef x\u00fai gi\u1ee5c, Adam v\u00e0 Eve - t\u1ed5 ti\u00ean lo\u00e0i ng\u01b0\u1eddi - \u0111\u00e3 \u0103n tr\u00e1i t\u00e1o c\u1ea5m trong v\u01b0\u1eddn \u0110\u1ecba \u0111\u00e0ng \u0111\u1ec3 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c th\u00f4ng hi\u1ec3u m\u1ecdi s\u1ef1 'nh\u01b0 \u0110\u1ee9c Ch\u00faa Tr\u1eddi', n\u00ean hai ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ecb Ch\u00faa \u0111u\u1ed5i kh\u1ecfi v\u01b0\u1eddn \u0110\u1ecba \u0111\u00e0ng, t\u1eeb \u0111\u00f3 con ch\u00e1u \u0111\u1eddi \u0111\u1eddi b\u1ecb tr\u1eebng ph\u1ea1t. (1) Ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ecbch l\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ecf ph\u1ea7n \u0111\u1ea7u r\u1ea5t d\u00e0i c\u1ee7a Hans Mayer vi\u1ebft v\u1ec1 k\u1ecbch ngh\u1ec7 c\u1ee7a Brecht v\u00e0 v\u1ec1 c\u00e1c v\u1edf 'kinh \u0111i\u1ec3n' kh\u00e1c c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng. (2) Ngo\u00e0i ngh\u0129a s\u1eed thi, anh h\u00f9ng ca, 'episch' c\u00f2n c\u00f3 ngh\u0129a 't\u01b0\u1eddng thu\u1eadt, k\u1ec3'. Brecht l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u0111\u1ec1 x\u01b0\u1edbng k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt cho xen k\u1ebd nh\u1eefng m\u00e0n \u0111\u1ecdc th\u01a1 ho\u1eb7c h\u00e1t ca kh\u00fac gi\u1eefa nh\u1eefng \u0111\u1ed1i tho\u1ea1i ho\u1eb7c m\u00e0n di\u1ec5n tr\u00ean s\u00e2n kh\u1ea5u, nh\u1eb1m m\u1ee5c \u0111\u00edch gi\u00fap kh\u00e1n gi\u1ea3","hi\u1ec3u m\u1ed9t c\u00e1ch c\u00f3 \u00fd th\u1ee9c \u00fd ngh\u0129a s\u00e2u xa c\u1ee7a c\u1ed1t truy\u1ec7n, t\u00e2m l\u00fd nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt, h\u1eadu \u00fd t\u00e1c gi\u1ea3, thay v\u00ec \u0111\u1ec3 h\u1ecd - nh\u01b0 th\u00f3i th\u01b0\u1eddng - b\u1ecb l\u00f4i cu\u1ed1n theo t\u00ecnh ti\u1ebft, bu\u1ed3n th\u01b0\u01a1ng, gi\u1eadn gh\u00e9t theo nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt tr\u00ean s\u00e2n kh\u1ea5u. (3) Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967): nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd nguy\u00ean t\u1eed M\u1ef9, m\u1ed9t trong nh\u1eefng cha \u0111\u1ebb c\u1ee7a hai qu\u1ea3 bom nguy\u00ean t\u1eed th\u1ea3 xu\u1ed1ng Nh\u1eadt B\u1ea3n cu\u1ed1i Th\u1ebf chi\u1ebfn II. V\u1ec1 sau \u00f4ng ch\u1ed1ng l\u1ea1i vi\u1ec7c ch\u1ebf bom H v\u00ec l\u00fd do \u0111\u1ea1o \u0111\u1ee9c, n\u00ean kh\u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c tham gia nh\u1eefng ch\u01b0\u01a1ng tr\u00ecnh quan tr\u1ecdng n\u1eefa. T\u1eeb 1947 \u0111\u1ebfn 1966, \u00f4ng ch\u1ec9 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 gi\u00e1m \u0111\u1ed1c m\u1ed9t vi\u1ec7n nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u t\u1ea1i Princeton. (Th\u1eadm ch\u00ed, n\u0103m 1954 - th\u1eddi 's\u0103n' C\u1ed9ng s\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a McCarthy - Oppenheimer c\u00f2n ph\u1ea3i ra \u0111i\u1ec1u tr\u1ea7n tr\u01b0\u1edbc m\u1ed9t \u1ee7y ban \u0111i\u1ec1u tra v\u1ec1 khuynh h\u01b0\u1edbng ch\u00ednh tr\u1ecb c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng). (4) Friederich D\u00fcrrenmatt (1921-1990): nh\u00e0 v\u0103n, nh\u00e0 vi\u1ebft k\u1ecbch n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng Th\u1ee5y S\u0129. Trong v\u1edf Die Physiker - c\u00e1c Nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd, \u00f4ng \u0111\u00e3 cho nh\u1eefng nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc n\u00e0y ch\u1ea1y tr\u1ed1n v\u00e0o nh\u00e0 th\u01b0\u01a1ng \u0111i\u00ean \u0111\u1ec3 kh\u1ecfi ph\u1ea3i c\u1ed9ng t\u00e1c. (5) V\u1edf 'Fl\u00fcchtlingsgespr\u00e4che' (1940) c\u0169ng c\u1ee7a Brecht. (6) Th\u1eddi Hitler c\u1ea7m quy\u1ec1n (1933-1945), n\u01b0\u1edbc \u0110\u1ee9c c\u00f3 t\u00ean l\u00e0 \u0110\u1ebf ch\u1ebf th\u1ee9 ba. (7) Theo c\u00e1ch ph\u00e2n lo\u1ea1i v\u00e0 \u0111\u1ecbnh ngh\u0129a th\u00f4ng th\u01b0\u1eddng trong v\u0103n h\u1ecdc ph\u01b0\u01a1ng T\u00e2y, v\u1edf k\u1ecbch \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 h\u00e0i k\u1ecbch (Komoedie) khi k\u1ebft th\u00fac t\u1ed1t \u0111\u1eb9p - 'c\u00f3 h\u1eadu', c\u00f2n bi k\u1ecbch (Tragoedi) lu\u00f4n k\u1ebft th\u00fac v\u1edbi nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt ch\u00ednh b\u1ecb th\u1ea5t b\u1ea1i, thua cu\u1ed9c. (8) \u00dd n\u00f3i: hi\u1ec7n t\u01b0\u1ee3ng c\u00e1c nh\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc d\u0169ng c\u1ea3m t\u00ecm ch\u00e2n l\u00fd, \u0111\u00e1nh \u0111\u1ed5 h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u0169. (9) C\u00f3 l\u1ebd Hans Mayer mu\u1ed1n n\u00f3i t\u1edbi th\u1eddi k\u1ef3 ph\u00f4i thai c\u1ee7a 'x\u00e3 h\u1ed9i d\u00e2n quy\u1ec1n' ch\u0103ng, v\u00ec l\u00fac \u0111\u00f3 c\u00f2n l\u00e0 th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5? (1) 'Lu\u1eadn v\u1ec1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng tr\u00f2n c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c thi\u00ean th\u1ec3'. (2) Salviati l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi di\u1ec5n \u0111\u1ea1t quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u1ee7a Galilei; Sagredo l\u00e0 ng\u01b0\u1eddi ham t\u00ecm hi\u1ec3u (gi\u1ed1ng m\u1ed9t ng\u01b0\u1eddi b\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a Galilei); c\u00f2n Simplicio (ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 ng\u00e2y th\u01a1) b\u00eanh v\u1ef1c quan \u0111i\u1ec3m c\u0169 c\u1ee7a Arisroteles. Galilei \u0111\u00e3 ph\u1ea3i mang v\u1ea1, v\u00ec b\u1ecb vu c\u00e1o r\u1eb1ng nh\u00e2n v\u1eadt Simplicio n\u00e0y t\u01b0\u1ee3ng tr\u01b0ng Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng \u0111\u01b0\u01a1ng th\u1eddi. (3) Nh\u1eefng 'gi\u00e1o ph\u00e1i kh\u00e1c' \u1edf \u0111\u00e2y c\u00f3 l\u1ebd l\u00e0 nh\u1eefng gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i C\u01a1 \u0110\u1ed1c 'ly khai', kh\u00f4ng ch\u1ea5p nh\u1eadn quy\u1ec1n cai qu\u1ea3n c\u1ee7a Vatican, nh\u01b0 Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Ch\u00ednh Th\u1ed1ng, Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Tin L\u00e0nh. (4) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): nh\u00e0 thi\u00ean v\u0103n \u0110\u1ee9c; \u00f4ng cho r\u1eb1ng m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi \u0111\u00e3 ph\u00e1t ra l\u1ef1c g\u00e2y n\u00ean s\u1ef1 chuy\u1ec3n \u0111\u1ed9ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c h\u00e0nh tinh. (1)Otto Hahn (1879-1968) l\u00e0 nh\u00e0 h\u00f3a h\u1ecdc \u0110\u1ee9c - kh\u00f4ng ph\u1ea3i nh\u00e0 v\u1eadt l\u00fd nh\u01b0 trong l\u1eddi gi\u1edbi thi\u1ec7u c\u1ee7a Nxb Suhrkamp. N\u0103m 1944, \u00f4ng \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c trao gi\u1ea3i Nobel H\u00f3a h\u1ecdc. (M\u1ecdi ch\u00fa th\u00edch \u0111\u1ec1u c\u1ee7a ng\u01b0\u1eddi d\u1ecbch). (1)Nikolaus Kopernikus (1473- 1543): gi\u00e1o s\u0129 Ba Lan, l\u1eadp ra thuy\u1ebft th\u00e1i d\u01b0\u01a1ng h\u1ec7 v\u1edbi m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m (thuy\u1ebft nh\u1eadt t\u00e2m). Thuy\u1ebft n\u00e0y ch\u1ec9 \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c c\u00f4ng b\u1ed1 sau khi \u00f4ng qua \u0111\u1eddi. (2)Ngh\u0129a b\u00f3ng l\u00e0 tr\u00e1nh ng\u00f4i nh\u00e0 n\u00e0y. (3)Claudius Ptolemaeus (100-160): nh\u00e0 nghi\u00ean c\u1ee9u Hy L\u1ea1p, l\u1eadp ra thuy\u1ebft v\u1ec1 v\u0169 tr\u1ee5 v\u1edbi qu\u1ea3 \u0111\u1ea5t l\u00e0 trung t\u00e2m (thuy\u1ebft \u0111\u1ecba t\u00e2m). (4) T\u00e1m l\u1edbp nh\u01b0 sau (t\u1eeb t\u00e2m ra): 1. m\u1eb7t tr\u0103ng 2. sao Th\u1ee7y (Merkur) 3. sao Kim (Venus) 4. m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi 5. sao H\u1ecfa (Mars) 6. sao M\u1ed9c (Jupiter) 7. sao Th\u1ed5 (Saturn) 8. t\u1ea7ng c\u1ee7a c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ecbnh tinh. (5)Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 14, b\u1ec7nh d\u1ecbch h\u1ea1ch ho\u00e0nh h\u00e0nh kh\u1ee7ng","khi\u1ebfp \u1edf ch\u00e2u \u00c2u khi\u1ebfn h\u00e0ng tri\u1ec7u ng\u01b0\u1eddi ch\u1ebft, n\u00ean th\u1eddi b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd ng\u01b0\u1eddi ta lu\u00f4n n\u01a1m n\u1edbp lo s\u1ee3. (6)Brecht c\u1ed1 \u00fd \u0111\u1ec3 Andrea n\u00f3i sai, v\u00ec \u00f4ng ch\u01a1i ch\u1eef: kippen ngh\u0129a l\u00e0 h\u1ea5t \u0111\u1ed5 (h\u1ecdc thuy\u1ebft c\u0169)! (7)Skudo l\u00e0 \u0111\u1ed3ng ti\u1ec1n v\u00e0ng. (8)N\u01b0\u1edbc C\u1ed9ng h\u00f2a: t\u1eeb th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 7 Venedig (Venise) \u0111\u00e3 x\u01b0ng l\u00e0 C\u1ed9ng ho\u00e0 San Marco, do m\u1ed9t H\u1ed9i \u0111\u1ed3ng (Signoria) - g\u1ed3m \u0111\u1ea1i di\u1ec7n c\u00e1c gia \u0111\u00ecnh qu\u00fd t\u1ed9c - cai tr\u1ecb, \u0111\u1ee9ng \u0111\u1ea7u l\u00e0 m\u1ed9t \u0110\u1ea1i th\u1ed1ng l\u00e3nh (Doge) \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1ea7u m\u00e3n \u0111\u1eddi. (9) Cremonini: m\u1ed9t th\u1eddi l\u00e0 b\u1ea1n c\u1ee7a Galilei. (10) Inquisition, m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 't\u00f2a \u00e1n' c\u1ef1c \u0111oan c\u1ee7a Gi\u00e1o h\u1ed9i Thi\u00ean Ch\u00faa gi\u00e1o th\u1eddi Trung c\u1ed5, nh\u1eb1m ti\u00eau di\u1ec7t m\u1ecdi 't\u00e0 gi\u00e1o' v\u00e0 \u1ea3nh h\u01b0\u1edfng c\u1ee7a ch\u00fang tr\u00ean m\u1ecdi l\u00e3nh v\u1ef1c - k\u1ec3 c\u1ea3 trong khoa h\u1ecdc, nh\u01b0 v\u1ee5 \u00e1n Giordano Bruno v\u00e0 Galileo Galilei. B\u1ea3n \u00e1n kh\u1ee7ng khi\u1ebfp nh\u1ea5t l\u00e0 'thi\u00eau'. (11)Giordano Bruno (1548-1600): tri\u1ebft gia \u00dd, tu xu\u1ea5t d\u00f2ng Dominique, d\u1ef1a tr\u00ean thuy\u1ebft c\u1ee7a Kopernikus \u0111\u1eb7t nghi v\u1ea5n v\u1ec1 s\u1ef1 hi\u1ec7n h\u1eefu c\u1ee7a Ch\u00faa trong kh\u00f4ng gian v\u00e0 th\u1eddi gian trong v\u0169 tr\u1ee5. N\u0103m 1592 Venedig giao \u00f4ng cho Rom, n\u0103m 1600 \u00f4ng b\u1ecb T\u00f2a \u00e1n T\u00f4n gi\u00e1o k\u1ebft \u00e1n thi\u00eau. (12) Ngh\u0129a b\u00f3ng l\u00e0 g\u00e2y d\u01b0 lu\u1eadn x\u00f4n xao. (13) Prag: th\u1ee7 \u0111\u00f4 Ti\u1ec7p. (14)Tr\u01b0\u1edbc khi ng\u01b0\u1eddi \u00c2u h\u1ecdc \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c k\u1ef9 thu\u1eadt l\u00e0m gi\u1ea5y c\u1ee7a Trung Qu\u1ed1c, h\u1ecd ph\u1ea3i vi\u1ebft l\u00ean da c\u1eebu hay d\u00ea - nh\u01b0ng nh\u1edd \u0111\u00f3 m\u00e0 nhi\u1ec1u v\u0103n th\u01b0 c\u1ed5 v\u1eabn gi\u1eef \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c \u0111\u1ebfn ng\u00e0y nay. (15)Com pa t\u1ef7 l\u1ec7 (Proportionalzirkel): m\u1ed9t th\u1ee9 th\u01b0\u1edbc t\u00ednh th\u1eddi b\u1ea5y gi\u1edd, g\u1ed3m hai 'th\u01b0\u1edbc' c\u00f3 chia \u0111\u1ed9 \u0111\u1ec3 t\u00ednh to\u00e1n; ch\u00fang \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c b\u1eaft \u1ed1c \u1edf m\u1ed9t \u0111\u1ea7u, xoay \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c nh\u01b0 c\u00e1i com pa. (16)M\u01b0\u1ee3n \u00fd c\u00e2u 'Ng\u01b0\u01a1i kh\u00f4ng n\u00ean c\u1ed9t m\u00f5m con b\u00f2 \u0111ang \u0111\u1ea1p l\u00faa' ( C\u1ef1u \u01af\u1edbc, Moses quy\u1ec3n 5 - 25,4). (17)Gracia Dei (ti\u1ebfng La tinh): Ch\u00faa l\u00f2ng l\u00e0nh v\u00f4 c\u00f9ng. (1) Klafter (\u0111\u1ecdc l\u00e0 clap-t\u01a1): \u0111\u01a1n v\u1ecb c\u1ed5 cho g\u1ed7, b\u1eb1ng kho\u1ea3ng 3 m\u00e9t kh\u1ed1i g\u1ed7. (2) \u00c1m ch\u1ec9 Giordano Bruno. (3)\u00c1m ch\u1ec9 Giordano Bruno. (4) N\u01a1i c\u00f3 ng\u1ecdn th\u00e1p nghi\u00eang n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng, t\u01b0\u01a1ng truy\u1ec1n Galilei \u0111\u00e3 th\u00ed nghi\u1ec7m 'lu\u1eadt r\u01a1i t\u1ef1 do' c\u1ee7a \u00f4ng t\u1ea1i th\u00e1p n\u00e0y. (5)D\u00f2ng h\u1ecd n\u1ed5i ti\u1ebfng \u1edf \u00dd, gi\u00e0u c\u00f3 nh\u1edd l\u00e0m ng\u00e2n h\u00e0ng, do ti\u1ec1n nhi\u1ec1u, th\u1ebf l\u1ef1c m\u1ea1nh, nhi\u1ec1u ng\u01b0\u1eddi trong d\u00f2ng h\u1ecd n\u00e0y \u0111\u01b0\u1ee3c l\u00e0m Gi\u00e1o ho\u00e0ng. \u0110\u00e3 h\u1ed7 tr\u1ee3 ngh\u1ec7 thu\u1eadt v\u00e0 khoa h\u1ecdc su\u1ed1t nhi\u1ec1u th\u1ebf k\u1ef7, v\u1edbi nh\u1eefng t\u00ean tu\u1ed5i nh\u01b0 Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei... (6)Th\u1ebf k\u1ef7 17 n\u01b0\u1edbc \u00dd v\u1eabn c\u00f2n chia l\u00e0m nhi\u1ec1u v\u00f9ng nh\u1ecf. M\u1ed7i \u0111\u1ea1i c\u00f4ng qu\u1ed1c tuy kh\u00f4ng g\u1ecdi l\u00e0 n\u01b0\u1edbc, song c\u00e1c \u0111\u1ea1i c\u00f4ng t\u01b0\u1edbc v\u1eabn c\u00f3 tri\u1ec1u \u0111\u00ecnh ri\u00eang. (1) V\u1ebft \u0111en th\u1ec9nh tho\u1ea3ng xu\u1ea5t hi\u1ec7n tr\u00ean b\u1ec1 m\u1eb7t m\u1eb7t tr\u1eddi, g\u00e2y r\u1ed1i lo\u1ea1n v\u00e0 nhi\u1ec5u v\u1ec1 \u0111i\u1ec7n. (2) T\u00ean m\u1ed9t quy\u1ec3n s\u00e1ch c\u1ee7a nh\u00e0 th\u1ea7n h\u1ecdc ki\u00eam thi\u00ean v\u0103n h\u1ecdc Johann Fabrizius (1587-1615)."]