ມ.2_ວິທະຍາສາດ ທຳມະຊາດ_NatScience

ovd9kdmduj kj ;,kocU ];h 7oq c]t lfa .ssh p’a cfcj dlj ’jy c;f]vh ,L @D dkorq;rao]ts;jk’7qo da[ lyj’c;f]hv,[+,u-u;yf dyf9tde $G dkl mujwfh9kddkoskp.90v’7qo c]t laf !? gvqkoEx6o.lxt,ko & cm3 .lj.os^vfmqf]v’0t|kfdk’F 9kdoAo gvqkdkl dkd3[oyd.l.j omkf]t]kpoEx6o.lD Iu[2hk; la’gdfmkf]t]kp c]t [aombdzqoD @? gxqkj ]q,vvd9kdxkdzkj os^vf1k’ s^n s^vf dkg2]q’.os^vfmqf]v’mju[ao95mkf]t]kp oEx6o.lD la’gdfmkf]t]kp c]h;xP[mP[ 0=h !D I6[ #@D$ ltcf’dkogxqkj ]q,zkj os^vf1k’ ]q’.ooEx6o.l zoq l’a gdf 8k8t]k’[oa mdb zoq ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dkomfq ]v’ s’a^ 9kdgvkq dkldkd3[ody .loj Exo6 .l dvj ogxkqj oEx6o.l s^a’gxkqj oEx6o.l 9kddkomqf]v’g,njvgxqjk]q,skp.9]q’.ljoEx6o.lF oEx6o.l05joD oAo ltcf’;jk ],q skp.90v’7oq ,du kl dkd3[ody xoq 1Dj6 f’ja ooA F 9’jb dkj ;wf;h kj dkldkd3[ody .ovkdkf l;j o|’jb c,oj wfh,k9kd]q,skp.90v’7qo c]t lafD lyj’c;f]hv,.sh7qogIqk ,uG vkskoF oEfn,j F vkdkfskp.9F mu1j 6vj kwlF [vj os^Yo,;j oF l’jy moju e,kzt]fy 8kj ’MF cl’lts;kj ’DDD 147

dyf9tde &G lyj’c;f]hv,wfhIa[9kd7qo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 9’qj la’gdfI6[8+wxoU c]h;[vd;kj ly’j c;f]hv,wfhIa[9kd7qo,uspa’cfLj I6[ #@D& zqodtmq[0v’ly’j c;f]hv, .omhv’4yjo0v’oadIPo ly’j c;f]hv,,udkoxPj ocx’ s^n [+L 4hkxPj oF xPj oco;.fcfLj dkoxPj ocx’ltrk[c;f]vh ,gdfu 9kddkodtme0v’7oq c]t wrme,t-kf .oooA 8oQ 8= gdfu 9kddkodtme0v’7oq mguj Ifa .sxh Pj ocx’g-oja G l’jy glfgsvn^ 8kj ’M9kddkozt]fy c]t dko .-hlvpF fyo0kf7;k,v5fq,lq,[6oF oEgxygxNvoF vkdkf,u/5jo]tvv’ c]t vkpryfg9nvxqog-y’j gxoa zoq ltmvh o.sgh dfu w2w\\xh kj F vkdkfcs’h c]’h F oE4;h ,F ],q rtp5 c]t vojn Mmguj xoa voa 8t]kp8+ -u;yf c]t -a[lyoD 7e4k,G !D ly’j mu,j u-u;yf c]t ly’j mu[j +,u-u;yf,udkorq;raodaoco;.fL @D 7qogIaf.shly’j c;f]hv,xPj ocx’co;.fL #D grnvj gIaf.shly’j c;f]hv,pnopq’8ts^vfwx oadIPo9tgIafco;.fL 148

[qfmu ## xt-kdvo.o]t[q[oyg;f !D 7;k,\\kp c]t 0t|kf0v’xt-kdvo !? xt-kdvo\\kpg4y’spa’L dyf9tde !G 9qj’la’gdfI6[ c]h;[vd;jk ,ulyj’muj,u-u;yf.fcfjvkwl16j c]t lt4komuj16j.lL I6[ ##D! xt-kdvolaf c]t rnf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ly’j muj,u-u;yf vkwl16.j olt4komujfP;dao .ow]ptg;]k.f|b’j gvUo;kj xt-kdvoD 8;q 1kj ’G xt-kdvooqdF xt-kdvozad8q[F xt-kdvo8Qolk]uF xt-kdvo8adc8oDDD 1.j6 ogoNvm9uj edfa |’jb D @? dkoxjPocx’xt-kdvo .ocs^j’mju16jc8j]tcsj’9t,u9eo;olyj’mju,u-u;yf s^n 9eo;oxt-kdvoc8d8jk’daowxD dkolbdlk0t|kf s^n ]adltot7;k,|kc|ho0v’xt-kdvo.ocs^j’mju16j|bj’Mlk,kf xt8y[fa dkoldb lkc8]j tfkh of’ja oUG → dkov[q rtp[q g0kQ 0v’d,j5 l’yj mu,j u-u;yf dkov[q rtp[q g0kQ dkov[q rtp[q vvd0v’d,j5 l’yj mu,j u-u;yf 3 dkogduf 0t|kf0v’ x dko8kp dkogdfu xt-kdvo dko8kp dkov[q rtp[q vvd 149

9kddkolbdlkf’aj dkj ;lk,kfc[’j 0t|kf0v’xt-kdvovvdgxao # 0t|kfwfhf’aj oUGສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dD xt-kdvomu,j u0t|kf7q’muj vaf8kdkogduf + vaf8kdkovq[rtpq[g0Qk = vaf8kdko8kp + vaf8kdkovq[ rtp[q vvd 0D xt-kdvo,u0t|kfgr,uj 0Bo vaf8kdkogduf + vaf8kdkovq[rtpq[g0Qk > vaf8kdko8kp + vaf8kdko v[q rtp[q vvd 7D xt-kdvo,u0t|kfs]5f]’q vaf8kdkogduf + vaf8kdkovq[rtpq[g0Qk < vaf8kdko8kp + vaf8kdkovq[ rtp[q vvd @D xafw9mjugIaf.shgdufdkoxjPocx’0t|kf0v’xt-kdvo xfa w9mugj Ifa .sgh dufdkoxPj ocx’0t|kf0v’xt-kdvoG { dkoxPj ocx’0v’ltrk[c;f]vh , { dyf9tde8kj ’M0v’,to5f { 9eo;oz]h6 kj { -a[rtpkdvo,u9edaf { dko9tg]uog8u[381kj ’w;0v’l’yj mu,j u-u;yf { laf86mk’me,t-kf c]t g-Nv3]d #D 7;k,|kc|ho0v’xt-kdvo I6[ ##D@ 8q;g,nv’ I6[ ##D# -qoot[qf 150

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດdyf9tde @G lbdlkxt-kdvo.o8q;g,nv’ c]t -qoot[qf 9q’j la’gdfI6[ ##D@ c]t ##D# c]h;8v[7e4k,G { ltrk[c;f]hv, c]t xt-kdvo.o8q;g,nv’ c]t -qoot[qfc8d8kj ’daoco;.fL { c,oj sp’a gxoa lkgsf0v’dkoxPj ocx’xt-kdvoL oadIPovkf9tgsao;kj 1.6j ogoNvmguj mkqj daoF .o8q;g,nv’.spMj 9t,u7qovkwl161j kj ’c|ho|k 8kj ’9kd8q;g,nv’ohvpM c]t -qoot[qfmu,j u7qovkwl1[6j +c|ho|kxko.fF grojy g;kQ ;kj xt-kdvo.o8;q g,vn ’,7u ;k,|kc|oh l'6 F d’q doa 0kh , 4kh ,7u oq 9eo;o|vh p vkwl1[6j vj ogoNvmudj ;hk’0;k’ groyj g;Qk;kj 1[6j vj ooAo ,u7;k,|kc|ho0v’xt-kdvo186j ej D grvnj 1kdI7h6 ;k,|kc\\oh l’6 0v’xt-kdvo.s7h yfw]8j k,lf6 f’ja oUG 9eo;oxt-kdvoma’\\qf.ogoNvmuj s^n [=]y,kfmujdeoqf 7;k,|kc|ho0v’xt-kdvo = goNvmuj s^n [=]y,kf dyf9tde #G lbdlk9eo;oxt-kdvoxk lq,,5f;kj cm’j gs^adgxaoxkxqo16.j o/5oj 0Ug]nvj p .shoadIPol5,j sk9eo;oxt-kdvoxk3fp .-h0v[w,hlusj ^Pj , c]h;oe,kxtg,uo0t|kf0v’xt-kdvo 3fpxt8y[affa’j oUG !? .sh;k’0v[w,hl]uj Pj ,]q’.o4kf[vj o.fd=wfhD @? .-hc,gj s^ad9a[gvqkxkm5d8q;mu1j .6j o0v[w,hl]uj Pj , oa[9eo;oxkmuwj fh #? gIafdkomqf]v’8nj,vudgxaolv’7A’ 3fp.oc8j]t7A’.sh;k’0v[w,hluj]jP,w;h.o [=]yg;o mucj 8d8kj ’doa D $D zqodtmq[9kddkogruj,0Bo0v’xt-kdvo dkogr,uj 0Bo0v’xt-kdvo9t,uzoq dtm[q co;.fcfLj dyf9tde $G lbdlkzqodtmq[9kddkogruj,0Bo0v’xt-kdvo .soh da IPoldb lk zoq dtm[q mgju dfu 9kdxt-kdvogr,ju 0oB c];h 0Po8,jn .l.j o 8k8t]k’D 151

8k8t]k’[aombdzqo xt-kdvo dko.-h l’jy glfgs^vn l’yj c;f]hv, l50trk[ -a[rtpkdvo 4kh xt-kdvo gr,ju 0oB 4kh xt-kdvo s^f5 ]’q zqodtmq[9kddkogruj,0Bo0v’xt-kdvo7nG 8+-a[rtpkdvome,t-kf 8+7qo c]t laf -a[rtpkdvocs^j’oEG { g9a[x;j pF gxaortpkf { gxygxBvo c]t l’qj doyj g\\ao { 0kfmujfyome,kskdyo c]t muj16vj kwl { gxoa cs’^j crrj oa g-NvrtpkfF voa 8t]kp X3fpltgrkt.o8;q g,nv’? 8+7qo c]t lafmuj[=]y3rd c]t v5xt3rdD { cd’h cp’h -;j ’-u’ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ -a[rtpkdvofyoG { gduf[aoskmk’la’7q,F ,udkox5ho9U c]t { fyog-vnj ,ltrk[ dv+ kfltptdeF [oa sk3]dgvfF l’jy gl[8fy D { foy g9vjn o { glf4tdyf8qd8ej F { ,ug-Nvrtpkfxoq 1.j6 ofyo { gdfu [oa sks;kj ’’koD { ,ug-Nvrtpkf xoq gxNvo.ofyog-’jy gxoa voa 8t]kp8+7qo c]t lafmuj[=]y3rdrnfD -a[rtpkdvoxjkw,hG { 0kfc7ow,h c]t 7;k,v5fq,lq,[6o vkdkfG { gdufrk;tcs’h c]’h D { gduf,oq ]tryfmk’vkdkf { gdufrtpkfmk’]t[[q skp.9 { gdfu /oq 8dq |da gIfa .sgh dfu oE4;h ,foy F oE c]t xkj w,h4ndme]kpD D 152

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດlts^5[c]h; lyj’mju,u-u;yf16jIj;,daos^kp 9t8hv’pkf-u’daomk’fhkomju16j c]t vksko dkodyogrnjv7;k,16j]vfD ovd9kdoAoF pa’,u[aoskvnjoMvuds^kp1jk’mjuvkf9tgduf0Bo9kd dkofe]’q -;u fy 1Ij6 ;j ,doa 1kj ’|kc|oh gdou wxD f’ja ooA F gIkq 9tgsoa ;kj 4kh xt-kdvogr,ju 0oB s^kp d=9toe.-h-a[rtpkdvome,t-kfs^kp0BoF c8-j a[rtpkdvome,t-kfoa[,Noa[9ts^5f]q’ g-’yj gxaozqodtmq[IhkpcI’8+ly’j c;f]hv,D ltoAoF grnvj xhv’dao[aoskfa’j dkj ;8hv’7;[75,9eo;o xt-kdvo .oc8]j tg0fD 7e4k,G !D ltrk[xt-kdvo.omvh ’4oyj 0v’oda IPogxoa co;.fL @D lkgsf.fmujrk.sh-a[rtpkdvogru,j 0Bo s^n s^5f]q’L #D dkogr,uj 0Bo s^n s^5f]q’0v’xt-kdvo,uzqoltmhvoco;.f8+75ootrk[-u;yfL 153

[qfmu #$ xjkw,h c]t oE !D xjkw,h !? xt3spf0v’xjkw,h xkj w,h,uxt3spfspa’cfLj xjkw,h c,jo-a[rtpkdvome,t-kfmjugxaocs^j’oE]emkoF dadgda[oEme,t-kfF -;j p.shgduf7;k,-5,j -noj .ofyo c]t .o[aopkdkfS gIaf.shgdufdko\\6o;Po0v’mkfS ovdoAoF pa’gxaoxafw9mju9egxao8=dkoskp.9le]a[7qo c]t lafF .shxt3spfcdj,to5f.odkox5dlhk’ [hkogInvoF gxaog7nvj ’.-hF gxao1klt\\5owrF gxaomuj16vj kwlcdlj af c]t -;j pxhv’daodkog-kt g9vjn o0v’foy vdu f;h pD @? lkgsf c]t zqodtmq[9kddkome]kpxjkw,h 9’jq l’a gdfI[6 c];h [vd[oa skmuxj kj w,4h ndme]kpglvnj ,3-,L ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dko8afw,hme]kpxjk dko96fxkj dko[5dg[udglAomk’ dkorafmtokrNomujxkj gxaocs^’j mvj ’mPj ; I6[ #$D! lkgsfmujgIaf.shxkj w,h4ndme]kpglnvj ,3-, 154

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດxaf95[aoxkj w,hoa[,Noa[s^5f]q’gonvj ’9kddyf9tde0v’7qogIqkg-aoj G dko8afw,hme]kpxkj F dko96fxjkF dko[5dg[udglAomk’F dkorafmtokrNomjuxjkgxaocs^j’mjv’mjP;DDD rbf8yde 8jk’Mgs^qjkoAo]h;oc8,j uzqodtmq[ grktgxaodkome]kpcs^j’mju16vj kwl0v’lafxkj F gIaf.shlaf xjkl6oraoF fyo0kf7;k,-5,j -njoF rnfraomaoptsko4ndme]kp c]t dtmq[g4y’dko\\6o;Po 0v’mkf8kj ’M .o]t[q[oyg;fD #? dkovto5]adxjkw,h oadIPo9tgIafco;.f grvnj xqdxadIadlkxkj w,h.sh0P;’k,8ts^vfwxL dkovto5]adxkj w,h,us^kp;ymu g-oaj G { xd6 spkh grvjn xvh ’doa foy g9vjn o { xd6 rfn gxoa c4;0;k’8k,goou r6 { sf5^ zvj odko.-mh kfg7,gu 0kQ .odkoxd6 /’a { [+8afw,h c]t me]kpxkj { xd6 8oQ w,mh fq cmo[vj omu4j ndme]kp { 9aflaoxkj w,h F g]nvd8af.o[k’g0fc]h;x6dmqfcmo { 9af8ah’d,5j vto5]adxkj lts’;o { ltdfa doA z]h6 da ]v[me]kpxkj { ]q’3mf8+z6h]tg,uf .odko8afw,hme]kpxkj @D oE !? xt3spf c]t 7;k,le7ao0v’oE oE,uxt3spf c]t le7aoco;.fL oE ,u7;k,le7ao c]t 9egxaomujl5f8+dkofe]q’-u;yfF 4hk0kfoE[+lk,kf,u-u;yf16wj fhD fa’j oAo <oE7nu-u;yf0v’,to5f<S oEgxaomuj16vj kwl0v’ly’j muj,u-u;yf.ooES .-hoE.odkox6d /a’]hP’lafS .-h.odkov5flkstdegxaocs^’j degoufrt]a’’kow22hk g-aoj G g0nvj ooE’n,j F g0nvj o oEgmuo @F g0vnj ooEgmuosuo[6oF g0vnj og-g-afS gxaoglAomk’7q,,tok7q,DDD gxaol’yj veo;p.odko rfa mtokxtgmf-kfD ovdooA p’a gxoa cs’j^ m,uj mu fa ltopy trk[mluj ;p’k,.odkomvj ’mPj ; vdu f;h pD 155

@? lkgsf c]t zqodtmq[9kdoEgxNvo [oa skoEgxNvomugj duf0Bo.omvh ’4oyj 0v’oda IPogxoa co;.fL lkgsfgduf,k9kd.lL laf]q’26,oE 4vd0UgspNv]q’cs^’j oE I6[ #$D@ lkgsf c]t zqodtmq[9kdoEgxNvo xfa 9[5 oa 3fpltgrkt.o8;q g,nv’gsoa ;kj ,u[oa skoEgxygxNvo gduf,k9kds^kplkgsf g-oja G ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dko4Y,0UgspNvF xvj poEgxNvogxy9kd[hkogInvoF 9kd3I’’kov5flkstdeDDD rbf8ydefa’j dkj ; gxoa dkome]kpcs’j^ oE1kj ’0kf7;k,I[a zfy -v[ c]t ];h oc8,j zu oq dtm[q gIfa .soh E,du ojy g\\oa F gxaocs’^j ltlq,0v’g-Nvrtpkf g-’yj gxaovao8t]kp8+z6h[=]y3rd c]t l’yj mu,j u-u;yfmuvj kwl1.6j ooED #? dkovto5]adoE oadIPo9tgIafco;.f grvnj Iadlkcs’^j oE[+.shoEgxygxNvo L I6[ #$D# dkoIadlkcs^’j oE[+.shgxygxNvo 156

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດr;dgIqkm5d7qo8hv’-;j pdaoIadlkcs^j’oE 3fp[+4Y,0UgspNv-t-kpF oEgxNvo9kdcs^j’ 8kj ’M 8hv’,udko[e[afoEglpdvj oxvj p]q’.lcj s^’j oEme,t-kfD 7e4k,G !D gxaospa’ r;dgIqkm5d7qo9’bj 8hv’,ul;j oI;j ,.odkovto5]adxkj w,hL @D 9tgIafco;.f grvnj xhv’dao c]t cdhw0[aoskoEgokqj g\\aoL 157

[qfmu #& 0UgspNvda[75ootrk[-u;yf !D 7;k,\\kp0v’0UgspNv 0UgspNvc,oj sp’a L 0UgspNv \\kpg4y’glf;af45lyj’0v’ g-ajoG glfg9hpF glfzhkF glfvkskoF 4q’x^kl8yd m.uj -ch ];h F 4kj ow2 DDD mguj d[a d;kf9kdgIvn oF 8k,4t|oq soq mk’F 8tsk^ fF 3I’9da 3I’’koF 3I’\\= c]t vnoj MDD @D xtgrf0UgspNv dyf9tde ! G 9q’j la’gdfI6[ c]h; 9afxtgrf0UgspNvL I6[ #&D! 0UgspNvxtgrf8jk’M ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 0gU spvN 4dn c[’j vvdgxoa xtgrf8kj ’M8k,czo;kf],j5 oGU c[’j vvdgxao # xtgrf 0gU spvN 0gU spvN xPd 0gU spvN cs’h m[uj + lk,kf cs’h mluj k .-hwfh ,kf.-hwfh 158

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ!? 0UgspNvxPd \\kpg4y’ 0UgspNvmuj,u7;k,-,5j s^kpXs^kpd;kj &W:? c]t pvj plts^kpwfh’kj pF gokqj gxnvj p w;g-aoj G glfvkskoF .[w,hF glfzad c]t \\kdw,hD I6[ #&D@ 0UgspnhvxPd @? 0UgspNvcsh’ mujlk,kf.-hwfh \\kpg4y’ 0UgspNvmuj,u7;k,-5,j |hvp s^n pvj plts^kpwfhpkd s^n pvj p[+wfhg]up g-y’j c[’j vvdgxao xtgrff’aj oUG { 0gU spvN cs’h lk,kf9f6 wfgh -oja G cdfa g9ph F glf.[w,ch s’h F glfg9ph cs’h F glfspkh cs’h DDD { 0UgspNv csh’9kdrnf c]t laf g-aoj G .[w,hF 0Ulafcsh’ c]t vnoj M g-y’j lk,kfoewx gIfa /oj5 -u;trk[wfDh { 0gU spvN cs’h m[uj l+ k,kf9f6 wf,h Gu glfcd;h F glf3]st8kj ’MF glf-,u ’a c]t glffoy gzkq DDD I6[ #&D# 0Ugspnhvcsh’ 159

#? 0UgspNvcsh’muj[+lk,kf.-hwfh ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ \\kpg4y’ ly’j mu[j ao95mkfg7,u8kj ’M sn^ ly’j mu[j +lk,kfoewxzt]yf7no.\\wj fhg-aoj G da[32,F 4kj ow2lkpF fvdw2F dJv’1klyfp5’F g0a,lad1kgxao8QoD #D 0UgspNvmjugxaovao8t]kp c]t gxaoryf !? 0UgspNvmjugxaovao8t]kp 0UgspNvxtgrf.fmugj xoa voa 8t]kpL 0gU spvN mguj xoa voa 8t]kp c,oj 0gU spvN xtgrf zt]fy 8troa 8kj ’M mwuj ;w2l’6 s^n ;fa 4]5 tg[fu F 0gU spvN 9kd3I’\\= c]t vojn M g-oja G -on F [kF 4kj ow2lkpF fvdw2 gov’q F 0gU spvN 9kddkozkj 8fa F zkh roa [kfcz sn^ vojn MD 0guh spvN m’a \\fq gskjq^ oU gxoa cs’j^ 8fy 80+ v’ g-vhn rtpkf c]t gxoa voa 8t]kpD dkode9fa 8vh ’wfgh Ifa 1kj ’]t,fa ]t;’a c]t gvkq .9.lgj xoa 1kj ’fu grvjn sdu^ g;oA voa 8t]kpmguj xoa zoq dtm[q 8+7oq D @? 0UgspNvmjugxaoryf 0UgspNvxtgrf.fmugj xoa ryfL 0UgspNvgxaoryf c,oj 0UgspNv,k9kd3I’’kov5flkstdeg-aoj G v5flkstdeg7,uF 1k0hk laf86rnf c]t 1k0hkg-nhv.olkmk]totl5dD mkfg[nvj muoj e,kxtdv[gxao1k0hkc,’w,h c]t zt]fy 8troa g7,u 8kj ’MD mkfg7,vu ’q 7tmkf[k’-tofy mgju xoa rfy lk,kfgIfa .s7h oq gxoa ,tgI’a wfDh #? 0UgspNv,uglfde,ao8trk[]a’lu 0UgspNv,uglfde,ao8trk[]a’lu vkfglfgs^nv s^n 8qdgIpj ,k9kdshv’mqf]v’F shv’]a’ lu;ymtpk0v’3I’\\=F3I’’kov5flkstdeoy;g7^p c]t 9kddko.-hvk;5foy;g7^pD dkode9fa 4kh 9f6 dw= \\ch 8j 0gU spvN me,tfkgmkjq ooA F l;j omkfde,oa 8trk[]’a lu [l+ k,kf me]kpwfhD fa’j oAoF dkode9afmujwfhzqo8hv’.-h;ymtpkdkol6’F ,u,6o7kj cr’ryglf fa’j oAo9b’j [+lk,kf4Y, 7ndaoda[0UgspNvme,tfkwfhD $D zqoltmhvo0v’0hugspNv8+dkofe]q’-u;yf dyf9tde @G 9q’j la’gdfI6[ c]h;[vdzqoltmhvo0v’0UgspNvmuj,u8+l50trk[F fyoF oE c]t ly’j c;f]hv,vnoj M 160

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ!? zqoltmhvo8+l50trk[G { ltl,q mkfrfy 8kj ’M c]t l’jq dojy g\\oa S 7oq skp.9gvkq dojy g\\oa c]t mkfrfy rk.sgh xoa rtpkf]t[q[skp.9 I6[ #&D$ zqoltmhvo0v’0hugspNv8+dkofe]q’-u;yf 161

{ gxoa cs’j^ crrj oa 0v’g-vN rtpkf7Gn rtpkfvts;y kF mvh ’[fy F 4vdmvh ’F w0gh ]vn fvvdF ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ vadgl[xvfF 3x]u3vF xvfcsh’F rtpkfmk’]t[q[]t]kp vksko c]t vnoj MD { rk.sgh duf7;k,]e7ko9kddoyj g\\oa F 0U/oj5 s^n 7;oa 9kddkogzkq 0UgspNv8kj ’MD { rk.shgduf[kfg9a[9kdG glfcdh;F dtxJv’F 0v’,u7q,DDD { ,mu kfg[vjn F mkfg7,u c]t mkfrfy 8kj ’M 8dq 7kh ’8k,|kh foy c]t oED rfn F zda FxkDDD f6f-b,gvqkmkfg[nvj gs^kqj oAo g0Qkwxltlq,w;h.oIkj ’dkp0v’r;d,aoD g,nvj 7qogvqkzad c]t lfa oE,kdoy 9twfIh [a mkfg7,gu xoa rfy g0kQ lIj6 kj ’dkp c];h gdfu g9[a x;j p s^n glp -u;yfD @? zqoltmhvo8+la’7q,G { 0kf7;k,gxao]t[P[IP[Ihvp c]t 7;k,l;p’k,8k,lt4komu8j kj ’MD { rk.sh[hkoF gInvoF 4t|qosqomk’F sh;p|v’7v’[b’F c,oj EDDD gxNvogxyD { rk.shoEgokqj ,udyoj g\\aoF vkdkfgxaoryf g-y’j gxaovao8t]kp8+rnfF laf c]t 7qo { -Yogxnv’’[q xt,ko.odkode9fa D 7e4k,G !D 9’jq pdq 8;q 1kj ’0UgspNvxtgrf8kj ’Mmugj xoa voa 8t]kpL @D 0UgspNvgxaovao8t]kp8+Ikj ’dkp c]t l’yj c;f]hv,co;.fL 162

[qfmu #* dkooegvqk0UgspNv,k.-h7no.\\j !D ;ymu9afdko0UgspNv c]t dkogda[,hPo oda IPo9t,u;ymu9fa dko0Ugspnhvwfch o;.fL dD ;ymu9afdko0UgspnhvxPd Xpjvp’jkp? ]hP’laf 0gU spvN xPdpvj p’kj p .l8j Qow,h gIaf/j5o /j5o[qj, ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ oEdtglf-u;trk[ czo;kf #*D! dkooe.-h0UgspNvxPd 0D ;ymu9afdko0UgspNvcsh’mujlk,kfoe.-hwfh { 0UgspNv[k’-toyf lk,kfoe,k.-h7no s^n fafcx’F xtfyf7no.\\9j kd0v’gdkqj ,k.-hD 163

{ 0UgspNv[k’-toyf g-aoj G glNvzhkF g7nvj ’.-hDDD 4hk[+8hv’dko9t.-h [+7;ogvqkwx4Y,F gvqk.shz6hvonj ]hkM 3fp[+7yf,6o7kj ]k7k s^n ,v[.shz6hmmuj 5dpkdmufj hvp3vdkf { 0UgspNv[k’-toyf ,u7qo8hv’dko-N7no grnvj gvqkwxzt]yf s^n oe.-hgIafly’j vnoj ltoAo 4hkcpd0UgspNvxtgrfoAovvdw;h0kp d=4n;kj gxaodkolhk’]kpIa[.shcd[j 5d7qo c]t 7v[7;q D .-7h no 0UgspNv csh’ [=]y9kd0kp ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ czo;kf #*D@ dkooe.-h0UgspNvcsh’ 7D ;ymu9afdko0UgspNvcsh’muj8hv’4Y, [ao95.lj4q’G grnvj [+.shlq’j dyoj g\\aoF [+.shc,’;ao8v, c]t [+-t-kpF .sh.l4j q’1k’D s^5fzjvo[=]y,kfG m5dM 7qoF m5d7v[7q;8hv’rtpkpk,7;[75,.sh,u0Ugspnhv|hvpmulj 5f gIaf.shg[qkG [+gvqk0UgspNvxtgrfsuoF fyoF glf-u,a’.l4j q’0hugspNvD gIaf.shltvkfG \\kp7;k,;kj ,fa xkd4’q fMu gIfa co;ooA 4;n kj gxoa 0gU spvN ltvkf rvh ,m’a 164

ltf;d.odko0oq l’jq F gxoa dko-;j pde,tdvo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ .odkogd[a ,Ph o.slh tf;dF ;vj ’w; c]t xvfwrD @D I6[ #*D# ;ymu9afdko0UgspNvcsh’muj8hv’4Y, ;ymudkode9af0UgspNvmju4nd8k,s^advtokw, dko/’a G 05f05,.shg]ydF gvqk0UgspNv]q’ c]h;4q,.shc9[fuD dko\\da G 0UgspNvxPdmujpvj pwfh g-oaj G glfzad c]t \\kdw,h8kj ’MD \\adgIaf/5oj grnvj .-h.o dkoxd6 rfn zda D dkogzkq G 0f5 0,5 gvkq 0UgspNv]’q c];h gzkq 4Y,Xfucm7h ;os^udg;oA dkogzkq ? grktgxoa voa 8t]kpD dkogda[,hPo0UgspNvG 9tgd[a ,Ph o0Ugspnhvco;.f9’jb xvfwrL dkogd[a ,Ph o0UgspNvmuxj vfwr9t8vh ’xt8y[fa f’ja oUG { 7;o,u4a’F dt8kj cpd0UgspNvvvdgxaoxtgrf XxPdF x^kl8ydF cdh; c]t 3]st?F 0UgspNvxPdmulj ’jq doyj g\\oa s^n gxoa voa 8t]kp 7;ogd[a ,Ph o.o4’a mu,j u/kxyfD { rk-tot.l0j UgspNv7;o8A’.shl6’9kdrNo grnvj [+.shlaf,kg0pj s^n 0;E4Y,D 0=h7;ogvqk.9.lj.odkogda[,hPo c]t de9af0UgspNvG { 0uhgspNv[k’-toyf7nG g9hpF x^kl8ydF cdh;F gs^adDDlk,kfoe,k.-hxt3spfwfhfh;p dkooe,kzt]yfgxaog7vnj ’.-hlvp-toyf.\\j s^n gvqkwx0kpD { 0guh spNvgxoa voa 8t]kpg-oja G rk-tot[oa 9z5 t]yf8troa g7,uF 1k0kh c,’w,Fh oE1kme 7;k,ltvkf dvj o4Y,8hv’xyf/k.shc9[fu c]t cpdltgrktD { 0UgspNvmujoeg-Nvrtpkf s^n mkfryfxqogxNvo 7;ogda[cpd.l4j q’ c]h;0Poxhkp8yf [vd-afg9o c]t 7;ooewxde9af.sh4nd;ymuD 165

{ dkode9af0UgspNvv5flkstdec8]j txtgrf 8hv’xt8y[af8k,0=h deoqf1kj ’g7a’j 7afD .oxtgmfv5flkstde,udqf\\kp[a’7a[.sh3I’’kov5flkstde8kj ’M gvqk.9.l.j o dkode9fa 0gU spvN f;h p8oq gv’ s^n xtdv[l;j omob Ivogrvjn 7;[7,5 cdwh 0 c]t xdq xda Ida lkl’yj c;f]vh ,vvh ,0kh ’D #D dkozt]yf9kd0UgspNv grnjv.-h7no.\\j T oda IPo7fy ;kj l’jy glfgsvn^ m.uj -ch ];h lk,kfoed[a ,k.-7h on .\\wj fsh n^ [L+ .-gh Ifa sp’a cfLj T ly’j glfgs^nvxtgrf.fmujlk,kfoe,kzt]yfgrnvj .-h7no.\\wj fhL !? g9hpglf { ,ug9hp-toyf.fcfmj ujlk,kfoe,k.-h7no.\\wj fhL 0Ao8vo.odkozt]yfg9hp7no.\\j,ufaj’oUG ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dyf9tde G dkozt]yfg9hp7no.\\j !? 9udg9hp.sh,5oj c]h;c-.j ooE I6[ #*D$ g9hpglf @? gvqkg9hpmugj xnvj pp5jp.o0=h ! ,k.l.j ork-tot vudvoa |’jb m,uj uoEltvkf1Dj6 #? .-h8tcd’gs^ad4ujM Ijvog9hp0Bo.shg9hp8yf16j 8tcd’1kj ’lt\\ej ltg\\u $? gvkq 8tcd’gsd^a wx8kdcff.sch s’h 9kdooA 7vj pM]vdg9ph vvd9kd8tcd’D g9hp gxaozt]yf8traomujoe.-h1kj ’s^;’s^kp.o-u;yfxt9e;ao g-aoj G g9hp|a’lnry,F -v’ 9qf\\kpF g9hp0k; c]t g9hpcdaf8kj ’M muj[+,udk;8yf16j s^n [+,uoE,oa 8yfs^kpD g,nvj .-hc]h; lk,kfoe,kzt]yf7no.\\wj fhD dkooegvqkg9hpmuj.-hc]h; ,kzkj o0t[;odkozt]yf grnvj oewx.-h.\\j IPd;kj g9hp iuw- gdoy Xrecycle?D 166

@? glfcdh; cd;h c,oj ;fa 4m5 ,uj zu ;y ]P[F c0’F .lF [k’ c]t c8d’kj pD 7oq gIkq zt]fy cd;h 0oB ,k9kd dkos^v,]t]kp;af45me,t-kf7nG -kpF suox6oF 3lfk c]t cImj kfg2]lxkfD 75olq,[af 0v’mkf[+,uxt8ydy]ypkda[mkf.fM phvoco;oAo 7qogIqk9’bj lk,kfoerk-totmguj Ifa f;h pcd;h ,Iu [6 Ikj ’F llu oa c8d8kj ’ doa .lgj 7vjn ’f,jn F g7vjn ’levk’F vksko c]t vojn MD .o0t[;odko zt]yf7no.\\j cdh;9t4ndm5[[qf.sh]tvPfdvj o c]h;9b’j oewx s^v,.og8qkxqoda[;af45mju.-h.odkozt]yf grnjvzt]yf8trao cdh;.\\j0Bo,kD dkozt]yfcdh;7no.\\jlk,kfs^5fzjvo rt]’a ’ko7;k,Ivh oD I6[ #*D& cdh;gxqkj #? x^kl8yd ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ x^kl8ydzt]yf9kdsuox6oF oE c]t ;af45[k’1jk’7nG 4kj osuo c]t oE,ao grnjv.sh,ulu8kj ’dao g-oaj G .lF c0’ s^n vvj oD ovdoAo x^kl8ydpa’lk,kfs^v,gxaoI6[Ijk’8jk’daowfh 3fp .-hcI’fao c]t 7;k,IhvoD x^kl8yd[+lts^kp8q;wfh’kj pD I6[ #*D* glfd;f8kj ’M xaf95[aox^kl8yd 4ndoe,k.-hgrnvj s^5fzvj o0UgspNv c]t -;j ps^5fzvj oxt]y,kodkooe.-h -a[rtpkdvome,t-kfF ]qfxt]y,kodkoxjvpdkldkd3[oydl6jvkdkf c]t ]qfrk;t dkogduf/oq dfq X/oq vk-yf?D 7e4k,G !D 9’qj pqd8q;1kj ’;af45mulj k,kfoeda[,k.-h7no.\\wj fhL @D oadIPo9t,u;ymudkoco;.f grvnj -;j ps^5fzvj odkooe.-h4q’x^kl8ydL 167

rkdmu VII dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]d [qfmu #( 37’lhk’0v’gxnvd3]d |;j p3]d0v’r;dgIkq xtdv[f;h p # -oA 7Gn gxvn d3]dF ,vd3]d c]t cdo3]dD !D 37’lhk’0v’gxnvd3]d gxnvd3]d c,oj l;j omuxj tdv[gxao-Aoovdl5f0v’|;j p3]d g-y’j xtdv[fh;p -Aozy;ovd c]t -Ao.oD l’a gdfI[6 8w+ xo;U kj z;y ovd0v’gxvn d3]dc8]j tcs’j ,]u da ltotc8d8kj ’doa co;.fL dD c,oj E]eg- 0D r6 7D mtg]g,fug8ikgo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ’D oE8qd8kf 9D xkj w,h lD r6w2 I6[ #(D! ]adltot8kj ’M0v’zy;ovd0v’gxnvd3]d .o[]= gy ;omvh ’4ojy .f|’jb dg= xoa l;j oovh pM0v’|kh 3]dD r;dgIkq gsoa ;kj [k’cs’j gxoa foy F zksuoF |hkoE XoE9nfF oEmtg]?F sh;pIvj ’F c,oj E]eg-F xkj F r6F r6w2 c]t vnoj MD ly’j 8kj ’M mdju kj ;,ko]U ;h o c8gj xoa ]da ltot|kh ovd0v’|;j p3]dD ovdooA |;j p3]d0v’r;dgIkq p’a s,5h s+f;h p[oa pkdkfD 168

,tsklt\\5f gxnvd3]drkdl;j orNomt;u[ 0 gxnvd3]drkdlj;o.8h,tsklt\\5f 30 70 I6[ #(D@ 37’xtdv[lhk’0v’gxnvd3]d dy3]c,af gxnvd3]dxtdv[,u9adrkdl;j oL rkdl;j o.fcfLj c8]j trkdl;j o,u7;k,|kgmqkj .fL gxnvd3]d c[’j vvdgxao @ rkdl;j o7nG rkdl;j omugj xaorkdrNomt;u[ c]t rkdl;j o mu1j 6.j 8h,tsklt\\5f g-y’j c8]j trkdl;j o,u7;k,|k[+ltg\\udaoS rkdl;j omugj xaomt;u[ ,u7;k, |kxt,ko #W dy3]c,afF c8rj kdl;j omu1j j6.8h,tsklt\\5f,u7;k,|kxt,ko & {!W dy3]c,af c]t ,u7;k,|kc|hos^kpd;kj l;j omguj xao rkdrNomt;u[D lj;oxtdv[8Qo8=0v’gxnvd3]drkdrNomt;u[c,josuodikoyfS gxnvd3]drkdlj;o.8h ,tsklt\\5f c,oj suo [k-k]D @D dkodegouf0v’czjogxnvd3]d 9’qj la’gdfI6[ma’lv’8+wxoU rhv,ma’lq,mP[;kj ,u7;k,c8d8kj ’daoco;.fL ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ I6[ #(D# czoj gxnvd3]d @WW I6[ #(D$ [aofk czoj gxnvd3]d.oxaf95[ao ]hkoxudvj o 169

czoj gxnvd3]d0t|kf.sp,j u9adczoj L czoj .fcfLj ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ]ts;kj ’xu !_@W mkj o voa g2if g;g9gou (Alfred Wegener)F oda m]= tolu kf c]t 2-u dy lkf -k;g1p]t,ao wfhlaooy4ko;jk djvo|hkoU &W ]hkoxuF |hk3]dlj;omujgxaoczjofyorQo9kd oE,urP’czoj fP; Xmt;u[fP;? gmqkj oAoD 9kdoAo,k 9b’j c8dcpdvvdgxaos^kpczoj Xs^kp mt;[u ? c]t c9d1kpwx8k,l;j o 8kj ’M0v’3]d 3fp,mu tg] c]t ,tsklt\\f5 0oA 1]6j ts;kj ’ dk’0v’mt;u[gsk^qj oAoD 0=h,6omwuj fh9kddkolbdlk7Qo7;hk.ow]pt8+,k rq[;kj mt;u[8kj ’M[+wfh 1f5 oY’1d6j [a mDuj oadm=]toulkfwfhlbdlk c]t rq[;jk lyj’8jk’Mmujxtdv[gxaogxnvd3]d[+wfh8yfdaogxao czoj fP; c89j t,uIvpc8d16jmq;j wxD Ivpc8dfaj’dkj ; l;j os^kp9t16jg]yd]q’wx9kd|hk3]d c]t c[’j gxnvd3]dvvdgxoa czoj M g-’yj groyj gvUo;kj czoj gxvn d3]dD .oxaf95[ao czoj gxnvd3]d,u @ czoj 7nG czoj gxnvd3]d0t|kf.spj c]t czoj gxnvd3]d 0t|kfohvpD czoj gxnvd3]d0t|kf.sp,j u * czoj c8]j tczoj ,u-nj c]t 0v[g0ffa’j oUG !D czoj gvuik-u ,u0v[g0fd;,gvqkmt;u[gvuiq[F mt;u[vk-uD @D czjovkg,]ydk ,u0v[g0fd;,gvqkmt;u[vkg,]ydk c]t g7yj’|jb’0v’,tsk lt\\f5 vfa ]’a 8yd g[Nv’8kg;oa 8dq D #D czoj xk-u2yd ,u0v[g0fd;,gvkq ,tsklt\\f5 xk-u2ydD $D czoj vlq 8ik]u ,u0v[g0fd;,gvkq gdktvlq 8ik]uF xtgmfvyogfpD &D czoj v’a 8kd8yd ,u0v[g0fd;,gvkq mt;u[v’a 8kd8ydD *D czoj v2a iyddk ,u0v[g0fd;,gvkq mt;u[v2a iyddkD l;j oczoj gxnvd3]d0t|kfohvpd=,us^kp czoj g-aoj dao XI6[ #(D$?S f’aj ooA F 9’jb Iwh6 f;h kj 1r6j kp.o3]d,u]da ltotc8d8kj ’doa c]t suomusj ^v,cs^;rkp .o3]d ,du kog7vjn om1ju 86j tsv^ fg;]kD ooA dg= ovjn ’9kd;kj 7;k,Ivh o c]t 7;k,foa c8d8kj ’doa D ovdooA pa’,udko\\6o8q;0v’|j;p3]d g-yj’gIaf.shgdufxkdqfdkome,t-kf g-ajoG czjofyows;F r6w2]tg[uf c]t vnoj MD #D dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]d dyf9tde !G 9ecodI6[rk[gsfdko8jk’M 9’jq l’a gdfI[6 c];h 9fa c[’j gsfdko8kj ’Mvvdgxoa lv’xtgrf 3fp0Po]’q .l.j o8k8t]k’ 1kj ’ohvp xtgrf]t $ gsfdkoD 170

dkogxnvj p0v’r6oEc0’ dkod+lhk’mk’ dko[5dg[udgoNvmuxj 6d/a’ r6gxao4E gxao3do dko]tg[uf0v’]tg[ufxt]t,ko6 /qo8qd dtcloEg-ktfyo dkogdufczjofyows; dkod+lhk’g0nvj o dko]tg[uf0v’r6w2 I6[ #(D& dkoxPj ocx’0v’|hk3]dphvo,to5f c]t me,t-kfສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 8k8t]k’]da ltotdkoxPj ocx’8kj ’M0v’gxvn d3]d dkoxPj ocx’0v’|kh 3]dpvh o me,t-kf ,tof5 DDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDD dkodl+ kh ’mk’ oE/oq DDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDDDD DDDDDDDDD dkoxPj ocx’0v’|hk3]d,us^kplkgsfF c8lj kgsf8Qo8=c,oj gduf,k9kd,to5f c]t me,t-kfD 171

!? dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvodkodtme0v’,to5f ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ g],uj c8,j to5fgduf,k c]t ;y;afmtokdko,kIvfxaf95[ao wfh,udkofe]q’-u;yf16gj my’|hk 3]doUD gonvj ’9kd7;k,8hv’dkogrnvj dko7q’8q;F 0tspkp8q; c]t 7;k,lu;yw]0v’la’7q, wfhgxaolkgsfgIaf.sh |hk3]d,udkoxPj ocx’ g-aoj G dko4k’xkj gIafwIFj dko[5dg[ud|hkfyo grnvj d+lhk’gInvo-koF 4t|qosqomk’F 3I’9ad3I’’koF g0nvj oF dko]tg[ufzksuo grnvj gvqksuo wxlhk’mk’ c]t g0nvj oF dko05f7QocImj kf8kj ’M c]t vnjoMD ovd9kdoUc]h;dko]tg[uf.o lq’7k,]hk’zkog-y’j dao c]t dao d=gIaf.shgxnvd3]d,udkoxPj ocx’D g8ad3o3]-upyj’dhk;|hk gmkjq .f d=p’yj gIfa .s|h kh 3]d,udkoxPj ocx’gmkqj ooA D @? dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvome,t-kf sn^ xkdqfdkomk’m=]tou;ymtpk dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvome,t-kf gduf0Bo9kds^kplkgsfg-ajoG czoj fyows;F rw6 2]tg[fu D dtcloEF dtcl],q F cl’cffF dkoxPj ocx’vo5 str,6 F dkogxvjn p0v’ ro6 Edvh oDDD dkoxjPocx’[k’1jk’gxaowx1jk’-hkM9qogIqk[+Ih6lbdwfhS [k’1jk’d=xjPocx’w;s^kp g-oaj G czoj fyows;F r6w2]tg[ufD dD dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvoczjofyows; 4kh czoj foy ws;gdfu 1.6j 8mh tg] 9tgdfu 7oN l’6 .o]tf[a c8d8kj ’doa c]t vkfl’6 g4’y @W c,fa c]t ,u7;k,w; xt,ko @WW w, X#WW dy3]c,af? 8+-qj;3,’D g,njv,aowxdtmq[.ljc7,/aj’ 9tgIaf.shoE4h;,[hko gInvo0v’xt-k-qo mu1j 6cj 7,mtg] gIaf.shgdufdkoglpskp|adF py’j wx d;kj oAo 7qo c]t laf9eo;os^;’s^kpd=8kp 8q;1kj ’G 7NooE <-ybok,y< gduf0Bo16jmtg] rkd.8h 0v’xtgmfwmxu @WW*D 0D dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvor6w2]tg[uf r6w2]tg[uf gduf0Bophvo,ad,k1.6j 8hgxnvd3]d g-’yj ,u7;k,faol6’ 4ndfaovvd,k8k,Ivp c8d0v’czoj gxnvd3]d0Bol6j |hk3]dD ,ad,kmurj 5’j 0Bo9kddko]tg[uf0v’r6w29tlhk’7;k, glpskp .shcd,j to5fF ly’j mu,j u-u;yf8kj ’M c]t ly’j c;f]hv,1kj ’s^;’s^kpD 7D dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvodkolPfg-kt0v’dtcloE dyf9tde @G lbdlkdkoxjPocx’0v’|hkfyofh;pdtcloE !D gvqkfyo-kpxqoda[suocIj c]t dhvosuoF 0t|kf8kj ’M xt,ko ! 75F ’;exkd75]q’ .sdh v’gxoa 7In [6 9;pD 172

ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ@D .-h[q;sqfoE.lj c]t la’gdf xkdqfdkomguj duf0Bo1|6j hkdv’fyooAoD #D 9q’j lq,mP[I6[Ikj ’]adltot0v’dv’fyodvj o c]t s^a’sqfoE;kj 8kj ’daoco;.fL ’D dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvoxt8ydy]ypkg7,u 1kdI6h;kj xt8ydy]ypkg7,u gIaf.shgxnvd3]d,udkoxPj ocx’ gIqk9tgIafco;.fL la’gdf dkomfq ]v’8+wxoU dyf9tde #G mqf]v’dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvoxt8ydy]ypkg7,u !D dP,s^vfmfq ]v’0t|kf.spj @ s^vf X\\kpg]dmu ! c]t @? c]t s^vf0t|kfdk’ @ s^vf X\\kpg]dmu # c]t $?D @D ]hk’dhvosuox6oohvp.shltvkf c]h;gvqk.l.j os^vfmqf]v’ mu ! c]t @D #D 4vdvk-uf-6o26iyd s^n vk-ufd^=Iufiyd9k’xt,ko & ,yo]u]yf .lsj ^vfmu ! D $D 4vdoEdaoj xt,ko & ,yo]u]yf.lsj ^vfmu @D &D xtma’lv’s^vf8A’w;hxt,ko @ okmuD *D 4vd0v’cs^;16.j os^vfmu ! .lsj ^vfmqf]v’mu # xt,ko ! ,yo]u]yfD (D 4vdoE9kds^vfmu @ .lsj ^vfmqf]v’mu $ xt,ko ! ,yo]u]yfD )D la’gdf7;k,c8d8kj ’0v’0v’cs^;.os^vfmu # c]t mu $ c]t [aombdzqoD _D oegvqks^vfmu # c]t mu $ wx8Q,9qocsh’ Xs^n 4vd.l[j ;j ’3]stc]h;8Q,D 9kdoAo l’a gdfl’yj mguj s^nv1.j6 ork-totD !WD l’a gdf c]t [oa mdb zoq mwju fIh [a 8kj ’doa co;.f]ts;kj ’sv^ f mu # c]t mu $L vtm[y kpD !!D ]kp’kozoq D zkj odkomfq ]v’gsoa ;kj 1.j6 os^vfmfq ]v’mu ! ,u]da ltotlu0k;0o5h pvh ovk-ufdfa suoxo6 S l;j os^vfmu @ c,oj [+,udkoxPj ocx’grkt[+gdufxt8ydy]ypkg7,uD g,nvj gvqk0v’cs^;16.j oc8]j t s^vfwx8Q,9qocsh’ gsao;kj 16j.os^vfmqf]v’mu ! ,u/5jolu0k;D l;j os^vfmu @ [+,uspa’ grktoE doja [+gdfu xt8dy ]y py kd[a sou xo6 D lts^5[zqodkomqf]v’G oEdoaj 9t[+gdufxt8ydy]ypkda[suox6oF c8vj k-uf9tgdufxt8ydy]ypk da[suox6o grkt;kj la’gdfgsaodkogduf,u/vf c]t gIaf.shsuox6ogxvnj p]t]kpD .ome,t-kf 1[j6 k’g0f [k’g;]k oE/oq 9t,uvk-yf]t]kp1j6 g,vnj ,oa wxdtm[q d[a suoxo6 suoxo6 f’ja dkj ;9t4nddfa D 173

9D dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]dphvo]q, c]t dkoxjPocx’v5ostr6, ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ],q dc= ,oj xfa w9mk’me,t-kf1kj ’|’jb m,ju zu oq dtm[q 8d+ koxPj ocx’0v’|kh 3]dD g,vjn ],q cI’,oa 9trfa gvkq /oj5 foy F 0gU spvN FDDDD9kd[vj o|’jb wx8dq [vj ovojn gIfa .sfh oy [vj o|’jb s[5^ ]’q c];h [vj o vnoj ,udv’fyo.\\gj duf0BoD ]q,zao X]q,sq;d5f? 9tgIaf.shfyo s^n fyo-kpgxao05,]q’D dkoxPj ocx’vo5 str,6 gIfa .smh k’.o c]t mk’ovd0v’foy c]t sou sfq 8;q sn^ 0tspkp 8;q [l+ tg\\du oa c];h d.+ sgh dfu dkoc8dD .og0fm,ju vu kdkf|k;9fa 9tgIfa .soh Em0ju ’a 1.j6 oIvpc8d .o3zh’suooAodhk, c]t 0tspkp8q; faol;j omcuj 8doAovvd9kddaoD lts5^[c]h;zqowfhIa[9kdxkdqfdkomk’m=]toumujgduf0Bo16|j hk3]d c,oj dkog-ktg9nvj oF dkorafrk c]t dko8qdrbd8k,rNooED 9kd8;q 1kj ’mdju kj ;,k0kh ’gm’y ooA lk,kflts[5^ wf;h kj G veokf8kj ’M mgju Ifa .sgh xvn d3]d,u dkoxPj ocx’oAo,u @ xtgrf7nG !D rt]a’ s^n cI’9kdgmy’gxnvd3]d g-ajoG ,to5fF oEdhk,.o-jv’s;jk’0v’suoF dkogxvjn pro6 Edvh oF ],q F /oq F dtcloEwsF^ oE-,b F dkog|’a 8’u 0v’oEmtg]F vkdkfF cl’cffF rnf c]t vnoj M @D rt]a’ s^n cI’9kdrkp.o3]d s^n .8hgxnvd3]dg-aoj G czoj fyows;F r6w2]tg[uf c]t vojn M dkoxPj ocx’0v’|kh 3]dpvh ovfy mry oq 0v’,tof5 sn^ me,t-kf [k’1kj ’d,= zu oq f8u ,+ tof5 XdkoxPj ocx’phvo,to5f? c8,j uzqoglpskp8+me,t-kfF c8gj ;Qk];,c]h; dkoxPj ocx’0v’ |hk3]dphvo vyfmyrqo0v’ me,t-kf ]h;oc8,j uzqoglpskp3fpmk’dq’ s^n mk’vhv,8+,to5fF l’yj ,u-u;yfvonj M c]t l’yj c;f]vh ,m’a ooA D f’ja ooA F md5 M7oq 9’jb 9egxoa 8vh ’ldb lk7oQ 7;kh .sIh 6h c]t g0Qk.9g4y’0t[;odko dkoxPj ocx’0v’|hk3]d c]t dP,rhv,xhv’dao g-y’j ,aovkf9tgduf 0Bo.ovtok7fq D 7e4k,G !D 37’lkh ’0v’gxnvd3]d,u]da ltotgxoa co;.fL @D lkgsfmujgIaf.sh|hk3]d,udkoxPjocx’ ,uspa’cfjL ,ao,uzqoglpskpco;.fcfj 8+,to5f c]t me,t-kfL #D dko8af8Qow,hme]kpxkj ,uzqodtmq[co;.fcf8j +dkoxjPocx’0v’|hk3]d c]t 8+7oq gIkq L $D 9qj’vtmy[kpxkdqfdkogdufsuophvp1j68k,zk s^n grfko4Esuox6o c]t suo’vd Xoq,zk? 16rj No4E[vj ooE 8qd.lj X8q;1kj ’4E9a’16;j a’;P’? sn^ cs^’j vonj Mm,uj u.omhv’4oyj D 174

[qfmu #) s^ad4ko c]t 0=h,6omk’m=]tou;ymtpk oadm=]toulkf wfhrtpkpk,-vdsks^ad4ko c]t 0=h,6ogrnvj vtmy[kp xkdqfdko9kd.8h gxnvd3]d mujgIaf.shgxnvd3]d,udkoxjPocx’,kc8jfqoc]h;D .oxu !_*) g0qkg9Qkwfhltg|u0=h l,q ,f5 4kogxoa 7’A mevfy ;kj c,oj pvh o dkog7vjn om0ju v’czoj gxvn d3]d g-’jy 0,h= o6 f’ja dkj ; ,7u ;k, l,q [o6 0oB gmvjn ]tdkh ; grkt,oa r;q roa d[a xkdfq dko mk’m]= to8u kj ’Mg-oja G dkogdfu czoj foy ws;F dko]tg[uf0v’ r6w2F dkogdufgxao,tsklt\\5fF lkpr6 c]t vnjoMD !D dkog7njvomuj0v’czjogxbvd3]d czoj gxvn d3]dg7vjn omwju fch o;.fL dyf9tde !G mqf]v’djP;da[dkog7njvo muj0v’czjogxnvd3]d !D 4vdoE.lrj k-totxt,ko @ -a’8uc,af ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ @D 8Q,oE.sh2qf 3fp.shcx;w216j[=]yg;og7y’j #D dk’rk-tot XI6[ #)D!?D I6[ #)D! mqf]v’grnvj ltcf’g4y’dkog7nvj o 1vfoEg,yd]’q [vj ooE2fq .sgh -’yj d[a cx; muj0v’czjogxnvd3]d w2D $D gvkq czoj g9ph ovh psk^ pczoj ]’q [vj ooE2fq rvh ,doa &D la’gdf c]t [aombdzqodkomqf]v’3fp ltgrktg;]k1vfoEg,yd c]t ;k’czoj g9hpohvp]q’.loj E mruj ;,2qf1D6j *D 9’jq vtm[y kpzoq 0v’dkomfq ]v’D 9kdzqodkomqf]v’oU gIqklk,kflts^5[wfhco;.fL 9kdzoq dkomfq ]v’oU gIkq lk,kfvtm[y kpwf;h kj g,vjn oE2fq F oEg,dy 9kd9f5 m1uj vf]’q 9t dt9kpwxmd5 mfy mk’D czoj g9ph ovh pdg= 7vjn omwju x8k,mfy mk’0v’oEg,dy D dkog7vjn om0ju v’czoj gxvn d3]dxP[g\\vn od[a dkog7vjn om0ju v’g9ph c8]j tczoj c]t dkog7vjn om0ju v’oEg,dy xP[g\\vn o d[a dkog7vjn om0ju v’,da ,k16j -oA ,vd3]dD f’ja ooA dkog7vjn omju 0v’,da ,k1-6j oA ,vd3]dgxoa lkgsf |’jb mgju Ifa .sch zoj gxvn d3]dg7vjn omwuj fDh 175

!? czjogxnvd3]dlv’czjocpdvvd9kddao ,tsklt\\5f czoj mt;u[ @ czoj mt;u[ ! gxnvd3]dF ,vd3]d-Aogmy’ c]t ,vd3]d-Ao]5,j ,ad,k I6[ #)D@ czoj gxnvd3]dl;j omugj xaomt;u[lv’czoj cpdvvd9kddao ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ dyf9tde @G 9e]v’dkocpdvvd9kddao0v’czjogxnvd3]d !D oadIPo @ 7qo9a[xB,0Poz6h]tsq; @D c8]j t7oq oexB,0Po,k;k’]’q gmy’|kh 38t3fpgvqklQoxB,95.ldj ao #D c8]j t7oq 7vj pMg]vjn ox,B vvd9kddoa $D oda IPol’a gdfgsoa sp’a 1]j6 ts;kj ’xB,L lq,,5fxB,0Posq;|bj’ c,oj ! czoj gxnvd3]d c]t |hk38t c,oj l;j omuj 16]j 5j,czoj gxnvd 3]d c]h;lq,mP[ c]t vtmy[kp I6[ #)D@ czjogxnvd3]dg7nvj omujcpdvvd9kddao,adrq[16j.8h,tsklt\\5fs^kpd;kj 16jmt;u[F g-aoj czoj vtg,]dy kg|vn d[a czoj gviu k-Du czoj gxvn d3]dcpdvvd9kddoa gIfa .s,h da ,k1.6j 8gh xvn d3]d foa sou mcju 0’vvdwxfkh o0kh ’F roN ,tsklt\\f5 d;kh ’vvdwxg]vN pM c]t ,gu xvn d3]dgdfu 0oB .\\j .8h,tsklt\\5fvaf]a’8yd8ts^vfg;]k c]t gdufgxaor6D xaf95[aooadm=]toulkfrq[;jk mt;u[ vkg,]ydkg|nv da[ mt;u[gvuiq[de]a’g7njvomujsjk’vvd9kddao 3fpc8j]txu,tsklt\\5f vaf]a’8yd mu1j 6j]ts;kj ’mt;u[ma’lv’9td;hk’vvd @ sk# -a’8uc,afD @? czjogxnvd3]dg7njvomuj-qodao dyf9tde #G 9e]v’ czjogxnvd3]dg7njvomuj-qodao !D oadIPo @ 7qo9a[xB,0Poz6h]tsq; @D c8]j t7qooexB,0Po,k;k’]q’gmy’|hk38t 3fp.shlQoxB,skj ’9kddao #D c8j]t7qop6hxB,g0Qk8edao 3fpxt8y[afs^kpgmnjvc8j]tgmnjvoadIPola’gdfgsaoxB, gxaoco;.fF lq,,5fxB,0Posq;|b’j c,oj ! czoj gxnvd3]dD 176

gczoj gxvn d3]dg7vjn om-ju oq doa ,u # c[[ 7Gn czoj gxvn d3]d.8,h tsklt\\f5 -oq doa F czoj gxvn d 3]d.8h,tsklt\\5f -qoda[czoj mt;u[ c]t czoj mt;u[-qodaoD dD czjogxnvd3]d.8h,tsklt\\5f @ czjo-qodao czjogxnvd3]d.8h,tsklt\\5f-qodao 3fpczjo|bj’,5f]q’wxmk’dhv’0v’vudczjo|bj’ XI[6 #)D#? c]t 9t]’q wxg4y’-oA ,vd3]d c];h dkpgxoa suos^v,]t]kpD pvh ocI’foa voa ,tsk lkoF gIfa .ssh ou sv^ ,]t]kpooA 4dn foa 0oB ,k8k, -oA sou 9’jb gIfa .slh ;j om[ju c+ |oh |k gdfu gxoa Ir6 w6 2 g-oaj G lkpr6w2.8h,tsklt\\5f xk-u2yd g-’yj g]u,j 8Qo9kdxtgmfpxuj o5j 9qog4y’xtgmf2u]y[xyoD r6w2 czjogxnvd3]d ,tsklt\\5f czjogxnvd3]d ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ,vd3]d I6[ #)D# czoj gxnvd3]d.8h,tsklt\\5f-qodao 0D czjogxnvd3]d.8h,tsklt\\5f-qoda[czjomt;u[ czoj ,tsklt\\5f mu|j add;kj 9t,5f]q’.8hczoj mt;u[ c]t 9t]q’wxg4y’-Aosuos^v,cs^; XI6[ #)D$?D 0v[0v’czoj ,tsklt\\5ffa’j dkj ; 9t]t]kp8q; dkpgxaosuos^v,]t]kp c]t 4ndfoa vvd,k8k,Ivpcpd .o-oA suo0v’czoj mt;u[ c]h; gdufgxaolkpr6w2gmy’czoj mt;u[D czjo,tsklt\\5f czoj mt;u[ suodikoyf ,vd3]dl;j ogm’y ,ad,k ,vd3]dlj;ogmy’ ,vd3]dlj;o]5j, I6[ #)D$ czoj .8h,tsklt\\5f-qoda[czoj mt;u[ 177

7D czjomt;u[-qoda[czjomt;u[ g,vjn xt,ko $W ]kh oxdu vj o|hkoAo czoj foy l;j omgju xoa xtgmfvoy gfp p’a [g+ -vjn ,8d+ [a mt;[u vk-uD xtgmfvyogfp8A’16gj my’czoj vql8ik]uF 9qog4y’ @$ ]hkoxumuzj kj o,koU czoj vql8ik]uwfh g7njvomuj-qoda[czjogvuik-u c]t ,5f]q’.8hczjogvuik-u gIaf.shrNo,tsklt\\5f4ndvaf c]t d’jq 0oB gxoa rI6 ,u kw]D mt;u[vk-u ,tsklt\\5f mt;u[vk-u mt;u[vk-u xtgmfvyogfp xtgmfvyogfp I6[ #)D & czoj mt;u[-qoda[czoj mt;u[ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ czoj mt;u[-qodao gIaf.shgdufgxaor6 c]t lkpr6 c]t gduf,uczoj fyows;D @D dkogdufczjofyows; !? 95fgdufczjofyows; 9f5 gdufczoj fyows; c,oj 9f5 lo6 dk’m7uj Nog]u,j 8oQ dt9kpvvdwxD 9q’j la’gdf c]t lbdlkI6[ #)D* c]h;[vd;kj 95fczoj fyows; XFoyer? gduf9kd.lL o[a c88j oQ lt8t;fa mu XX gxoa 8oQ ,kF oda m]= tolu kfwflh db lkdPj ;d[a czoj foy ws; Xseisme? fh;pg7nvj ’mumj aoltw\\ grnvj [aomdb 7No0v’dkoloaj ltgmnvo0v’fyo1kj ’8+govnj ’D 95fczjofyows;gduf0Bo.o]tfa[g]yd c8j W dy3]c,af sk (WW dy3]c,af9kd|hkfyoD 7No|hkfyo,u7;k,w;[+xjPocx’F c8j7Nog]ydD 4hkdt9kpg]ydgmqjk.fcI’,u7;k,w;l6’0Bo g-’yj groyj Iw6h f9h kdg7vnj ’;fa cmdczoj fyows;mu8j ’A 196j f5 8kj ’doa D 178

@? dko[aombd7Nolajoltgmnvo0v’fyo 9qj’lbdlkglAoltcf’zqodko;afcmd7Noczjofyows;faj’]5j,oUF w]ptg;]k0v’czjofyo ws;.-hg;]kgmkqj .fL zqodtmq[9kdczjofyows;1j6gmy’|hkfyo 7No9tdt9kp l6odk’1j6|hkfyog-yj’da[];’8A’95fczjofyows; fyocpdvvd9kddao 95fgdufczjofyows; I6[ #)D* 95fgdufczoj fyows; ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 11 h 04 min39s 11 h 10 min w]ptmevyf 7No-hk X16j|hkfyo? 7Now; X16j.ofyo? w]pt8Qo8= I6[ #)D( glAoltcf’7No0v’czoj fyows; grojy lk,kfldb lk[vj ogdfu F ]tf[a g]dy F w]ptg;]kczoj foy ws; c]t ]tf[a 7;k,cI’0v’ czoj fyows;3fpvu’8k,0=h,6o[aombd gmy’czoj [aombd Xseismogramme? g-y’j ,u !@ ]tfa[ c]t ,usq;|j;pgxao vq’lk Xgfugdi? s^n iydg8u XRichter?S c8j.ooU 9tltg|u lyj’mujla’gdfwfh9kd [k’]tfa[7;k,cI’gmkqj oAo g-oaj G ! iydg8uG 7qo9t[+I6hlbd c8gj 7vnj ’[aombdlk,kf[aombdwfhD @ iydg8uG [k’7qoI6hlbdF 3fpltgrktr;dm1uj 68j bdl6’D 179

& iydg8uG 7qomudj e]a’ovo9tI6hlbd c]t 8noj 0BoF 37,w2mucj 0;o169j twd;3vogvo ) iydg8uG gInvod+fh;pfyo9uj c]t w,h 9tra’mt]kpF ,udkoglpskp|ad _ iydg8uG gInvogIaffh;p37’gs^ad c]t g[8q’9t,udkogrra’F gduffyocpdF 4t|qoptF zqoltmhvo8+mk’]qfw2F g0nvj o c]t vnoj M !@ iydg8uG m5d1kj ’1g6j my’|hkfyo9tra’mt]kp\\qf g-aoj G ly’j d+lhk’8kj ’M mu7j qolhk’0BoD fyo I6[c[[.\\j9txkdqf0BoD #? dkogdufczjofyows; c]t r6w2.o3]d { oadIPog7upwfh0kj ; s^n wfhrq[dkogdufczoj fyows; s^n [+L 16.j lL { oadIPoIh6[+;kj r6w2.o3]doU ,u16[j vj o.fcfLj vk-u vkg,]ydkg|nv vk-u 163i[ ,tsklt\\5fxk-u2yd v2a idy dk ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ vql8ik]u vkg,]ydk.8h ,tsklt\\5fvyogfp ,tsklt\\5fvaf]a’8yd r6w2]tg[uf r6w2.8hmtg] czjofyows; I6[ #)D) czomu3j ]d [vj omu,j uczoj fyows; c]t r6w2 czoj fyows;gduf0Bophvodko-5f38 s^n c8dsad0v’suo g-y’j gduf0Bophvodkog7nvj omu-j qo doa 0v’czoj gxvn d3]dD dkogdufczoj fyows;c,oj sp’a L dkogdfu czoj foy ws; c,oj dkoloja ltgmvn o0v’foy mgju dfu 0oB moa mu c]t .o-;j ’g;]kloA M g-’yj vkf 9t8yf8k,,kfh;p7Nomluj oaj ltgmnvo Xva2g8u-avd?D 180

7e4k,G !D gxoa sp’a 9’jb gduf,uczoj fyows;L @D 16xj tgmf]k;gIqkg7up,uxkdqfdkogdufczoj fyows;[= 4hk,u1.j6 lL #D 9’qj vtmy[kpzoq 0v’dkog7vnj om0uj v’czoj gxnvd3]d 3fpvu’.lIj [6 #)D_ !? czoj mu ! da[ czoj mu @ @? czoj mu @ da[ czoj mu # #? czoj mu # da[ czoj mu $ lkpr6w2 Ivpra[ Xr6? ,tsklt\\5f $ ! @# ,ad,k ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ ,vd3]d czjo,tsklt\\5f Ivpcpd czoj mt;u[ I6[ #)D_ lts^5[dkog7nvj omu0j v’czoj gxnvd3]d 181

[qfmu #_ vkp5mk’m=]tou;ymtpk c]t -kdfbdfe[ao vkp5mk’m=]tou;ymtpk \\kpg4y’dkolbdlkdjP;da[vkp50v’|j;p3]d c]t -Aofyo s^n -oA suo8kj ’M c]t -kdfdb fe[oa Xfossiles? !D dkodeoqfvkp50v’-Aofyo .odkodeofq vkp05 v’-oA foy F oda m]= to;u my tpk wfvh ’u .lj dko7oQ 7;kh dPj ;d[a -kdfdb fe[oa g-y’j rq[16j8k,-Aosuo8kj ’M.ome,t-kfD dkolbdlkdPj ;da[-kdfbdfe[ao c,oj ,u7;k,le7ao grkt,aogIaf.shgIqklk,kfIh6wfh;kj laf s^n rnf-toyf.f|b’j wfhxkdqf0Bo c]t fa[l6owx16j.ow]pt g;]kmk’m=]tou.f XPeriode?F I6h;y;afmtokdko0v’d5j,laf c]t rnfD 3fpv’u .lxj t],y kozoq zt]fy mgju dfu 9kddkocpd8;q 0v’[oa fkmkf,o6 de,oa 8trk[]’a lu g-oaj G dkd[vo !$F v6ikouvv,F 38]uvv,F DDD dkocpd8q;0v’[aofkmkf,6ogs^kqj oU,adgduf0Bo.o me,t-kf3fp[+ 0Boda[g’vjn ow0l’yj c;f]hv,mk’ovd.fMD 8;q 1kj ’G ,;olko ! d3y ]dik, 0v’vi6 kovu v, xt]y,ko0v’ C!$ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ .og;]kzkj owx !WW ]kh oxu 9tp’a gs^vn rP’ c8j _)& 8Qow,hskd=8kp 1/2 dik, c]t 9tdkpgxoa -on !# dik,F gI]vu v, @ &(WW xu 8+,k 1/4 dik,D fh;p;ymu;yg7ktvao-afg9oF g0qkg9Qk9tIh6wfh 9eo;odik,0v’-noF 9eo;o-a’8uc,afdhvo0v’ !!$WW xu 8+,k gI]vu v, c]t 9eo;odik, 0v’vi6 kovu v, m,ju 1u j6 cImj kfD 9kdoAog0qkg9Qk9t7yfw]vj kp50v’cImj kf I6[ #_D! czo;kfdkocpd8q;0v’ c]t -Aofyomuj,ucIjoAo fh;p7;k,-afg9og4y’ @{# C14 .o-kdrfn ]kh oxDu .odkodeofq vkp05 v’-oA foy sn^ -kdfdb fe[oa mgju xoa ;my .u \\j g0kq g9kQ wfvh ’u .ldj kocpd8q;0v’mkf,o6 de,oa 8trk[]’a lu C!$ XI[6 #_D!? 182

dkocpd8q;0v’dkd[vo C!$ fegouowx7nco;.fL .o0t[;odkodoy vksko0v’rfn c]t lfa F r;d,oa wffh f6 gvkq m’a dkd[vome,tfk c]t dkd[vo !$D g,nvj -u;t-kfpa’,u-u;yf16joAo vaf8kl;j o C/C!$ [+xPj ocx’D c8rj kps^a’mu8j kpwx c]h;-u;t-kf9t15ff6fgvqk dkd[vome,tfk c]t dkd[vo !$D Iv[;Podkocpd8q; g7y’j -u;yf0v’ C!$ X,;olko0v’ C!$ skpwx g7yj’|bj’9kd-kd8Qow,h? c,jodq’da[xt,ko &(WW xuD @D -kdfbdfe[ao dq[0Pf[6Iko c,’x= c,’lk[ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ .[zadd6f svp dh5’ # .[ I6[ #_D@ -kdfbdfe[aoly’j mu,j u-u;yf[k’-toyf -kdfbdfe[aoc,oj spa’L rq[16j.lL -kdfbdfe[ao \\kpg4y’-kdlaf c]t rnfmujwfh8kpwx g-yj’4ndma[4q,1j6.osuo8tdvo sk^ p]kh oxu c];h dkpgxoa sou D [k’d]= togu rojy r[q Ikj ’dkp7[q 4;h o c8[j k’d]= toru [q c8rj kdl;j o .f|’bj 0v’Ikj ’dkpgmkqj oAoD #D dko0tspkp8q;0v’-u;tlkfzjko[aofkla’dkfm=]tou oadIPo9qj’lbdlk-kdfbdfe[ao c]h;[vd;jk ,ulaf c]t rnf-toyf.fcfjmujgduf0BoF 0tspkp8q; c]t fa[l6o 16jc8]j tla’dkfm=]touL v’u .ldj ko7fy w]0j kh ’gm’y ogU rojy wfch [’j vkpm5 k’m]= tovu vdgxoa $ l’a dkf8oQ 87= Gn l’a dkf 183

9eo;oxumuj la’dkf lyj’muj,u-u;yf me,t-kf zjkowx l’a dkf.\\j X]hkoxu? @ rnf xaf95[ao 7oq rnf cdoj sh5,0tspkp8q; *& l’a dkfmfa laf]hP’]6dfh;poEoq, 8Qoxk,F 8Qodh;p @@& l’a dkf-;u t[I6 ko oqd[6IkoF lafg]nv7kopad zadd6f8Qo.spFj 8Qosk’,hkpad c0hF xkF svpve3,oyf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ &(W l’a dkfxt4,q xt4ko dq[0Pf[6IkoF xk,ux=hs5h,F zadd6f,ucdoj d5h’lk,.[F xtdk]a’F fvdw,hmtg] lafwlh4q’ dvj ola’dkfxt4q, dhvosuo #*WW xt4koXgxide[iuv’a ? { ly’j mu,j u-u;yf95]a’fP; I6[ #_D# -kdfbdfe[aorq[16jc8]j tla’dkfm=]tou 184

xt4q,xt4ko F la’dkf-u;t[6IkoF la’dkfmaf c]t la’dkf.\\Dj ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ djvola’dkfxt4q,xt4ko { g]u,j rq[mkfvq’7tmkf X#*WW ]hkoxu? { gduf,ugmqk c]t 95]trbdF 8+,krq[Ivj ’Ivp0v’w7 { vqd-uc-oxkdqf0Bo.o[aopkdkf X@WWW ]hkoxu? { r[q 9er;dlfa [+,udtfd6 loa s^’a { rq[Ivj ’Ivp0v’laf[+,udtf6dlaosa^’mevyf16joE skj ’9kdoUxt,ko *WW ]hkoxu { gduf,urnf[+,ufvd !D la’dkfxt4q,xt4ko { rnf16[j qdmevyf { rnf,ucdoj mevyf { d’h5 # .[mevyf XTrilobites? { laf,udtf6dlaosa^’mevyf Xxk? skj ’9kdoUxt,ko $&W ]hkoxu { lfa g7’yj [dq g7’yj oEmevyf { lfa g]nv7komevyf @D la’dkf-u;t[6Iko { rnfcdoj gxnvp 0tspkp8q; { gduf,urnfcdoj sh5,mevyf { gduf,ur;dlaf|k,mtg]F fk;mtg]F svp8kj ’M { c,’w,hpadG c,’lk[F 8adc8oF c,’dt[Uxudpk;g4y’ @ c,af { lafg]nv7ko <0t|kfpad< wfa0tspkp8q; { laf]hP’]6dfh;poq,mevyf X@WW ]hkoxu? { oqdmevyf X!$W ]hkoxu? { lfa g]vn 7ko0t|kfpda f[a lo6 #D la’dkfmaf { rnfcdoj sh5,0tspkpwxm5dmt;u[ { lfa ]Ph ’]d6 f;h po,q 0tspkp8;q 185

$D la’dkf.\\j ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ { laf c]t rnfxaf95[ao { -kd7oq wfxh kdfq 8;q 0Bo zkj odkoldb lk,k0kh ’gmy’oUoda IPolk,kflts^[5 wfch o;.fL .odkoldb lk-kdfdb fk=[oa groyj lk,kflts^[5 wffh ’ja oUG !? -u;tlkf,udko0tspkp8;q c8’j kj pfkpskl[a lqoD @? groyj r[q Ikj ’dkpm,uj udkoxtdv[lkh ’’kj pfkpd;kj 1-6j oA suomguj dkjq cdDj l;j oIkj ’dkp mulj a[lqod;kj rq[16-j Aofyo s^n suomupj a’.\\Fj #? [k’d=]tou gryoj rq[vtw;pt;t7q[4h;o c8[j k’d=]tourq[c8lj ;j o.fl;j o|’bj 7e4k,G !D 9’qj 0ufvhv,7e8v[m4uj nd8hv’mluj 5f rkp.o @@ )WW xu xt]y,ko C!$ 9tpa’gs^nv rP’ dD !} ) 0D @}) 7D #}) @D 16xj tgmf]k;gIqkgryoj rq[-kdfbdfe[ao16.j lcfLj ,u-toyf.fcfLj #D gxaospa’xaf95[aooUgIqk9’bj [+gsaowf3oglqk c]t 8Qozadd6f.spmj puj a’,u-u;yf16Lj 186

[qfmu $W dko9af]efa[-Aosuo sou l;j osk^ p9t1.j6 8fh oy c]t gIkq 9t[g+ soa ,oa 3fpd’q pdq g;oA d]= tou [vj om,ju du kog-ktg9vjn o gxaog;]kpk;okoF gxaozkF gxaor6F gxao4EFDDDDltoAoF 4hkgIqk[+les^;fd=9t[+I6h;jk.o0q’g0f vvh ,cv,h 3I’IPo,usuo s^kpxtgrfc8d8kj ’doa D !D -Aosuo8tdvo dyf9tde !G lbdlkvkp50v’-Aosuo skj ’9kd 9kdoUDDD ]hkoxu { -Aosuo,u9ad-Ao c8]j t-Ao,uvkp5gmkqj .fL { -Ao.fgdqkj cddj ;kj \\L6j grktgsf.fL 110 120 126 ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ 140 150 160 170 180 I6[ $WD! -Aosuo8tdvo 9kddkolbdlk vkp50v’-Aosuo.oI6[ gsao;kj -Aosuoxtdv[,u ) -AoD )D sou xo6 gv3u doP, XCalcaires urgonien? (D sou xo6 cd,sou foy fko XCalcaires marneux hauteriviens? *D sou foy fko Xmarnes valanginiennes? &D sou xo6 ]fy 3mody XCalcaires lithoniques? $D sou foy fko Xmarnes oxfordiennes? #D sou xo6 9]5 k-dy XCalcaires du jurassique moyen? 187

@D sou foy fko Xmarnes du lias superieur? ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D sou xo6 cd,sou foy fko XCalcaires marneux du lias superieur? dyf9tde @G lbdlk-Aosuo { groyj ldb lk10j6 ’q g0f.fL { 9q’j [vd-n-j Aosuo8kj ’MF ma’\\qf,u 9ad-AoL { -Aosuo8kj ’M,u]adltot7ndao \\qf[+L 9q’j vtmy[kpD -kp X,k9kdrkdmt;u[? sou foy fko,k9kdmtg] fyofkd x6o0k;|P; suofyofko x6o0k;|P; suofyofko x6o0k;|P; I6[ $WD@ -Aosuo8tdvo mugj ,nv’dvdwo xkiu-yl zjkodkolbdlk0hk’gmy’oAo suo8tdvoc,josuomujgduf9kd8tdvo8qd]q’rNooE c]h; ma[4q,da[-kdlaf c]t rnf1v’dao0Bo gxao-AoMD c8]j t-Ao,u7;k,|k8kj ’dao g-y’j 9t0Boda[ w]ptg;]k0v’dko8qd8tdvog-ajoG s^kply[xu s^n s^kp Ihvp]hkoxuD -Aosuo.f|bj’9t.\\dj ;jk -Ao],5j c]t 9tgdkqj d;kj -Aogmy’0v’,aoD -Aosuomuj1j6rNo c,jo-Ao mujgdqkj cdjd;jk c]t gmy’l5fc,oj -Aomupj a’.\\jd;kj c]t ,uvkp5 |vh pd;kj \\Dj6 dyf9tde #G lbdlk-kdfbdfe[ao16j-Aosuo8jk’M { -kdfbdfe[aomruj q[1c6j 8]j t-Aosuo,u-toyf.fcfLj { -Ao.f,ul’yj m,uj u-u;yf,uIkj ’dkpdhk;|hkd;kj L phvogsfzqo.fL 188

-Aosuo -Aosuo}]hkoxu -kdfbdfe[aomruj q[ { svp]y,go !&D suox6oc7,/’aj mtg] c]t fyofkd #& ]hkoxu !$D -kp c]t fyofkd &W ]hkoxu { |k,mtg] (W ]hkoxu { g[c],oyf !#D suol=0k; !@D fyofkdfe !WW ]hkoxu ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ{ svpve3,oyf !!D -kp0P;-b,fh;poE !$W ]hkoxu { svpdU !WD -kpcd,fyofkd _D -kpmt;u[ !&W ]hkoxu { laf|a’|k, )D suox6o !*W ]hkoxu { ve3,oyf !(W ]hkoxu (D fyofkdfe *D suox6o &D fyofkdfe $D suox6o,u]adltot7ng,afw0xj k8yfM { xtdk]a’ dao4hk4ndcl’ 9tgs^Nv, c]t -b,fh;p !)W ]hkoxu oE,aofy[ c]t ,uoE1.6j 8h oE,ao #D fyofkdfe { @D suo-kp c]t fyofkd [ao95-Aox6o @WW ]hkoxu { g[c],oyf 0k;|P; c]t gdnv { ve3,oyf !D suo-kprNovkj ’fyo8tdvo @@W ]hkoxu I6[ $WD# -kdfbdfe[ao16-j Aosuo8kj ’M 189

dyf9tde $G lbdlk-Aofyo fyof’aj dkj ;,u]adltotgxaoco;.fL ,fu oy [k’[vj o ,]u da ltot[g+ xoa czoj rP’F gIkq 8vh ’l’a gdf.s7h da ;kj vkf9tc,oj foy d’jq 37’h ra[F xUo XI6[ $WD$? s^n vkf9tc,oj fyorP’c8xj Pj ’fyocpdg]nvj odao XI6[ $WD&? c]h;gIaf.shfyo gdkjq g]vjn owxxdq .lfj yompuj a’.\\Dj c8lj e]a[oadm=]touc]h;c,oj -kdfdb fe[oa 9t-;j pgxoa sd^a 4ko.sh grkt.o-oA fyofP;doa 9tr[q -kdfdb fe[oa 7kh p7ndoa D I6[ $WD$ fyora[ovo c]t cpd I6[ $WD& cpdg]nvj o oda m]= towu fch [’j w]ptg;]km]= tou sn^ -oA sou 3fpoe.-gh sfdkovoa le7oa 0v’xts;fa lkf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ |;j p3]dD 3fpm;jq wxgroyj wfgh vkq lv’gsfdkogxoa sd^a 7nG { dkoxPj ocx’I6[Ikj ’laf c]t rnf X-kdfbdfe[aomurj q[dt9kp16-j Aosuodh;k’0;k’ s^kpd;kj c]t gxao8q;cmo.shcd-j AosuooAo? { dkoxtdv[gxoa lkprD6 @D dkodegoufsuodikoyf 9’jq ldb lkI[6 dkod.+ sgh dfu gxoa sou dikofy c];h l,q mP[d[a dkodegofu 0v’-oA sou 8tdvoD suodikoyfgduf9kd,ad,kfao0Bo,k9kd.8hgxnvd3]d phvov5ostr6, c]t 7;k,fao 8ej d;kj mk’.o ,oa 9’jb 7vj pMc0’8;q gxoa dvh o.spj sn^ gxoa 3’oj 1-j6 oA sou gxvn d3]d.o]tf[a .f|’jb 3fp m[ju +gxoa -oA 7-n oA sou 8tdvoD 190

;q’9vo0v’suoxPj oI6[ phvo7;k,Ihvo4ndfao0Bogmy’ suodikoyfdhvo.spj suo8tdvo rQo0Bo|hkfyo c]h;7vj pM g1ao]q’ ,da ,k4dn foa 0oB gm’y g1ao]q’-hk c]t s^kp]hkoxu rkps^a’dkodafg-kt gxaog,af,tou0v’suodikoyf |hkfyo I6[G $WD* dkodegouf0v’suodikoyf 7;k,Ih6dPj ;da[suoF dkoxtdv[lhk’F dkolbdlk-kdfbdfe[ao c]t ]adltot0v’,ao gxaol’yj le7aogrvnj deoqfvkp50v’suo c]t dko9af]efa[-AosuoD 7e4k,G ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ !D 1g6j 0fmoju da IPovkwl1,j6 [u vj o.fcfmj lju tf;d.odkoldb lk-oA sou L oda IPo9t;k’czo les^;fco;.fL ,usuoxtgrf.fcfLj @D 9’qj la’gdfsuo.oI6[],5j oU c]h; g]nvd7e8v[m4uj nd8hv’mluj 5fD gxaospa’9’bj g]nvd0=hoUL dD c,oj suodikoyf 0D c,oj suo8tdvo -Aofyofkd 7D c,oj suo8tdvo -Aosuox6o I6[0=h @ #D g0ffyovoa d;kh ’0;k’oUxtdv[ f;h p[oa fk-oA suo8tdvo8kj ’MD 9’qj [vd;kj c,oj g0f.f gxaog0fmugj dkqj cddj ;kj \\L6j g0f 0 grktgsf.fL g0f d suo-kp dikoyf suox6o I6[0=h # 191

rkdmu VIII -a[rtpkdvo.ofyo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ xtgmf]k;0v’r;dgIkq vf5 ,q I’ja ,uwxf;h p-[a rtpkdvo.ofyolyo.ooEF w]ptzkj o,k d=wfh,udko05f7Qo c]t oe.-hxt3spf9kd-a[rtpkdvofaj’djk;g0Qk.o;Pd’ko8jk’M1j6.o -u;yfxt9e;ao1kj ’s^;’s^kp oAod=7n suo c]t cImj kfD -a[rtpkdvofa’j dkj ;oadIPo9twfhIPo c]t lbdlk.o[qfIPo8+wxoUD [qfmu $! suo !D 7;k,\\kp0v’suo .o-;u fy xt9e;oa oda IPogsoa sou -tofy .fcfLj sou f’ja dkj ;,Iu [6 Ikj ’ c]t ]da ltot co;.fL suo gxaodhvo;af45mucj 0’ gduf0Bo8k,me,t-kf g-y’j xtdv[fh;pcImj kf|b’j sn^ s^kp -tofy xtl,q I;,doa 16j s^n gxoa mkfxtl,q 0v’cImj gju dfu 9kdrw6 2 s^n cI-j kdfdb fe[oa s^n 0v’c0’ vojn MD @D ]adltot];,0v’suoD suo ,us^kp-toyf g-’yj gxaol;j oxtdv[mluj e7ao0v’gxnvd3]dD suoc8]j t-toyf,u ]adltot mk’dkptrk[ Xrkpovd? c8d8kj ’dao g-oaj G ,ulufP; s^n s^kpluF ,uzy;]P[ s^n gxao[vj os^5[3ooF gxoa -oA F ,7u ;k,c;;;k; sn^ ,zu ;y spk[[l+ tmvh ocl’D 9kd]da ltot f’ja dkj ; lk,kf.-gh xoa gdo .odko9ecodsuowfDh dyf9tdeG lbdlk]adltot0v’suo !? ];[];,suomguj d[a ,kgrvnj l’a gdfg[’yj I[6 Ikj ’F ]da ltotF lu c]t 7;k,dPh ’ 0v’suoD rvh ,m’a [oa mdb zoq D @? la’gdfdkoxjPocx’0v’suo3fpdkom5[F gzqk c]t vnjoM grnjvxP[mP[7;k, c0’cdoj 0v’suo c]t gonhvsuoD [aombdzqoD 192

dhvosuo ,uI6[Ikj ’pk; dhvosuo ,uI6[,qo suo dhvocx X]P[F goNv-k? dhvosuolu0k; dhvosuo lufe dhvosuo lucf’ ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ suo,us^kpluxqodao 8tdvosuo-kp 4ndrafrk,k9kd [=]yg;or6 I6[ $!D! ]adltot0v’suo-toyf8kj ’M 3fpv’u .l]j da ltotmk’dkptrk[ c]t mk’g7,u groyj lk,kfc[’j sou vvdgxoa # xtgrf 7nG suovad7touF suo-Ao Xsuo8tdvo? c]t suoxPj oI6[ g-y’j oadIPo9twfhIPo.o[qf8+wxD zkj odkoldb lkgsoa ;kj sou gskjq^ ooA ,u ]da ltotF lFu l;j oxtdv[8kj ’doa g-oja G [k’dvh oc0’F [k’dhvovvj oS [k’dhvo,uzy;gs^Nv,F ]P[F [k’dhvo-kF [k’dhvo,uI6 c]t vnoj MD 193

#D 75oxt3spf0v’suo ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ suo.-hxt3spfg0Qk.o;Pd’ko.fcfLj sd^a dkooe.-sh uo.sgh xoa xt3spf8kj ’M7;o7eo’b g4y’l’yj 8+wxoUG !D ]adltotmk’dkptrk[ c]t g7,u0v’suoD @D les^;fxt]y,ko0v’suomu,j u.omhv’4yoj ;kj ,urP’r=c]h; s^n pa’D #D dkogIfa .ssh ou ,0u t|kf c]t I[6 Ikj ’8k,m8ju vh ’dko.-Fh grktsou gxoa czoj .spj c]t c0’cI’D sou ,7u o5 xt3spfsk^ p1kj ’8d+ kofe]’q -;u fy 0v’7oq gIkq g-oja G .-gh xoa ;fa 4g5 0kQ .odkodl+ kh ’F x6mk’F xtfa[gvh 3fpmk’vhv, g-oja G wsoE c]t 4a’le]a[ x6dfvdw,h c]t vonj MS .-hgxao;af45fy[ gIfa -u,’a F dtg[Nv’,’5 s^’a 7kgInvoF 7e4k,G !D suom7uj qogIqkoe,k.-h.om5d,NoUgduf0Bo,kwfhco;.fL @D suo,u7;k,le7ao8+dkofe]q’-u;yf0v’,to5f-kfco;.fL @D dvj ogIkq 9toegvkq suo,koe.-gh 0kQ .o;Pd’ko.f|’jb gIkq 7;o7eo’b g4y’l’yj .fcfLj 194

[qfmu $@ suo-toyf8jk’M sou ,su k^ p-tofy c]t gdfu 0oB f;h p;my 8u kj ’doa D oda m]= to;u my tpklkf lk,kf9ecodsou m1ju 6j gmy’gxnvd3]dvvdgxao # r;d.sp7j nG suovad7tou XIgneous Rocks?F suo-Ao sn^ suo8tdvo XSedimentary Rock? c]t sou xPj oI[6 XMetamorphic Rock?D !D suovad7tou dkodegofu G 1.6j 8gh xvn d3]dF g,vjn wfIh [a 7;k,Ivh o l6’F mkf8kj ’M9t4nds^v,cs^; gvUo;kj G ,ad,k XMagma?D ,ad,k 4ndfao8q; 0oB ,k]tf[a |’jb c]t 1.6j ork;tvo5 str,6 ]fq ]’q F ,da ,k9tg1oa 8;q c]t c0’8;q 1kj ’ I6[ $@D! suos^v,cs^;8k,.8hgxnvd3]dfaosuoc0’ -kh Mgdfu gxoa rdb cI0j t|kf.spj gIfa .ssh ou .sh37h’3oo0Bo ,gu ovN spk[ 3fpm;jq wx9t,cu Ij sk^ p-tofy ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ lvfxtlkogdktdaoc|hoS goNv0v’suo,u]adltotcsh’ c]t c0’D 8q;1kj ’G suodikoyf c]t sou f3u vwiD sou vda 7tovu du xtgrf\\’jb gdfu 9kd dko]tg[fu 0v’rw6 2S g,vjn ,da ,krojq 0oB ,kgm’y z;y 3]d .oI[6 0v’0v’cs;^ g-’jy gvoU ;kj ]k;k XLava-lave?D ]k;k 9tg1oa c]t c0’8;q 1kj ’w;[r+ g= mkjq .f -qj;3,’ c]h;gdufgxaosuomuj,u ]adltot gxaoI6 g-ajo suor6,yl c]t suoltd=gipS [k’lj;o ,]u da ltotgovN oPo gxoa cd;h g-oja sou vvd-fu PoD l;j o]k;km4ju dn foa 0oB ,k c];h wsw^ x8k,z;y 3]d gduf gxaosuovad7tour5 sn^ suor6w2 g-y’j l;j os^kp ,ugoNvc|hoF gxaorbd0t|kfohvps^kp g-ajoG suowI3vwiF suo[k-k] c]t suocvofuw-D I6[ $@D@ ]k;k ws^9kddko]tg[uf0v’r6w2 195

8q;1kj ’G suovad7tou[k’-toyf suor6,yl suor6,yl ,ugoNvc0’ c]t ,u7;k,-kg\\nvo dtfkf-kpD suooUoypq,.-hgxao;af450af46D I6[ $@D# suor6,yl suodikoyf ສະຫງສ.ວວນ.ລິສຂະສິດ I6[ $@D$ suodikoyf sou dikofy gxoa sou m,ju cu Imj kfs^kp-tofy xoq doa 16j I6[ $@D& vv[-ufPo gIqk9bj’gsao,aogxaos^kpluxqo1j6oedaoD cIjmkfmujle7ao xtdv[16joesuodikoyf,u @ -toyf7nG suod;f Xguartz? c]t suog2]ltxk XFeldspar?D suod;f,u]adltot 0v’cI.j l[k’[vj od=,ulugs^nv’F luoE8koF 0P;F 2hk s^n feD suogra]ltxk sou g2]a lxkgxoa l0u k;F gsvn^ ’ sn^ l-u ,q rD6 ]da ltot 0v’suogxaogoNvc0’F g,njvgIqkgvqk,k0afc]h; 9t,ulu ’fq ’k,F ,]u kp groyj 9’jb opy ,q .-xh r6 oN gIvn o c]t g7vjn ’gvDh suovv[-ufPo suovv[-ufPo XAbsidian? gduf,k9kdsuo]k;k mgju 1oa 8;q w;mlju f5 c];h dkpgxoa sou m,ju ]u da ltot7dn [a cd;h F ,ugonhv]tvPf c]t c0’s^kpD g,njv,aoc8dlQo0v’ ,ao9tcs^,D 196