kerala pop 2011 revised

COCONUT 95adding 9 litres of water to get 10 litres of garlic emulsion 2 per cent applied on infested2 per cent neem oil + garlic emulsion. bunches checks button mealy bugs. As per the recommendation of the RodentsNational Level Steering Committee, a holisticapproach has to be adopted in the Rats damage tender nuts by formingmanagement of the coconut eriophyid mite. characteristic holes. Shed nuts can be seenHence, in addition to the plant protection at the base of the palm.measures mentioned above, the followingmeasures can be adopted: Place wax blocks of 0.005 per cent bromadiolone in coconut crown of the1. Improving nutrient status by applying infested palms at 3 to 4 days interval till the organic manure at the rate of 50 kg and bait is no more consumed. neem cake 5 kg per palm per year. Also apply the recommended dose of fertilizers Diseases in two split applications. Phytophthora diseases2. Growing compatible intercrops / mixed crops. Phytophthora palmivora has been found to affect seedlings and adult palms3. Providing adequate irrigation. causing bud rot and immature nut fall commonly known as mahali.Mealy bug Bud rotSymptoms Symptoms Mealy bugs infest the unopened heartleafand inflorescence. As a result, the leaves Palms of all age are liable to be attackedbecome highly stunted, suppressed, deformed but normally young palms are moreand present a crinkled appearance. It is often susceptible, particularly during monsoonconfused with the leaf rot symptoms. The when the temperature is low and humidity isaffected inflorescences are malformed and very high. In seedlings, the spear leaf turnsdo not open. Even if they open, they do not pale and comes off with a gentle pull. In adultbear nuts. palms, the first visible symptom is the colour change of the spear, which becomes pale and Button mealy bugs colonize under the breaks at the base and hangs down. Theperianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crownharbouring gravid mealy bugs remain on the rot into a slimy mass of decayed materialspadix, which serve as inoculum for further emitting a foul smell. The rotting slowlyspread. progresses downwards, finally affecting the meristem and killing the palms. This isManagement accompanied by drooping of successive leaves. Even then, nuts that are retained on Remove and destroy all dried up the palm may grow to maturity. The diseaseinflorescence and unproductive buttons. proves fatal if not checked at the earlyApply non-residual phosphatic insecticides stages, before damage of the bud.like dimethoate 0.05 per cent or quinalphos0.05 per cent at the site of infestation.Neem

96 COCONUTManagement monsoon and once or twice later on at intervals of 40 days.1. In early stages of the disease (when the heartleaf starts withering) cut and remove Root (wilt) disease all affected tissues of the crown. Apply Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain Symptoms till normal shoot emerges. The characteristic symptom is the2. Burn all disease-affected tissues removed flaccidity of leaflets. Yellowing of older from the palm. leaves, necrosis of leaflets and deterioration and decay of root system are other salient3. Spray 1.0 per cent bordeaux mixture on features of the disease. The leaflets curve spindle leaves and crown of disease inwardly to produce ribbing so that the whole affected as well as neighbouring palms, frond develops a cup like appearance. as a prophylactic measure. Palms that are Abnormal shedding of buttons and immature sensitive to copper containing fungicides nuts are also noticed. can be protected by mancozeb. Small, perforated sachets containing 2 g of Management mancozeb may be tied to the top of leaf axil. When it rains, a small quantity of the Coconut root (wilt) is a non-lethal fungicide is released from the sachets to debilitating disease and the affected palms the leaf base, thus protecting the palm. survive for a long period giving a reasonably good yield. The root (wilt) affected palms4. Adopt control measures for rhinoceros are susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and beetle. pests like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. So there is a chance of confusing5. Provide adequate drainage in gardens. the pests and disease symptom with the root (wilt) disease. Negligence on the6. Adopt proper spacing and avoid over management aspects aggravates the malady. crowding in bud rot prone gardens. Efficient management of palms suspected to be affected by coconut root (wilt) diseaseMahali demands control of all pests and diseases and imparting natural resistance and health to theSymptoms palms through proper manuring and agronomic practices. A package of Shedding of female flowers and immature management practices for the effectivenuts are the common symptoms of the management of root (wilt) disease is givendisease. Lesions appear on the young fruits below:or buttons near the stalk, which later lead tothe decay of the underlying tissues and 1. Rogue out palms that are affectedendosperm. severely by root (wilt) and yield less than 10 nuts / palm / year and those, whichManagement have contracted the disease before Spray 1.0 per cent bordeaux mixture orcopper oxychloride preparation (0.2 per cent)on the crown of palms, once before the

COCONUT 97 flowering. Replant with disease tolerant 7. When the crop is grown under the bund material / high yielding hybrids and channel system, desilt the channel and (Chandrasankara). strengthen the bunds during summer months.2. Apply fertilizers for coconut palms in average management at the rate of 0.34 8. Follow strictly all the prescribed kg N, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.68 kg K2O / prophylactic measures against leaf rot palm / year in the form of urea, rock disease, red palm weevil, rhinoceros phosphate and muriate of potash, beetle etc. so as to ensure that the palms respectively. For palms under good are not debilitated. To maintain the management, fertilizers may be given @ productivity of the palms, prophylactic of 0.5 kg N, 0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg measures are of great importance. K2O / palm / year. Leaf rot3. In addition to the above, apply 50 kg cattle manure or green manure and 1 kg of Symptoms lime / palm / year. Magnesium may be supplied @ 500 g MgO per palm per year The first symptom is the appearance of in the Onattukara region (sandy soil) and water-soaked brown lesions in the spear 100 g MgO in the remaining areas. The leaves of root-wilt affected palms. Gradually cheapest source of MgO is magnesite these spots enlarge and coalesce resulting in (MgCO3). The magnesium in magnesite extensive rotting. As the leaf unfurls, the is acid soluble. Hence it may be preferred rotten portions of the lamina dry and get in acid soils. blown off in wind, giving a ‘fan’ shape to the leaves. Some times, the symptom becomes4. Growing green manure crops like very acute and the spear fails to unfurl. sun hemp, sesbania, cowpea and calapagonium in the coconut basin and This disease is a fungal complex initiated their incorporation in situ is beneficial as predominantly by Colletotrichum the practice reduces the intensity of the gloeosporioides, Exserohilum rostratum root (wilt) and increases the nut yield. The and Fusarium spp. ideal green manure crops for the sandy and alluvial soils are cowpea and sesbania, Management respectively. 1. Remove the rotten portions from the spear5. Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers and the two adjacent leaves. in two splits, 1/3rd at the time of early southwest monsoon and 2/3rd before the 2. Pour 300 ml of fungicidal solution at the northeast monsoon. Under irrigated base of the spear. This can be prepared conditions apply fertilizers in three equal by mixing hexaconazole 5 EC 2 ml or splits (April-May, August-September and mancozeb 3 g in 300 ml water. December-January). 3. Treat the top two leaf axils with insecticide6. Apply fertilizers and manures in 10 cm preparation. This can be prepared by deep circular basins at a radius of 2 m mixing carbaryl 20 g with 200 g sand. from the bole of the palm.

98 COCONUT4. Spray crowns and leaves with 1per cent 3. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg per palm in the bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent copper basin along with other organics. oxychloride formulations or 0.3 per cent mancozeb in January, April-May and 4. Root feed with tridemorph 5 per cent, September. While spraying, care has to thrice a year during April-May, be taken to spray the spindle leaf. September-October and January- February to prevent further spread ofStem bleeding lesions.Symptoms 5. Apply tridemorph @ 25 ml in 25 litre of water as soil drenching once in four Exudation of the reddish brown liquid months.through the growth cracks mostly at the basalpart of the trunk and bleeding patches higher Grey blightup in the trunk are characteristic symptoms.One or more lesions, lying close by, may This is caused by the fungus Pestalotiacoalesce to form large patches. The liquid palmarum.that oozes out dries up and turns black. Thetissues beneath the bleeding points decay and Symptomsbecome yellowish. The lesions spreadupwards as the disease progresses. In Symptoms appear in the mature leavesadvanced stages, the leaf size reduces leading of the outer whorl as yellow specks encircledto reduction in crown size. The rate of leaf by a greyish band which later becomeproduction slows down. The production of greyish white. The spots coalesce intobunches is affected and nut shedding takes irregular necrotic patches causing extensiveplace. The trunk gradually tapers towards leaf blight. In advanced stages, the tips andthe apex. The progress of the disease is margins of the leaflets dry and shrivel givingfaster during July to November. a burnt appearance.Causal organism Management The fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa is Remove severely affected older leavesthe causal agent. Growth cracks on the trunk, and burn. Spray the trees with 1 per centsevere summer followed by heavy down Bordeaux mixture or propiconazolepour, water stagnation, imbalance in nutrition, 0.025 per cent.excess salinity and stress can act aspredisposing / aggravating factors. Tanjore wiltManagement Symptoms1. Chisel out completely the affected tissues This disease is of recent occurrence in and paint the wound with tridemorph 5 many parts of Kerala, especially in the per cent. Apply coal tar after 1-2 days. districts of Palakkad, Malappuram, Thrissur, Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad.2. Destroy the chiseled materials by burning. Middle aged palms were seen fatally Avoid any mechanical injury to trunk. affected. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the rotting of the basal portion of the stem. The bark turns brittle and often gets peeled off in flakes, leaving open cracks and crevices. The internal tissues are

COCONUT 99discoloured and disintegrated, emitting a bad Following precautions are to be taken forsmell. Mild bleeding occurs on the basal the safe storage of copra for more than threeregion. The tissues on the bleeding spots are months:soft to touch. Extensive damage of the rootsystem following root rotting has been (1) Dry the produce to 4 per cent moistureobserved. Ultimately the palm dies off. content.Management (2) Avoid heap storage, which causes maximum damage.1. Apply organic manure @ 50 kg / palm. (3) Store copra in netted polythene bags or2. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg / palm / year. gunny bags.3. Reduce fertilizer application to one-fourth Shell fired copra dryer of the recommended dose. A new type of dryer working on indirect4. Drench the basin with 40 litres of 1 per heating and natural convection principles cent Bordeaux mixture or tridemorph 0.1 using coconut shell as fuel has been designed per cent or any other copper fungicide to and developed by CPCRI. The overall soak soil up to 15 cm depth at quarterly dimension of the dryer is 2.25m length, 1.5m intervals. breadth and 1.5m height. The capacity of the dryer is 1000-1200 nuts per batch. The5. Root feed with tridemorph 2 ml mixed with dryer has two heating chambers which are 100 ml water at quarterly intervals. arranged in parallel. Specially developed rolling in type of fuel trays are used for6. Avoid flood irrigation in order to prevent burning the fuel. The dryer consists of a the possible spread of the pathogen drying chamber, a burning chamber, a plenum through soil. chamber and ventilation holes. Each full tray produces heat for 6 hours, with a7. Isolate the affected palm from the healthy temperature of about 80-820 C. Generally ones by digging a trench of size 1 m deep after 6 hours, when the temperature drops and 50 cm wide, 1.5 m away from the below 600C, the fuel trays are removed from bole of the infected palm. the dryer, cleaned and reloaded with fuel, refired and replaced into respective burning8. Avoid growing leguminous crops in and chambers. About 4 loads of fuel are required around the garden. with a capacity of 80 shells per tray to dry the copra to about 6.25 per cent moistureSafe storage of copra content. The total drying time is 24 hours. The cost of the dryer is approx Rs.35,000/-. Copra obtained from commonly cultivated Farmers and entrepreneurs interested tovarieties / cultivars is attacked by various purchase this dryer can contact, Agriculturalinsect pests in store. Among these ham Technology Information Centre (ATIC),beetle, Necrobia rufipes and saw toothed CPCRI, Kasargod, for further details.grain beetle, Oryzaphilus surinamensis areof major importance, which can cause morethan 15 per cent loss to copra when storedfor more than six months.

100 GROUNDNUT GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea) Groundnut can be cultivated as a floor Apply entire quantity of cattle manure orcrop in coconut gardens, as an intercrop with compost and recommended quantity oftapioca and as a catch crop after second crop fertilizers as basal dressing and incorporatepaddy with irrigation. The crop is grown best well into the soil. Apply lime at the time ofin sandy loam and loam soils. flowering of the crop and mix with the soil by light hoeing or raking.Season Irrigation and intercultureRainfed : May-June to September-OctoberIrrigated : January to May Irrigate the crop once in 7 days. Weed the crop 10-15 days after germination of seedVarieties Duration (days) by light hoeing. Give another light hoeing or 110 raking at the time of application of lime. DoTMV-2 (bunch type) 110 not disturb the soil after 45 days ofTMV-7 (bunch type) sowing.TG-3 (bunch type) 100-110TG-14 (bunch type) 105-115 Plant protectionSpanish Improved 100-110Sneha (bunch type) Red hairy caterpillar, termites and leafSnigtha (bunch type) Early miners are the major pests of groundnut. Early Against leaf miner apply any of the organophosphorus insecticides with contactNote: TG-3, TMV-2 and TMV-7 are action. Spraying carbaryl 0.15 per cent recommended as intercrops in controls red hairy caterpillars. Against ants / coconut gardens. earwigs/ termites damaging the pods, apply carbaryl 10 per cent DP in soil at the time ofSeeds and sowing seeding.Pure crop 100kg kernels ha-1 Tikka leaf spot disease infects both the rainfed and irrigated crops. ProphylacticIntercrop in coconut 80 kg kernels ha-1 spraying with Bordeaux mixture 1.0 per cent before flowering will control the disease.Intercrop in tapioca 40-50 kg kernels ha-1 Harvesting Plough the field three or four times into afine tilth. Sow the seeds by dibbling in The crop will be ready for harvest whenploughed furrows at a spacing of 15 cm x the leaves start yellowing and begin to dry15 cm. For seed treatment the rhizobial up. Development of brown colour inside theculture is recommended. pods also indicates maturity of the crop.ManuringCattle manure or compost 2 t ha-1Lime 1-1.5 t ha-1Fertilizers N:P2O5:K2O 10:75:75 kg ha-1

OIL PALM 101 OIL PALM (Elaeis guineensis) Oil palm grows best in areas with a mean Raising nurserymaximum temperature of 30-32ºC and on anaverage of at least five hours of sunlight. Polybags (preferably black) of 400-500It can be grown in areas, which receive gauge measuring 40 cm x 35 cm are used.well-distributed annual rainfall of 200 cm or The bags are filled with topsoil and compostmore. However, it can tolerate two to four and are arranged at a spacing of 45 cm x 45 cmmonths of dry spell. The oil palm grows on and one sprouted seed is dibbled per bag. Awide range of tropical soils. The adult palms good mulching during summer is desirable.can withstand occasional waterlogging, but Watering the seedlings weekly thrice isfrequently waterlogged, extremely sandy and recommended. A fertilizer mixture contain-hard lateritic soils should be avoided. ing 15 g N, 15 g P2O5 and 6 g K2O at the rate of 8 g in five litres of water for 100Varieties seedlings may be applied when the seedlings are two months and eight months old. The only variety recommended forcommercial cultivation is Tenera, which is a Plantinghybrid between Dura and Pisifera. Oil palm is planted in the main field inNursery practices triangular system at spacing of 9 m accommodating 140 palms per ha. Planting The fruits are separated from the bunch is preferably done at the onset of monsoonand seeds are extracted by scraping off the during May-June. The polythene bag is tornexocarp and mesocarp with a knife, or by open and the entire ball of earth is buried inretting in water. The seeds are then dried by the pit (50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm) and levelled.spreading them on concrete or wooden floorsunder shade for two days. Such seeds can Manuringbe stored for 3-9 months at about 27ºCwithout much reduction in viability. The following fertilizer schedule is considered satisfactory for oil palm. Seeds are soaked in water for five days,changing the water daily. Thereafter, the N:P2O5:K2O g/palm/yearseeds are spread out to dry for 24 hours. Thedried seeds are put in polythene bags and First year 400:200:400placed in germinator maintained at a Second year 800:400:800temperature of 40ºC. After 80 days, the Third year onwards 1200:600:1200seeds are removed from polythene bags,soaked in water for 5 days changing the water Mg application is necessary only ifdaily and dried in the shade for two hours. deficiency symptoms are noticed. Fertiliz-The seeds are then put back into bags and ers are preferably applied in two equal splitkept in a cool place in order to maintain the doses (May and September), within 2 mmoisture content. Germination commences diameter around the palm and forked in.in about 10-12 days. The percentage of Supply of sufficient quantities of green leafgermination obtainable by this method is 90-95. or compost is advantageous, especially where the soil is poor in organic matter.

102 OIL PALMLeaf pruning Plant protection Dead and diseased leaves and all Pestsinflorescences should be cut off regularlyupto three years after planting. When the Rhinoceros beetlepalms are yielding, judicious pruning to retainabout 40 leaves on the crown is advocated. The pest causes severe damage toIt is necessary to remove some of the leaves emerging fronds and spindle. The adult beetlewhile harvesting. In such cases, care should feeds on the softer tissue of the rachis,be taken to avoid over pruning. In addition, resulting in snapping off of the fronds andall dead and excess leaves should be cut off spears at the feeding sites. Field sanitationand crown cleaned at least once in a year, and elimination of breeding sites areusually during the dry season. essential components of the pest management operation. This pest can bePollination suppressed by using the virus Baculovirus oryctes. Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop.Assisted pollination is done to ensure Red palm weevilfertilization of all female flowers. However,this is not necessary if the pollination weevil This is a major pest of oil palm in India.Elaedobius kamerunicus is introduced in the These weevils lay their eggs at the cut endplantation. They congregate and multiply on of petioles or other wounds. The emergingmale inflorescence during flower opening. larvae tunnel into the crown and feed on theThe weevils also visit the female flowers and growing tissues. Palms infested by red palmpollinate them effectively. weevil start wilting and leaves show gradually increasing chlorosis and fracture inHarvesting strong winds. If detected early, treatment of affected palm with 0.2 per cent carbaryl would First harvest can be taken 3.5 to 4 years save the palms.after planting. When a few ripe fruits areloose / fall off, the bunch is ready for Birdsharvesting. Processing over-ripe fruitsreduces quantity and quality of oil. Many birds such as the forest crow, the house crow and the common Indian myna A chisel is used for harvesting bunches cause severe damage to oil palm fruitfrom young palms. The stalk of the bunch is bunches. These birds feed on the mesocarpstruck hard with the chisel to cut off and push of the oil palm fruits. The damage can bethe bunch out. When the palms become taller minimized by scaring the birds and(from 10 year onwards) a harvesting hook covering the ripe bunch with wire net,has to be used. When the palms are too tall, 150 days after fruit set.it is necessary to climb the palms forharvesting. Diseases Anthracnose This disease occurs in the nursery. It is recognized by regular or irregular brown to black leaf blotches surrounded by yellow haloes, which develop along the margin,

OIL PALM AND SESAME 103centre or tip of the leaves. It causes heavy This malady is generally attributed to excessseedling loss. The disease can be controlled pruning, mutual shading, underpollination,by spraying mancozeb or captan @ 200 g/ moisture stress and unhygienic conditions.100 litres of water. Copper fungicides should The situation can be improved by assistednot be used because of the extreme suscepti- pollination as well as by adopting hygienicbility of oil palm seedlings to copper burn measures like removal of infected bunches(scorching). and dry male inflorescence.Spear rot Processing This is noticed to affect oil palms of all For mature plantations not exceedingages. The incidence is less than one per cent. 40 ha, a hand-operated hydraulic press willYellowing starts from tip of the innermost be enough for extraction of oil. In the casewhorl of leaves. Small lesions occur at the of large-scale plantations, the hydraulic pressdistal portions of spear and rotting extends will not be economical and as such, mechani-downwards. As the disease advances, new cally driven oil mills have to be established.leaves become rudimentary and show The fruit bunches brought to the factory arerotting. General decline in vigour and first quartered by means of a chisel. Theyproduction is then noticed. Occurrence of are then sterilized in steam or boiling waterspear rot without yellowing has also been for 30-60 minutes. The objective of thisnoticed. Distinguishable marginal yellowing process is to inactivate the fat splittingof leaflets and sudden drying of leaves show- enzymes, which are present in the fruit, whiching yellowing are other symptoms. Roguing may raise the free fatty acid content of theof all the affected palms may be adopted to oil and also to soften the fruits for easyprevent further spread of the disease. In pounding. The sterilized fruits are strippedearly stages of the disease, the affected por- off from the bunch and then pounded. Thetions of leaves may be removed and burnt. pounded fruit mass is then reheated and squeezed using a hydraulic press. It is thenBunch failure boiled in a clarification drum where the sludge will deposit and pure oil float over the water. Sparse or no fruit set followed by The oil is then drained out.complete drying or rotting of the affectedbunches are the typical symptoms. Theextent of incidence can be up to 20 per cent. SESAME (Sesamum indicum) Sesame grows in well-drained, sandy Uplands: August–Decemberloam soils. Coarse sandy soils and soils ofalkaline and saline nature are not suited for Varietiesthe crop. For upland cultivation use varietiesSeason with long duration of 100-110 days and for low land, use varieties with duration of Lowland paddy field: December–April 80-99 days.(third crop)

104 SESAMEKayamkulam-1 Table 22. Sesame varietiesKayamkulam-2(Thilothama) Suitable for lowlands of Onattukara Suitable for rice fallows in Onattukara, resistant to leafACV-1 (Soma) spot disease. Pure line selection for summer fallows of OnattukaraACV-2 (Surya) Pure line selection suited for uplands Pure line selection suited to summer fallows of OnattukaraACV-3 (Thilak) Suitable for the summer rice fallows of Onattukara, oilThilathara (CST 785 x 51.5%, duration 78 daysB14) Suited to uplands of Onattukara (rabi season), oil 50.5% Suited to summer rice fallows of OnattukaraOMT–1165ThilaraniPreparation of land and sowing Interculture Prepare the soil into a fine tilth by plough- Aftercultivation of the crop may be doneing 2-4 times and breaking the clods. Seed twice, first at 15 days and the next 25-35 daysrate is 4-5 kg ha-1. Broadcast seeds evenly, after sowing. When the plants are aboutpreferably mixed with sand 2-3 times its 15 cm in height, thin the crop so as to give avolume, to ensure uniform coverage. Work spacing of 15-25 cm between plants.with harrow, followed by pressing with woodenplank so as to cover the seed in the soil. IrrigationManuring Usually the crop is grown under rainfed conditions. When facilities are available, the Apply manures and fertilizers at the crop may be irrigated to field capacity afterfollowing rates. thinning operation and thereafter at 15-20 days interval. Stop irrigation just before theCattle manure / compost 5 t ha-1 pods begin to mature.N:P2O5:K2O 30:15:30 kg ha-1 Surface irrigation at 3 cm depth during the critical stages, viz., 4-5 leaves, branch- Apply cattle manure/compost as basal ing, flowering and pod formation willdressing and incorporate into the soil along with increase the yield by 35-52 per cent. Twolast ploughing. Apply fertilizers as basal dose irrigations of 3 cm depth each in the vegeta-when there is enough moisture in the soil. Urea tive phase (4-5 leaf stage or branching) andis preferable to ammonium sulphate. in reproductive phase (at flowering or podNitrogen may be applied in split doses, 75 per formation) are the best, registering maximumcent as basal and the balance as foliar spray yield and water use efficiency. In the caseat 3 per cent concentration, 20-35 days after of single irrigation, it can be best given in thesowing keeping the discharge rate at reproductive phase. In the tail end fields in500 1 ha-1. command area, best use of the sparingly available water can be made for augmenting sesame production.

SESAME 105Plant protection Harvesting For control of leaf and pod caterpillar, Harvest the crop, when the capsules turnremove affected leaves and shoots and dust yellowish by pulling out the plants. Harvestwith carbaryl 10 per cent. Azadirachtin during the morning hours. Cut the root0.03 per cent at 5 ml per litre spray at 7th and portion and stack the plants in bundles for20th DAS and thereafter need based applica- 3-4 days when the leaves will fall off. Spreadtion can manage the incidence of leaf and in the sun and beat with sticks to breakpod caterpillar, pod borer infestation and open the capsules. Repeat this for 3 days.phyllody incidence. For control of gall fly, give Preserve seeds collected during the first daypreventive spray with 0.2 per cent carbaryl. for seed purposes. Clean and dry in sun for about 7 days before storing. For control of leaf curl disease, removeand destroy disease affected sesame plants Storage of seedsas well as the diseased collateral hosts likechilli, tomato and zinnia. By keeping sesame seeds in polybags, tin bins, wooden receptacles or in earthen pots, Remove plants affected with phyllody and the viability can be maintained for about onedestroy them. Do not use seeds from affected year. Admixture of seeds with ash willplants for sowing. drastically reduce germination.

106 CARDAMOM SPICES AND CONDIMENTSCARDAMOM (Elettaria cardamomum) The habitat of small cardamom is the Rhizome multiplicationevergreen forests of Western Ghats. It isgrown in areas where the annual rainfall This may be taken up from the first weekranges from 1500-4000 mm with a of March to the first fortnight of October.temperature range of 10-35 ºC and an The site is selected in open, gently sloppingaltitude of 600-1200 m above MSL. and well-drained areas near a source of water. Trenches of 45 cm width, 45 cm depth Cardamom is generally grown in forest and convenient length are taken across theloam soils rich in available phosphorus and slope or along the contour 1.8 m apart. Theypotassium. The crop is raised mainly on well are filled with equal quantity of humus richdrained, deep, good textured soils rich in topsoil, sand and cattle manure. Uproot a parthumus. of the high yielding disease free mother clump identified in the plantation. Trim the roots andVarieties separate the suckers so that the minimum planting unit consists of one grown up tiller ICRI-1, ICRI-2, PV-1 and PV-2. ISSR and a growing young shoot. Plant them at aVijetha is resistant to Katte disease and is spacing of 1.80 m x 0.60 m in filled uprecommended to moderate rainfall with trenches. Provide sufficient mulch and stakemoderate to high shaded mosaic (cardamom each planting unit. Provide overhead pandalmosaic virus) infected areas. IISR Avinash as in the case of seedling nursery andis resistant to rhizome rot and is highly remove shading material with onset ofsuitable for planting in valleys. monsoon rains. Provide irrigation once in a fortnight and adopt necessary plantCultivars protection measures. Apply fertilizers @ 100:50:200 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O in six splits Malabar: Suitable for areas from 600 at an interval of two months. Apply neem to 1200 m elevation cake @ 100-150 g/plant along with fertilizers. On an average, 20 to 30 suckers / Mysore: Suitable for areas from 900 initial planting unit can be produced within to 1200 m elevation one year of planting. Care should be taken to identify and collect mother clumps only from Vazhukka: Suitable for areas from 900 areas totally free from ‘katte’ disease. to 1200 m elevation Seed propagationPropagation Vegetative propagation has the disadvan- Cardamom can be propagated tage of spreading the ‘katte’ disease, whichvegetatively and by seedlings. is of viral origin. This disease is not trans- mitted through seeds. Hence in areas whereVegetative propagation the disease is widespread, it would be safer to use seedlings for propagation. In Kerala, vegetative propagation is com-monly practiced. For vegetative propagation,rhizomes with an old shoot and a sprout areused. Plants propagated vegetatively cometo bearing one year earlier than the seedlingpropagated plants and are true to type.

CARDAMOM 107Nursery dry grass. Potha grass (Grenetia stricta) commonly seen in high range areas is a Ripe capsules of the desired cultivar are suitable material for this purpose. Grass iscollected from high yielding plants during spread to a thickness of about 2 cm. PaddySeptember-October. The seeds are extracted straw can also be used for mulching. Afterby gently pressing the capsules. In order to sowing, beds have to be watered every dayincrease the germination percentage, seeds in the morning and evening. The mulch shouldcan be treated with concentrated sulphuric be removed on commencement of germina-acid or nitric acid for not more than two tion. The seedlings have to be protected byminutes. The extracted seeds are washed in providing shade pandals. Regular watering,cold water four times to remove the muci- weeding and protection from pests andlaginous coating. The washed seeds are diseases are to be attended to. During June-drained and mixed with ash and allowed to July, seedlings from the primary nursery aredry in shade for 2 or 3 days. The seeds should transplanted to the secondary nursery.be sown in the nursery within a fortnight.Sowing in September is the best for high ger- Secondary nurserymination. Sowing during southwest monsoonand winter should be avoided. After preparing the site properly, form nursery beds of 6 m x 1m x 0.3 m. Mixing of When it becomes necessary to store the well decomposed cattle manure and woodseeds, it is advisable to store them in ash with the top layer of the soil will help thecapsule form. It can be preserved in this form seedlings to establish well and to grow vigor-for one month, without deterioration of ously. During June-July, the seedlings fromviability. Polythene lined gunny bags can be the primary nursery are transplanted at aused for this. spacing of 25-30 cm. Shade pandals should be provided before transplanting. Overhead In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, 18 month old pandals or individual pandals for each bedseedlings are used for planting. The seeds may be erected. Mulching the bed with dryare sown in primary nursery from where the leaves will help to conserve soil moisture.young seedlings are transplanted to a Regular watering during dry months,secondary nursery and maintained for one weeding, application of fertilizers, control ofyear before planting in the main field. pests and diseases and mulching are the essential operations for the maintenance ofPrimary nursery the secondary nursery. One month before uprooting, the pandal should be removed to The nursery site is selected in open, encourage better tillering.well-drained areas, near a water source. Theland is dug to a depth of 30 cm, cleared of all Polybag nurserystubbles and stones; and clods arebroken. Beds of size 6 m x 1m x 0.3 m are Polybags can be used for raisingthen prepared. Jungle soil is spread in a thin secondary seedlings. For such nurseries,layer over the nursery bed. Seeds are sown seeds are to be sown in beds in primaryon the bed in lines. For an area of 1 m2, 10 g nurseries in September and transplanted toof seed is required. Sixty grams of seeds will polybags in December-January. Thesebe required for a nursery bed of 6 m2. The seedlings would be ready for planting inseeds are covered with a very thin layer of June-July. In this case, nursery period couldfine soil. The nursery bed is mulched with be reduced by 6 to 7 months.

108 CARDAMOMSoil treatment in nursery in cardamom nurseries. Roots of cardamom seedlings are infested mainly by root knot It is recommended that the primary and nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). Lesionsecondary nursery soil may be drenched with nematodes (Pratylenchus) are also seen informalin 2 per cent solution and covered with cardamom roots and soils. The mainpolythene sheets for three days. Planting symptoms of nematode infestation are gallsshould be taken up only 15 days after on the root tips, profuse tillering, stunted andtreatment to avoid phytotoxicity. weak tillers, yellowing and drying of leaves and production of narrow, brittle and abnor-Control of pests and diseases in the mal leaves. Treatment of soil as detailednursery above is an effective method to control nematode. Pruning of infested root tipsRhizome weevil (Prodioctes haematicus) before planting is also recommended. This is a serious pest in the secondary Damping offnursery especially where seedlings are raisedcontinuously year after year. The grubs feed This disease is caused by Pythiumon the rhizome and basal portion of the stem. vexans and Rhizoctonia solani. InfectionThis results in drying of leaves and breaking is observed at the collar region. Provide goodof stem at the base. Drenching the nursery drainage, and spray and drench the nurserybeds with chlorpyrifos at 0.04 per cent can with 1per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 percontrol the pest. cent copper oxychloride.Shoot fly (Formosina flavipes) Nursery leaf spot The pest is observed in the nursery This disease is caused by Phyllostictaduring January to May. Dead heart or decay elettariae. Pale specks appear on the leafof the central spindle is the external lamina, which dry up and become paperysymptom. Spraying quinalphos 0.05 per cent white. Spraying the plants with mancozebis recommended for the control of the pest. 0.25 per cent at fortnightly intervals is effective in controlling the disease.Shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis) The other diseases are Sphaceloma leaf The caterpillar bores into the stem and spot, Cercospora leaf spot, rust and sootyfeeds on the internal contents. This results in mould.the decay of the central spindle and produc-tion of dead heart. Faecal matter of the Main field plantingcaterpillar can be seen coming out throughthe holes. Spraying with quinalphos Cardamom plantation is raised in forests0.05 per cent, carbaryl 0.1per cent or under the shade of tall trees. For raisingdimethoate 0.05 per cent is recommended a new cardamom plantation, the undergrowthagainst the shoot borer. of bushes is cleared. When open areas like marshy valleys and grasslands are selectedNematodes Nematodes are observed as serious pests

CARDAMOM 109for raising new plantation, shade trees have shade regulation, fertilizer application,to be raised before planting cardamom seed- irrigation, etc. will have to be undertaken.lings. The quick growing shade trees likedadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is generally Sufficient mulch should be applied at theused for this purpose. Cuttings of this tree base of the plant during December to reduceare used for planting. But this tree is a host the ill effects of drought during summerof root knot nematode, which infests months and to conserve soil moisture. Sicklecardamom. Other quick growing trees like weeding is essential which has to be carriedAlbizia can also be used. Useful trees like out frequently depending upon the intensityjack and eucalyptus can be used along with of weeds. Forking is necessary in hard soils,red cedar, wild nutmeg, kurangatti etc. which is to be carried out in October- November.Spacing Trashing (removal of old and dried shoots, Mysore and Vazhukka: 2 m x 2 m to leaves and dried panicles) should be taken3 m x 2 m depending on the fertility of the up once in a year during June-July, with thesoil Malabar: 1.5 m x 1.5 m to 2 m x 2 m commencement of monsoon. This will helpdepending on the fertility of the soil. to prevent the spread of diseases and expose the panicles to easy visit by honeybees. The recommended size of pits is 60 cm x60 cm x 35 cm. The pits are filled with rich Soil conservation measures, maintenancetopsoil at least two months in advance of of drainage channels and such otherplanting the seedlings. Application of well operations may be taken up promptly.decomposed FYM or compost or leaf mouldand 100 g of rock phosphate with the topsoil Manuringin the pit will help in proper establishment andquick growth of plants. If the selected site is Application of organic manures such asa hill slope, terraces may be formed before FYM, cowdung or compost @ 5 kg / plant ordigging pits. neem cake @ 1-2 kg / plant may be done during June-July. The present recommenda- Planting can be done with the commence- tion of nutrients for cardamom in Kerala isment of southwest monsoon, before the N:P2O5:K2O @ 75:75:150 kg ha-1. Theheavy rains. A small pit may be formed fertilizers may be applied in two split doses,inside the pit by scooping out soil at the before and after the southwest monsoon, incentre of the pit for planting seedlings. The a circular band of 20 cm wide and 30-40 cmsoil may be put just to cover the rhizomes. away from the base of the clumps, and mixedCare should be taken to ensure that the with soil.rhizomes do not go deep into the soil. ShadeCultural operations Since inadequate as well as excessive A regular schedule of cultural practices levels of shade are harmful to the crop, regu-consisting of weeding, mulching, trashing, lation of shade is inevitable. There should be sufficient shade to protect cardamom plant

110 CARDAMOMduring the hot season. By regulating the built curing houses. The harvested capsulesshade before the monsoon, more light are washed in water to remove dust and soilbecomes available to the plant during the particles. Then they are spread on wire netrainy season. Red cedar or chandana-vempu trays in curing chamber. Burning firewood in(Toona ciliata) is an ideal shade tree. It sheds the iron kiln produces heat required forthe leaves during rainy season and thus drying. The heat thus produced is passedprovides natural shade regulation. Some of through pipes made of galvanized iron sheets.the other shade trees are kurangatti The process of drying takes about 18-24(Acrocarpus fraxinifolius), vellakil hours, depending on the ambient temperature.(Dysoxylum malabaricum) and thelli The capsules are spread thinly in the wire(Canarium strictum). net trays and stirred frequently to ensure uniform drying. They are initially heated atBee-keeping for better pollination 50 ºC for the first 4 - hours and heat is then reduced to 45 ºC by opening ventilators and The main pollination agent in cardamom operating exhaust fans till the capsules areis honeybee (Apis cerana indica). Maintain- properly dried. Finally the temperature ising four bee colonies per hectare during raised to 60 ºC for an hour.the flowering season is recommended forincreasing fruit set and production of The dried capsules are rubbed on wirecapsules. mesh to remove the stalk and dried portion of flower from the capsules and then gradedHarvesting and processing according to size by passing through sieves of sizes of 7, 6.5, 6 mm etc. The graded Cardamom plants normally start bearing produce is stored in polythene lined gunnycapsules from the third year of planting. bags to retain the green colour during stor-Picking is carried out at an interval of age and also to avoid exposure to moisture.30 days. After harvest, cardamom capsulesare processed. A relatively new innovation in the curing procedure is blanching by soaking the fruits Cardamom capsules with green colour in 2.0 per cent washing soda for 10 minutesfetch a premium price in foreign countries. prior to drying. This inhibits colour lossHence emphasis has to be given on the during drying operation and extends colourpreservation of green colour during curing retention during subsequent storage fromand subsequent storage. Capsule should be three months to ten months.processed within 24-36 hours after harvestto prevent deterioration. By curing, the Sun dryingmoisture of green cardamom is reduced to8-12 per cent at an optimum temperature so Capsules are dried directly under sunlightas to retain its green colour to the maximum for five to six days or more. Frequentextent. turning is done. This method can result in sur- face blemishes and may not give an Harvesting is done almost round the attractive green colour. This method isyear in Kerala with the peak period from practiced if the cultivar yields fruits that turnAugust - December. yellow before they are ready for picking and where facilities for green curing are notArtificial drying available. Processing of capsules is done in specially

CARDAMOM 111Bleaching during this period is recommended. Insecti- cide application can be skipped during rainy A proportion of the crop is bleached after months of June and July. Three moresun drying by exposing the capsules to fumes sprayings are to be given during the periodfrom burning sulphur to get uniform colour from August-November. Any of the follow-and appearance. Steeping capsules in a ing insecticides are recommended for thripsdilute solution of potassium metabisulphite control.solution induces a slight improvement inkeeping quality. Quinalphos 0.05 per cent, phosalone 0.07 per cent, dimethoate 0.05 per cent.Oleoresin Shoot/capsule borer Solvent extraction of ground spice yields (Conogethes punctiferalis)10 per cent oleoresin. Cardamom oleoresindispersed in salt, flour etc is used for It is a serious problem to cardamomflavouring food. One kilogram of oleoresin growers of Kerala, Tamil Nadu andreplaces 20 kg ground spice. Karnataka. At the early stage of the crop, the caterpillars of this yellow coloured mothDecorticated seeds / seed powder bore into the core of the aerial stem resulting in the death of central spindle, which appears Decorticated seeds command a lower as characteristic dead hearts.price due to rapid loss of volatile oil duringstorage and transportation. Seed powder is At the time of flowering, when themarketed to a limited extent. caterpillars attack the panicles and spikes it may lead to flower shedding and drying upControl of pests and diseases in the of the attacked portions. At a later stage ofplantation the crop, the caterpillars bore into the capsules, feed on the seeds and make themCardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) hollow. The presence of excreta at the region of attack indicates presence of the This insect is a serious pest of cardamom. caterpillars in the pseudostem, inflorescenceIt colonizes and breeds in unopened leaves, and pods.leaf sheath, flower bracts and flower tubes.It lacerates and feeds on the exuding sap Pest infestation is pronounced in threefrom the aerial parts. Infestation on the seasons viz. January-February, June andpanicle and flower buds results in stunted September-October.growth of panicles, shedding of flower budsand warty growth on the surviving capsules. ManagementThe infested capsules are light in weight,inferior in quality and fetch very low price in Later stages of larvae bore into thethe market. Since the pest population is high pseudostem and remain there. Insecticidesduring dry months from December to May, sprayed at this time may not give adequatepesticide application during this period is control of the pest. For an effective man-important. Four sprayings of insecticide agement of the pest, the insecticides have

112 CARDAMOMto be targeted on early stages of the larvae, Cardamom root grubs (Basileptawhich are usually present within 15-20 days fulvicorne)after adult emergence in the field. The grubs of a small, greenish blue beetleLeaf eating caterpillars cause damage. The grubs are short, stout, pale white in colour and often assume a shape There are 10 species of caterpillars resembling ‘C’, which feeds on cardamomfeeding on cardamom leaves. Out of these, roots. The symptoms start as yellowing ofseven species are hairy and appear in large leaves, which later result in the drying up andnumbers during certain seasons causing death of the plant.extensive defoliation. For controlling the leafcaterpillars, mechanical collection and Managementdestruction and spraying of any contactinsecticide are recommended. Collect the beetle with hand nets or sticky traps at the time of mass emergence (March-Cardamom whitefly [Kanakarajiella April and August-September) and destroy.(Dialeurodes) cardamomi] Early stages of the grub which are usually present in soil during May-June and Septem- It is a serious pest in cardamom growing ber-October can be controlled by drenchingtracts of Kerala. The adult is a small chlorpyriphos 0.04 per cent @ 3-4 litre persoft bodied insect, about 2 mm long and clump 10-15 cm around the plant.having two pairs of white wings. The nymphsare elliptical and pale green. The nymphs Cardamom scale (Aulacaspis sp.)secrete sticky honeydew, which drops on tolower leaves. On these, black sooty mould This scale insect is found on the lowerdevelops, which interrupts photosynthesis of surface of leaves, leaf sheath, panicles andthe leaves. fruit stalk. As a result of damage, capsules get shrivelled, panicles become dry and theManagement leaves become yellow. The pest is mostly seen during summer months. The flies are attracted towards yellowcolour. So metal sheets painted yellow and Nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.)coated with sticky materials, such as castoroil or poly-venyl butanol would serve as traps. Root knot nematodes are the mostBy placing such yellow sticky traps common nematode species associated withbetween rows of cardamom plants, cardamom plantations. Common symptomspopulation of adults can be monitored and are necrosis of leaf tips and margins,adults trapped to some extent. Nymphs are narrowing of leaves, thickening of veins,effectively controlled by spraying the lower reduction of internodal length andsurface of leaves with a mixture of neem oil rosetting. Roots branch heavily and galls(500 ml) and triton (500 ml) in 100 litres of appear on them. Plant becomes highlywater. Acephate 0.1 per cent is effective. stunted.The spray may be repeated two or three timesat 15 days interval.

CARDAMOM 113Management become dull greenish brown and decay. This emits a foul smell and subsequently Frequent change of nursery beds will help shed. Infection spreads to the panicles also.to reduce nematode infestation in nurseries. ManagementDiseases Trashing and destruction of the infectedKatte or mosaic parts should be done as a phytosanitary measure just prior to the onset of southwest This is a virus disease, which is transmit- monsoon. Remove the trash (dried leaves andted by the banana aphid, Pentalonia leaf sheaths) from the basal region of the plantnigronervosa. The symptoms consist of to the extent possible.discontinuous stripes of light green colour run-ning almost parallel to each other from the Spray the shoots with 1per cent Bordeauxmid-rib to the margin of the leaves, which mixture with adhesive (rosin soda or any otherform a mosaic pattern. On young shoots, such sticker) by the commencement of thestripes are seen on the leaf sheath also. The monsoon and continue the sprayinginfected clumps will be smaller in size with operation two or three times up to Novem-fewer tillers. ber-December according to the intensity of the disease and rainfall. Give a copious sprayManagement to the panicle with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture @ 3 l per plant during July-August Eradication of the source of inoculum by when the disease intensity is maximum.destroying infected plants and destruction ofthe vector by insecticide application are Trichoderma can be used along witheffective. Regular application of insecticide cowdung for controlling this disease.against cardamom thrips controls the aphidsalso. Avoid using katte-infected rhizome forplanting. Destruction of plants showing symptoms Clump rot or rhizome rotof the disease should be done promptly oncein two months. Removal of all alternate hosts This disease is caused by Pythiumof virus is also recommended. aphanidermatum, P. vexans, Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum. TheAzhukal affected shoots become brittle and easily break off from the rhizome at the bulbous This is a fungal disease caused by base.Phytophthora sp. occurring during the rainyseason. It affects the leaves, tender shoots, Managementpanicles and capsules. On the infected leaves,water soaked lesions appear first and rotting Drench with 0.2 per cent copper oxychlo-and shedding of leaves along the veins ride (2-3 litre/ plant) and repeat this two timesoccur thereafter. The infected capsules at monthly intervals.

114 CARDAMOM AND CINNAMON As a bio-control measure, inoculate carbendazim (0.05per cent) are effective inseedlings with native arbuscular mycorrhiza, controlling the disease.Trichoderma and Pseudomonas fluore-scens at the time of planting in the nursery Chenthal diseaseand main field, and apply during pre-monsoon Chenthal disease is characterized by theperiod in established plantations (see thechapter on biocontrol agents against plant appearance of rectangular linear reddishpathogens). brown lesions mainly on the lower surface of the leaves. The lesions are clearly visibleLeaf blotch disease even on dried leaves. The incidence of the disease appears to be more severe in areas, The fungus Phaeodactylium venkate- which do not have proper shade. Even thoughsanum causes this disease. The disease is Corynebacterium and Colletotrichumcharacterized by the appearance of large gloeosporioides have been isolated from theblotches of irregular lesions with alternating infected leaves, the pathogenicity of theseshades of light and dark brown necrotic organisms could not be established.tissues. This is mainly observed on matureleaves. On the lower surface of the lesions Managementash coloured white superficial growth ofthe fungus appears during moist weather Providing adequate shade is the onlyconditions. measure recommended pending confirmation of etiology of the disease.Management Waiting period of insecticide / fungicide The fungicides, Bordeaux mixture (1percent), mancozeb (0.3 per cent) and Quinalphos 30 days Mancozeb 30 daysCINNAMON (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) Cinnamon grows in areas up to an Vegetative propagationaltitude of about 1800 m. Humid tropicalevergreen rain forest conditions favour the For raising cinnamon from cuttings; semibest growth of cinnamon. Well-drained, deep hardwood cuttings of about 10 cm length withsandy soil, rich in humus is suitable for the 2 leaves are taken and dipped in IBA 2000crop. Avoid marshy areas and hard laterites. ppm and planted either in polythene bags filled with sand or a mixture of sand andVarieties coirdust in the ratio 1:1 or in sand beds raised in a shaded place. The cuttings in polythene Navasree, Nithyasree and Sugandini. bags must also be kept in a shaded place or in a nursery. The cuttings are to be wateredSeeds and sowing regularly 2-3 times a day for maintaining adequate moisture and prevent wilting. Cinnamon is usually propagated through Rooting takes place in 45-60 days. The wellseeds. Sow seeds immediately after harvest rooted cuttings can be transplanted toon raised beds. Pot seedlings when they are polythene bags filled with potting mixturesix months old.

CINNAMON 115and maintained in a shaded place and Aftercultivationwatered regularly. Weed regularly in the early stages ofAir Layering growth. Irrigate the seedlings till they get established, if there is long drought period. Air layering is recommended for all Prune plants when they are 2-3 years old atcinnamon nurseries. It is done on semi a height of 15 cm above ground level. Cuthardwood shoots. A ring of bark is removed the side shoots growing from the base tofrom the semi hardwood portion of the shoot encourage growth of more side shoots till theand a rooting hormone (IBA 2000 ppm or whole plant assumes the shape of a low bush.IAA 2000 ppm) is applied on the portionwhere the bark has been removed. Moist coir Harvesting and curingdust or coir husk is placed around the regionwhere the hormone has been applied and is The plants will be ready for harvest in aboutsecured in position by wrapping with a 3 years after planting. Harvesting is donepolythene sheet of 20 cm length. This would during two seasons, the first in May andalso avoid moisture loss. Rooting takes place second in November. The correct time forin 40-60 days. The well rooted air layers are cutting the shoots for peeling is determined byseparated from the mother plant and bagged noting the sap circulation between the woodin polythene bags filled with potting mixture and corky layer. Peelers can judge this byand kept in a shaded place or nursery by making a test cut on the stem with a sharpwatering the plants twice daily. knife. If the bark separates readily, the cutting is taken immediately. Stems measuringPlanting 2.0 to 2.5 cm in diameter and 1.5 to 2.0 m length are cut early in the morning and twigs Select seedlings with green leaf petioles. and leaves are detached. The outer brown skinPlant seedlings in the main field when they is first scrapped off and the stem is rubbedare 1-2 years old with the commencement briskly to loosen the bark. Two cuts are madeof southwest monsoon. Planting is done in round the stem about 30 cm apart and twopits of size 60 cm x 60 cm at a spacing of longitudinal slits are made on opposite sides of2 m x 2 m. Dig the pits sufficiently early to the stem. The bark is separated from the woodallow weathering. Fill the pit with leaf mould with curved knife. The detached pieces of barkand topsoil before planting. are made into compound quills. The best and longest quills are used on the outside whileManuring inside is filled with smaller pieces. The compound quills are rolled by hand to press Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 20:20:25 g per the outside edges together and are neatlyseedling in the first year and double this dose trimmed. They are dried in shade as directin the second year. Cattle manure or com- exposure to sun can result in warping. Thepost at 20 kg per plant per annum may also dried quills consist of mixture of coarse andbe applied. Increase the dose of N:P2O5:K2O fine types and are yellowish brown in colour.gradually to 200:180:200 g per tree per yearfor grown up plants of 10 years and above. The quills are graded as Fine or Conti- nental, Mexican and Hamburg or Ordinary. Apply organic manures in May-June andfertilizers in two equal split doses, inMay-June and September-October.

116 CINNAMONThe Fine consists of quills of uniform thick- Cinnamon leaf oilness, colour and quality and the joints of thequills are neat. Mexican grades are interme- Cinnamon leaf oil is produced by steamdiate in quality. The Hamburg grade consists distillation of leaves yielding 0.5 to 0.7 perof thicker and darker quills. The lower grades cent oil. It is yellow to brownish yellow inare exported as: (a) Quillings: The broken colour and possesses a warm, spicy but ratherlengths and fragments of quills of all harsh odour. The major constituent is eugenolgrades are bulked and sold as quillings; (70 to 90 per cent) while the cinnamaldehyde(b) Featherings: This grade consists of the content is less than five per cent. The oil isinner bark of twigs and twisted shoots that used in perfumery and flavouring, and alsodo not give straight quills of normal length. as a source of eugenol.Chips: This includes the trimmings of the cut Cinnamon root bark oilshoots, shavings of outer and inner bark,which cannot be separated, or which are The root bark contains 1.0 to 2.8 per centobtained from small twigs and odd pieces of oil containing camphor as the main constitu-thick outer bark. ent. Cinnamaldehyde as well as traces of eugenol are found in the oil, having lessOleoresin commercial relevance. Cinnamon oleoresin is prepared by Plant protectionextracting cinnamon bark with organicsolvent. Oleoresin yield varies from 10 to 12 Leaf spot and dieback diseaseper cent. The oleoresin is dispersed on sugar, (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)salt and used for flavouring processed foods. On young nursery seedlings, small brownCinnamon bark oil specks appear which gradually enlarge resulting in drying of the leaf. From the A pale yellow liquid possessing the leaves, the infection spreads to the stem,delicate aroma of the spice is obtained by resulting in necrosis from the apexsteam distillation of quills (0.2 to 0.5 per cent). downwards.Its major component is cinnamaldehyde(55 per cent) but other components like On old seedlings and mature trees, lighteugenol, eugenyl acetate, ketones, esters and and dark brown concentric zonation occurs.terpenes also impart the characteristic odour Spraying 1per cent Bordeaux mixture duringand flavour to this oil. Cinnamon bark oil is rainy season controls the disease.used in flavouring bakery foods, sauces,pickles, confectionery, soft drinks, dental and The other diseases of cinnamon includepharmaceutical preparations and also in grey blight caused by Pestalotiopsisperfumery. palmarum, sooty mould caused by Phragmocapnius sp. and algal leaf spot by Cephaleuros sp.

CLOVE 117 CLOVE (Syzygium aromaticum) Clove requires a warm humid tropical Clove is generally grown as a mixed cropclimate with an annual rainfall from with coffee, coconut, arecanut etc.150-250 cm. It grows well from mean sealevel up to an altitude of 800-900 m. Deep loam Manuringsoils with high humus content and black loamsof semi-forest regions with good drainage are Apply cattle manure or compost at thesuited for the cultivation of the crop. rate of 15 kg per tree per annum during May-June.The recommended fertilizer doseSelection of site is N:P2O5: K2O @ 20:18:50 g per plant during the first year and @ 40:36:100 g per Select partially shaded sites having plant during the second year. Increase gradu-adequate protection from high winds. Avoid ally the dose to 300:250:750 g per plant perexposed and shady locations. year for a well grown tree of 15 years or more. Apply organic manures in May-JuneSeeds and sowing with the commencement of southwest monsoon. Apply fertilizers in two equal split Clove is propagated through seeds doses in May-June along with the organicobtained from fully developed fruits known manures and in September-October inas mother of clove. Collect fully developed shallow trenches dug around the plant aboutfruits from regular bearing mother trees. 1 to 1.25 m away from the base.Dehusk the fruits immediately aftercollection by soaking in water and peeling. AftercultivationPrepare raised nursery beds with fertile soilrich in humus under the shade of trees. Sow Conduct weeding and intercultivationthe seeds flat at a depth 2-5 cm and a whenever necessary. Cut and remove deadspacing of 12-15 cm. Water the beds and diseased branches of fully grown treesregularly. Seedlings can either be retained in to prevent over crowding. Spray 1per centthe nursery till they attain a height of 25-30 cm Bordeaux mixture to control dieback.when they are ready for transplanting orpotted when they are six months old and Harvesting and curingtransplanted after another 12-18 months. The trees begin to yield from 7-8 yearsPlanting after planting. The stage of harvest of flower buds determine the quality of the final dried Select 18 months old seedlings for product. Buds are harvested when the baseplanting. Prepare pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm of calyx has turned from green to pink inx 60 cm at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m about a colour. If allowed to develop beyond thismonth in advance of planting. Allow to stage, the buds open, petals drop and anweather. Fill up the pits with mixture of burnt inferior quality spice is obtained on drying.earth, compost and topsoil. Plant the seed-lings during the rainy season, May-June or Prior to drying, buds are removed fromAugust-September. Provide shade and the stem by holding the cluster in one handirrigation during breaks in the monsoon and and pressing it against the palm of the othersummer. Banana or glyricidia may be planted with a slight twisting movement. The cloveto provide shade.

118 CLOVEbuds and stems are piled separately This oil possesses a coarser and woodierfor drying. Buds may be sorted to remove odour than bud oil.over ripe cloves and fallen flowers. Dryingshould be done immediately after the buds Clove leaf oilare separated from the clusters. If left toolong in heaps, they ferment and the dried Clove leaves on distillation yield 2-3 perspice has a whitish shriveled appearance cent oil as a dark brown liquid with a harsh(khoker clove). woody odour. When rectified, it turns pale yellow and smells sweeter with a eugenol The traditional method of drying is by content of 80 to 85 per cent.exposing them to sun in mats. The green budsare spread out in a thin layer on the drying Oleoresinfloor and are raked from time to time toensure the development of a uniform colour Clove oleoresin may be prepared by coldand to prevent mould formation. In sunny or hot extraction of crushed spices usingweather, drying is completed in 4-5 days organic solvents like acetone giving agiving a bright coloured dried spice of recovery of 18-22 per cent. The oleoresin isattractive appearance. During drying, clove chiefly used in perfumery and when used forloses about two-third of its original fresh green flavouring it is dispersed on salt, flour etc.weight. When properly dried, it will turn brightbrown and does not bend when pressed. The Plant protectiondried cloves are sorted to remove mother ofcloves and khoker cloves, bagged and stored Pestsin a dry place. The stem after separation ofbuds is dried in a similar manner as the spice, Infestation of shoot borer Sinoxylon sp.without allowing mould formation and fer- on tender shoots of young plants can bementation. prevented by prophylactic application of carbaryl 0.15 per cent. Prune off the lateralsClove bud oil of old trees showing dieback symptoms. Do not allow dried glyricidia and other twigs to The essential oil is obtained by steam remain in the plantation, to ensure that thedistillation of comminuted buds or whole beetles will not multiply on these materialscloves. On distillation, about 17 per cent and subsequently initiate infestation in cloves.essential oil is obtained which is a colourlessor yellow liquid possessing odour and flavour Diseasescharacteristic of the spice. Finest oil contains85-89 per cent eugenol. Clove bud oil is used Leaf spot, twig blight and flower bud shed-for flavouring food and in perfumery. ding (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)Clove stem oil Three types of symptoms are seen viz., leaf spot, twig blight and flower bud Clove stem oil is obtained from dried shedding. On the leaves, necrotic spots ofpeduncles and stem of clove buds (5-7 per variable sizes and shapes are noticed.cent) on steam distillation. The eugenol Severely affected leaves wither, drop and drycontent of the oil ranges from 90-95 per cent. up. In the nursery seedlings, dieback symptoms are seen. Extension of the symptoms from the leaves through petioles results in the infection of twigs. The affected branches stand without leaves or only with young leaves at the tips. The flower buds are

CLOVE AND VANILLA 119attacked by spread of infection from the the clove garden is recommended to reducetwigs. Shedding of flower buds occur the disease since the pathogen survives onduring periods of heavy and continuous this weed during adverse conditions.rainfall. The other diseases of clove are:Management Grey blight of clove (Pestalotia palmarum), Leaf spot of clove (Cylindrocladium Spraying 1per cent Bordeaux mixture at quinqueseptatum), Leaf spot of clove1-1.5 month intervals reduces disease inten- (Alternaria citri), Sooty mould of clovesity, defoliation and flower bud shedding. The (Phragmocapnius sp.), Algal leaf spot ofspraying has to be commenced just prior to clove (Cephaleuros sp.) and Little leaf offlower bud formation and continued till the clove (suspected to be due to Phytoplasma).harvest of flower buds for effective control.Destruction of the weed Clerodendron from VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia) Vanilla is a tropical orchid requiring a cuttings in situ. Plant cuttings of 60 cmwarm climate with frequent rains, preferring length. Longer cuttings bear earlier thanan annual rainfall of 150-300 cm. Uncleared shorter cuttings. Rooted cuttings as well asjungle areas are ideal for establishing vanilla tissue culture derived plants can also be usedplantations. In such locations, it would be for planting.necessary to retain the natural shade providedby lofty trees and to leave the soil or the rich Plant the cutting with the onset ofhumus layer on the top undisturbed. Vanilla monsoon rains. Set out the cutting at ais cultivated on varied type of soils from sandy spacing of 2.7 m between plants and 1.8 mloam to laterites. It requires filtered sunlight. between rows in pits of size 40 cm x 40 cm xIn the absence of natural shade, trees should 40 cm. Trail the vines on the live supportsbe grown to provide shade. and when they attain a height of 135 cm trail them horizontally on bamboo poles tied toPreparation of land vertical supports or branches of support plants in loops touching the ground. Clear the land of jungle growth andprepare for planting. Being a creeper, the Manuringplant requires support up to a height of about130-135 cm. Cuttings of Plumaria alba, Being a surface rooting plant, manuringErythrina lithosperma, Jatropha carcas should be confined to the surface layer ofand Glyricidia maculata are suitable as live soil. Provide heavy and frequent mulching tosupports. The growth of live standard is to the vines. Apply 120 g of N in the form ofbe adjusted to make them branch at a height leaf mould or FYM in two split doses in June-of 120-150 cm to facilitate trailing of the vines July and September-October.and artificial hand pollination. AftercultivationTime and method of planting Vanilla cannot withstand even the Vanilla is propagated by planting shoot slightest root disturbance. Hence remove weeds from the plant base by hand weeding and use them as mulch.

120 VANILLA Being closely planted, no intercrops are 2. Raising temperature of the killed beansraised in a pure plantation of vanilla. But (sweating) to promote the desiredvanilla can be planted as an intercrop in enzymatic reactions and to achievecoffee, coconut, arecanut etc. rapid drying so as to prevent harmful fermentation.Pollination, harvesting and curing 3. Slow drying at ambient temperature until Flowering of vine commences usually the beans have reached about one-thirdby about the third year. The inflorescence is of original weight for the development ofproduced in the leaf axils. There is a various fragrant substances.tendency for some of the vines to maintainonly vegetative growth. A light nipping off or 4. Conditioning the beans by storing them inpruning of the terminal shoots hastens closed boxes for three months or longerflowering. Due to the peculiar structure of to permit the full development of desiredthe flowers, self-pollination is impossible. aroma and flavour.Hence hand pollination is adopted for fruitset. Best time for pollinating the flowers is Curing of vanilla involves immersing thebetween 6 am and 1 pm and a success of beans (2-3 days after harvest) in hot water80-85 per cent can be obtained. Successful at a temperature of 63 to 65ºC for threefertilization is indicated by the retention of minutes for the cessation of vegetative life.calyx and the stigma even after four days of After a rapid drying on woolen blankets, whenpollination. the beans are still very hot, they are kept in chests lined with blankets. Next day they are The pods ripen in about 9-11 months time. spread out in sun on blanket for three to fourBefore attaining maturity the fruit is dark hours and rolled up to retain the heat.green in colour and when ripe yellowing Repeat this for six to eight days during whichcommences from the tip of the pod. Collect beans lose their weight, become supple andthe pods at this time, as this is the optimum can be twisted on finger without breaking.time for harvesting the pod. If allowed to This is followed by slow drying in the shaderemain on the vine further, the pods split. Free for a period of two to three months.vanillin is not present in the beans when they Properly dried beans are kept in trunks whereare harvested. They also do not have the the fragrance is fully developed. Finally, theyaroma. Vanillin is developed as a result of are graded according to size and bundled andenzyme action on a glycoside occurring placed in iron boxes lined with paraffinduring the process of curing of beans. paper. The vanillin content of properly cured beans will be about 2.5 per cent. Harvested beans are subjected to curingwhich is characterized by four phases. Plant protection1. Killing or wilting beans to arrest the The occurrence of a wilt disease caused vegetative development in the fresh beans by Fusarium oxysporum has been observed. and initiate the enzymatic reactions For control of wilt disease adopt the responsible for the production of aroma following measures. and flavour. Killing is indicated by the development of a brown colouration of 1. Remove diseased plants along with the bean. surrounding soil where the disease is observed.

VANILLA AND GINGER 1212. Remove weeds around the plants. Fungal diseases like shoot tip rot, stem and bean rot caused by Phytophthora sp. as well3. Mulch the base of the vine with dry leaves as immature bean drop are noticed. The before and after monsoon. disease affected portions are to be removed regularly and 1per cent Bordeaux mixture4. Avoid injury to roots during cultivation. should be applied on the affected plants.5. Drench soil around the base of vine with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture. GINGER (Zingiber officinale) Ginger is a tropical plant adapted for Dual purpose type: Athira (tolerant tocultivation even in regions of subtropical rhizome rot and bacterial wilt).climate such as the high ranges. It prefers arich soil with high humus content. Being an Rio-De-Janeiro and Karthika (tolerantexhausting crop, ginger is not cultivated to rhizome rot and bacterial wilt).continuously in the same field but shifting cul-tivation is practised. The crop cannot with- Planting materialstand waterlogging and hence soils with gooddrainage are preferred for its cultivation. It Ginger rhizomes are used for planting. Foris shade tolerant / loving crop with shallow selection and preservation of seeds, adopt theroots and therefore suitable for following methods:intercropping and as a component in thehomesteads where low to medium shade is Mark healthy and disease free plantsavailable. in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old and still green. Select best rhizomes free fromPreparation of land pest and disease from the marked plants. Handle seed rhizomes carefully to avoid Clear the field during February-March damage to buds. Soak the selected rhizomesand burn the weeds, stubbles, roots etc. for 30 minutes in a solution of mancozebin situ. Prepare the land by ploughing or and malathion to give terminal concentrationdigging. Prepare beds of convenient length of 0.3 per cent for the former and 0.1 per(across the slope where the land is undulat- cent for the latter. Dry the treated rhizomesing), 1 m width, 25 cm height with 40 cm in shade by spreading on the floor. Store thespacing between the beds. Provide drainage treated rhizomes in pits dug under shade, thechannels, one for every 25 beds on flat lands. floor of which is lined with sand or saw dust. It is advisable to spread layers of leaves ofVarieties Glycosmis pentaphylla (panal). Cover the pits with coconut fronds.Dry ginger type: Cultivars: Maran,Wayanad, Manantoddy, Himachal, Examine the stored rhizomes at monthlyValluvanad, Kuruppampady. intervals and remove the rhizomes that show signs of rotting. This will help to keep theImproved varieties: IISR-Varada, IISR- inoculum level low. Provide one or two holesRejatha and IISR-Mahima. for better aeration. Treat the seed rhizomes similarly before planting also.Green ginger type : Rio-De-Janeiro, Chinaand Wayanad Local

122 GINGERSeason and method of planting month after planting. Earth up the crop during the first mulching and avoid water The best time for planting ginger is stagnation.during the first fortnight of April, afterreceipt of pre-monsoon showers. For Plant protectionirrigated ginger, the best suited time forplanting is middle of February (for vegetable 1. For controlling shoot borer, sprayginger). dimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05 per cent Plant rhizome bits of 15 g weight in small 2. For controlling rhizome rot, adopt thepits at a spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm to following measures:25 cm x 25 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm withat least one viable healthy bud facing a. Select sites having proper drainage.upwards. b. Select seed rhizomes from disease freeSeed rate 1500 kg ha-1 areas.Manuring c. Treat seed rhizomes with 0.3 per cent mancozeb. Apply manures and fertilizers at thefollowing rates: d. When incidence of rhizome rot is noted in the field, dig out the affected plantsFYM 30 t ha-1 and drench the beds with cheshunt compound or 1.0 per cent BordeauxN:P2O5:K2O 75:50:50: kg/ha/year mixture or 0.3 per cent mancozeb. Full dose of P2O5 and 50 per cent of K2O e. Inoculation with native arbuscularmay be applied as basal. Half the quantity of mycorrhiza, Trichoderma andN may be applied 60 days after planting. The Pseudomonas fluorescens at the timeremaining quantity of N and K2O may be of planting is recommended as aapplied 120 days after planting. biocontrol measure.Mulching 3. For controlling the leaf spot disease, 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture, 0.3 per cent Immediately after planting, mulch the mancozeb or 0.2 per cent thiram may bebeds thickly with green leaves @ 15 t ha-1. sprayed.Repeat mulching with green leaves twice@ 7.5 t ha-1 first 44-60 days and second 4. For control of nematode in endemic area,90-120 days after planting. Grow green apply neem cake @ 1.0 t ha-1 at plantingmanure crops like daincha and sun hemp in followed by application of neem cake @the interspaces of beds, along with ginger and 1.0 t ha-1 at 45 days after planting (DAP).harvest the green manure crop duringsecond mulching of ginger beds. Harvesting and processingAftercultivation For vegetable ginger, the crop can be harvested from sixth month onwards. For dry Remove weeds by hand weeding before ginger, harvest the crop between 245-260each mulching. Repeat weeding according days. After harvest, the fibrous roots attachedto weed growth during the fifth and sixth to the rhizomes are trimmed off and soil is removed by washing. Rhizomes are soaked

GINGER AND MANGO GINGER 123in water overnight and then cleaned. The skin cent. The major use of ginger oil is as ais removed by scrapping with sharp bamboo flavouring agent for beverages, bothsplits or such other materials. Never use alcoholic and non-alcoholic.metallic substances since they will discolourthe rhizomes. After scrapping, the rhizomes Ginger oleoresinare sun dried for a week with frequentturnings. They are again rubbed well by hand Oleoresin from ginger is obtainedto remove any outer skin. conventionally by extraction of dried powdered ginger with organic solvents likeGinger oil ethyl acetate, ethanol or acetone. Commer- cial dried ginger yields 3.5-10.0 per cent Ginger oil is prepared commercially by oleoresin. Ginger oleoresin is a dark brownsteam distillation of dried powdered ginger. viscous liquid responsible for the flavour andThe yield of oil varies from 1.3 to 3.0 per pungency of the spice.MANGO GINGER (Curcuma amada) It is an under exploited spice crop, which well in open conditions, but tolerates lowgrows luxuriantly in tropical soils with good levels of shade and therefore partially shadeddrainage. The rhizomes of mango ginger are situations can also be utilized for its cultiva-used for preparing pickles, chutney, preserve, tion. It can be well accommodated as ancandy, sauce and salad and in meat and other intercrop in coconut gardens and in rotationculinary preparations. The rhizome has with other short duration crops likeexcellent medicinal properties and finds vegetables and also as a crop component inextensive use in the indigenous system of homesteads.medicine. It is, appetizer, antipyretic,aphrodisiac and laxative. It is useful in Preparation of landbiliousness, itching, skin diseases, bronchitis,asthma, hiccough and inflammation due to Prepare the land to a good tilth duringinjuries. The rhizomes and roots are February-March subject to the availability ofcarminative and stomachic and in crushed pre-monsoon showers. Prepare beds ofpulp form they are applied over contusions, convenient length, 1.2 m width, 25 cm heightsprains and bruises for rapid healing. and 40 cm spacing between beds. Mango ginger is botanically related to Seed material and varietiesneither mango nor ginger, but to turmeric(Curcuma longa). Morphologically mango Whole or split mother rhizomes or wellginger plant is similar to turmeric, but has developed, healthy and disease free fingershorter crop duration of six months. The rhizomes weighing 15-20 g are suitable forrhizomes are pale yellow inside with lighter planting. In Kerala, local varieties are usedcolour outside, have sweet smell of unripe for cultivation. Amba is a released varietymango when crushed. The crop comes up from High Altitude Research Station, Pottangi, Orissa.

124 MANGO GINGER AND NUTMEGSeason and method of planting mulching after 50 days with same quantity of green leaves. Plant during April with the commence-ment of pre-monsoon showers. Take small Aftercultivationpits in the beds with a spacing of 25 cm x 30cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm. Adopt a seed The rhizomes germinate withinrate of 1500 kg ha-1. 3-4 weeks. Remove weeds 45 days after planting and repeat if necessary. Earth up theManuring crop after 60 days of planting. Apply cattle manure or compost as basal Plant protectiondose @ 30-40 t ha-1, spread over the bedsand mix well. Apply N:P2O5:K2O fertilizer Compared to the related crops ginger and@ 30:30:60 kg ha-1. Full dose of P2O5 and turmeric, the crop is free from pests andhalf dose of K2O may be applied as basal. diseases. But when large scale cultivation isApply two-third dose of nitrogen 30 days taken up, the attack of shoot borerafter planting and remaining N and K2O at (Conogethes punctiferalis) causes damage60 days after planting. to the crop. Appearance of dead heart in the field is the main symptom. To reduce the pestMulching population, pull out the dead hearts with the larvae inside and burn it. If infestation is Mulch the crop immediately after plant- severe, spray dimethoate or quinalphos ating with green leaves @ 15 t ha-1. Repeat 0.05per cent.NUTMEG (Myristica fragrans) Nutmeg requires a hot, humid climate Over this, sand is spread to a thickness ofwithout pronounced dry season. The soil 2-3 cm and the seeds dibbled 2 cm below theshould be rich in organic matter and well surface at a spacing of about 12 cm ondrained. The tree prefers partial shade. either side. Seeds germinate within 50-80Sheltered valleys are the best suited. It can days after sowing. When the plumulebe grown up to about 900 m above MSL. produces two elongated opposite leaves, the seedlings are to be transferred from beds toVariety: IISR-Viswashree polybags.Seeds and sowing Vegetative propagation of nutmeg through epicotyl grafting is recommended for Fully ripe tree-burst fruits are selected for all nutmeg nurseries.raising seedlings. The fleshy rind and themace are removed before sowing. The seeds Plantingshould be sown immediately aftercollection. If there is any delay in sowing, Since the nutmeg trees require shade,the seeds should be kept in baskets filled with suitable fast growing shade trees like Albizia,damp soil. The seedbeds of 100-120 cm Erythrina etc. are planted in advance.width, 15 cm height and of convenient length Banana can also be grown as a shade cropmay be prepared in cool and shady places. A in the early stages. Pits of 90 cm x 90 cm xmixture of garden soil and sand in the ratio 90 cm are dug at a spacing of 8 m x 8 m with3:1 may be used for preparing nursery beds.

NUTMEG 125the onset of southwest monsoon. The pits are Nutmeg butterfilled with topsoil and compost or welldecomposed cattle manure and seedlings are Nutmeg contains 25-40 per cent of fixedplanted. oil that can be obtained by pressing the crushed nuts between plates in the presenceManuring of steam or by extracting with solvents. The product, known as nutmeg butter, is a highlyApply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per aromatic, orange coloured fat with the consistency of butter at ambient temperature.seedling during the first year. Increase the Nutmeg oilquantity gradually till a well grown tree of This is obtained as pale yellow to white15 years and above receives 50 kg of volatile liquid possessing a fresh warm aromatic odour. The yield ranges from 7 toorganic manures per year. Apply 16 per cent. The unshelled nuts are coarsely crushed in a mechanical cracker and steamfNir:sPt2Oye5:aKr.2TOh@is 20:18:50 g/plant during the distilled. may be doubled in the next Mace oilyear. toG5ra0d0u:2a5ll0y:1i0n0c0rega/spelatnhte/yNea:rPt2oOo5:bKta2iOndose The mace yields 4-17 per cent colourlessfull dose from 15th year onwards. to pale yellow liquid possessing organoleptic properties similar to nutmeg oil. Nutmeg andHarvesting mace oil are also used for flavouring. Fruits are available throughout the year, Pestsbut the peak period of harvest is fromJune to July. When fruits are fully ripe, the The hard scale Saissetia nigra occursnuts split open. These are either plucked from on the pencil thick branches and desaps thethe tree or allowed to drop. The two major tissues. The infested shoots invariablyproducts are nutmeg and mace. Dried develop sooty mould cover. It can benutmeg and mace are directly used as spice controlled by spot spraying with quinalphosand also for the preparation of their 0.025 per cent.derivatives. Diseases After de-rinding the nutmeg fruit, redfeathery aril (mace) is separated from Leaf spot and shot hole (Colletotrichumpericarp. The mace is detached, flattened and gloeosporioides)sun dried on mats for 3-5 days or inartificial heat drier. Sunken spots surrounded by a yellow halo are the initial symptoms. Subsequently the The nuts are sun dried for four to eight central portion of the necrotic region dropsweeks or in artificial heat drier until kernel off resulting in shot hole symptoms. Diebackrattle inside the shell. They are stored in warm symptoms are also observed in some of thedry place prior to shelling. mature branches. On young seedlings drying of the leaves and subsequentOleoresin defoliation are seen. The disease can be Nutmeg and mace oleoresins are preparedby extracting the ground spice with organicsolvents. Yield of oleoresin is 10-12 per centfor nutmeg and 10-13 per cent for mace.Mace oleoresin possesses a fine, fresh fruitycharacter.

126 NUTMEG AND PEPPERcontrolled by spraying 1per cent Bordeaux and seed are the main symptoms of themixture two or three times during rainy disease. The internal tissues are foundseason. rotten. The fallen fruits become enveloped with the growth of the organism. TheFruit rot disease can be controlled by spraying 1per cent Bordeaux mixture. This is caused by Colletotrichumgloeosporioides and Botryodiplodia The other diseases include leaftheobromae. Water soaked lesions are seen blight (Botryodiplodia theobromae), leafon the fruits, the tissues of which become spot (Alternaria citri), sooty moulddiscoloured and disintegrated. Premature (Phragmocapnius sp.) and the algal leaf spotsplitting of the pericarp and rotting of mace (Cephaleuros sp.).PEPPER (Piper nigrum) Pepper requires a warm and humid Varietiesclimate. Though an annual rainfall of 250 cmis ideal for the proper growth of the crop, it Improved varieties:Panniyur-1, Panniyur-2,can also come up well in low rainfall Panniyur-3, Panniyur-4, Panniyur-5,areas, if the pattern and distribution of rain- Panniyur-6, Panniyur-7, Subhakara,fall are conducive. About 70 mm of rainfall Sreekara, Panchami, Pournami. IISRwithin a period of 20 days may be sufficient Sakthi and IISR Thevam are tolerant tofor triggering of flushing and flowering Phytophthora foot rot.process in the plant, but once the process isset on, there should be continuous, rainfall Local varieties: Kottanadan, Kuthiravally,until fruit development starts. Any dry spell, Arakulam Munda, Balankotta, Kalluvallyeven for a few days, within this critical and Karimunda.period will result in substantial reduction ofyield. Very long spells of dry weather are Selection of siteunfavourable for the crop growth. Sites with slight to moderate slope are The plant tolerates a minimum tempera- ideal for pepper cultivation, as they promoteture of 10ºC and maximum of 40ºC, the drainage. Slopes facing south are to beoptimum being 20 - 30ºC. It can be grown avoided as far as possible. When such slopesfrom sea level upto an altitude of 1200 m. are to be used for cultivation, the young plants may be sufficiently protected from the Pepper prefers a light porous and well- scorching sun during summer.drained soil rich in organic matter. Waterstagnation in the soil, even for a very short Selection of mother plantsperiod, is injurious for the plant. So,heavy textured soils in locations where Cultivate varieties, which are proven todrainage facilities are inadequate should be be highly productive. Select motheravoided. plants, which give regularly high yields and possess other desirable attributes such as vigorous growth, maximum number of spikes

PEPPER 127per unit area, long spikes, close setting of are used, sufficient number of holes (16-20)berries, disease tolerance etc. Selected may be provided at the base to ensure goodmother plants should be in the age group of drainage. The cuttings should be planted at5-12 years. Mark and label selected mother least one node deep in the soil. The cuttingplants in October-November. after planting should be kept under good shade. In large nurseries, pandals are to beRaising of rooted cuttings constructed for this purpose. The cuttings are to be well protected from direct sunlight Pepper is propagated vegetatively from and frequent watering is recommended in thecuttings. Select runner shoots produced at the nursery to maintain a humid and coolbase of mother plants and keep them coiled atmosphere around the cuttings. Wateringand raised to prevent from striking roots in 2-3 times a day is sufficient. Heavy water-the soil. Separate them from the vines in ing, which makes the soil slushy and causesFebruary-March.The middle one-third water logging is to be avoided.portion of runner shoot is preferred forplanting.Very tender and too hard portions of Serpentine method of propagationthe shoots are to be avoided.The shoots arecut into pieces with 2-3 nodes in each.Two Three node cuttings planted in polythenenode semi-hard wood cuttings are to be bags are kept in a corner of the nursery.planted for rooting of pepper cuttings. When the plant develops two leaves they areLeaves, if any, are to be clipped off leaving a trailed horizontally in polythene bagssmall portion of the petioles on the stem. containing potting mixture kept below eachSatisfactory rooting and survival of cuttings tender node. Each node will be pressed into(over 70 per cent) could be achieved even the mixture with polythene bags with ‘V’without any hormone treatment. Plant the shaped midribs of coconut leaves. As newcuttings in polythene bags filled with potting shoots arise these will be trailed horizontallymixture. The potting mixture is prepared by in polythene bags containing potting mixture.mixing two parts of fertile topsoil, one part of Upward growth of cutting is not arrested.river sand and one part of well rotten cattle Once twenty nodes get rooted first 10 bagsmanure.Substituting granite powder (a waste in the rooted nodes will be separated bymaterial from stone quarries) for sand in cutting at the inter nodes. The inter nodalconventional potting mixture (2:1:1) is good stub will be pushed back into the pottingfor growth of pepper cuttings and is economi- mixture. These stubs also produce a secondcal. Recommended for black pepper nurser- root system. Daily irrigation is to be givenies for large scale multiplication. Solarized using a rose can. After three months it willpotting mixture supplemented with nutrient be ready for planting in the main field. On ansolution (urea, superphosphate, MOP and average 60 cuttings will be obtained in a yearmagnesium sulphate in 4:3:2:1 ratio) and by this method from each mother cutting.fortified with biocontrol consortia promotes Recommended in black pepper nurseries forgrowth and helps in production of disease large scale multiplication.free rooted cuttings. When polythene bags

128 PEPPERField planting pepper is trailed on arecanut, plant the cuttings 1.0 m away from palm and 1.5 m Planting of standards is to be taken up in when coconut is used as the support. TrailApril-May with the onset of pre-monsoon the pepper vines on a temporary stake forshowers. Murukku (Erythrina indica) 1-2 years. When they attain sufficient lengthKarayam or Killingil (Garuga pinnata), to reach the tree trunk, remove the stakeAilanthus sp., subabul (Leucaenea without causing damage to the vines and tieleucocephala) etc. are suitable standards for the pepper plants on to the tree trunk andgrowing pepper. Because of prevalence of trail them on it.Erythrina gall wasp avoid using Erythrinaas standard. Only species tolerant to Management after plantingErythrina gall wasp is Erythrina variegata(heavily throny). In high altitude areas, If the terrain of the land is sloppy ordadap(E. lithosperma) and Silver oak uneven, carry out contour bunding or(Grevillea robusta) can be successfully used terracing to prevent soil erosion. Carry outas standard for pepper. Seedlings of subabul digging around the standards and vines at aand silver oak are to be planted 2-3 years radius of about 1 m from the base or in thebefore planting pepper. The cuttings of entire plantation, twice during the year, thestandards are to be planted in narrow holes first at the onset of southwest monsoon andof 40 to 50 cm depth. The spacing recom- the second towards the end of northeastmended is 3 m x 3 m on plain lands and 2 m monsoon. Weeding around the plants is tobetween plants in rows across the slope and be done according to necessity. However, in4 m between rows on sloppy lands. The soil foot rot affected gardens, digging should beshould be pressed well around the standards avoided and weeds removed by slashing. Into avoid air pockets and keep the standards the early stages, tie the vines to thefirm in the soil. standards, if found necessary. For planting pepper, prepare pits on the Where pepper is grown in large areas,northern side of standards, 15 cm away from growing of cover crops like Calapagoniumit. The pit size should be 50 cm x 50 cm x muconoides is recommended. When such50 cm. Fill the pits with a mixture of topsoil cover crops are grown, they are to be cutand compost or well rotten cattle manure back regularly from the base of the plants to@ 5 kg per pit. With the onset of southwest prevent them from twining along with themonsoon in June-July, plant 2 rooted cuttings pepper vines. Lowering of vines after onein the pits at a distance of about 30 cm away year’s growth will promote lateral branchfrom the standards. Press the soil around production.the cuttings and form a small mound slop-ping outward and away from the cuttings to Intercropping of pepper gardens withprevent water stagnation around the plants. ginger, turmeric, colocasia and elephant footThe growing portions of the cuttings are to yam is advantageous. Banana as an inter-be trailed and tied to the standards. Provide crop in yielding gardens reduces pepper yield.shade to the plants if the land is exposed and Therefore, this is not recommended beyondif there is a break in the rainfall. When three to four years after planting of pepper vines. However, in the early years, banana

PEPPER 129provides shade to the young plants and monsoon and cover lightly with soil. It isprotects them from drying up during summer desirable to apply lime at the rate of 500 g/months. vine in April-May, with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers, in alternate years. When pepper is grown in open places,shading and watering of the young seedlings Recommended nutrient dosage formay be done during summer months for the pepper (3 years and above) is:first 1 to 3 years according to necessity. Theyoung plants may be completely covered with N:P2O5:K2O g/vine/yeardry arecanut leaves, coconut leaves or twigs 50:50:150 (general recommendation)of trees until summer months are over.Mulching the basins of pepper vines during 50:50:200 (for Panniyur and similarsummer months is highly advantageous. Saw areas)dust, arecanut husk and dry leaves aresuitable mulching materials. Removal of 140:55:275 (for Kozhikode and similarunwanted terminal shoot growths and areas)hanging shoots should be done as and when Note: Apply 1/3 dose for one year old plantsnecessary. and 1/2 dose for two year old plants. Prune and train the standards in March-April every year to remove excessive The fertilizers may be applied in two splitovergrowth and to give them a proper shape. doses, the first in May-June with the receiptThe effective height of the standard is to be of a few soaking rains and the second inlimited to about 6 m. A second pruning of August-September. Apply fertilizers in athe standards may be done in July-August, if circle of radius 30 cm around the vine in thethere is excessive shade in the garden. case of plants trailed on erythrina (Nadan murukku) or teak pole (dead standard) soilUnderplanting application of Zinc @ 6 kg ha-1 as zinc sulphate or foliar spray of Zn @ 0.5 per cent After regular bearing for about 20 years, during flowering and pin head stage of blackthe vines of most varieties start declining in pepper is recommended in Zinc deficientyield. The age of decline in yield varies with areas of black pepper cultivation for increas-variety and agroclimatic and management ing the yield and quality. Application offactors. So underplanting should be attempted Molybdenum @ 1 kg ha-1 is recommendedat about 20 years after planting or when a for areas deficient in soil molybdenumregular declining trend in yield appears. The availability.old and senile vines can be removed 3-5yearsafter underplanting depending upon the Irrigationgrowth of the young vines. Irrigating pepper plants of Panniyur-1Manuring variety at IW/CPE ratio of 0.25 from November / December till the end of March Manuring for pepper vines is to be done and withholding irrigation thereafter tillin basins taken around the plant, 10-15 cm monsoon break, increases pepper yield bydeep and 50-75 cm radius, depending up on about 50 per cent. The depth of irrigationthe growth of the plants. Apply cattle recommended is 10 mm (100 litres of watermanure / compost / green leaves @10 kg / per irrigation at an interval of about 8-10 daysplant / annum just at the onset of southwest under Panniyur conditions). The water is to

130 PEPPERbe applied in basins taken around the plants cypermethrin 0.01 per cent twice, first at theat a radius of 75 cm. The basins may be berry formation stage and the secondmulched with dry leaves or other suitable one-month after the first spray (Sept-Oct.).materials. For controlling pepper leaf gall thrips,Bush pepper dimethoate 0.05 per cent may be used. For production of bush pepper, two to four Three different types of scale insects arenode semi hard wood lateral branches are to found infesting black pepper in high rangesbe collected with a segment of orthotropic of Idukki district. They are black peppershoot intact and planted in the nursery for mussel scale (Lepidosaphes piperis Gr.)rooting during May-June. Well rooted plants infesting all parts of vines, coconut scaleare used for field planting. The rooted (Aspidiotus destructor Sign) feeding fromcuttings are to be planted at 3 pits or pots. undersurface of leaf and soft scaleFertilizers can be applied @ 1.0, 0.5 and 2.0 Marsipococcus marsupiale Gr. confining tog/pot of N, P2O5 and K2O respectively at upper leaf surface. Infestation by musselbimonthly interval. Alternatively, application scale causes significant loss of yield as itof 15 g groundnut cake or 33 g of neem cake affects all parts of plant including berries.can also meet the N requirement of the crop.The bushy nature of the plant will have to be Two sprayings of dimethoate 0.05 per centensured by proper pruning of the viny growth. at fortnightly intervals after the harvest ofThe potted plants are to be kept preferably berries effectively control black pepperunder partial shade. It is necessary that mussel scale.re-potting is carried out after every two years. Soft scale (Lecanium sp.) is occasionally Irrigating black pepper vines with 8 litres found to infest the foliage and vines at higherof water through drip per day during elevations. This scale insect can beOct - May enhances yield and quality in bush controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05 perpepper with high BC ratio. Recommended cent.This treatment will be adequate tofor bush pepper grown as intercrop in control the mealy bugs also. Root mealy bugscoconut gardens. can be controlled by drenching the basins of vines with chlorpyriphos 0.075 per cent.Plant protection Adequate precaution has to be taken to ensure that the insecticide solution reachesPests the root zone of the vines. Many of the vines infested by root mealy bugs are also likely to For the control of pollu caused by the flea be infected with Phytophthora andbeetle Longitarsus nigripennis, spray any nematodes. For controlling hard scale,one of the following insecticides namely, spot application of dimethoate 0.1 per cent isdimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05 per cent recommended.concentration. The spraying is to be given atthe time of spike emergence (June-July), at Top shoot borer can be controlled byberry formation (September-October) and spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) on theonce again at berry maturing stage, if needed. tender shoots and flushes. The spraying hasIt can also be controlled by spraying

PEPPER 131to be repeated to protect newly emerging Chemical controlshoots and flushes. For the control of Phytophthora foot rot, For control of the burrowing nematode any of the following control measures canRadopholus similis and the root knot be adopted.nematode Meloidogyne incognita, adopt thefollowing measures: 1. After the receipt of monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to be(a) Use nematode free rooted cuttings for drenched over a radius 45-50 cm with raising new plantations. 0.2 per cent copper oxychloride @ 5-10 litres per vine. This varies according to(b) Apply talc based formulation of Bacillus the age of the plant. A foliar spray with macerans @ 10g/vine in basins (106 cfu/ 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture is also to be g) at the time of planting of vines or just given. Drenching and spraying are to be before the monsoon period in established repeated just before the northeast plantations. monsoon. A third round of drenching may be given during October if the monsoonDiseases is prolonged.Phytophthora (foot rot) 2. After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), all the vines are to For controlling the disease, adopt the be drenched over a radius of 45-50 cmfollowing management practices: with 0.3 per cent potassium phosphonate @ 5-10 litres per vine. This variesPhytosanitation according to the age of the plant. A foliar spray with 0.12 per cent potas- All infected or dead vines along the root sium phosphonate is also to be given.system are to be removed and burnt. Wher- A second drenching and spraying withever water stagnation is a problem, effective 0.3 per cent potassium phosphonate is todrainage of both surface and sub-soil is be repeated just before the northeastto be ensured. To avoid soil splash and monsoon. If the monsoon is prolonged, aconsequent disease initiation and spread, a third round of drenching may be givenlegume cover in the plantation should be during October.ensured. Runner shoots are to be pruned ortied back to vines before the onset of Biocontrolmonsoon. At the onset of monsoon, thebranches of support trees may be lopped off Inoculate pepper vines with nativeto allow penetration of sunlight and avoid build arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Trichodermaup of humidity. and Pseudomonas fluorescens at the time of planting in the nursery and field and apply Apply 1 kg lime and 2 kg neem cake per during the pre-monsoon period in thestandard per year as pre-monsoon dose. established plantations to control foot rot.The application of neem cake should be four In the field, apply the biocontrol agents aroundweeks after lime application. the base of the vine (see the chapter on biocontrol agents against plant pathogens).

132 PEPPERNote: (1) All chemical control measures Note: Since Bordeaux mixture application for are prophylactic in nature and pepper is to be given mostly at a time application of chemicals in when the monsoon is very active, it is advanced stages of disease will not to be ensured that a sticker is added be effective in combating the to the fungicide. The cheapest and disease. most effective sticker is rosin washing soda mixture. (2) In Phytophthora sick fields, use only chemical control measures. Rotting diseaseReplanting / rejuvenation For control of rotting disease of cuttings in the nursery, VAM and Trichoderma can Total replanting has to be undertaken in be applied in the potting mixture. VAMgardens where the mortality is 50-60 per cent inoculum consisting of infected root bits andor above. Where the mortality is below soils can be applied @100 cc per kg of50 per cent, timely plant protection measures potting mixture and Trichoderma @ 1g kg-1as described above should be given to all the of potting mixture. For the control of foliarexisting vines as prophylactic measure and infection apply potassium phosphonategaps filled up. Gap filling or replanting should @ 3 ml litre-1 at fortnightly interval. In case,be taken up only after a period of one year. biocontrol agents are not incorporated in theAt the time of replanting, soil drenching with potting mixture, 1 per cent BordeauxBordeaux mixture or copper oxychloride mixture spray at weekly interval may beshould be given. While replanting, farmers resorted to. When the cuttings start germi-should be encouraged to use recommended nation, ensure good aeration in the nursery.varieties. Heavy watering, which causes water stagnation is to be avoided. Instead, light andFungal pollu (Anthracnose) frequent watering should be resorted to. Remove shade as soon as continuous rain For the control of fungal pollu or sets in.anthracnose caused by Colletotrichumgloeo-sporioides, spray 1 per cent Bordeaux Phyllodymixture, once before flowering starts (lateJune and early July) and then at berry In certain pockets, instead of normal spikeformation stage (late August). Minimize with berries, leaf-like structures areshade in the garden. produced. This is caused by Phytoplasma. Such vines, if noticed, must be uprooted and Foliar spray of carbendazim @ 1g l-1 or a destroyed. Planting material should not beformulation containing combination of collected from such vines.carbendazim + mancozeb @ 1g l-1 duringthe month of June can effectively control the Stunted diseasedisease. The symptoms due to this disease include Wherever Phytophthora foot rot man- shortening of internode and narrowing ofagement is undertaken properly, separate leaves with mottling. Such leaves alsocontrol measures for pollu disease may not become leathery and deformed. This isbe necessary.

PEPPER 133caused by a virus. Since the disease is bacterial rotting occurs and pericarp getssystemic and transmitted through planting loosened. Then the berries are trampledmaterials, avoid collecting planting materials under feet to remove any adhering pericarp,from such vines. Once it is noticed, uproot washed in water and then sun dried tothe vines to avoid further spread. reduce the moisture content to 10-12 per cent and to achieve a cream or white colour.Waiting period of insecticide / fungicide White pepper is garbled, sorted and packed in gunny bags. Approximately 25 kg whiteDimethoate 20 days pepper is obtained from 100 kg ripe berries.Quinalphos 20 daysMancozeb 30 days Improved CFTRI methodHarvesting and processing Fully mature but unripe berries are harvested and boiled in water for 10-15 min-Black pepper utes to soften the pericarp. After cooling, the skin is rubbed off either mechanically or Black pepper of commerce is produced manually, washed and sun dried to obtainfrom whole, unripe but fully developed white pepper. Since no retting operation isberries. The harvested berries are piled up in involved, the product will be free from anya heap to initiate browning. Then berries are unpleasant odour. However, white pepperdetached from the stalk by threshing. Then produced by this method gives pepperthey are spread on suitable drying floor. powder of light brown colour due toDuring sun-drying, berries are raked to gelatinisation of starch in contrast to pureensure uniform drying and to avoid mould white powder obtained by traditional method.development. Drying the berries for 3-5 daysreduces the moisture content to 10-12 per Decorticated black peppercent.The dried berries are cleaned, gradedand packed in double lined gunny bags. This is a form of white pepper produced by mechanical decortication of the outer skin Blanching the berries in boiling water for of black pepper. This is generally done whenone minute prior to sun drying accelerates white pepper is in short supply. The appear-browning process as well as the rate of ance of decorticated kernel is inferior todrying. It also gives a uniform lustrous black traditionally prepared white pepper, but iscolour to the finished product and prevents satisfactory when ground. Also the millingmouldiness of berries. Prolonged blanching operation requires considerable skill to avoidshould be avoided since it can deactivate the excessive volatile oil loss.enzymes responsible for browning process. Dehydrated green pepperWhite pepper In this method, under-mature berries are White pepper is prepared from ripe harvested and subjected to heat treatment forberries or by decorticating black pepper. inactivating the enzymes responsible forBright red berries, after harvest are detached browning reaction.Then the berries arefrom the stalk and packed in gunny bags. The dehydrated under controlled conditionsbags are allowed to soak in slow running wherein maximum retention of green colourwater for about one week during which is obtained. Dehydrated green pepper after

134 PEPPERreconstitution in water resembles freshly Freeze-dried green pepperharvested green pepper. The advantage isthat the season of availability can be Most of the moisture from fresh tenderextended and the berries could be stored for green pepper is removed by freezing thea year or more. Dry recovery comes to berries at -30ºC to -40ºC under high vacuum.20 per cent. The colour, aroma and texture of freeze-dried green pepper are superior to sun dried orCanned green pepper mechanically dehydrated green pepper. Freeze-dried green pepper has 2-4 per cent Green pepper after harvest is preserved moisture and is very light.in two per cent brine solution and theproduct is heat sterilized. This product has Pepper oilthe additional advantage over dehydratedgreen pepper in that it retains the natural Black pepper is crushed to coarsecolour, texture and flavour. powder and steam distilled to obtain 2.5 to 3.5 per cent colourless to pale green essen-Bottled green pepper tial oil which becomes viscous on ageing. It is used in perfumery and in flavouring. Oil Green pepper is preserved without can also be distilled from white pepper butspoilage in 20 per cent brine solution high price of white pepper and low oil yieldcontaining 100 ppm SO2 and 0.2 per cent do not favour its commercial production.citric acid. Addition of citric acid preventsblackening of berries. Pepper oleoresinCured green pepper Extraction of black pepper with organic solvents like acetone, ethanol or dichloro- To overcome the disadvantages of poor ethane provides 10-13 per cent oleoresintexture and weak flavour of dehydrated possessing the odour, flavour and pungentgreenpepper and the high unit weight and principles of the spice. The content of thepacking cost of canned and bottled green pungent alkaloid piperine ranges from 4 to 6pepper, cured green pepper has been devel- per cent in dry pepper and 35 to 50 per centoped. Berries are thoroughly cleaned in in oleoresin. When freshly made, pepperwater, steeped in saturated brine solution for oleoresin is a dark green, viscous, heavy2-3 months, drained and packed in suitable liquid with a strong aroma. One kg of oleoresinflexible polyethylene pouches. when dispersed on an inert base can replace 15 to 20 kg of spice for flavouring purpose.Table 23. Drying percentage and oil content of Panniyur varieties of pepper Properties P1 P2 P3 Variety P5 P6 P7 35.3 35.7 27.8 P4 35.7 32.9 33.6Drying % 5.30 6.50 4.80 34.7 5.30 4.94 5.57Piperine % 11.78 12.20 10.40 4.40 12.33 8.27 10.61Oleoresin % 3.31 3.40 3.12 11.30 3.80 1.33 1.50Essential oil % 3.12

TURMERIC 135 TURMERIC (Curcuma longa) Turmeric is a tropical herb and can be Manuringgrown on different types of soil underirrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loamy Apply cattle manure or compost as basalsoils having good drainage are ideal for the dose at 40 t ha-1 at the time of land prepara-crop. It is a shade tolerant crop with shallow tion or by spreading over the beds after plant-roots suitable for intercropping and also as a ing. Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 30:30:60 kg ha-1.component crop in the homesteads where Full dose of P2O5 and half dose of K2O maylow to medium shade is available. be applied as basal; 2/3 dose of N may be applied at 30 days after planting; and 1/3 NPreparation of land and remaining K2O may be applied 60 days after planting. Prepare the land to a fine tilth duringFebruary-March. On receipt of pre-monsoon Mulchingshowers inApril, prepare beds of size 3 mx1.2 mwith a spacing of 40 cm between beds. Mulch the crop immediately after planting with green leaves @ 15 t ha-1.Seed material Repeat mulching after 50 days with the same quantity of green leaves. Whole or split mother rhizomes are usedfor planting. Select well developed, healthy Aftercultivationand disease free rhizomes. Treat the rhizomesin any of the copper oxychloride fungicides Weed the crop thrice at 60, 120 andand store in cool, dry place or in earthen pits 150 days after planting, depending uponplastered with mud and cowdung. weed intensity. Earth up the crop after 60 days.Varieties IntercroppingCultivars: Tekurpetta, Sugantham, Kodur,Armoor, Alleppey. Chilli, maize and colocasia can be grown as intercrops.Improved varieties: Suvarna, Suguna,Sudarshana, Prabha, Prathibha, Kanthi, Harvesting and curingSobha, Sona, Varna, IISR Kedaram andIISR Alleppey Supreme(Resistant to leaf Time of harvest depends upon variety andblotch). usually extends from January to March. Harvest early varieties at 7-8 months,Season and method of planting medium varieties at 8-9 months and long duration varieties at 9-10 months after Plant during April with the receipt of planting.pre-monsoon showers. Take small pits in thebeds in rows with a spacing of 25cm x 25cm. Improved method of processingPlant finger rhizomes flat with buds facingupwards and cover with soil or dry powdered Cleaning: Harvested turmeric rhizomescattle manure. The seed rate is about are cleaned off mud and other extraneous2000-2500 kg per ha. materials adhering to them and subjected to

136 TURMERICcuring within 2-3 days after harvest so as to rubbing turmeric fingers on hard surface orensure the quality of the end product. trampling them under feet wrapped in gunny bags. The improved method is by using Boiling: Fingers and mother rhizomes will hand-operated barrel or drum mounted on ahave to be boiled separately. Boiling is central axis, the sides of which are made ofusually done in MS pans of suitable size. expanded metal mesh. When the drum filledCleaned rhizomes (approximately 50 kg) are with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effectedtaken in a perforated trough of size 0.9 m x by abrasion of the surface against the mesh0.55 m x 0.4 m made of GI or MS sheet with as well as by mutual rubbing against eachextended handle. The trough containing the other as they roll inside the drum.rhizomes is then immersed in MS pan(1 m x 0.62 m x 0.48 m) containing clean Machine polishing: This methodwater sufficient to immerse the rhizomes. consists of an octagonal or hexagonal woodenThe whole mass is boiled till the rhizomes drum mounted on a central axis and rotatedbecome soft. The correct stage of cooking by power.can be judged by piercing a woodenneedle through the rhizome. If the rhizomes Turmeric oleoresinare properly cooked, the needle will passthrough the rhizome without resistance. This is obtained by the solvent extractionThe cooked rhizomes are taken out of the of the ground spice with organic solvents likepan by lifting the trough and draining the so- acetone, ethylene dichloride and ethanol forlution into the pan. 4-5 hours. It is orange red in colour. Oleoresin yield ranges from 7.9 to 10.4 per Drying: The fingers are then dried in the cent. One kg of oleoresin replaces 8 kg ofsun by spreading them as a thin layer on ground spice.bamboo mats or drying floor. Artificialdrying at a maximum temperature of 60ºC Plant protectiongives a bright coloured product than that ofsun drying especially for sliced turmeric. No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in the crop. Shoot borers can bePolishing controlled by spraying 0.05 per cent dimethoate or 0.05 per cent quinalphos. In order to smoothen the rough and hardouter surface of the boiled dried turmeric and Leaf spot and leaf blotch can bealso to improve its colour, it is subjected to controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeauxpolishing. There are two types of polishing: mixture or 0.2 per cent mancozeb. If symp-hand polishing and machine polishing. toms of early wilt or rhizome rot appear, drench the soil with cheshunt compound or Hand polishing: The method of hand 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.polishing is simple, which consists of

CAMBOGE 137 CAMBOGE (KUDAMPULI) (Garcinia gummi-gutta var. gummi-gutta) (Ad hoc recommendation) Garcinia, the camboge tree is a big sized delayed germination, simple seed treatmentglabrous and evergreen forest tree commonly methods can be employed.seen in the Western Ghats of Kerala,Karnataka, and also in Sri Lanka. The tree is Method 1: In this method, the processedvery much adapted to hill tops and plain lands seeds (after drying under shade) are given aalike. But, its performance is best in river mechanical treatment. Remove seed coatsbanks and valleys. It grows well in dry or of such seeds using a sharp knife withoutoccasionally waterlogged or flooded soils. injuring the ivory coloured cotyledon. Sow these ivory coloured cotyledons afresh in The economic part of the plant is its polybags at a depth of 3 cm. Germinationmature fruit, which is highly acidic. The starts in 20-25 days after sowing.extract obtained from the mature fruit rind,(-) hydroxy citric acid, attracts foreign markets, Method 2: After removing the seed coats,for its use in medicines controlling obesity. treat the seeds with gibberellic acid @ 250 ppm for 6 hours, and thereafter soak them inPlanting materials mancozeb @ 4 g per l for 2 hours. Sow the seeds in nursery bags and irrigate daily. Seeds Grafts prepared through soft wood germinate in 16-20 days.grafting or side grafting and healthyseedlings raised in the nursery are used for Method 3: Second method followed bycultivation. If seedlings are planted, 50-60 per transfer of the seeds to a white polypropy-cent will be male; and female takes 10-12 lene cover of size 20 cm x 25 cm along withyears for bearing. Hence planting of grafts 30-50 ml of filtered water. Tie the polybagis advocated as they ensure maternal along with the air inside tightly using acharacters including early bearing tendency. rubber band. Such seeds germinate in 10-12 days after sowing. In a polybag, aboutPropagation by seedlings 500-750 seeds can be incubated at a time. Pick up the sprouted seeds and sow in the Selection of mother trees: Locate mother nursery bags kept under shade.trees that give a steady annual yield with amean fruit weight of 200-275 g, high acid and Keep the seedlings under shade. Irrigatelow tannin content. Collect seeds from freshly them regularly on alternate days duringharvested and fully ripe fruits and wash in summer months. After 3-4 months, place therunning water and spread in a thin layer seedlings under direct sunlight to triggerunder roof. By the 20th day, seeds will be robust growth. At this age, apply FYM @ready for sowing. Sow seeds at the rate of 50 g per bag. In six to seven months time,two per bag in polybags during the month of seedlings will be ready for planting.August-September. Usually seeds startsprouting in the month of December but the Propagation by graftingsprouts become visible above the soilsurface only by February. In order to avoid Two types of grafting methods are employed viz. soft wood grafting and approach grafting.

138 CAMBOGESoft wood grafting Approach grafting Select scions only from specific elite trees Here also stock plants having 3-4 mmregular in bearing, which produce high yield thickness are preferred and they are broughtof large and quality fruits. to the place where the mother tree is located. Grafting is done as in other crops and is kept Collection of scion: Select straight grow- intact for 45 days by which time unioning, healthy, young shoots emerging from the occurs. Graft is detached from the motherprimary branches with whorled leaf arrange- tree in three steps. The main disadvantage isment. Cut them to a length of 6-10 cm and that only a limited number of grafts can bestore in polybags under humid condition. produced in this method. Forty five daysRemove leaves partly and shape the cut end after grafting, they will be ready forto a wedge of 3-4 cm length by giving transferring to the main nursery for harden-slanting cuts on two opposite sides. ing. Grafts are to be watered daily using a rose-can or micro-sprinkler. Care should be Preparation of rootstock: Stock-plants taken to remove sprouts emerging fromhaving 3-4 mm stem thickness are ideal for rootstock at frequent intervals. Leaf foldinggrafting. Behead the selected plants at two pests common in the nursery can benodes below the terminal bud and remove controlled by spraying with quinalphosall the leaves at the graft union. Use scion @ 2 ml l -1 at monthly intervals. One year oldand rootstock of same thickness for grafts can be used for field planting.grafting. Planting Grafting: Insert the wedge of thescion into the cleft made on the rootstock Prepare pits of size 1 m x 1 m at spacingand secure the graft joint firmly with a of 10 m. Refill the pits with a mixture ofblack polythene tape, 1.5-2 cm wide and topsoil and compost / FYM. Proper care30 cm long. should be given to avoid water stagnation in pits. Care in the nursery: Immediately aftergrafting, cover the plants with a transparent The plants can be raised as a pure crop orpolypropylene cover and keep under shade. as a mixed crop in coconut and arecanutBy the 30th day, grafts will establish and new gardens. Take pits of size 0.75 m x 0.75 m xleaves will start emerging. Remove the 0.75 m in hard and laterite soils; 0.50 m xpolythene cover and keep under shade. 0.50 m x 0.50 m in sandy and alluvial soils, atWater the grafts daily using rose-can or a spacing of 4 m x 4 m for grafts and 7 m xmicro-sprinkler. Care should be taken to 7 m for seedlings. In slopes of 15 per cent orremove sprouts emerging from rootstock at more, for planting grafts, rows are spaced atfrequent intervals. Three months after 5 to 5.5 m and 3.5 m between trees in a row.grafting the plants will be ready for planting For planting seedlings, rows are spaced at 8in the main field. Just before planting in the to 12 m and at 6 to 8 m for trees in a row.main field, leave the grafts under open Planting is generally done at the onset ofcondition in 10-15 days for hardening. monsoon showers. Under existing coconut plantation of 25 years and above, spacing shall be so adjusted that it should alternate with

CAMBOGE 139the palms in the rows. Under Kuttanad loss of yield. Control these pests by sprayingconditions, where bunds and channels alter- dimethoate @ 1 ml/l. Leaf folders are verynate, planting can be done in between two common in the nursery against whichpalms. Fill the pits with topsoil and 5 kg of quinalphos @ 2 ml/l may be sprayed.compost or well-decomposed cattle manure Incidence of hoppers is observed on graftsand 10 g of carbaryl 10 per cent dust, to avoid and large trees. This causes withering ofwhite ant attack, before planting. The graft leaves, drying up of branches and yield loss.union shall remain just above the ground level. Control them by spraying carbaryl 50 WP 2gProvide support to the young plants. One + dichlorovos 1 ml per litre of water. Sootymonth after planting, gently remove the mould is seen associated with hard scales.polythene tape around the graft union. Seedling blight in the nursery stage is very common. Control it by drenching nursery bedManagement of plantation with 1per cent Bordeaux mixture or using mancozeb @ 5 g l-1. In grafts and large trees, Clean the field free of bushes and thick sometimes, fungal thread blights have beenshades. Weed once in three months and observed to cause leaf and twig blight. Adoptmulch the basin with black polythene or dry proper pruning and spray 1per cent Bordeauxleaves to avoid drying. mixture or mancozeb 0.3 per cent.Manuring Harvesting Apply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per Seedlings start bearing generally at the ageseedling / graft during the first year. Gradually of 10-12 years. Grafts start bearing from theincrease the quantity so that a well-grown tree third year onwards and will attain fullof 15 years and above receives 50 kg of bearing at the age of 12 to 15 years.organic manure per year. Apply N:P2O5:K2O Flowering occurs in January-March and fruitsmixture at the rate of 20:18:50 g/plant during mature in July. There are reports ofthe first year. Double the dose in the second off-season bearers, which bear two timesyear and gradually increase it to 500:250:1000 a year, i.e., during January-July andg / plant / year at the 15th year. September-February. Mature fruits, which are orange yellow in colour, drop off fromPruning the tree. Harvest mature fruits manually before they fall. Immediately after harvest, Grafts will grow fast from the second year wash the fruits in running water andonwards. Give strong support with casuarina separate the fruit rind for processing.poles at this stage. By fifth year, the tree willhave 3 to 4 m height. At this stage, height of Processingthe plant may be maintained at 3.5 to 4 mand by seventh year at 4 to 4.5 m by Separated fruit rind is first sun dried andpruning. then either smoke-dried or oven-dried at 70-80ºC. In order to increase the storage lifePests and diseases and to impart softness, mix the dried rind with common salt @ 150 g and coconut oil Hard scales and beetles are found to @ 50 ml per kg of dried rind.infest the crop. Hard scales desap the leavesand tender shoots. Both the adult beetles andtheir grubs defoliate the crop inflicting heavy

140 TAMARINDTAMARIND (Tamarindus indica) (Ad hoc recommendation) The tree is particularly well adapted to is cut at 3 m above ground level to inducesemi-arid tropical regions, but can be grown scaffold branches. Organic manuresin heavy rainfall areas too, provided the soil are generally used. Intercropping withis well drained. It is adaptable to poor soil vegetables, groundnut and sesame can bealso. done till the fifth year.Propagation technique Pests and diseases It is propagated by means of seeds, grafts Insects like Tribolium castaneum andand budding. Healthy seeds are sown in fungi are serious problems in storage andpolybags and seedlings are transplanted at field respectively. Spray application of40-60 cm height. Due to erratic bearing of Quinalphos 0.05 per cent at the time ofseedling progeny, grafts are successfully used fruiting, when infestation starts, can controlas propagules. Side grafting, inarching and the storage beetle.patch budding are commonly practised.Budding is done on nine month old saplings Harvest and yieldfor higher success. Seedlings start to yield 8-10 years afterCultural operations planting, whereas grafts and budded seedlings give yield after 4-5 years. Stabi- Plants of 40-60 cm height are planted lized yield of 250 kg/tree is obtained fromduring June to November at 10 m x 10 m 9-10 years onwards. Harvesting is done fromspacing in pits of 1 m3 size incorporated with January to April. There is also a tendency of15 kg of FYM. Regular watering till the plants alternate bearing as in the case of mango.establish in the field is a must. Leader shoot

ARECANUT 141 BEVERAGES AND STIMULANTS ARECANUT (Areca catechu) The arecanut palms grow under a variety by growing banana, Coccinia indica etc orof climatic and soil conditions. It grows well by means of artificial pandal. Plant bananafrom almostsealevelup to an altitudeof1000m in advance at a spacing of 2.7 m x 3.6 min areas of abundant and well-distributed when it is grown as a shade crop. Providerainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is irrigation during hot and dry periods andgrown in a variety of soils such as laterites, drainage during monsoon. Periodical weed-red loams and alluvial. ing and mulching are necessary.Varieties Selection of seedlings Mangala, Sumangala, Sreemangala and Select good seedlings for transplanting inMohitnagar. the main field when they are 12-18 months old. Selection of seedlings can be based onSelection of site the selection index. Multiplying leaf number by 40 and subtracting the seedling Select sites with deep well drained soil height gives the selection index. Selectwithout high water table. Provide adequate seedlings with higher selection index values.irrigation facilities. Example:Selection of mother palms Seedling height = 90 cm, Leaf number = 5 Select mother palms showing earlinessand regularity in bearing, high percentage of Selection index = (5 x 40)–90 = 110fruit set and semi-tall to dwarf stature. (If for instance, index values rangeSelection of seed nuts between 50 and 150, select seedlings with higher values to the extent possible). Uproot Select fully tree-ripe nuts from middle the seedlings with the ball of earth attachedbunches during mid season.Discard nuts, to them for transplanting.which are undersized, malformed and low inweight. Note: Plant characters such as girth at the collar one year after transplanting andNursery techniques number of nodes two years after trans- planting are highly correlated with Sow selected seed nuts soon after yield. Removal of plants with poorharvest in nursery bed with stalk-end up and collar girth and lesser number of nodeswith a spacing of 5-6 cm. Cover the seed one and two years after plantingnuts with sand and irrigate daily. respectively, will help to increase the yield potential of plantations. Transplant 90 days old sprouts having2-3 leaves to the secondary nursery. Prepare Field plantingsecondary nursery beds of 150 cm widthand convenient length. Apply cattle manure Plant tall, quick growing shade trees@ 5 t ha-1 as basal dose. Transplant sprouts on the southern and western sides of theat a spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm. Provide shade

142 ARECANUTplantation to provide protection from sun Irrigation and drainagescorching. Irrigate the palms during hot and dry Plant seedlings in pits at a spacing of periods at regular intervals of 3-5 days2.7 m x 2.7 m with north-south alignment, depending upon the soil type.the rows being deflected at an angle of 35ºtowards west. Dig pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x The palms should be irrigated once in four60 cm and fill up with rich topsoil to a level of to seven days depending on the soil type and15 cm from the bottom. Plant seedlings at climatic factors. In west coast, where majorthe centre of pit, cover with soil up to collar area of arecanut gardens are irrigated,level and press around. watering the garden once in seven or eight days during November-December, once in The planting is to be done during six days during January-February and onceMay-June in well-drained soils and during in three to five days during March-April-MayAugust-September in clayey soils. Banana is recommended. In each irrigation, give aboutmay be planted between rows to provide 175 litres of water per palm. Where there isshade in the initial stages up to 4-5 years. shortage of water, follow drip irrigation. Application of organic mulch to the gardenManuring helps conservation of soil moisture. Apply green leaf and compost, each Construct drainage channels (25-30 cm@12 kg per palm per year from first year of deep from the bottom of pits) between theplanting onwards, during September-October. rows and drain out water during periods of heavy rainfall to prevent waterlogging. Apply N:P2O5:K2O for adult palms@ 100: 40:140 g / palm / year. Cultural operations Apply 1/3 dose during first year, 2/3 dose Keep the garden free of weeds and breakduring second year and full dose from third up surface crust by light forking or diggingyear onwards. Under irrigated conditions, after cessation of monsoon during October-apply fertilizers in two split doses, the first November. In slopes, prevent soil erosion byduring September-October and the second terracing. Sow seeds of green manure-cum-during February. Under rainfed conditions, cover crops such as Mimosa invisa,apply the second dose during March-April Stylosanthes gracilis and Calapagoniumafter the receipt of summer rains. Apply muconoides in April-May with the onset ofmanures and fertilizers during September- pre-monsoon rains. Cut and apply them toOctober in circular basins of 15-20 cm depth the palms in September-October.and with a radius of 0.75-1.0 m from the palm.Apply the second dose of fertilizers around Intercropping and mixed croppingthe base of palm after weeding and mix intosoil by light forking. In acidic soils, broadcast Crops such as elephant foot yam,lime @ 0.5 kg per palm once in two or three pineapple, pepper, betel vine, banana, guineayears and incorporate into soil by forking grass, cocoa, ginger and cardamom can beduring March-April. grown in arecanut gardens. While planting cocoa, a spacing 2.7 m x 5.4 m is recom- mended. In all cases, the intercrops should be manured adequately and separately.

ARECANUT 143Plant protection the rest at 40 days intervals. If monsoon season is prolonged give a third spray. UsePests rosin soda adhesive to ensure tenacity of the spray deposit on treated substrate. RemoveMites and burn all fallen and infected nuts. Orange coloured mites can be controlled Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora)by spraying the bunches with dimethoate at0.05 per cent. Remove and destroy affected spindle and leaves. In early stages of infection, scoop outSpindle bug (Carvalhoia arecae) affected rotten tissues by making longitudi- nal side splits and apply Bordeaux paste on The feeding injury is caused on the lamina the exposed healthy tissues or drench crownand petiole. The affected leaves show dry with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.brown patches. Basal stem rot (Anabe) (Ganoderma Spray crowns with carbaryl 50 WP. The lucidum)spray should reach the leaf axils. Repeatspraying after 30-35 days if pest incidence 1. Isolate affected palms by digging trenchescontinues. 60 cm deep and 30 cm wide around, one metre away from the base and drenchInflorescence caterpillar (Batachedra sp.) with calixin (0.08 per cent) or copper oxychloride (0.3 per cent) Force open the inflorescence out of theenclosing spathe and spray malathion 50 EC 2. Remove and destroy all severely(250 ml in 100 litres of water). Control slugs, affected palms and stumps of dead palms.which predispose inflorescence to the attackof caterpillar, by using bait of metaldehyde. 3. Drench the soil with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture before planting healthy seedlings.Root grub (Leucopholis burmeisteri) 4. Discourage growing of collateral hosts of Loosen soil around the base of palms to a fungus such as Delonix regia anddepth of 10-15cm and drench with Pongamia glabra in the vicinity ofchlorpyrifos 0.04 per cent suspension twice, gardens.one in May just before the onset of south-west monsoon and again in September- 5. Apply 2 kg neem cake per palm.October towards the end of the monsoon.Repeat application for 2 or 3 years conse- 6. Avoid flood irrigation and water flowingcutively to secure a complete eradication of from infected palms to healthy palms.the pest. Yellow leaf diseaseDiseases Maintain the garden properly to keepKoleroga (Mahali or fruit rot) affected palms in a healthy condition by adopting recommended manurial, cultural,(Phytophthora palmivora) plant protection and other management practices. Improve drainage conditions in the Spray Bordeaux mixture 1per cent on all garden.bunches three times in a year, one justbefore the onset of southwest monsoon and

144 ARECANUTDisease management mancozeb (3 g l-1) twice, one just after female flowers are set and again 15-28 days1. Apply the recommended dose of later. Aureofungin sol at 100 ppm concentra- fertilizers. tion is also effective in controlling the disease.2. In addition to the above, apply 160 g of rock phosphate per palm in the affected Stem bleeding garden. Palms in the age group of 10-15 years3. Apply organic manure @ 12 kg each of are more prone to this disease. Symptoms compost and green leaves per palm per appear on the basal portion of the stem as year. small discoloured depression. Later, these spots coalesce and cracks develop on the4. Provide irrigation during summer months. stem leading to disintegration of the fibrous tissues inside. With the progress of the5. Avoid water stagnation in the garden by disease, a brown exudate oozes out from providing drainage facilities. these cracks. High water table predisposes the palm to this disease.6. Grow cover crops in the garden. Improvement of drainage and root7. When only a few palms are affected in a feeding of 125 ml tridemorph (1.5 per cent) garden, remove them to prevent further is suggested as control measure against this spread of the disease. disease.8. Adopt need based plant protection Sun scorch measures against pests and diseases. Protect palms from southwest sun byBand disease wrapping stems with areca sheath or white-wash the exposed portion. Provide Improve soil conditions by loosening hard reinforcement to palms showing stemsoil strata, if present, by providing good drain- fissures. Grow tall, quick growing trees onage. Adopt adequate control measures southern and western sides of garden.against spindle bug, mealy bugs, scales andmites. Where the results of the above treat- Nut splittingments are not found satisfactory, applypowdered mixture of copper sulphate and lime This can be considered as a physiologicalin equal quantities @ 225 g/palm twice a year disorder than a disease. Palms in the ageat the base of affected palms. Application of group of 10-25 years are more susceptible.borax @ 25 g/palm has been found to have Symptoms are premature yellowing of thean ameliorative effect. nuts when they are half to three-fourth mature. Later splits develop at the tips, whichCollar rot of seedlings extend longitudinally exposing the kernel. Sometimes kernel also show splitting and Improve drainage conditions in nursery malformation. Rarely the kernel inside maybeds and gardens. Drench spindle and base exhibit splitting without visual symptomsof seedlings with 1 per cent Bordeaux on the husk, resulting in nut fall. Hypermixture in disease affected nursery or garden.Dieback of inflorescence Remove affected inflorescence immedi-ately. Spray zineb (4 g in 1 litre of water) or