kerala pop 2011 revised

ARECANUT AND BETEL VINE 145nutrition or sudden flush of water after a De-huskingperiod of drought or insufficient moisture inthe soil is the probable cause (s) of the disease. A simple de-husking device has been standardized by the CPCRI, Kasaragod. The Improvement of drainage in ill drained out turn with this device is 60 kg of huskedgardens and spraying of borax @ 2 g litre-1 nuts in the case of dry nuts and 30 kg in theof water are found effective in reducing the case of green nuts.The cost of the device isdisease incidence. about 250.BETEL VINE (Piper betle) Betel vine requires a tropical climate with Such furrows are opened at a distance of 1 mhigh atmospheric humidity. It can be apart. Well rotten farmyard manure and leavescultivated in the uplands as well as in are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoilwetlands. In Kerala, it is mainly cultivated in of the furrows, along with wood ash. Higharecanut and coconut gardens as an inter- dose of organic manure (20-50 t ha-1) iscrop. The crop grows best on well-drained applied to maintain good soil structure, whichfertile soils. Waterlogged, saline and alkali is essential for the proper development of thesoils are unsuitable for its cultivation. The crop root system.also comes up very well in lateritic soils.Proper shade and irrigation are essential for Planting material and plantingsuccessful cultivation of this crop. Anannual rainfall ranging from 200 to 450 cm is Top portions of mature vines (2-3 yearsideal. The crop tolerates a minimum old) are used for planting. Healthy cuttingstemperature of 10ºC and a maximum of 40ºC. of about 1 m length with three nodes are usedExtremely low atmospheric temperature as planting material. For planting oneleads to leaf fall. Hot dry winds are harmful. hectare, 20000-25000 cuttings are required. Furrows are irrigated prior to planting.Varieties Cuttings are planted in holes 20 cm apart in furrows. While planting, one node shall be The important types are Thulasi, Venmani, buried in the soil and the second node shouldArikodi, Kalkodi, Karilanchi, Karpuram, be at the ground level. The soil around theChelanthikarpuram, Koottak-kodinandan, planted cutting must be pressed firmly toPerumkodi, Amaravila and Pramuttan. encourage quick germination. It is necessary to provide shade to the planted cuttings.Season Coconut leaves are used as shading material. To prevent excess moisture in the There are two important planting seasons. soil, splashing water on the vines by hand isThe Edavakodi is planted in May-June and preferable in the early stages. In the absencethe Thulakodi in August-September. of rain, light irrigation, four times daily, is given till establishment. Cuttings establish in threePreparation of land weeks time and the first leaf emerges in about a month. Areas with good shade and irrigationfacilities are preferred for this crop. The landis dug well and laid out into furrows of10-15 m length, 75 cm width and 75 cm depth.

146 BETEL VINEIrrigation and drainage noticed in the vines. Leaves are removed along with the petiole with the right thumb. Betel vine needs constantly moist soil, but Once harvesting is commenced, it isthere should not be excessive moisture. continued almost every day or week. TheHence, frequent light irrigations are given. interval of harvesting varies from 15 days toThe quantity of irrigation water should be about a month till the next lowering of vines.such that the standing water should not After each harvest, manuring has to be done.remain for more than half an hour in the bed.If waterlogging by heavy rains or excess Lowering the vinesirrigation occurs, drainage should bearranged immediately. The best time for Under normal conditions, vines grow to airrigation is morning or evening. height of about 3 m in one year time. When they reach this height, their vigour toTrailing the vines and weeding produce normal sized leaves is reduced and the crop needs rejuvenation. This is done by The cuttings sprout and creep in about a lowering the vines down to the ground levelmonth. At this time, they must be trailed on at least once a year. Lowering is donethe standards. Bamboo standards are erected during the months of August-September.at intervals and linked by tying at heights of Before lowering, all the leaves in the basal30 cm and 150 cm using coir rope. In the portion of the vines to a height of 15 cm areinitial stages trailing is done on coir tied for removed. Vine is untied from bottomthe purpose. Trailing is done further by upwards and coiled up carefully and laid flattying the vines, at intervals of 15-20 cm along on ground leaving 2.5 to 5 cm length of topthe standards loosely with the help of banana shoots. Soil is put over the portion kept in thefibre. When vines come in contact with soil to about 5 cm thickness. Lowering isstandards, they produce adventitious roots followed by light irrigation and manuring.using which they cling to support. Trailing isdone every 15-20 days depending on the Plant protectiongrowth of vines. Gardens should be kept cleanby weeding and stirring as and when required. The insect pests include the mirid bug (Disphincuts politus) which desapsManuring the tender leaves and shoots, scale insects and mealy bugs (Lepidosaphes and Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to Pseudococcus), which occur on the stems.the furrows at fortnightly intervals and Insecticidal application is not recommendedcowdung slurry is sprinkled. This is repeated to avoid toxic hazards. In serious infestations,till four months after planting when the crop apply fish oil soap at 1.5 per cent against theis ready for harvest. Application of different mirid bugs and 0.05 per cent quinalphos againstkinds of leaves (gliricidia, mango leaves etc) the scale insects and mealy bugs. Againstat monthly intervals is found advantageous scale insects, restrict insecticide applicationfor the growth of the vines. on the stem only. The leaves should be harvested only after 15 days of insecticideHarvesting application. The treated leaves should be consumed/marketed after thorough washing in In about 3-6 months time, vines grow to a water. Among the diseases, the bacterialheight 150-180 cm. At this stage branching is leaf spot caused by Xanthomonas betlicola

BETEL VINE AND COCOA 147is most serious in southern Kerala.The initial stem injury occur, leading to wiltingsymptoms appear as small watersoaked of the plant. The cultivars Karilanchi,regions, which enlarge and turn dark brown Karpuram and Thulasi are found susce-in the centre with yellow halo. Profuse ptible to the disease. Spraying 1 per centbacterial ooze may be seen on the lower side Bordeaux mixture is recommendedof the lesion. In severe cases, defoliation and to control the disease. COCOA (Theobroma cacao) The cocoa tree flourishes in the dense These improved clones are suitable forshade of warm rain forests in its natural cultivation in different cocoa growing tractshabitat and hence can be cultivated in all of the country and also in the warm tropicalsimilar climatic conditions. The tree cannot areas especially under the shade of coconut.withstand high winds, drought or sudden fall All these clones are tolerant to vascular streakin temperature. The crop requires well- dieback and have yield potential in the rangedistributed rainfall. The minimum requirement from 55 to 180 pods per tree per year andof rainfall is about 100-150cm per mean yield from 38 to 78 pods per tree perannum. Situations where the temperature year. During 2002, three hybrids viz., CCRPfalls below 10°C or rises above 38°C are 8, CCRP 9 and CCRP 10 were released.unfavourable although minor deviations from These hybrids have mean yields of 90, 105the above limit can be adjusted by shade and and 79 pods per tree per year. These are alsoirrigation. High wind velocity causes tolerant to vascular streak dieback disease.considerable mechanical damage to trees. Cocoa exhibits self incompatibility and is Cocoa is grown at altitude up to 900 m highly cross pollinated. Therefore growing ofabove MSL though it is possible to grow the different varieties adjacent to each other mustcrop even in much higher elevations under be encouraged so as to achieve maximum fruitsheltered conditions. set and yield realization. The best soil for cocoa is forest soil rich Selection of sitein humus. The soil should allow easypenetration of roots and capable of retaining Cocoa is usually planted under coconutmoisture during summer. Clay loams, loams and arecanut plantations in India. Shadeand sandy loams are suitable. Shallow soils levels under coconut canopy are highlyshould be avoided. variable depending mainly on the spacing of coconut, extent of canopy development andVarieties age of palms. It is estimated that light infiltration through coconut canopy ranges Though three varietal types viz., Criollo, from about 30 to 80 per cent depending uponForastero and Trinitario are recognized, these factors. Based on this, the generalonly Forastero types are known to perform recommendation is as follows:well under Indian conditions. Breedingwork initiated at the Kerala Agricultural 1. If a choice is possible, a coconut planta-University since 1979 has resulted in the tion that will let in about 50 per cent lightrelease of seven improved clones of Forastero through the canopy may be chosen fortype. These are CCRP 1, CCRP 2, CCRP 3, raising cocoa.CCRP 4, CCRP 5, CCRP 6 and CCRP 7.

148 COCOA2. If the light infiltration is over 50 per cent, (2) Husk thickness of pods to be not more it may be beneficial to provide than 1 cm. additional shade using temporary shade plants like banana. (3) Pod value (number of pods to give 1 kg wet beans) to be not more than 12.Preparation of land (4) Number of beans per pod to be not less The seedlings / budded clones are usually than 35.planted in the interspaces of coconut/arecanut. Give a spacing of 3 to 4.5 m. The (5) Bean dry weight to be not less than 1 g.crop is best grown with 50 per cent lightintensity in the early stages. In the early life Seeds lose viability within a week ofof the plants, planting of quick growing plants harvest of pods. Seeds are to be sownlike banana and tapioca can provide immediately after extraction from the pods.temporary shade. Viability of the beans can be extended for some more days if freshly extracted seedsPlanting materials are stored in moist charcoal and packed in polybags. Other alternative is extracting Cocoa can be propagated by seed and beans, removing the testa and packing invegetative means. polythene bags.Seed propagation Time of sowing It is desirable to collect seeds from Though the seeds will germinate at anybiclonal or polyclonal seed gardens involving time of the year, seeds may preferably besuperior self-incompatible parents to sown by December-January, so that 4-6ensure genetic superiority of planting mate- month old seedlings become available forrials. Polyclonal and biclonal seed gardens planting by May-June.have been established at CCRP farm of theKerala Agricultural University, Vellanikkara Method of sowingand Kidu farm of CPCRI and seeds and seed-lings are being supplied to growers. If seeds Seeds are to be sown with hilum-endcannot be procured from such seed gardens, down or to be sown flat. Sowing is to be asmother plants for collection of seeds may be shallow as to just cover the seeds with soil.selected based on the following criteria: Removal of pulp may enhance the speed of germination, but the extent of additional(1) Trees of Forastero type having medium advantage is only marginal. Seeds germi- or large pods of not less than 350 g weight nating in about a week and germination may or 400 cc volume, green in colour when continue for another week. Percentage of immature, having smooth or shallow germination may be around 90. furrows on the surface without prominent constriction at the neck should be Cocoa nursery is to be located in a heavily selected. Yield of pods should be not less shaded area, which allows only 25-50 per cent than 100 per year. sunlight. Regular watering is necessary to keep the soil moist. Seedlings are transplanted after 4-6 months. Only vigorous seedlings are to be used and based on height and stem girth,

COCOA 14925 per cent poor seedlings may be rejected. Patch budding method consists of remov-When seedlings are grown under heavy ing a patch of about 2.5 cm length andshade, hardening for 10 days by exposing to 0.5 cm width from the rootstocks, preparinghigher illumination may be necessary before a bud patch of 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm widthtransplanting. from the bud wood and inserting it into the rootstock and tying firmly with polytheneVegetative propagation tape. After three weeks, if there is bud-take, polythene tape is removed; a vertical cut In view of the high variability exhibited is made half way through the stem above theby seedling progenies, vegetative propaga- bud and is snapped back. The snappedtion is preferred for large scale planting. root stock portion is cut back after the budThough vegetative propagation of cocoa by has grown to a shoot and at least two leavesbudding, rooting of cuttings and grafting are have hardened. It is then allowed to growfeasible, the widely accepted method in for a further period of three to six monthsIndia is budding. after which they are transplanted. Under normal conditions, success can be around Scions for budding are to be collected from 70-90 per cent.high yielding, disease resistant elite plants.Shoots having brown bark and just hardened Selection of planting materialsleaves are selected as bud wood. Scions arepreferably pre-cured by cutting off lamina of When seedlings are used for planting,all the leaves of the selected scion shoot to a select only vigorous and healthy seedlingsdistance of about 30 cm from the tip. After produced from polyclonal seed garden or10 days when the petioles have fallen off, selected mother plants as described earlier.these scion shoots are cut and used for bud- When budded plants are used, select two ording immediately. Bud wood can be stored more clones for planting as the use of a singleby dipping in benzyl chloride followed by clone can lead to poor production due to thewashing in water and then sealing the cut existence of self-incompatibility in cocoa.ends using molten wax. Bud wood is thenwrapped in moist cotton wool and in turn in Time and method of plantingwet tissue paper or blotting paper and packedin boxes with wet packing material. The Raising cocoa as a pure crop is notpacket is then covered using polythene sheets. recommended especially in Kerala due toStorage life of the bud wood can be extended high pressure on land. Cocoa is planted asup to 10 days by this method. As far as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.possible, bud wood is to be collected from In coconut, depending upon the spacingchupons as those produced from fans may adopted, one or two rows of cocoa can bedevelop into bushy plants with spreading planted in between two rows of coconut i.e.,habit. Rootstock, six to twelve months old two rows where the spacing is more thanmay be selected in such a way that scion 8 m and one row otherwise, the plantand rootstock are of the same thickness. distance for cocoa being 2.7 to 3 m. WhenDifferent successful methods include T, two-row system is adopted, the seedlings mayinverted T, patch, and modified Forkert be planted in zigzag or triangular manner.methods. Patch budding is adopted in theKerala Agricultural University. In arecanut where the normal spacing is 2.7 m, cocoa is planted at the centre of four

150 COCOAareca palms along alternate rows of inter- Apply 1/3 of adult dose during the firstspaces only. Pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm year of planting, 2/3 during second year andare dug, allowed to weather for one month full dose from the third year onwards.and refilled with topsoil and 15-20 kg ofcompost or FYM to ground level. The Apply fertilizers in circular basins withplanting hole should be sufficient to hold the a radius of 25 cm during the first year.soil ball of the polybag. Tear off the polybags Gradually increase the radius of the basin tocarefully, place the soil ball with the 120 cm by the third year. Apply fertilizers inseedlings in the planting hole with minimum the entire area of 1.5 m radius around thedisturbance and press the soil around firmly. tree followed by forking in.Planting should coincide with the onset ofmonsoon, but in places where irrigation is Plants showing zinc deficiency symptomsresorted to, flexibility in the time of planting (narrowing of leaves, sickle leaf formation,is possible. green vein banding, chlorosis in the interveinal areas) should be sprayed with 0.5 to 1.5 perShaping of clonal plants derived from cent ZnSO4 three times a year.fan shoots After cultivation Budded plants from fan shoots havediffuse branching system and bushy growth During the first three or four years afterhabit. This type of growth causes difficulties planting, it is essential to keep the field freein carrying out cultural operations and from weeds. Maintenance and regulation ofharvesting. If a better shape of the plant is shade should be carried out promptly.desired, appropriate formation pruning may During the establishment phase of the cropbe necessary. This involves identification of particularly in summer, provide mulching witha chupon arising from a fan shoot, allowing it materials like chopped banana sheath,to grow and removing the original, lower coconut husk, cocoa husk etc. to conservefan-like shoots in stages. This, however, has moisture in conditions of direct insolation. Ato be done slowly as an early drastic pruning mature cocoa plantation should form a properwill inhibit growth. canopy, which will be dense enough to prevent weed growth. Operations such asManuring pruning and regulation of shade should be attended to in time. Apply N:P2O5:K2O in two equal splitdoses in April-May and September-October, Pruning and training@ 100:40: 140 g / tree / year. N:P2O5:K2Omay be applied @ 200:80:280 g / plant / year, Cocoa grows in a series of storeys, thein trees yielding more than 60 fruits per year. chupon or vertical growth of the seedlingDolomite @ 100 g / plant / year may be terminating at the jorquette from where fourapplied to plants from the third year onwards. to five fan branches develop. Further vertical growth is continued through a side chupon Under irrigated conditions, the yearly dose that arises from a point just below the jorquettemay be split into four and applied which again jorquettes after growing to someduring April-May, September-October, height. Left for it, the plant will grow to aDecember and February-March. height of 8-10 m repeating this process of jorquetting and chupon formation 3-5 times.

COCOA 151When cocoa is grown as an intercrop in number of chupons would arise below thecoconut and arecanut plantation, it is desir- point of snapping and this is triggered by theable to restrict the growth to one tier formed breakage of apical dominance and continuedat a convenient height preferably above the connection with the snapped canopy. Patchhead level of the workers. When jorquetting budding as described earlier may be done ontakes place at lower levels this can be raised three to four vigorous and healthy shootsby nipping off all the fan branches and using scions from high yielding, diseaseallowing one chupon to develop and grow resistant clones and the remaining chuponsfurther to jorquette at the desired height. Af- are removed. The polythene tape is removedter this is achieved, further vertical growth is three weeks after budding and the stockarrested through periodical removal of portion above the bud union is snapped back.chupons. The snapped portion is removed after two hardened leaves develop from the bud. When The intensity of pruning is to be decided sufficient shoots are hardened, canopy of theby the nature of growth of individual trees, mother tree can be completely removed.shade intensity, growth of the companion Because of the presence of an establishedcrops etc. In the early stages, pruning is done root system and the trunk with reserve food,to give a particular shape to the tree. After the top worked trees grow much faster andthe establishment of the trees in the garden, give prolific yield one year after theprune them to the extent of retaining only the operation. Though top working can be donerequired number of leaves (20-30 leaves per in all seasons, it is preferable to do it in rain-developing pod). Removal of secondary free period in irrigated gardens. For rainfedbranches from the centre should be restricted situations, it may preferably be done after theonly to those trees growing in excess shade. receipt of pre-monsoon showers.Irrigation Top worked trees start yielding heavily from the second year onwards. About 50 per Cocoa grows well as a rainfed crop cent improved yield is obtained in theunder conditions of well distributed rainfall second year and about 100 per cent improvedand irrigation is not necessary. If sufficient yield in the third year. Loss of crop for onemoisture is not present in the soil due to year during the operation is compensated byprolonged drought or failure of rains, bumper crop in the coming years. The mainirrigation is to be given once in five days. stem will continue to belong to the older plantIrrigation, however, helps in better growth of and fruits borne on this area belong to theplants and precocity in bearing. poor yielder. Better yields are however obtained from the fan branches of the highTop working yielding clone used for top working. This technique is useful to rejuvenate old Plant protectionand unproductive cocoa plants and also toconvert genetically poor yielders to high Pestsyielders. This consists of snapping back thedesired trees below the jorquette after Red borer (Zeuzera coffeae)cutting half way. The snapped canopycontinues to have contact with the trunk. A Larvae burrow into the main stem of young plants and fan shoots of older trees, causing drying up.

152 COCOAManagement quinalphos 0.05 per cent or phosalone 0.07 per cent. Prune off and burn affected fan shoots.Spray carbaryl 0.1 per cent on the main stems Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii)of young plants as a prophylactic measure. Colonies of pink aphids occur ventrally onStriped squirrel (Funambulus sp.) the leaves of chupon shoot. Tender shoots are also damaged. The squirrels gnaw the bronzing pods andextract the beans along with mucilaginous Managementpulp. Nip off the flaccid leaves along with theManagement shoots and destroy the colonies. Harvest the crop just when bronzing is Cockchafer beetle (Popillia sp. andvisible in the pod furrows. Mechanical Leucopholis sp.)protection of the pods can be ensured bycovering them with punched polybags (150 Grubs feed on the roots of freshly plantedgauge) smeared with bitumen-kerosene seedlings causing wilting. Apply carbarylmixture. 10 per cent DP at the rate of 10g pit around freshly planted seedlings.Rats (Rattus rattus) The pods are damaged by Helopeltis sp. Rats are serious pests in densely planted The pest can be controlled by sprayingcoconut gardens with cocoa as an intercrop. quinalphos 0.05 per cent.They inhabit the coconut palm crowns anddescend during night and cause damage to Diseasespods. Nature of damage is similar to thatcaused by squirrels. Seedling blight (Phytophthora palmivora)Management The symptoms develop on the leaves and stem of the seedlings or budded plants. On Baiting with anticoagulant rodenticides in leaves, small water-soaked lesions appearthe garden is recommended. Rain-proof which later coalesce resulting in thepreparations are to be used. Set up bamboo blightening of leaves. On stem, water-soakedtraps with bow attachment on the crown of linear lesions develop initially and later turnpalms. to black colour. Stem infection develops at any point on the stem causing the death ofMyllocerus weevils (Myllocerus viridanus) seedlings / budded plants. Adults skeletonise the foliage and this is Managementserious in young plants during July-Septem-ber. Spray undersurfaces of the foliage Remove and destroy severely affectedwith quinalphos 0.05 per cent. seedlings. Improve drainage and adjust shade. Spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture orMealy bugs (Planococcus citri and 0.2 per cent copper oxychloride or 0.3 perRastrococcus sp.) cent potassium phosphonate just before the onset of monsoon and thereafter at frequent The bugs occur in cherelles, developing intervals.pods and shoots and desap the tissues. Thiscan be controlled by spot application of

COCOA 153Phytophthora pod rot / black pod Colletotrichum pod rot (Colletotrichum(Phytophthora palmivora, gloeosporioides)P. citrophthora, P. capsici) The disease causes rotting of immature Fruits at all stages of maturity may be pods. Infection starts from the stalk-end ofattacked by P. palmivora. The first visible the pod and spreads towards tip as darksymptom is the appearance of a circular brown discolouration with a diffused yellowbrown spot, which enlarges concentrically, halo. Internal tissues of the pod also showand evenly to involve the whole pod surface. discolouration. The whole pod turns to blackUltimately the colour of the affected pod and remains on the tree in a mummified form.becomes dark brown or black. In immature Sometimes, infection may start from partspods, the discolouration spreads internally other than the stalk region as dark brownwith rotting of the beans. The beans in sunken lesion.mature pods may remain partly or whollyunaffected. ManagementManagement Remove all infected pods and spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent Periodically remove and destroy all dried copper oxychloride or mancozeb.up and infected pods. Spray 1 per centBordeaux mixture with adhesive (rosin Phytophthora cankerwashing soda preparation) with the onset of (Phytophthora palmivora)monsoon and also at frequent intervals.Provide proper drainage and regulate shade The earliest symptom is the appearanceto increase aeration. of greyish brown water-soaked lesion with dark brown to black margin anywhere on theLasiodiplodia pod rot / charcoal pod rot stem. A reddish brown liquid oozes out from(Lasiodiplodia theobromae) the lesions, which later dry up to form a rusty deposit. The internal tissues beneath the outer The disease occurs more frequently greyish brown lesion appear as reddishduring dry season. Pods of all stages are brown. The wood shows greyish brownaffected. The symptoms appear as pale discolouration with black streaks. Wiltingyellow spots from the stalk-end or tip of the occurs, when canker girdles the affectedpod. Later, the lesions enlarge and cover the stem / branches.entire pod having chocolate brown colour. Indue course, the whole pod develops a black Managementsooty appearance due to formation of sporesof the fungus. If the disease is detected early, remove and destroy the affected tissues completelyManagement and apply Bordeaux paste. Wilted branches should be cut and removed. Since canker Since the disease is more common on mainly develops from pod rot caused bypods of plants under stress, better manage- Phytophthora, proper control measures ofment practices will reduce the incidence of Phytophthora pod rot will help in reducingthe disease. Remove all affected pods and incidence of the disease.spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) The disease appears as a pinkish powdery coating on the stem of affected plants.

154 COCOAThe pink colour represents profuse conidial adherent fruiting body of the fungus. Theseproduction by the fungus. The fungal growth fruiting bodies have been found only on leafmay rapidly spread and girdle the stem, so scars and adjacent bark in the diseasedthat the distal parts are affected. The extent region of cocoa stems. If the diseased stemto which the leaf may wilt, turn brown and is split longitudinally, the xylem is found to befall depends on the part of the tree, which is discoloured by brown streaks.affected. The disease mainly affects theforking region and the damage is localized. ManagementSplitting of the bark on the affected region isalso noticed. Sometimes, the fungus produces Cut and remove all infected twigs. Prunepustules (Necator stage), which are orange off all affected branches 30 cm below thered in colour and are arranged in rows along last point of visible vascular streak of the stemthe stem. to prevent further spread within the plant. Grow VSD tolerant cocoa types.Management White thread blight (Marasmiellus Remove all the infected and dried scandens)branches. Apply Bordeaux paste at the forkregion and at the cut ends of the twigs and The white mycelial threads of the fungusspray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture spread longitudinally and irregularly along thebefore the onset of monsoon. Repeat spray- surface of the stem of young branches anding again once or twice during the monsoon enter the leaf along the petioles. On the leafseason according to the intensity of the lamina it spreads extensively and forms adisease. much branched system of fine threads. The affected leaves turn dark brown and suchVascular Streak Dieback (VSD) dead leaves eventually get detached from the(Oncobasidium theobromae) stem, but are found suspended by the mycelial thread. Extensive death of the young The first indication of the disease is the branches and suspended leaves in rows arecharacteristic chlorosis of one or two leaves the common field symptoms.on the second or third leaf behind the tip.Leaves on the tip show symptoms first only Managementin very young seedlings or in slow growingseedlings or branches. The chlorotic patches Remove and destroy the affected planton the diseased leaves develop into small parts. Avoid heavy shade. Spray 1per centsharply defined green spots scattered over a Bordeaux mixture.yellow background. Diseased leaves fallwithin a few days after turning yellow. HarvestingLeaves above and below the first diseasedleaf soon begin to show yellowing with green It takes about 170 days for a cocoa pod topatches and these also fall off finally result- develop from formation to maturity.ing in dieback of the infected branches. During the period from 70-140 days after pollination, the size of pods and their fat and Leaf scars from the fall of chlorotic leaves sugar content increase rapidly. Ripening takesare sometimes covered by a white, loosely about 25 days, during which, the pods change colour depending on the variety. Pods remain suitable for harvesting for fairly long time after they have ripened. Hence, it is possible to have harvest of sufficient number of pods

COCOA 155at a time by either delaying the harvest of Tray methodearly ripened pods or harvest of pods, whichare fully ripened. Harvesting should be done The best method suitable for smallat regular intervals rather than daily, once in quantities of beans is the tray fermentation.7-10 days. Avoid over ripening of pods. The Wooden trays, 10 cm deep with slatted / splitdiscards at the harvest can be left in the cane bottoms are divided into a number ofgarden either in the open during summer or sections by means of wooden partitions thatin pits at different sites in the rainy season, fit into appropriate grooves at requiredor they can be incorporated in the compost. distances. The capacity of the tray can bePod husks from the fermentary can also be adjusted depending upon the availability ofused similarly as a good source of organic beans by keeping the wooden plank in themanure. appropriate grooves. A convenient tray can be 25 cm wide and 60 cm long. Wet beans Pods are removed by cutting with a sickle- are filled in the tray and levelled. Aboutsharp knife, without damaging the cushion 10 kg of wet beans may be required to loadfrom which it is developed. After 2-3 days, one tray fully.they are split by banging them against somehard objects. Opening the pods with a knife A single tray of beans will not fermentdamages the beans. During the period bet- properly and at least four or five trays areween harvesting and splitting, pre-fermenta- needed for successful fermentation. Thetion activity inside the pod is hastened, which trays are stacked one over the other in suchimproves later fermentation. Beans from the a manner that the cocoa filled portions are insplit pods are scraped out with fingers. a single row one above the other. The topPortions of placenta broken, germinated, tray is covered with plantain leaves. Aftercaked, parthenocarpic and undeveloped 24 hours, a close fitting sack is put to coverbeans are removed. On an average, 10-12 the stack to keep the beans warm. Mixing orpods give 1 kg of wet beans and 3 kg of wet stirring of beans is not necessary andbeans (from 30-36 pods) give 1 kg of fermentation gets completed in 4 to 5 days,fermented and dried beans. whereas 6 to 7 days are required for other methods of fermentation.Fermentation Basket method During fermentation, the pulp or mucilagecovering the fresh beans is removed and In this method, bean lots ranging fromcharacteristic chocolate flavour is imparted 2-6 kg can be fermented successfully. Minito the final produce. The process is simple baskets may be made of bamboo matting,but must be carried out properly in order to closely woven and should have a diameterget beans of good quality. Heat is produced of 20 cm and height of 15 cm for a capacityby keeping the fresh beans compactly and of 2 kg. For slightly larger lots, proportion-this heat must be conserved so that chemical ately deeper baskets may be used (e.g., forchanges inside the bean can be completed. 6 kg, the depth may be about 40 cm). TheThe four methods of fermentation usually baskets are lined with one or two layers ofemployed involve the use of baskets, heaps,boxes and trays for filling up the wet beans.

156 COCOAtorn banana leaves to facilitate drainage of Sun drying can be done in thin layers 2-3 cmsweatings. Wet beans are then filled, deep and stirring from time to time. Undercompacted and covered with banana leaves. normal sunny weather, drying can beThe baskets are placed on a raised platform completed in four to five days. While dryingto allow the flow of drippings. After 24 hours, in mechanical driers, care must be takenit is covered with gunny-sack and apply to avoid exposure of the beans to smoke,weight (bricks). The beans are to be taken fumes etc. The most common method ofout and stirred well 48 hours and 96 hours determining bean dryness is to take a sampleafter the initial setting. Fermentation will be and compress this in the palm of the handcompleted in six days and the beans can be and listen for the characteristic sound, whichtaken for drying on the seventh day. is associated with correctly dried cocoa. The more scientific method is to use a moisture A number of factors influence the meter.duration of fermentation. Weather changesand season are important through their Storageinfluence on temperature and atmosphericmoisture. Ripening also affects fermentation. The dried beans with moisture content ofBeans from unripe pods cannot be 6-8 per cent may be packed in polythene bagsfermented. Beans of Criollo ferment more or polythene lined gunny bags. Some specialquickly than those of Forastero. During the conditions have to be provided in storage inearly stages of fermentation, heat is produced order to maintain the quality of the curedby the action of anaerobic microorganisms. beans. Properly dried beans can be kept inThe beans are killed by the combined effect 200-300 gauge polythene covers if only smallof heat and acetic acid and the cocoa aroma quantities are involved or in polythene linedand flavour potential are developed. gunny bags in the case of larger stocks. Beans should be cleaned of flat, broken andJudging the end point of fermentation other defective beans before storing. The store should be sufficiently ventilated and the Well-fermented beans will be plumpy and bags should be kept on a wooden platformfilled with a reddish brown exudate. The testa with air space of about 15-20 cm below thebecomes loosened from the cotyledons. wooden planks set over the floor. TheWhen cut open, the cotyledons will have a humidity should not exceed 80 per cent so asbleached appearance in the centre with a to prevent mould development and pestbrownish ring in the periphery. When above incidence in the beans. Before storing50 per cent of beans in a lot show the above cocoa, the store can be made clean andsigns, it can be considered as properly insect free by application of pesticides wellfermented. in advance, but pesticides should neither be applied nor be kept with the beans inside theDrying store. As cocoa beans can absorb and retain permanently any odour from its surroundings, On completion of fermentation, beans are other food-stuffs should not be kept withdried either in the sun or by artificial means. cocoa. So also, smoke or kerosene fumes should be prevented from entry.

COFFEE 157 COFFEE (Coffea spp.) The soil and climatic requirements for The pits after digging will be kept openArabica and Robusta varieties are as follows: for weathering for a couple of months until monsoon. In June, the pits are covered withArabica top soil and staked. In poor soils, 250 g of FYM or compost per pit may be addedElevation : 1000-1500 m above MSL before filling.Annual rainfall : 1600-2500 mm Planting materialsBlossom rain : March-April (2.5-4.0 cm) Old arabica varieties like Kents and Coorgs are more susceptible to the leaf rustBacking rain : April-May (5-7.5 cm) disease (Hemileia vastatrix). Arabica selec- tions of tall, medium and dwarf habit areShade : Medium to light grown on large scale because of their proven performance in yield and comparativelyTemperature : 15-25ºC better resistance to leaf rust disease. In dwarfs, San Ramon (S 7, 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3)RH : 70-80 per cent and in medium size bushes, Cauvery (Catimor) are the popular varieties. Some of the arabicaRobusta selections like Sln 5, 6 and 7 are location specific while S.795 (tall) is adapted to allElevation : 500-1000 m above MSL areas. All the arabica selections either have vertical resistance to commonly occurringAnnual rainfall : 1000-2000 mm races of H. vastatrix or both horizontal and vertical resistance as in Sln.5 and 9. RobustasBlossom rain : Feb-March (2.0-4.0 cm) are not infested either with leaf rust disease or the white stem borer pest, which are moreBacking rain : April-May (5-7.5 cm) on record in arabica. However, mealy bug incidence will be more in robusta.Shade : Uniform thin PropagationTemperature : 20-30ºC In coffee, generally the propagation isRH : 80-90 per cent done through seeds and of late in robusta, the clonal propagation was also established In both cases, soil should be deep, friable, to be successful. To a limited extent, graftedand rich in organic matter with a pH of plants are also being planted.6.0-6.5. From the selected and certified seedPreparation of land blocks, healthy and fully matured fruits of normal appearance with three quarters of If it is a jungle, only selective felling of ripening are harvested selectively from thetrees is done maintaining the trees, which aredesirable at appropriate spacing. The undergrowth may be cleared to enable linemarking with a base line and opening of pits.The entire plot may be conveniently dividedinto blocks with roads and footpaths. In April, pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cmmay be opened at appropriate spacing fordifferent coffee cultivars as described below.Tall arabica like S 795, S 288 : 2.1 m x 2.1 mSemi-dwarfs like Cauvery : 1.8 m x 1.8 mDwarfs like S 7 (San Ramon): 1.5 m x 1.5 mHybrids like Congensis xRobusta (CxR) : 2.5 m x 2.5 mRobusta selections like : 3.0 m x 3.0 mS 274, BR series

158 COFFEEmarked plants during November-December 6 parts of sieved jungle soil, 2 parts of wellin the case of arabicas and in January- rotten sieved cattle manure and 1 part of fineFebruary in robustas. Discarding the floats, sand. The prepared mixture is thoroughlythe sound fruits are pulped and sieved to mixed and slightly moistened with water toremove the defective beans. The beans are facilitate packing. The soil is filled into thethen mixed with wood ash @ 0.75 kg per kg nursery baskets and pressed firm. Nurseryof seeds and dried under shade stirring from baskets are arranged conveniently in rowstime to time to facilitate uniform drying. of 10 within a rectangular frame withTo protect the seeds against any microbial bamboo reapers. These frames are held ininfection, the seeds are treated with positions with bamboo or wooden propseither carbendazim @ 1 g or with vitavax driven into the ground at suitable distance.@ 0.66 g per kg of seed coffee. Coffee seedlings at the button stage areSowing transplanted into nursery baskets. The seed- lings are gently lifted from the germination Germination bed (primary): Seeds are beds with minimum injury to roots. Prior tosown in raised seed beds (15 cm above the transplanting, the nursery basket is wateredground level) provided with proper drainage and a vertical hole of 5 cm deep is made inprepared out of soil, compost and sand at 6:2:1 the soil at the centre of the basket. At theproportion. A bed of 4 m x 3 m will be time of transplanting it is preferable to slightlysufficient for 1.5 kg of seeds, if sown 1.0 to nip off the taproot of the seedling. The1.5 cm apart in rows, with the flat side of the taproot and the feeder roots should be soseed towards the soil. A thin layer of soil is disposed as to enable the plant to strike rootsspread after sowing and covered with dry and make firm growth as quickly as possible.straw to a thickness of about 5 cm to ensure The shoot portion of the transplanteduniform temperature and to regulate seedling should be at the same height abovemoisture retention. Sowing is to be taken up soil level as it was in the germination bed.in December-January for arabica and in Transplanting is done preferably in the earlyFebruary-March for Robusta. Watering of the morning hours or late in the afternoon.seed beds is to be done twice a day in the Seedlings uprooted from the primary bedinitial week and thereafter regulated. The should not be stored for a long time butseeds sprout in about 40 days when the straw transplanted immediately.mulch is removed. The primary beds areprovided with pandal covered with coir mats Regular watering and aftercare of theor dry leaves. seedlings should follow. Excess moisture and watering in the afternoon should be avoided Polybag (basket) nursery: Seedlings from as it may induce damping off.germination beds are transplanted topolythene bags in February-March when Secondary nursery bedsthey are at the ‘button’ stage. Polythene bagsof 23 cm x 15 cm and 150 gauge thickness In some areas, seedlings from the germi-with adequate number of holes of 3 mm in nation beds are transplanted to secondarythe bottom half of the bag are preferred. The nursery beds of the same soil composition asbags are filled with prepared mixture of that of germination beds. Transplanting is

COFFEE 159done at button stage. Seedlings are planted and commencement of northeast rains, i.e.,30 cm apart. If the taproot is bent or in September. First the bottom portion of theexcessively grown, it is nipped off while trans- bag is cut and the tip of the root is nipped.planting. The beds are mulched and watered The seedling is gently removed from the bagat regular intervals. Watering should be done with its soil and root system intact and plantedduring the early morning hours. in the hole. The hole is covered with soil and the plant is firmly fixed similar to ball plants.Aftercare of seedlings It is wise to maintain both types of nurseries and have planting seasons, June and Seedlings are to be manured once in two September.months with urea dissolved in water orsupernatant solution of fermented cowdung Planting shade treesslurry. For an area of 1 m2, 20 g ureadissolved in 4.5 litres water is sufficient. Dadap is commonly used as a lowerAdequate protection is given against canopy shade. Stakes of 2 m length arenursery diseases and pests. Overhead shade planted for every two plants of coffee.in the nursery has to be thinned and finally Silver oak and dadap are planted during Juneremoved after the onset of monsoon (this is when the southwest monsoon commences.not applicable to northeastern areas). The During the dry seasons, stems of young dadapseedlings grow vigorously if watered are either painted with dilute limejudiciously and protected against afternoon solution or wrapped in agave leaves tosun. protect them from sun scorch.Planting in field Clonal propagation Disease free and vigorous seedlings are In the case of robusta, which is highlyselected for planting. Seedlings with stunted cross pollinated clonal propagation is moreand twisted roots are discarded. Rooted adaptable. In the case of arabica, theplants (aged 16-18 months) with and stabilization of desirable characters in thewithout ball are planted during June and bag selected plants could be easily maintained byplants are generally planted during adopting clonal or vegetative propagationSeptember-October. A hole is made at the method. The vertical (orthotropic) shoots arecentre of the pit after levelling the soil. The marked after harvest is over in any selectedseedling is placed in the hole with its taproot plant. Single node green wood (semi-and lateral roots spread out in proper posi- hardwood) cutting of 10 cm length and threetion. The hole is then filled. The soil around to six months old are planted in polythenethe seedling is packed 3 cm high above the bags with the medium of jungle soil, sand andground to prevent stagnation of water around cattle manure in the proportion of 6:3:1. Thethe collar. The seedlings are provided with bags with cuttings are arranged in across stakes to prevent wind damage and propagation chamber made of a trench of sizemulched properly. 2 m x 1 m x 0.5 m covered over with a thick polythene sheet (500 gauge) spread over a Ball and bag seedlings are planted framework of bamboos.towards the end of the heavy monsoon rains

160 COFFEE A trench could accommodate about 108 seedlings should be mulched properly andfilled up bags of size 22 cm x 15 cm. shade has to be provided to individualPreplanting treatment of the base of cutting seedlings to protect against direct sun.with IBA (indole butyric acid) at 5000 ppmenhances early rooting. Under South Indian Training and pruningconditions, cuttings collected during June-Julyrecorded the highest per cent of rooting. The plant is trained either on single stemCuttings will root in 3-4 months after plant- or multiple stem system. Under South Indianing. Rooted cuttings should be hardened by conditions periodical handling and pruning arekeeping them under shade for about two essential. The type and frequency of pruningmonths and then can be transplanted into the have to be decided based on a number offield. factors like the type of vegetative growth, incidence of pests / diseases, pattern ofManuring blossom showers etc. Centering and desuckering are to be carried out for about The recommended doses of fertilizers for 5 or 6 years after planting. Removal of thecoffee (kg ha-1) are furnished in Table 24. dead and whippy wood is essential during the early years. Mature plants may requireAftercultivation medium to severe pruning once in four years. Grass and other weeds should be Usually coffee, both arabica and robusta,eradicated in the first year itself by digging is trained on single stem. When the plantsor using appropriate weedicide depending on reach a desired height of 75 cm for arabicathe nature of the weeds. The soil around the Table 24. Fertilizer recommendation for coffee (N:P2O:K2O, kg ha-1) Time of application Pre- Post-blossom Mid- Post blossom pre-monsoon monsoon monsoon (March) (August) (October) (May) Arabica1st year 15:10:15 15:10:15 15:10:152nd and 3rd year 20:15:20 20:15:20 20:15:204th year 30:20:30 20:20:20 30:20:30Bearing coffee 5 years and 40:30:40 40:30:40 20:0:0 40:30:40above: for less than 1 t ha-1 cropFor 1 t ha-1 and above 40:30:40 40:30:40 40:30:40 40:30:40 RobustaFor less than 1 t ha-1 crop 40:30:40 40:30:40For 1 t ha-1 and above 40:30:40 40:30:40 40:30:40

COFFEE 161and 105-120 cm for robusta, they are topped Fruit dropi.e., growing apex of the stem is severed. Lowtopping (60-70 cm) is advocated in areas of During the developmental stage of berry,severe wind and exposure. Under certain 10 to 50 per cent premature fruit dropcircumstances, multiple stem system is also occurs due to insufficient carbohydrate,adopted as in the case of replanted fields or auxin-carbohydrate imbalance, nutritionalwhen under-planting is taken up keeping the disorders and waterlogging. Many growthold plants under multiple stem system. regulators have been tried to increase the fruit set and for controlling the pre-mature fruitIrrigation drop. Following growth regulators could increase the yield when they are given as Wherever water is available, overhead foliar application 10-15 days after blossomirrigation by sprinkler system is adopted to a (first spray) and during last week of Maygreater advantage during November- before the onset of southwest monsoonJanuary to keep the soil moisture level and in (second spray)February-April for ensuring blossom as wellas backing, if necessary. Growth In 200 ml Dose/ha regulators of water (for 1.5 l)Drought management in coffee Planofix 50 ml 375 ml Plants affected by drought limit vegeta- Hormonol 50 ml 375 mltive growth, show floral abnormalities and Agrona 50 ml 375 mlpoor fruit set resulting in reduced yield. Miraculan 50 ml 375 mlTherefore, drought tolerance is an important Atonik 50 ml 375 mlaspect of coffee productivity. Arabica Cytozyme crop 60 ml 450 mlcoffee is more tolerant to drought than Ascorbic acid 20 g 150 grobusta. For inducing tolerance in robusta thefollowing nutrient solution can be sprayed @ Fruit ripening1 litre per plant.Nutrient in 200 litres of water Hastening of fruit ripening in coffee could be achieved by spraying ethephon (Ethrel)Urea 1 kg on mature berries when 10 per cent naturalSuper phosphate 1 kg ripening is observed. By this, ripening can beMuriate of potash 750 g hastened by 2-4 weeks and in two roundsZinc sulphate 1 kg about 96 per cent ripe fruits could be harvested. The following concentrations areSpraying schedule standardized for arabica and robusta plants.1st spray: 45 days after the last rainfall Arabica : 100 to 120 ml per 200 litres of(usually the 2nd fortnight of January) water per 400 plants2nd spray: 30-45 days after the first spray Robusta : 40 to 54 ml per 200 litres of water per 267 plants Foliar application of anti-transpirants likeRalli Dhan 110 @ 200 ml in 200 litres of water Lower concentrations are to be used in(0.1per cent) is also useful for drought lower elevations and thin shaded places,management in coffee.

162 COFFEEwhereas higher concentrations are to be used small pale yellowish spots appear earlyin higher elevation and thick shaded after the first rains in the season. These spotsplantations. soon increase in size and number, and many such spots coalesce at severity causingDieback premature defoliation. Severe defoliation leads to debilitation of the bushes and results Dieback refers to death of younger in poor cropping in the succeeding seasons.tertiary branches starting from apex progress-ing downwards as well as dieback from Managementbelow the tip of branches and proceedingforward and backward from the point of Spray susceptible coffee with 0.5 per centdefoliation. The occurrence of dieback is Bordeaux mixture or 0.03 per cent aimainly due to adverse climatic and edaphic Oxycarboxin 20 EC 3-4 times a year:factors such as higher temperature, higher Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in February-light intensity and low moisture status of soil. March as pre- or post-blossom spray, Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai in May-Management June as pre-monsoon spray, Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.51. Removal of dead and whippy wood per cent in July-August in mid-monsoon spray (if incidence of leaf rust is severe), and2. Providing judicious shade by both Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai or temporary and permanent shade trees as Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in Septem- 70 per cent of daylight is found to be ber-October as post-monsoon spray. optimum Black rot (Koleroga noxia)3. Conservation of soil moisture with thick mulch A disease more in occurrence in endemic areas with heavy rainfall, saturated4. Foliar application of nutrients atmosphere with 95-100 per cent RH, thick overhead shade, low over-hanging branches,5. Correcting the soil acidity by application sheltered from sunlight and wind in valleys of lime or continuous mist during monsoon. The affected bushes have blackening and rottingShade and shade management of leaves, twigs and developing berries. There will be defoliation and berry drop in the Dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is affected branches. The entire block affectedgenerally used as a lower canopy in India. It looks totally debilitated with heavy damage tois always planted along with coffee in new crop.clearings. When stakes are planted in Junethey grow quickly since sufficient moisture Managementwill be there in the soil. In areas where theestablishment of dadap is difficult due to poor Centering and handling of the bushes priorrooting, application of rooting hormones and to the onset of monsoon and protectingmanuring have been found useful. endemic patches with spraying Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent. If incidence is observedDiseases during the monsoon, remove the affected twigs and burn them. Spray with BordeauxLeaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix) mixture 1per cent during break in the monsoon. This is an important disease causingeconomic loss particularly in arabica coffee.On the lower surface of the infected leaves,

COFFEE 163Pests incidence) in April-May or October to December. Apart from this, it is necessaryCoffee berry borer to build up good shade and regularly trace,(Hypothenemus hampei) uproot stump and burn the infested plants. Storing of cut stems is not advisable, as it Coffee berry borer is the most serious pest will advance the flight period.of coffee world over. The female beetlebores into the berries through the navel Shot hole borer (Xylosandrus compactus)region and makes tunnels in the hard beanand lays about 15 eggs. The larvae feed on This is a major pest in robusta coffeethe beans, making small tunnels. A typical affecting the secondary and tertiary branchespinhole at the tip of the berries indicates the causing considerable damage. Injury to thepresence of the pest, and it damages young coffee plants is primarily by the extensive tun-as well as ripe berries. In case of severe neling within the branches, which limits theinfestation, 30 to 80 per cent berries may be flow of sap. The affected branches dry up.affected resulting in heavy crop loss. The The presence of withering and dead branchescoffee berry borer can be controlled by the with shot holes is the symptom of attack.following methods. ManagementManagement 1. Prune the affected twigs 5-8 cm beyond Timely and complete harvest, collection the shot hole and burn. This operationof gleanings, burying the infested berries and should commence from Septembermaintaining optimum shade and good onwards, as soon as the first symptom ofdrainage can control the pest. attack like dropping of leaves is noticed, and continued as a routine measure at Spraying quinalphos 0.05 per cent along regular intervals.with wetting agent 120-150 days afterflowering (Aug-Sept. for arabica and 2. The pest prefers to breed in the suckersSept-Oct. for robusta) can control the pest. during dry period. So remove and destroy all the unwanted/infested suckers duringWhite stem borer summer.(Xylotrechus quadripes) Mealy bugs (Planococcus sp.) The adults have two flight periods as theyemerge from the pupae during April-May and Mealy bugs damage coffee plants byin September to December/January. As the sucking the sap from the tender branches,beetles are active and females lay eggs in nodes, leaves, spikes, berries and rootsthe crevices on the main stem of coffee, leading to the debilitation of the plant. In casemajor efforts to control initial laying of eggs of root infestation, plants (especially young)itself is aimed at by swabbing the main stem become weak, leading to death.and the thick primaries with carbaryl 50 WP@ 4 kg in 200 litres of water once or twice Management(depending upon the severity of the The mealy bug can be controlled by spraying quinalphos. In addition, the

164 COFFEE AND TEAbiological control agents like Cryptolaemus Managementmontrouzieri (ladybird beetle) and theparasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii have been The chemical control measures includefound effective. Indirect control of the spraying the affected patches with any onedisease can be made by controlling the ants, of the following insecticides viz. cythionwhich spread the infestation. 50 EC @ 200 ml, quinalphos 25 EC @ 120 ml or dimethoate 30 EC @ 170 ml.Green scale (Coccus viridis) (Source: Central Coffee Research Institute, The green scale is a serious sucking pest Balehonnur, Chikmangalur Dt., Karnataka).of coffee particularly arabica.TEA (Camellia sinensis) Tea grows best in areas with a maximum Stock solution Dissolve 30 g of thetemperature of 16-32 ºC and a well distri- mixture in 10 litres of water. This can be sprayedbuted rainfall of about 150 cm per annum. over 2 m2 (450 plants) at weekly interval.Relative humidity should be around 80 percent most of the time and should never be Field preparationless than 40 per cent. The area should notbe prone to frost. The soil should be acidic In the case of new planting, in order to(around pH 5.0) having good drainage facility. avoid the incidence of root diseases, after felling the trees, remove the root system toVarieties the extent possible. Clear the jungle growth but do not burn, the ash being alkaline will Clones: UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9, increase the pH.UPASI-17, TRI-2025, TRF-1 In the case of replanting, remove oldSeedlings: BSS-1, BSS-2 Grevillea (silver oak) after ring barking, leav- ing the young ones in the field. Level the landPropagation into an even slope to facilitate easy cultural operations and proper drainage. The seed viability extends up to 6 months.Before sowing, seeds are put in water and Style of plantingonly the sinkers will be used and floaters re-jected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and Up and down :1.2 m x 1.2 mthe cracked seeds are transplanted in (6800 plants/ha)polythene sleeves. The plants will be readyfor planting in the main field in 9 months. Contour planting, single hedge:1.2 m x 0.75 m (10,800 plants/ha)Manuring of nursery plants Contour planting, double hedge: 1.35 m x Composition of tea nursery mixture is as 0.75 m x 0.75 mfollows: (13200 plants/ha)Ammonium phosphate (20:20) 60 parts The double hedge planting will accommo-Potassium sulphate 24 parts date more number of plants per unit area.(or) Muriate of potash 20 parts Early high yield, better soil conservation, lessMagnesium sulphate 16 parts

TEA 165weed growth, efficient cultural practices and Apply phosphorus at 90 kg ha-1 every yearbetter supervision are other advantages of in one application. The quantity of fertilizerdouble hedge planting. per bush may be calculated assuming a population of 13,000 per ha.Pitting Rates of application for soils with pH Pits of size 30 cm x 45 cm are taken. between 4.5 and 5.5 are as follows:Keep the top and bottom soil separately. Inclayey soil and drought-prone areas, deeper Age N:K2O No. ofpits (60 cm) or trench planting will be kg/ha/annum splitsadvantageous. 1st year 2nd year 180:270 5Planting seasons 3rd year 6 4th year & above 240:360 6 Southwest monsoon areas: June-July 6Northeast monsoon areas: September- 340:450October 300:300Planting Apply phosphorus at 90 kg/ha every year in one application. If the soil pH is more than 5.5, apply100 g of powdered aluminium sulphate per Rates of application for soils with pHpit and thoroughly mix with soil. Select above 5.5 are as follows (use water soluble P):seedlings of 12 months old. After planting theseedling, compact the soil surrounding the Age N:P2O5:K2O No. ofplant and apply mulch @ 25 t ha-1. While kg/ha/annum splitsmulching care should be taken to keep themulch material away from the collar region 1st year 180:60:180 5of the plant by putting a peg above the plant 240:80:240 6on the slope. Wherever mulch material is a 2nd year 300:100:300 6problem, intercrop or cover crop could be raised. 3rd year onwardsManuring up to 1st pruning Manuring of young tea commences The rate of fertilizer application fortwo months after planting. The ratio and mature tea varies with yield and soil testsource of nutrients vary according to soil values while the N:K2O ratio varies with thereaction (pH). stage of pruning. Rates of fertilizer application for young Method of applicationtea in soils with pH below 4.5 are givenbelow: Apply the recommended quantity of mixtures along the drip circle of plants. In Age N:K2O:MgO No. of the semi-circular furrow taken above the kg/ha/annum splits plant on the slope, using a Kokra-eyebrow method, apply the fertilizers when there is1st year 180:270:30 5 adequate soil moisture and when the fields are free from weeds. Punch holes of2nd year 240:360:40 6 15-22 cm depth in the soil on either side of the plants and place the rock phosphate.3rd year 300:450:50 64th year & above 300:300:50 6

166 TEATraining of young tea convenient length using sandy loam soil with a pH around 6.0. Seed should be covered Proper training of young tea is essential with thin layer of sand / ash. Germinationto encourage good spread of the bushes, takes place in 2-3 weeks. Use 6-9 month oldproper development of frames and high seedlings for planting. Plant along tea rowsdensity of plucking points. at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m (275 plants/ha). Apply a mixture of 100 g rock phosphate andCentering 400 g dolomite per pit and thoroughly mix with soil prior to planting. Apply NK mixture @ Cut the leader stem of the plants with 100 g/tree twice in a year; rock phosphate atsecateur to arrest the apical dominance and 250 g/tree and borated lime 1.1 kg (1 kgto induce the secondary branches. Cut as low dolomite + 100 g boric acid) during alternateas possible leaving 8-10 mature leaves years.below the cut. Ensure proper recovery.Centering should be done 4-6 months after Shade regulationplanting during humid weather when there isadequate moisture in the soil. Tea requires only sparse shade. So retain optimum stand of shade based on the growthTipping of the tree, altitude of the garden and aspect of the field (south and west slopes require First plucking of the periodic shoot is done more shade). Thin out shade initially to 12 m xafter centering / pruning. Two-tier tipping 6 m after 8-10 years of planting and ifensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm required further thinning may be done toheight will induce the tertiaries. Second 12 m x 12 m at later stages (12 yearstipping at 50 cm height will increase the from planting). Always thin out shade priordensity of plucking points. Tipping should be to pruning.done at green, semi-hardwood branches.Tipping should be done in shoots having 3-4 Pollardingleaves and a bud. Cutting the main stem with the objectivePlucking of developing lateral branches is pollarding. Commence pollarding when the trees attain Mother leaf / step-up plucking is a girth of around 50 cm at elbow level.practiced during lean seasons. Level Pollarding depends on altitude (8 m heightplucking is done during high cropping months. for higher altitude, 9 m for low elevation).This is essential for better frame development. Leave one branch in each direction and 3 to four tiers of branches, below the pollardingShade management height. The best permanent shade tree for tea Annual loppingplantation in South India is silver oak(Grevillea robusta). Cutting the erect growing branches on the laterals is lopping, which should be donePlanting of silver oak before the onset of monsoon and lop only the erect branches and retain the laterals. The silver oak can be propagated throughseeds. The seeds should be sown withinsix months after collection. Seed should besown in raised beds of 1 m width and of

TEA 167Shade removal Post-pruning care Potential age of Grevillea is 40-60 years. Apply copper oxychloride or sulphur+Remove old trees after establishing new linseed oil (1:1) to large cut-ends aftershade. rejuvenation and hard pruning.Temporary shade Plant protection For frost prone areas: Acacia mearnsii Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)For mid elevations: Indigofera teysmaniiFor higher altitude: Sesbania cinerescens, These microscopic worms infest roots,Crotalaria agathiflora and Acacia elata which develop to knots or galls. Affected roots become defunct and devoid of lateral Planting at 3 m x 3 m spacing is adopted. roots. Plants exhibit chlorosis and stuntedTemporary shade should be removed after growth.establishment of Grevilliea after 3 years. ManagementPlucking NurseryTen commandments for plucking Heat treatment: Spread soil sand mixture 1. Harvest two to three leaves and a bud (5 cm thick) on a G.I. sheet. Heat it from and / single and two-leaf banjis. below. Sprinkle water periodically. Mix the soil thoroughly by turning. Optimum 2. Pluck the mother leaf during January- temperature is 60-65ºC. Soil should not be March. too hot to hold in the hand. Over heating of soil will lead to manganese toxicity. 3. Pluck the new level during rest of the month. Mature tea 4. Pluck at 7-10 days interval during high Neem cake 2 kg per bush is recom- cropping months. mended. 5. Pluck at 12-15 days interval during low White/cockchafer grubs (Holotrichia sp.) cropping months. The creamy white grub eats away the 6. Removal of banjis and breaking-back roots. The main symptoms are ring barking should be a part of plucking operation. of stem, chlorosis and defoliation. The pest is a serious problem in areas where 7. Do not pluck below the level. un-decomposed farmyard manure is used. 8. Leave immature shoots. Management 9. Shear-harvest during rush periods. Nursery: Heat treatment of soil is effective.10. Cut lanes in older fields. New clearing : Drench chlorpyriphos or quinal-Pruning Season Height phos 0.05 per cent. Type of pruning Rejuvenation April/May <30 cm (1) At the time of planting: 500 ml per pit. Hard pruning Medium pruning April/May 30-45 cm (2) Post-planting treatment: Loosen the soil Light pruning around the bush and pour one litre per Aug/Sept 45-60 cm bush.Skiffing Aug/Sept 60-65 cm October >65 cm

168 TEARoot mealy bug (Dysmicoccus sp.) countries. Feeding causes lacerations of tissue and appears as streaks. Leaf surface The pest is a problem in the nursery. It becomes uneven, curled and matty. Feedingsucks sap from the callusing region, mother marks in bud appear as parallel lines onleaf petiole and axillary buds. This arrests root either side of mid-rib when leaf unfolds. Leafdevelopment; leads to mother-leaf fall and margins turn yellow.finally death of plant.It can be controlled byspraying and soil drenching with Managementchlorpyriphos or quinalphos 0.05 per cent. Phosalone, quinalphos and dimethoate canStem borers be used for the pest control.Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae) Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora) Mostly seen in new clearings as batches. Adults and nymphs suck the sap fromYoung stems are bored and larvae tunnel buds, young leaves and tender stems. Due todownward, make holes at intervals to eject intensive feeding, leaves curl up, badlyexcreta and wood particles. Frass and deform and shoots dry up. Chemical controlexcreta are seen around plants. Alternate host involves spraying quinalphos + dichlorvos atof the pest is coffee and cocoa. spray intervals depending on the intensity of incidenceLarge hepialid borer(Sahyadrassus malabaricus) Root diseases This is a polyphagous pest attacking teak, Black root disease (Rosellinia arcuata)eucalyptus and lantana. Thick branches(3 cm diameter) are preferred by the pest. Common in areas, which were previouslyCallus tissue and wood form food for under jungles. The common symptoms arelarvae. Entrance holes are covered with frassy wilting, chlorosis, drying without defoliationmat formed with chewed wood and silk. and death of bush.Management Management Cut the affected stem and pour quinalphos Remove surface mulches around 10using ink filler. The holes are plugged with metres. Drench soil with mancozeb 30 g perclay paste. 10 litres of water. Follow phytosanitary measures. Biocontrol agents Trichoderma orMites Gliocladium (200 g per pit) may be incorpo- rated at the time of planting. Several species of mites attack tea plants.They are dry weather pests mostly attacking Other root diseases are red root diseasemature foliage except pink and yellow mites. (Poria hypolateritia), brown root disease (Fomes noxius), root splitting diseaseManagement (Armillaria mellea) and xylaria root disease (Xylaria sp.). Phytosanitary measures, use If infestation is more, quinalphos will be of biocontrol agents and chemical controleffective. (drench soil with tridemorph or hexaconazole 0.5 per cent) are recommended.Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus) This is a major pest in all tea growing

TEA AND TOBACCO 169Stem diseases (Hypo-xylon serpens) and dieback (Leptothyrium theae).Collar canker (Phomopsis theae) Leaf disease Seen mostly on young tea. The pathogeninvades stem mostly through open Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans)wound. The predisposing factors for thedisease are deep planting, planting in The fungus affects only tender leaves andgravelly soils, mulching closer to collar, stems (pluckable shoots). Translucent spotswounds caused by weeding implements, occur in three to ten days and well devel-fertilizer application close to collar, pegging, oped lesions are seen in two weeks. Lesionslow moisture status in bark and surface are sunken on the upper surface and convexwatering during dry weather. The main at lower surface. Affected leaves aresymptoms are chlorosis, cessation of growth, distorted and irregularly rolled. Stemprofuse flowering and canker on stem. infection leads to goose-neck shape, dieback and snapping at the point of infection.Management Management Remove affected portion by pruning thehealthy wood and apply copper fungicide to Copper oxychloride 350 g + plantomycincut ends. 70 g per ha at 3 to 4 days interval can control the disease. Other stem diseases are branchcanker (Macrophoma theicola),woodrot (Source: UPASI Tea Research Foundation, Coonoor) TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum) Tobacco is generally raised as a cold be mixed with fine sand or ash @ 1:15 byweather crop, the optimum temperature weight and broadcasted. It is covered byrange being 18 to 27ºC. The crop prefers raking or by brushing. Watering may be donewell-drained fertile soil. Acidic soils are also using rose-can. It is desirable to apply 1 kgsuitable. It is sensitive to waterlogging. of ammonium sulphate per 100 m2 of nursery in liquid form and the application isSeason: repeated at tri-weekly intervals. Seedlings will be kept in the nursery for about 8-10 weeks. October-February Pandal may be provided for shade.Seeds and sowing Main field planting Raised nursery beds of 1 m width and of Seedlings are transplanted on flat beds.convenient length should be prepared for The nursery is irrigated well a day beforeraising seedlings. The beds should be planting to facilitate easy pulling out of themanured with well rotten FYM @ 1 kg/m2. seedlings. Seedlings are planted 10-15 cmAbout 75 g seeds sown over an area of deep in the main field at a spacing of100 m2 will give the required number of 85 cm x 85 cm.seedlings for planting one hectare. Seeds may

170 TOBACCOManuring Plant protection Cattle manure @ 5-10 t ha-1 for cigarette Important pests and diseases of tobaccotobacco and 50-60 t ha-1 for hookah tobacco and their control measures are given below:may be applied as basal dose. Applyfertilizers (kg ha-1) as shown below: Stem borer (Phthorimoea spp.)Tobacco N P2O5 K2O 1. Use healthy seedlings for planting. 50 100 2. Spray the nursery with carbaryl 0.2 perCigarette tobacco 100 50 100 50 100 centCigar tobacco 75 50 100 50 100 Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)Beedi tobacco 100 1. Destroy egg masses and groups ofCheroot tobacco 50 caterpillars found on the leaves.Chewing tobacco 75-100 2. Prevent oviposition on nursery plants by covering the beds at night with gunnyAftercultivation sheets. The first intercultivation may be done 3. Spray carbaryl 0.2 per cent12-15 days after transplanting. Thereafter,three hoeings are to be given at fortnightly Bacterial wiltintervals. Keep the field free of weeds.Irrigate as and when necessary. 1. Use resistant / tolerant varieties. 2. Rotate with resistant crops.Topping and de-suckering 3. Do not let in irrigation water or drainage Remove the terminal bud at the time of water from infested fields.flowering. In the case of chewing tobacco, 4. Discard all seedlings from infestedthe number of leaves to be maintainedvaries from 8-15. Remove the suckers as and nursery.when produced. Damping offHarvesting 1. Drench the nursery bed with cheshunt Harvesting is done either by removing the compound solution 3-4 days beforemature leaves or by cutting the stalk when sowing.maximum leaves are matured. The harvestedleaves are cured for the purpose for which 2. Spray the seedlings with mancozeb orthe produce is meant. zineb 0.3 per cent. Powdery mildew Dust sulphur at 45 kg ha-1. Before dust- ing mix sulphur with sand or ash.

AMARANTH AND OKRA 171 VEGETABLES Under this Chapter, package of practices with the help of non-chemical insecticidesfor amaranth, okra, cucurbitaceous vegetables, and tips for vegetable seed production aresolanaceous vegetables, cool season vegetables also given under seperate titles. Certainand minor vegetables are furnished.A seperate recommendations given under the non-table showing the waiting period for chemical control of pests have not beeninsecticides on vegetables has been included under the respective crops to avoidincluded. Control of pests of vegetables repetition. AMARANTH (Amaranthus spp.) Amaranth is the most popular leafy Well rotten FYM is mixed with soil in thevegetable of Kerala. It can be grown trenches. Transplant 20-30 day old seed-throughout the year. Avoid sowing or planting lings in the shallow trenches at a distanceof red leaved varieties during periods of of 20 cm in two rows. During rainy seasonheavy rain. planting shall be done on raised beds.Varieties ManuringRed: Kannara Local, Arun and Krishnasree. Apply 50 tonnes of FYM per ha as basal dose before planting. After preparingGreen: Co-1, Co-2, Co-3, Mohini and trenches, apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 50:50:50 kg Renusree ha-1. Another 50 kg of N can be applied at regular intervals as top dressing. SprayingNote : Kannara Local is a season bound 1 per cent urea immediately after each variety, which comes to flowering in harvest will increase the yield. November-December. Plant protectionSeed rate: 1.5 to 2.0 kg ha-1 As far as possible, avoid use of insecti-Preparation of land cides or fungicides. In severe cases of leaf webber attack, spray malathion 0.1 per cent Prepare the land by ploughing or digging or dust malathion 10 per cent DP.followed by levelling. Then shallow trenchesof width 30-35 cm are made 30 cm apart. OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus) The three main planting seasons for Red fruited: Co-1, ArunaOkra are February-March, June-July and Yellow vein mosaic resistant/tolerant: ArkaOctober-November. Anamika, Arka Abhay, Susthira, Anjitha, Manjima (all green fruited).Varieties Seed rateGreen / light green fruited: Pusa Sawani, The seed rate is 8.5 kg ha-1 for thePusa Makhmali, IARI Selection 2, Kiran, summer crop sown in February-March andSalkeerthi. 7 kg ha-1 for kharif crop.

172 OKRAStorage of seeds shoot borers, remove all drooping shoots and damaged fruits. Spray carbaryl 0.15 per cent Packing of okra seeds in polythene cover at intervals of 15 to 20 days. For controlling(700 gauge) increases the storage life upto aphids, apply dimethoate 0.05per cent.7 months. For the control of nematodes, applyPlanting sawdust or paddy husk at 500 g/plant or neem leaves or Eupatorium leaves at 250 g/ For kharif crop, sow the seeds at a plant in basins one week prior to planting andspacing of 60 cm between rows and 45 cm water daily. The effect of this treatment per-between plants. For the summer crop, soak sists up to 75 days after sowing in summerthe seeds in water for 24 hours before season.sowing and give a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. For managing root knot nematode, seedManuring treatment with Bacillus macerans @ 3 per cent w/w. (2.5kg ha-1) and in heavily Apply FYM or compost as basal dose infested area seed treatment with@ 12 t ha-1. At the time of sowing apply N, B. macerans @ 3 per cent w/w. and drench-P2O5 and K2O @ 55, 35and 70 kg ha-1. ing with B. macerans @ 3 per cent solutionAnother 55 kg N ha-1 may be applied one 30 days after sowing can be recommended.month after sowing. In general, insecticides of plant origin mayNote: For reclaimed soils of Kuttanad, a be used, as far as possible. fertilizer dose of N:P2O5:K2O 75:5:15 kg ha-1 is recommended. Yellow vein mosaicAftercultivation This is a common disease in okra, which shows vein clearing and vein chlorosis of Give pre-sowing irrigation, if soil is not leaves. The yellow network of veins is verymoist enough. During summer, irrigate at conspicuous and veins and veinlets are thick-intervals of 2 to 3 days. Conduct weeding ened. Fruits become small and yellowishregularly and earth up rows during rainy green in colour. White fly (Bemisia tabaci)season. and leaf hopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula) are vectors of this virus. Hence,Plant protection their control is very important. Use of resis- tant varieties like Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay The important pests are jassids, fruit and and Susthira, and destruction of host weedsshoot borer and root knot nematode. (Croton sparsiflora and Ageratum sp.) are also effective. Against jassids, use quinalphos 0.05 percent as foliar sprays For controlling fruit and

BITTER GOURD 173CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES BITTER GOURD (Momordica charantia) Bitter gourd is an important cucurbit- Conduct weeding and raking of the soil ataceous vegetable of Kerala. the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up is done during rainy season.Season Pests January-March and September-Decem-ber are the ideal seasons. For the rainfed Fruit fly (Bacterocera cucurbitae)crop, sowing can be started after the receiptof first few showers during May-June. Apply carbaryl 10 per cent DP in pit before sowing of seeds to destroy theVarieties pupae. In homestead gardens the fruits may be covered with polythene, cloth or paper Priya, Preethi, Priyanka and Arka Harit bags to ensure mechanical protection. Inare high yielding varieties. Priyanka is large gardens apply carbaryl 0.2 per cent orrecommended for acid alluvial soils of Kerala. malathion 0.15 per cent suspension contain- ing sugar or jaggery at 10 g/l at fortnightlySeed rate: 5.0 – 6.0 kg ha-1 intervals at flowering and fruit initiation. Spray as coarse droplets on the ventralSpacing: 2.0 m x 2.0 m surface of leaves. Remove and destroy affe- cted and decayed fruits. It can also be effe-Sowing ctively controlled by the use of banana fruit traps coupled with the removal and destruction of Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm infested fruits. It is more efficient than twodepth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertil- sprayings with insecticides. Traps are to beizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds set at a distance of 2 m after a border roware sown @ 4-5 per pit. Unhealthy plants and they may be replenished after 7 to 9 days.are removed after two weeks and only Start bait trapping just before flowering.3 plants are retained per pit. Epilachna beetleManuring Remove and destroy egg masses, grubs Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose and adults occurring on leaves. Sprayalong with half dose of N (35 kg) and full carbaryl 0.2 per cent.doses of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg). Theremaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied Red pumpkin beetlein several split doses at fortnightly intervals. Adult beetle eats the leaves, makes holeAftercultivation on foliage and causes damage on roots and leaves. Incorporate carbaryl 10 per cent During the initial stages of growth, DP in pits before sowing the seeds toirrigate at 3-4 days interval and alternate days destroy grubs and pupae.during flowering/fruiting. Irrigation at 15 mmCPE (approximately at 3 days interval forsandy loam soils) is more economical thanirrigating once in two days especiallyduring summer months for water economy.Erect pandals when the plants start vining.

174 BITTER GOURD AND SNAKE GOURDPlant lice Powdery mildew Apply 1.5 per cent fish oil soap. First Can be controlled by spraying dinocapdissolve soap in hot water and then make up 0.05 per cent.the volume. Alternatively apply dimethoate0.05 per cent. MosaicDiseases Control the vectors by spraying dimethoate 0.05 per cent. Uprooting andDowny mildew destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts should be done. It is severe during rainy season. This canbe checked by spraying mancozeb 0.2 per cent Harvesting can be done only after 10 days(waiting period of mancozeb is three days). (at least) of insecticide / fungicide applica- tion. The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.SNAKE GOURD (Trichosanthes cucumerina) Snake gourd is a common cucurbitaceous in several split doses at fortnightlyvegetable of Kerala. intervals.Season Aftercultivation January-March and September – During the initial stages of growth irrigateDecember are the main growing seasons. at an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods.Varieties : Kaumudi, Baby, TA-19 and Manusree Erect pandals for trailing snake gourd. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil atSeed rate: 3.0 – 4.0 kg ha-1 the time of fertilizer application.Spacing : 2.0 m x 2.0 m PestsSowing The important pests attacking snake gourd are fruit flies, epilachna beetle and red pump- Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm kin beetle. Control measures recommendeddepth are taken. Well rotten FYM and for bitter gourd can be followed in this casefertilizers are mixed with top soil in the pit also.and seeds are sown @ 4-5 per pit. Aftertwo weeks remove the unhealthy plants Diseasesretaining three plants per pit. The important diseases are downyManuring mildew and mosaic. The control measures as stated under bitter gourd can be adopted. Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose Harvesting can be done only after 10 daysalong with half dose of N (35 kg) and full (at least) of insecticide / fungicide applica-dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg-1. tion. The fruits should be washed thoroughlyThe remaining dose of N (35 kg) is applied in water before cooking.

CUCUMBER AND MELON 175 CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus) &ORIENTAL PICKLING MELON (Cucumis melo var. conomon) Cucumber and oriental pickling melon are applied in two equal split doses at the time ofimportant cucurbits grown in Kerala. vining and at the time of full blooming.ACucumber is mainly used as a salad crop fertilizer dose of 70:25:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O/whereas oriental pickling melon is largely ha in several splits is recommended inused after cooking. Onattukara region. The fertilizer dose per pit would be 28:10:10 g N:P2O5:K2O.Season Aftercultivation The ideal seasons are January-March and During the initial stages of growth,September-December. irrigate at an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate in alternate days, during flowering andVarieties fruiting.For trailing cucumber and melon, spread dried twigs on the ground. Conduct Mudicode, Arunima and Saubhagya are weeding and raking of the soil at the time ofhigh yielding varieties of oriental pickling fertilizer application. Earthing up may be donemelon. Cucumber varieties such as Pusa during rainy season.Sheethal, Poinsette, Poona Khira areexclusively used for salad purpose. PestsSeed rate: 0.5 – 0.75 kg ha-1 The important pests are epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle. They can beSpacing: 2.0 m x 1.5 m controlled by adopting the measures recommended for bitter gourd.Preparation of land Diseases Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cmdepth are taken. Well rotten FYM and ferti- The important diseases are downylizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and mildew, powdery mildew and mosaic. Thefour or five seeds are sown in a pit. Remove control measures as recommended for bitterunhealthy plants after two weeks and retain gourd can be adopted.three plants per pit. Harvesting can be done only after 10 daysManuring (at least) of insecticide / fungicide applica- tion. The fruits should be washed thoroughly Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose in water before cooking.along with half dose of N (35 kg) and fulldose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1).The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can beWATER MELON (Citrullus lanatus)Season : The ideal season is Dec-April. Preparation of landVarieties : Sugar Baby, Arka JyothiSeed rate : 1 to 1.5 kg ha-1 Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cmSpacing : 3.0 m x 2.0 m depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in the pit and four or five seeds are sown in a pit. Remove

176 MELON AND BOTTLE GOURDunhealthy plants after two weeks and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizerretain two or three plants per pit. application.Manuring Pests The important pests are red pumpkin Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dosealong with half dose of N (35 kg) and full beetle and epilachna beetle. They can bedoses of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1). controlled by adopting measures suggestedThe remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be for bitter gourd.applied in two equal splits at the time of viningand full blooming. DiseasesAftercultivation Downy mildew and powdery mildew are important diseases affecting water melon. During the initial stages of growth, Control them by adopting measures recom-irrigate at an interval of three or four days. mended for bitter gourd.Irrigate on alternate days during floweringand fruiting. When fruits mature, the Harvesting can be done only after 10 daysfrequency of irrigation may be reduced. (at least) of insecticide / fungicide applica-For trailing the water melon, spread dried tion. Only well ripe fruits should betwigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and harvested.BOTTLE GOURD (Lagenaria siceraria)Season Manuring Bottle gourd can be successfully grown Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal doseduring January-March and Sept-December. along with half dose of N (35 kg) and fullFor the rainfed crop, sowing can also be dose of P2O5 (25 kg ha-1) and K2O (25 kgstarted after the receipt of the first few ha-1). The remaining dose of N (35 kg) canshowers during May-June. be applied in several split doses at fortnightly intervals.Varieties Aftercultivation Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Arka Bahar During the initial stages of growth,Seed rate: 3 – 4 kg ha-1 irrigate at an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on alternate days during floweringPreparation of land and fruiting periods. Trailing can be done ei- ther on pandals or on the ground. Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cmdepth are taken at 3 m x 3 m spacing for Conduct weeding and raking of the soil atgrowing on pandals. For trailing on the the time of fertilizer application. Earthing upground, make pits at a spacing of 2 m in rows may be done during rainy season.3-4 m apart. Well rotten FYM and fertilizersare mixed with topsoil in the pit. PestsSowing The important pests are epilachna beetle and red pumpkin beetle. They can be Four or five seeds are sown per pit.Remove unhealthy plants after two weeksand retain three plants per pit.

BOTTLE GOURD, PUMPKIN AND ASH GOURD 177controlled by adopting measures recom- control measures recommended for bittermended under bitter gourd. gourd.Diseases Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide / fungicide Downy mildew and powdery mildew are application. The fruits should be washedimportant diseases in bottle gourd. Refer thoroughly in water before cooking. PUMPKIN (Cucurbita moschata)Season Aftercultivation Pumpkin can be successfully grown During the initial stages of growth,during January-March and September- irrigate at an interval of three or four days.December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can Irrigate on alternate days during floweringalso be started after the receipt of the first and fruiting periods. For trailing, spread driedfew showers during May-June. twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizerVarieties :Ambili, Suvarna, Saras and Sooraj application. Earthing up may be done duringSeed rate: 1.0 to 1.5 kg ha-1 rainy season.Preparation of land Plant protection Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm Pestsdepth are taken at a spacing of 4.5 m x 2.0 m.Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed Fruit flies, epilachna beetle and redwith topsoil in the pit. pumpkin beetle are important pests affecting pumpkin. They can be controlled as in caseSowing of bitter gourd. Four or five seeds are sown per pit. DiseasesRemove unhealthy plants after 2 weeks andretain three plants per pit. Downy mildew, powdery mildew and mosaic are important diseases affectingManuring pumpkin.Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose Harvesting can be done only after 10 days (at least) of insecticide/fungicide application.along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full The fruits should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.dose roefmPa2iOn5in(g25dkogse) aonfdNK2(O35(2k5g)kgcahna-1b)e.Theapplied in two equal split doses at the time ofvining and at the time of full blooming. ASH GOURD (Benincasa hispida)Season Varieties: KAU Local, Indu Seed rate: 0.75-1.0 kg ha-1 Ash gourd can be successfully grownduring January-March and September- Preparation of landDecember. For rainfed crop, sowing can alsobe started after the receipt of the first few Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cmshowers during May-June. depth are taken at 4.5 m x 2.0 m spacing. Well

178 ASH GOURDrotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with trailing, spread dried twigs on the ground.topsoil in the pit. Conduct weeding, and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up maySowing be done during rainy season. Seeds are sown @ four or five per pit. PestsRemove unhealthy plants after two weeksand retain two or three plants per pit. Fruit fly, epilachna beetle and red pump- kin beetle are important pests affecting ashManuring gourd. They can be controlled as given under bitter gourd. Aphids can be controlled Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose by spraying malathion 0.01 per cent oralong with half dose of N (35 kg) and full quinalphos 0.05 per cent.dose of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1 ).The remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be Diseasesapplied in two equal split doses at the time ofvining and at the time of full blooming. Powdery mildew, downy mildew and mosaic are important diseases in ash gourd.Aftercultivation They can be controlled as in bitter gourd. During the initial stages of growth, irrigate Harvesting can be done only after 10 daysat an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on (at least) of insecticide/fungicide application.alternate days during flowering and fruiting. For The fruit should be washed thoroughly in water before cooking.

BRINJAL 179 SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES Brinjal, chilli and tomato are the important The cultural operations of the above three cropssolanaceous fruit vegetables grown in the state. are similar with only slight variations. BRINJAL (Solanum melongena)Varieties seedlings may be given temporary shade for 3-4 days during summer. Surya, Swetha and Haritha (bacterial wiltresistant open pollinated varieties), Neelima Spacing(bacterial wilt resistant F1hybrid), Pusa PurpleCluster. Transplant less spreading varieties likeSeed rate : 370-500 g ha-1 Swetha and Surya at 60 cm x 60 cm. For spreading varieties Haritha and Neelima,Raising seedlings provide wider spacing of 75-90 cm x 60 cm. Brinjal is a transplanted vegetable. Seedsare sown in the nursery and one month old Manuringseedlings are transplanted to the main field.For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of Apply well rotten FYM / compost @90 to 100 cm width and convenient lengthare prepared in open space with fertile 20-25 t ha-1 at the time of land preparationtopsoil to which well decomposed organicmatter has been incorporated. After sowing and mix well with the soil. A fertilizer dose ofthe seeds, mulch with green leaves andirrigate with a rose-can daily in the morning. 7gi5v:e4n0.:2H5alkfgthNe :dPo2Ose5:ofKn2Oitropgeernh, afumll apyhobse-Remove the mulch immediately aftergermination of the seeds. Restrict irrigation phorus and half of potash may be applied asone week before transplanting and irrigateheavily on the previous day of transplanting. basal dose before transplanting. One fourthTime of planting of nitrogen and half of potash may be For rainfed crop, transplant the seedlings applied 20-30 days after planting. The remain-during May-June before the onset of south-west monsoon. Planting can also be done ing quantities may be applied two months afterduring September-October for irrigated crop. planting. Application of 75:25:25 kgLand preparation and transplanting mN:aPx2iOm5:uKm2Oyipeelrd ha is optimum for getting Land is prepared to a fine tilth by of fruits for the varietythorough ploughing or digging. Well rottenorganic manure is incorporated in the soil and Swetha in the reclaimed alluvial soils ofseedlings are transplanted in shallowtrenches/pits during May or on ridges/levelled Kuttanad. However, the economic optimumlands during rainy season. Transplanted dose was found to be 60:20:25 kg of N:P2O5:K2O per ha. Aftercultivation Irrigate at three or four days interval during summer. Stake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed by fertilizer application and earthing up may be done at one and two months after transplanting. Plant protection For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in the raised beds prepared in the open area during summer months.

180 BRINJAL AND CHILLI Follow mechanical removal and destruc- Swetha and Haritha and the hybrid Neelimation of pest / disease affected portions for in bacterial wilt prone areas.control of fruit and shoot borer andPhomopsis fruit rot. Spray carbaryl 0.15 per For managing root knot nematode,cent at an interval of 15-20 days to control nursery treatment with Bacillus macerans /fruit and shoot borer under large scale Paecilliomyces lilacinus @ 25 g/m2 +cultivation. drenching with the same @ 3 per cent solution 7 days after sowing can be Uproot plants affected by little leaf and recommended.spray insecticides for further control.Cultivate resistant varieties like Surya, In general, insecticides of plant origin may be used, as far as possible.CHILLI (Capsicum annuum)Varieties seedlings during May-June before the onset of southwest monsoon. Planting can alsoHigh yielding varieties: Jwalasakhi, be done during September-October for anJwalamukhi, Jwala, Pant C-1, K-2, irrigated crop.Vellayani Athulya and Vellayani Samrudhi(Tolerant to shade and recommended for Land preparation and transplantingsouthern zone of Kerala.) Land is prepared to a fine tilth byBacterial wilt resistant varieties: Ujwala, thorough ploughing / digging. Well rottenAnugraha. organic manure is incorporated in the soil and seedlings are transplanted in shallowSeed rate: 1.0 kg ha-1 trenches / pits during May or on ridges / level lands during rainy season. TransplantedRaising seedlings seedlings may also be given temporary shade for three to four days during summer. Chilli is a transplanted crop. Seeds aresown in the nursery and one month old Spacingseedlings are transplanted to the main field.For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of Transplant less spreading varieties at90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length 45 cm x 45 cm. For spreading cultivars likeare prepared to which well decomposed White Kanthari provide a wider spacing oforganic matter has been incorporated. After 75 cm x 45-60 cm.sowing the seeds, mulch with green leavesand irrigate with a rosecan daily in the Manuringmorning. Remove the mulch immediatelyafter germination of the seeds. Restrict Apply well rotten FYM / compostirrigation one week before transplanting @ 20-25 t ha-1 at the time of land preparationand irrigate heavily on the previous day of and mix well with the soil. A fertilizertransplanting. dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O per ha may be given. Half of nitrogen, full phosphorusTime of planting For a rainfed crop, transplant the

CHILLI AND TOMATO 181and half of potash may be applied as basal mixture at monthly intervals during rainydose before transplanting. One fourth of season. Uproot and destroy the plantsnitrogen and half of potash may be applied affected by bacterial wilt and mosaic.20-30 days after planting. The remainingquantity may be applied two months after Cultivate resistant varieties like Ujwalaplanting. and Anugraha in bacterial wilt prone areas.Aftercultivation Spray quinalphos 0.05 per cent for control of mealy bugs and lace wing bugs. Irrigate at three to four days interval Dimethoate at 0.05 per cent is effective forduring summer. Stake the plants if necessary. controlling mites, aphids and other suckingWeeding followed by fertilizer application and insects.earthing up may be done at one and twomonths after transplanting. Chilli mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus)Plant protection It is an important sucking pest infesting all stages of plant. Feeding of mite causes For avoiding damping off of the seedlings downward curling of the leaves and becomein the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as brittle and tubular. It can be managed by thepossible in raised beds prepared in the open application of neem oil 5 per cent and neemarea during summer months. Spray nursery oil+garlic emulsion 2 per cent.and main field with 1per cent Bordeaux TOMATO (Solanum lycopersicum)Varieties after germination of the seeds. Restrict irrigation one week before transplanting and Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Sakthi, irrigate heavily on the previous day ofMukthi, Anagha and Vellayani Vijai. transplanting.High yielding variety: Pusa Ruby Time of plantingSeed rate : 400 g ha-1 Transplant the seedlings during October- November for an irrigated crop.Raising seedlings Land preparation and transplanting Tomato is a transplanted vegetable. Seedsare sown in the nursery and one month old Land is prepared to a fine tilth byseedlings are transplanted to the main field. thorough ploughing or digging. Well rottenFor sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of organic manure is incorporated in the soil and90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length seedlings are transplanted in shalloware prepared to which well decomposed trenches / pits / levelled lands. Transplantedorganic matter has been incorporated. After seedlings may be given temporary shade forsowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves three to four days during hot days.and irrigate with a rose-can daily in themorning. Remove the mulch immediately Spacing Transplant the seedlings at 60 cm x 60 cm.

182 TOMATO Apply well rotten FYM/compost @ by fertilizer application and earthing up20-25 t ha-1 at the time of land preparation may be done at one and two months afterand mix well with the soil. A fertilizer dose of transplanting.75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha may begiven. Half the dose of nitrogen, full Plant protectionphosphorus and half of potash may beapplied as basal before transplanting. One For avoiding damping off of the seedlingsfourth of nitrogen and half of potash may be in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin asapplied 20-30 days after planting. The possible in raised beds prepared in the openremaining quantity may be applied two area. Spray nursery and main field withmonths after planting. 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals. Uproot and destroy the plantsAftercultivation affected by bacterial wilt and mosaic. Cultivate resistant varieties like Sakthi, Irrigate at two or three days interval. Mukthi and Anagha in bacterial wilt proneStake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed areas.

CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER 183 COOL SEASON VEGETABLES (Ad hoc recommendation) CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) Cabbage can be grown in high ranges Manures and fertilizersduring winter season. Well-drained sandyloam to clay loam soil is suited for this crop. Apply 25 t ha-1 FYM or compost. Fertilizer dose is N:P2O5:K2O 150:100:Varieties 125 kg ha-1. Apply full dose of P2O5 and half dose of N and K2O before transplanting. September, Pusa Drum Head, Golden Apply remaining half dose one month afterAcre, Kaveri, Ganga, Sri Ganesh and Pride transplanting.of India. AftercultivationPlanting requirements A continuous supply of moisture is Since it is a cool season crop, sowing is necessary for proper development ofdone from August-November. Seed rate is heads. Very shallow hoeing should be done500-750 g ha-1. Seeds are to be sown in to remove weeds and to make the soilnursery beds. Three to five weeks old better aerated. In order to produce largeseedlings are used for transplanting. Field is heads, earth up plants one month afterprepared by three or four ploughings. transplanting.Seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of45 cm x 45 cm.CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) Cauliflower can be grown during winter Manures and fertilizersin high ranges. Well-drained sandy loam toclay loam soils are suited for the crop. Apply FYM or compost @ 25 t ha-1 and fertilizers @ 150:100:125 N:P2O5:K2OVarieties kg ha-1. Apply full dose of P2O5 and half dose of N and K2O before transplanting and Pusa Early Synthetic, Pusa Deepali, remaining N and K one month afterEarly Patna, 74-6-C transplanting.Planting requirements Aftercultivation Since it is a cool season crop, sowing is A continuous supply of moisture isto be done from Aug-Nov. Seed rate is necessary for proper development of curds.600-750 g ha-1. Seeds are to be sown in Very shallow hoeing should be done tonursery beds. Three to five week old remove the weeds and to loosen the soil forseedlings are used for transplanting. Field is better aeration. In order to produce largeprepared by three or four ploughings. curds, earth up the plant one month afterSeedlings are transplanted at a spacing of transplanting.60 cm x 45 cm.

184 CARROT, BEET ROOT AND RADISHCARROT (Daucus carota) Carrot can be grown in high ranges from a fertilizer dose of 37.5 kg N, 62.5 kg P2O5August to January. Well-drained sandy loam and 50 kg K2O per ha as basal. Topdressingsoil is best suited for the crop. with 37.5 kg N per ha may be done one month after sowing.Varieties Aftercultivation Pusa Kesar, Nantes, Pusa Meghali It is necessary that enough soil moisturePlanting requirements is available to help uniform seed germina- tion and growth of plant. Uproot excess Seed rate is 5-6 kg ha-1. It is usually sown seedlings (thinning) three weeks afteron ridges to facilitate good root production sowing leaving a plant to plant spacing of 10Ridges of about 20 cm height are made cm to facilitate better tuber growth.45 cm apart and seeds sown 10 cm apart on Weeding should be done at regular intervalsthe rows. The seed is mixed with fine sand to keep down the weeds. Shallow hoeing isand sown in rows by hand and covered with necessary to facilitate root growth. When thesoil to make it firm around it. root starts growing, earthing up should be done.Manures and fertilizers Apply 25 t ha-1 FYM before sowing andBEET ROOT (Beta vulgaris) Beet root can be grown in high ranges KNFu2aOllred7oa5ps:e3p7loi.ef5dP:3a27Os.b55 aaksngadl.hKRa2-e1Omisaanrinedcinhogamlhfmadleofnsddeoeosdef.from August to January. Well-drained sandy of nitrogen is applied as topdressing whenloam soils are best suited for the crop. the plant starts growing vigorously.Varieties: Detroit Dark Red AftercultivationPlanting requirements It is necessary that enough soil moisture Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg ha-1. It is usually is available to help uniform seed germinationgrown on ridges to facilitate good root and growth of plant. Thinning the populationproduction. Ridges of about 20 cm height are may be done as in carrot. Weeding shouldformed 45 cm apart and seeds sown 15-20 be done at regular intervals to keep downcm apart on the rows. The seeds are mixed the weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary towith fine sand and placed in rows by hand facilitate root growth. When the root startsand covered with soil to make it firm growing, earthing up should be done.around it.Manures and fertilizers Apply FYM 20 t ha-1 as basal. N:P2O5:RADISH (Raphanus sativus) Radish can be grown in high ranges Varietiesfrom June to January. Well drained sandyloam soils are best suited for the crop. Japanese White, Arka Nishanth, Pusa Chethki, Pusa Reshmi and Pusa Desi.

RADISH AND POTATO 185Planting requirement half dose of N are applied as basal. Remain- ing half dose of nitrogen is applied as Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg ha-1. It is usually topdressing when the plant starts growinggrown on ridges to facilitate good root vigorously.production. Ridges of about 20 cm height aretaken 45 cm apart and plants are grown Aftercultivation10 cm apart on the rows. The seed is mixedwith fine sand and sown in rows by hand, It is necessary that enough soil moisturecovered with soil to make it firm around it. is available to help uniform seed germination and growth of plant. Thinning may be doneManures and fertilizers at 10 cm distance as in carrot. Weeding Apply 20 t ha-1 FYM as basal. N: P2O5: should be done at regular intervals to keep down weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary toK2O 75:37.5:37.5 kg ha-1 is the fertilizer facilitate root growth. When the roots startrequirement. Full dose of P2O5 and K2O and growing, earthing up should be done POTATO (Solanum tuberosum) Potato can be successfully cultivated in Plantingthe high ranges of Kerala. It is beingcultivated in the rain shadow areas of Idukki Whole potato tuber or cut pieces (50-60 gdistrict throughout the year. A day tempera- size) longitudinally cut from bud-end toture of 20-30ºC is optimum for growth and stemend can be used for plating. Fortuberisation in potato. Tuber formation is planting 1 ha, 1000-2000 kg seed tubers areadversely affected, if the temperature goes required. Seed tubers are treated with 1 ppmabove 30ºC. of GA 3 for one hour and then dried in shade for getting uniform sprouting. Tubers are filledSeason in gunny bags after drying and kept in vertical position in well-ventilated dark room for 10 Crops can be raised as shown below in days for encouraging sprouting. Seed piecesthe eastern part of Idukki district. should be treated with mancozeb (@ 1 kg in 450 litres of water) before planting to protect Summer : March-April them from soil borne diseases.Tubers can be planted on ridges 50-60 cm wide at a spacing Autumn : August-December of 15-20 cm between the plants. Earthing up is needed during the growing phase (30 days Spring : January-February after planting) and 70 days after planting.Varieties Manuring Among the high yielding varieties, Kufri A basal application of FYM (20 t ha-1) isJyothi (early), Kufri Muthu (medium), and required during field preparation. ApplyKufri Dewa (late) can be tried in the high 60 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 120 kg K2O asranges of Kerala. basal. Top dressing with 60 kg N, 30 days after planting at the time of first earthing upSoil is essential. Loose friable sandy loam or silt loam, richin organic matter are ideal for potato. Hardclay should be avoided. Optimum pH rangeis 5.2-7.0

-1 186 POTATO, GARLIC AND MINOR VEGETABLES Plant protection common pests of potato. Dusting with carbaryl 10 per cent DP immediately after Early blight and late blight are the planting can control cut worms. Spraying important fungal diseases. Spraying zineb carbaryl 0.2 per cent controls leaf eating (2 g per litre of water) is effective to control caterpillars. To control aphids and jassids early blight. Copper fungicides can control spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) is late blight. Cut worms, aphids and jassids are effective. GARLIC (Allium sativum) Garlic requires cool and moist period for planting. Dig the land thoroughly and during vegetative growth and a dry spell prepare beds of 15 cm height at a width of during maturity of the bulbs. Fertile, 1 m and of convenient length. The cloves well-drained loamy soils are ideal for garlic should be dibbled at a spacing of 15 cm x 8 cultivation. Heavy clay soils may result in cm. Germination will start on the fifth day deformed bulbs. In high ranges of Kerala and it will be completed within 10-15 days. garlic can be planted during October- November. Manuring Varieties: Ooty-1, G 50 Apply N:P2O5: K2O @ 60:120:120 kg ha-1 20 days after transplanting (DAP). Top Planting requirements dressing of N should be done @ 60 kg ha-1, 45 DAP. Cloves or bulbils are used for propaga- tion. For planting one hectare, 500 kg of Aftercultivation cloves is required. The cloves for planting should be stored for 2-3 months after Earthing up should be done 60 DAP harvest and cloves weighing 4 g are ideal for planting. The cloves should be soaked in Plant protection water followed by dipping for 15 minutes in a solution containing and 1 g of carbendazim To control blast, spray mancozeb (2 g l-1) dissolved in 1 litre of water for 15 minutes. After drying in shade, cloves can be used Harvest Harvesting can be done 120-130 DAP. Yield may vary from 5-10 t ha-1. MINOR VEGETABLES Dolichos bean (Lablab purpureus) sown during July-August. The plants are trailed over pandals, trellis or stakes. FYM is Pole varieties : Hima, Grace and Pusa applied @ 20 t ha-1. N:P2O5: K2O recom- Early Prolific mendation for the crop is 50:100:50 kg ha-1. The leaf caterpillar is a common pest of the Bush variety : Arka Vijay crop. It is also affected by Fusarium wilt, collar rot, anthracnose and powdery mildew. Pole varieties are sown in pits (three plants Average yield is 6-10 t ha-1. per pit) at a spacing of 1.25 m x 0.75 m and bush varieties in ridges and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm x 15 cm. Seeds are to be

MINOR VEGETABLES 187Winged bean seeds @ 6-7 kg ha-1 are planted at a spacing(Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) of 1.0 m x 0.6 m. FYM is applied @ 10 t ha-1. iNs:3P52O:550:K:225Okgrehcao-m1. mThenerdeatiisonnofsoerritohues cropThe common varieties in use are Revathy, pestPT-62, PT-16, PT-49 and PT-2. Seeds @ 15 or disease incidence in the crop. Averageto 20 kg ha-1 are planted at a spacing of yield is 5-6 t ha-1.125 cm x 50 cm during August-September Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis)and are trailed over pandal, trellis or stakes.FYM is applied @ 20 t ha-1. N, 5P02:O105 0a:n5d0 Variety - SulabhakKg2Ohar-1e.cTomhemcernodpaitsiocnofmorptahreactrivopeliys free from Local varieties are grown in May-Junepests and diseases. Average yield is 10-15 t ha-1. and September-October by trailing over pandals and stakes. Stem cuttings with threeCluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) or four nodes and 30-40 cm length, selected from high yielding female vines are used asPusa Naubahar and Pusa Sadabahar are planting material. These are planted at a spacing of 4 m x 3 m. FYM @ 25 kg per pitthe common varieties. Seeds @ 10 to 12 kg ha-1 is given in two doses. No serious pests or diseases are reported except mild attack ofare planted at a spacing of 45-60 cm x 20-30 fruit flies and gall insects.cm in February-March and June-July. Duringrainy season, the seeds are sown 2-3 cm deepon ridges and in furrows during summer Smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica)months. FYM is applied @ 25 t ha-1. Ncr,oPp2Ois5 mildew2an0:d60K:82O0 krgehcao-m1. Ampehniddastainodn for the Pusa Chickni is the common variety in powdery use. The crop is planted in February-Marchare the common pest and disease of the crop. and May-June at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m.Average yield is 5 to 6 t ha-1. The seed rate is 2.5-3 kg ha-1. The crop is trailed over pandal, stakes or trellis. FYMSword bean (Canavalia gladiata) andJack bean (Canavalia ensiformis) @ 25 t ha-1 is given in tcwroopdios s7e0s:.2N5::2P52Okg5:Kha2O-1. recommended for the Sword bean is trailing and red seeded No serious pests or diseases are reported.while Jack bean is bushy and white seeded.Sword bean is to be planted at a spacing of The average yield is 10-15 t ha-1.4 m x 3m whereas Jack bean is to be plantedat 60 cm x 60 cm. Ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula) The important varieties are Haritham, Pusa Nasdhar Co-2 and Deepthi. The crop isMay-June and September October arethe usual sowing time and the seed rate usually sown during February-March andfollowed is one or two seeds per pit. FYM is May-June. Seed rate recommended is 2.5-3.0 kg ha-1 with a spacing of 2 m x 2 m.applied at the rate of 5 t ha-1. TheaNs:Pb2aOs5a:lKd2Oosme iaxntudreto(7p:1d0r:e5s)sminagy be applied FYM @ 25 t hrae-1coanmdmNe:Pn2dOe5d:K. 2IOt @ 70:25:25 at several kg ha-1 ar e is usually trailed over pandals or trellis. Average yield issplits. There is no serious pest or diseaseincidence in the crop. Average yield is 10 to 15 t ha-1.10-15 kg per plant. Bell pepper (Capsicum annuum var. grossum)Clove bean (Ipomoea muricata) The crop can be grown throughout the Hungarian Wax, California Wonderyear and are trailed over trellis or stakes. The and Early Calwonder are the promising

188 MINOR VEGETABLESvarieties. Plant the crop during September- N:P2O5:K2O (7:10:5) mixture @ 30 g per plant are recommended. The average yield isOctober at a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. The 2 – 5 kg per m2 per year.seed rate is 400-600 g ha-1. Raising of seed- Indian spinach (Basella sp.)lings, transplanting, irrigation etc. are same Seeds or stem cuttings of 20-30 cm length are to be planted during May-June andas in chilli. FYM @ 25 at rhea-t1oanbdeNg:iPv2eOn5.:KT2hOe September-October. The spacing recom-@ 150:75:50 kg ha-1 mended is 1.0 m x 0.6 m. These are usually trailed over pandals or stakes. FYMaverage yield is 12-15 t ha-1. @ 2-5 kg per m2 is to be given. The average yield is 1-2.5 kg per m2.Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) Water leaf (Talinum triangulare)Variety: Anupama (Early flowering habit andsuitable for Central Zone.) This is a shade loving leafy vegetable grown in May-June and September-October. The major planting season is May-June. Semi hard stem cuttings of 10-15 cm length are planted at a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm.Stem cuttings of 1.0-1.5 m length and FYM @ 2-5 kg per m2 is given. The average yield is 2.0-2.5 kg per m2.15-20 cm girth are used as planting material. Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii)Plant the cuttings in polybags and later It is usually planted in May-June. Rootsprouted cuttings can be shifted to main field. suckers are used as planting material. The recommended spacing is 4 m x 4 m withFor one hectare, 625 cuttings are required. 625 plants per hectare. FYM @ 10 kg per plant per year is given. N:P2O5:K2O @These are planted at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m. 60:80:40 g per adult plant per year is recom- mended. Major pests are citrus butterfly andFYM @ 10-20 kg per paitreanrdecNo:mPm2Oe5n:dKe2dO. psyllid. Diaphorina pink disease is also seen.@ 60:80:40 g per pit The average yield is 2-2.5 kg per m2.Green caterpillar and hairy caterpillar are thecommon pests. The average yield is10-15 kg per tree per year.Chekkurmanis (Sauropus androgynus) Stem cuttings of 6-12 months old,20-30 cm length are to be planted inMay-June. These are usually grown onborders of kitchen gardens. To check theheight of the plant and to get frequent har-vests, the tips are clipped off intermittently.FYM @ 5 kg per plant per year and Table 25. Waiting periods for insecticides on vegetables Vegetable Carbaryl Quinalphos Malathion Dimethoate Okra 5 days 3 days 3 days Bitter gourd 11days 3 days 4 days 2 days Brinjal 5 days 5 days 3 days 3 days Snake gourd 5 days 3 days 1 days 3 days Tomato 6 days 6 days 1 days 5 days Chilli 5 days 1 days 4 days - - Note: Washing vegetables in 2 percent table salt solution or 2 percent vinegar and thorough washing in water using scrubber were found to remove residues of contact insecticides.

VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION 189NON-CHEMICAL CONTROL OF PESTS OF VEGETABLES (Ad hoc recommendations) The American serpentine leaf miner is a neem/ thevetia / clerodendron with soaprecently introduced polyphagous pest infest- water. Okra fruits can be protected froming crops like cucurbits, brinjal, cowpea, infestation by fruit borers by spraying 4 persesame, groundnut and ornamentals. Larvae cent leaf extracts of thevetia / neem.mine into the leaves and exhibit irregular ser-pentine like lines. As a result of the Preparation of plant extract emulsionattack, leaves dry up and cause extensivedamage. Spray neem oil emulsion for Soak 400 g of leaf powder (leaves driedcontrolling the pest. Amaranth leaf webber under shade and powdered) in one litre ofand grasshopper, okra leaf roller, epilachna water for 24 hours and filter through muslinbeetle on brinjal and bitter gourd, aphids, jas- cloth. Dissolve 400 g ordinary bar soap shav-sids and mealy bugs on brinjal and okra can ings in 9 litres water. Pour this soapbe controlled by 4 per cent leaf extracts of solution to the plant extract and mix thoroughly. This forms 4 per cent emulsion of plant extract.TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTIONGeneral principles 2. In general, September to January is the most suitable season for taking up seed The seed production programme envi- production in Kerala.sages to produce genetically pure qualityseeds and to store them in a viable condition 3. Site selected for seed production shouldfor a reasonable period of time, until it reaches be open, receiving good sunlight, wellthe farmers. The seeds should have genetic drained and fertile soil, free frompurity, uniformity in size and shape, high ger- infectious pest and disease organisms.mination and vigour. The seeds should be freefrom mechanical damages, insect and fungal 4. Seeds for multiplication should beinfestation and other crop and weed seeds. obtained from reliable sources.A commercial seed production programmehas three aspects - seed production, seed 5. Proper isolation distance should beprocessing and seed storage. maintained between varieties and related species.a. Seed production 6. Scientific roguing (removal of off-types The following aspects are important in this: at nursery stage, vegetative phase, flow- ering, fruiting and harvest stages) should1. Basic knowledge on the specific require- be practised. ment of the crop (climate, soil require- ment etc.), specific characteristics of 7. All plants infected by diseases should be the variety, pests and diseases and removed from the seed production plot. their control measures are essential No objectionable weeds are permitted in before taking up the seed production seed production plot. programme.

190 VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION8. In general, for most vegetable crops, most ideal conditions for seed storage. taking one or two vegetable harvests is The sum of storage temperature (ºC) and found ideal for economic seed production. humidity (per cent) should not exceed 80.9. Provide one additional topdressing with 3. Pre-storage seed treatment with fungi- N and K2O at fruit development phase, cides (captan or thiram @ 2.5 g kg-1 of adequate irrigation and plant protection seeds) and insecticides (carbaryl 10 per measures. cent DP @ 10 g kg-1) would protect the seeds from various fungal and insect10. General cultivation and plant protection infestations. practices recommended for vegetable production can be adopted in seed crop 4. Store the treated seeds in 700 gauge also. polythene bags in sealed conditions. Specific recommendations for seed11. Harvest the crop at optimum fruit production of the individual crops other maturity, since immature and over than the general aspects mentioned above mature fruits affect the seed quality. are given below:b. Seed processing Solanaceous vegetables1. Seed processing involves extraction of Tomato seeds from the fruits and reducing the seed moisture content to a level of 6-8 The best time for planting tomato for seed per cent. production is October. Give an isolation distance of 50 m for foundation seed (FS)2. Wet and dry methods of seed extraction production and 25 m for certified seed (CS) are adopted depending on the nature of between varieties. Rogue out off-types and the crop. Slow drying at low tempera- virus infected plants. Maximum off-types and ture (below 38ºC) is advisable rather than diseased plants permitted is 0.1 per cent each quick drying at high temperature. only. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 98 per cent and germination of 70 per cent.3. Exposing seeds to open sunlight during Maximum permitted inert matter content is peak hours of sunshine (12 noon to 2 per cent, other crop seeds 0.1 per cent, weed seeds 0.1 per cent, and maximum 3 p.m.) should be avoided. moisture content 8 per cent.4. Spread the seeds in thin layer and give Brinjal frequent raking for aeration while drying to avoid fungal infestation. Give an isolation distance of 200 m for FS and 100m for CS. Remove off-types and5. Clean the seeds by removing inert plants infected by little leaf disease. No matter, damaged and underdeveloped objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed seeds etc. to get uniform quality seeds. production plot. Maximum level of off-types and plants infested by designated diseasesc. Seed storage are 0.1 per cent each. Seeds should have a minimum purity of 98 per cent and germina-1. Store seeds under cool and dry tion of 70 per cent. Maximum inert matter conditions to maintain the viability content permitted is 2 per cent, other crop seeds 0.1 per cent, weed seeds 0.1 per cent2. Seed moisture content of 6-8 per cent, and maximum moisture content 8 per cent. atmospheric temperature of 22ºC and relative humidity of 45 per cent are the

VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION 191Chilli and related species. Remove off-types, wild cucurbits and plants infected by designated Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for diseases. No objectionable weeds areFS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and permitted in the seed production plot.plants infected by virus diseases. No Maximum level of off-types and plantsobjection able weeds are permitted in the seed infected by yellow vein mosaic diseases isproduction plot. Maximum level of off-types 0.1 per cent each. Seeds should have a mini-and plants infested by designated diseases are mum purity of 99 per cent and germination0.1 per cent each. Fruits of 45-50 days of 60 per cent. Maximum inert mattermaturity may be harvested for seed extrac- content permitted is 1 per cent. No seeds oftion in the case of Jwalasakhi and Ujwala. other crops or weeds are permitted andSeeds should have a minimum purity of maximum moisture content should not98 per cent and germination of 70 per cent; exceed 7 per cent.maximum inert matter content permitted is2 per cent, other crop seeds 0.1 per cent, weed Bitter gourdseeds 0.1 per cent and maximum moisturecontent 8 per cent. Taking two vegetable harvests and then leaving the crop for seed production isOkra economical. Ripe fruits of 24 days maturity in Preethi, when the whole fruits turn to bright Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for orange colour, can be harvested for seedFS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and extraction. Seeds may be dried in the sun,plants infected by yellow vein mosaic disease. avoiding peak sunshine hours of 12 noon toNo objectionable weeds are permitted in the 3 p.m. Seeds can be stored in 700 gauge thickseed production plot. Maximum level of polythene bags.off-types and plants infected by yellow veinmosaic is 0.1 per cent each. It is economical Snake gourdto take two vegetable harvests and thenretain the crop for seed production. Fruits of Fruits can be harvested for seed extrac-36 days maturity may be harvested for seed tion 36 days after anthesis (in TA 19), whenextraction in the case of Arka Anamika. At yellowing of fruits start from the stylar end.this stage the pod colour completely turns to Big and medium sized fruits (above 85 cmbrown and tips dry. Seeds can be stored in length and 2 kg weight in Kaumudi) givepolythene bags of 700 gauge thickness. Seeds maximum quantity of quality seeds.should have a minimum purity of 99 per centand germination of 65 per cent. Maximum Oriental pickling meloninert matter content permitted is 1 per cent;no seeds of other crops or weeds are Harvest fully ripe fruits with deep orangepermitted; and maximum moisture content colour (30 days after anthesis in Mudicodepermitted for open storage is 10 per cent and Local), when the vines wither. Select big andfor storing in moisture proof containers is medium sized fruits (above 1.25 kg in8 per cent. Mudicode Local) for quality seeds.Cucurbits Machine extraction (without fermentation of pulp) and drying under shade for one dayGeneral and then in sun avoiding peak hours (12 noon to 3.00 pm) to 8 per cent moisture An isolation distance of 800 m for FS and gives good quality seeds.400 m for CS is required between varieties

192 VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTIONAsh gourd polythene bags of 700 gauge thickness is the best for seed storage. Ash gourd fruits of 70 days maturityafter anthesis are suitable for seed extrac- Water melontion. At this stage the vines wither and thesticky thick ashy coating on the fruits dries Manual extraction with acid treatmentinto white powder, which can be removed on using 1 per cent HCl (1:10) for 30 minutesrubbing. Fruits of medium and large size and drying under shade for one day and(above 5 kg in KAU Local) give bolder, then in sun, avoiding peak hours (12 noon toquality seeds. It is advisable to have a 3.00 p.m) to 8 per cent moisture gives goodpost-harvest storage of fruits for three months quality seeds.to get higher germination. Vegetable cowpea Manual extraction of pulp from the fruitsand fermenting the pulp for 48 hours is Dried pods can be harvested for seedbetter to get quality seeds without mechani- purpose. These pods are further dried in thecal damage. sun before seed extraction. Good drying and pre-storage seed treatment of seeds Acid treatment of pulp using 2 per cent (with carbaryl 10 per cent DP @ 10 g per kgHCI (1:10) for 30 minutes followed by seeds) is essential to protect them fromdrying under shade to 8 per cent moisture Bruchus and fungal infestations.also gives good quality seeds. Amaranth Pre-storage treatment of seeds withcaptan @ 2.5 g kg-1 and storing in sealed It is economical to take one vegetable harvest at 30 days after planting and then leaving the crop for seed production.

BANANA 193 FRUITS BANANA (Musa spp.) Banana prefers tropical humid lowlands Preparation of landand is grown from the sea level to 1000 mabove MSL. It can also be grown at eleva- Prepare the field by ploughing or diggingtions up to 1200 m, but at higher elevations and dig pits for planting. Size of pits dependsgrowth is poor. Optimum temperature is 27ºC. upon soil type, water table and variety.Soils with good fertility and assured supply In general, pit size of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cmof moisture are best suited. is recommended. In low-lying areas, take mounds for planting suckers.Season Selection of suckersRain fed crop : April-MayIrrigated crop : August-September Select 3-4 month old disease free sword suckers from healthy clumps. In the case of Adjust planting season depending upon Nendran variety, cut back pseudostem to alocal conditions. Avoid periods of heavy mon- length of 15-20 cm from corm and removesoon and severe summer for planting. old roots. The rhizomes are to be smearedAdjust the time of planting so as to avoid high with cowdung solution and ash and dried intemperature and drought at the time of the sun for about 3-4 days and stored in shadeemergence of bunches (7-8 months after upto 15 days before planting.planting). SpacingVarieties Spacing may be provided as indicated Nendran (Clones): Nedunendran, below:Zanzibar, Chengalikodan and Big Ebanga. Variety Spacing (m) Suckers/ha Table varieties: Monsmarie, Robusta,Giant Governor, Dwarf Cavendish, PoovanChenkadali, Poovan, Palayankodan,Njalipoovan, Amritsagar, Grosmichael, Chenkadali 2.1 x 2.1 2260Karpooravally, Poomkalli, Koompilla-kannan, PalayankodanChinali, Dudhsagar, BRS-1, BRS-2 andYangambi. MonthanCulinary varieties: Monthan, Batheesa, Nendran 2.0 x 2.0 2500Kanchikela, Nendrapadathy Grosmichael 2.4 x 2.4 1730 Njalipoovan, Robusta, BRS-1 and Robusta, 2.4 x 1.8 2310BRS-2 are particularly suitable for intercrop- Monsmarie,ping in coconut gardens both under rainfedand irrigated conditions. Dudhsagar is highly Dwarf Cavandishresistant to major pests and diseases. Thevariety Bodles Altafort is recommended for Plantinghigh range region (ad hoc). Plant suckers upright in the centre of pits with 5 cm pseudostem remaining above soil level. Press soil around the sucker to avoid hollow air spaces.

194 BANANAManuring and bunch weight, provided the farm- ers can afford the cost of application.1. Apply compost, cattle manure or green leaves @ 10 kg/plant at the time of Time of fertilizer N:P2O5:K2O planting. application g/plant For double sucker planting at a spacing One month after planting 40:65:60of 3 m x 2 m, 133 per cent of recommended Two months after planting 30:50:60dose for single sucker planting in six splits is Three months after planting 30:00:60needed when farm yard manure is used as Four months after planting 30:00:60the organic source. The recommended dose Five months after planting 30:00:60for single sucker itself is sufficient with Just after complete 30:00:00vermicompost as organic source. This should emergence of bunchbe accompanied with in situ green manuring@ 15 g cowpea seeds per pit (25 kg ha-1) at Total 190:115:300the time of planting. Incorporate the cowpeacrop into soil 40 days after sowing. In Onattukara, for Njalipoovan, apply N, tPw2Oo5eaqnudalKs2pOli@t do2s0e0s::2t0h0e:4fi0r0stg,/ptlwanotm/yeoanrthins Plant crop followed by two ratoon crops after planting and the second, four monthsgives maximum yield. Two suckers per clump after planting.should be retained for ratooning. For Palayankodan (rainfed), planting may2. Apply N:P2O5:K2O at the following dose be done in January and the suckers may be (g/plant/year). given pot irrigation @ 9 litres of water once in 15 days until April-May.Nendran (irrigated): 190:115:300 After planting banana, sow sun hemp /Other varieties depending upon soil fertility daincha / cowpea adopting a seed rate of 50 kg ha-1. Incorporate the crop into the soillevel: 160-200 : 160-200 : 320-400 40 days after sowing. Repeat sowing of green manure crop and incorporate into soil 40 daysPalayankodan (rainfed): 100:200:400 after sowing.Palayankodan (reclaimed alluvial soils of Incorporation of cowpea in the inter-Kuttanad) spaces of banana cv. Nendran with 75 per cent recommended dose of fertilizerPlant crop : 100:200:400 (143:85:225 g N: P2O5: K2O /plant) can be 150:200:800 done as INM practice for highest BC ratio.First ratoon : 150:200:800Second ratoon : Apply the fertilizer 60-75 cm around the Irrigationplant in two equal split doses; the first, twomonths after planting and the second, four 1. During summer months, irrigate once inmonths after planting. For ratoon crop, the three days.entire fertilizers have to be applied in a singledose immediately after the harvest of the 2. Ensure good drainage and prevent waterpreceding crop. Irrigate immediately after logging.manuring. 3. About 6-10 irrigations per crop may beNote: For Nendran, apply the fertilizers in six given depending upon soil conditions. split doses as detailed below which will be beneficial to improve the finger size 4. Banana var. Nendran (October planting) grown under deep water table conditions