kerala pop 2011 revised

BEEKEEPING 295are bigger than all other honeybees except and wagtail dance to communicate theApis dorsata. The average production per location of food source when it is more thancolony is 25-40 kg. 100 m away from the hive.Stingless bee (Trigona iridipennis): In Bee spaceaddition to the above, another species is alsopresent in Kerala known as stingless bees. It is the space large enough to permit theThey are not truly stingless, but the sting is free passage for worker bees but too smallpoorly developed. They make nests in the to encourage bees building a comb and tooground, hollows of trees, bamboo, rocks or large for bees to deposit propolis in it.cracks of walls. Honey and brood cells areseparate in the nest. They are efficient Indian bee (Apis cerana indica)pollinators. They yield 300-400 g of honeyper year. This is the domesticated hive bee in Kerala. A colony consists of a queen, 20,000 toSwarming 30,000 workers and a few drones. This species has gentle temperament and responds Swarming is the natural instinct of to smoking. Lack of flora leads to abscond-honeybees to reproduce its colonies. By ing by bees. It also has a strong tendency forswarming, strong colonies are divided swarming. It yields 8-10 kg of honey pernaturally. It occurs mostly when the colony colony per year.population is at its peak. Some of theseveral reasons for swarming are sudden Bee-boxhoney flow, sudden failure of queen to layeggs, congestion in the colony, want of breed- ISI Type-A box is recommended for theing space, bad ventilation etc. Dividing the State of Kerala. A division board may becolonies or keeping young queen or prevent- added to the bee box for adjusting theing over crowding of bees or adding new internal space depending on the strength ofcombs can prevent swarming. the colony. It can be procured from beekeepers. Wild feral colonies can be hived.Absconding Beekeepers in different regions use local hives made of low cost wood. The wood Absconding is the total desertion of colony should not have a strong smell. Kail (Pinusfrom its nest due to incidence of excelsa), teak (Tectona grandis), toondisease / pest attack, too much interference (Toona ciliata) anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus),by human beings or robbing of honey by bees punna (Calophyllum inophyllum) etc., arefrom other colonies. Proper hive manage- some of the suitable woods. The hives shouldment can prevent it. be preferably painted white on outside to protect the timber from weathering.Communication Hiving wild colony The worker bees communicate with otherbees about the exact location of nectar, It is done during evening hours. Smokepollen, water, next nesting site etc. by means the colony slightly, cut out the combs one byof dances. Round dance is performed when one and tie to the brood frames withthe food is located within 100 m from hive plantain fibre. Arrange them in the box. Location of beehives The apiary must be located in well-drained open area, preferably near orchards, with

296 BEEKEEPINGprofuse source of nectar, pollen and water. Destroy queen cells and drone cells, if noted.Windbreaks may be provided by planting Provide sugar syrup (1:1) @ 200 g sugar pershrubs, flowering plants and also creepers like colony per week for Indian bees. Feed allantigonon. Shade must also be provided. Ant the colonies in the apiary at the same time towells are fixed around the hive stand. The avoid robbing.colonies must be directed towards east, withslight changes in the directions of the bee box Management during honey flow seasonas a protection from rain and sun. Keep thecolonies away from the reach of cattle, other Keep the colony in sufficient strengthanimal, busy roads and streetlights. before honey-flow season. Congestion in the hive must be avoided and surplus honeybeesManagement of colonies are drawn to supers. Provide maximum space between the first super and the brood cham- Inspect the beehives at least once in a ber and not above the first super. Place queenweek during brood rearing / honey-flow excluder sheets in between brood and superseasons preferably during the morning hours. chamber to confine the queen to brood cham-Bright, warm and calm days are suitable. If ber. Examine the colony once in a week andsunlight falls directly on the beehive spread frames full of honey should be removed tocloth or a towel over the same. Look for the sides of the super and such frames canfreshly laid eggs to ensure that the colonies be raised from brood to super chamber. Theare healthy. Clean the hive in the following frames, which are three-fourth filled withsequence, the roof, super/supers, brood cham- honey or pollen and one-fourth with sealedbers and floorboard. Observe the colonies brood should be taken out of brood chamberregularly for the presence of healthy queen, and in its place empty combs or frames withbrood development, storage of honey and foundation is added. The frame with combpollen, presence of queen cells, bee strength foundation should be placed next to the broodand growth of drones. Look for the infesta- nest. The combs, which are completelytion by any of the following bee enemies. sealed, or two-third capped may be taken out for extraction of honey and returned toWax moth (Galleria mellonella): Remove supers after honey extraction. This helps theall the larvae and silken webbings from the colonies to activate the bees to collect andcombs, corners and crevices of bee box. store more honey. Two or three such extrac- tions are possible during a surplus flow.Wax beetles (Platybolium sp.): Collect and Extraction of uncapped honey will result indestroy the adult beetles. fermentation. Honey extraction, after the flow is over, should be avoided to save theMites: Clean the frame and floorboard with bee colonies from robbing. Care should becotton swabs moistened with freshly made taken to retain sufficient combs with honeypotassium permanganate solution. Repeat in the brood chamber or reduce the leanuntil no mites are seen on the floorboard. period.Diseases: The dead larvae due to Thai sac Migratory bee keepingbrood virus (TSBV) in the comb cells maybe removed and destroyed. The moving of bee colonies from one place to another to capture increased nectarManagement during lean season flow of a particular flora is called migratory Remove the supers and arrange the avail-able healthy broods compactly in the broodchamber. Provide division board, if necessary.

BEEKEEPING 297beekeeping. Copious flow of extra floral Processing of honeynectar available on rubber trees duringJanuary-April is exploited by shifting bee Heat the honey to 45ºC by keeping it in acolonies to these plantations during this water bath. Sieve it to remove wax particles,period. debris, dust and pollen. Again heat it to a tem- perature of 65ºC in water bath and maintain Similar practice is done in cashew it for 10 minutes. Then cool and filter it inplantations and in other orchards too. 80-mesh muslin and store in glass, porcelain,Maintaining bee colonies in orchards will earthenware, enamelware or stainless steelincrease the yield, since pollination is more containers. Bulk storing can be made in mildefficient in such orchards. steel containers lined with bee wax. Shifting of colonies is done after sun set. Italian bee (Apis mellifera)Colonies should be prepared as follows.Extract available honey and fasten all the It is a native of Europe introduced toweak combs to frames with plantain fibres. Himachal Pradesh and Punjab during 1962-Secure the frames to the chamber with 64 and introduced to Kerala on a trial basispacking. Close the bee entrance with cotton. from Haryana in November 1992. It main-Then secure the bee-box (floorboard, brood tains a prolific queen, swarms less, has gentlechamber, supers and roof) firmly with strong temperament and is a good honey-gatherer.threads. Do not tilt or topple beehives while It is known to be resistant to TSBV. A healthystacking them in the conveyance or during colony may contain 60,000 to 80,000 workertransit. Avoid strong jerks and shocks while bees. The following modifications are to betransporting. followed in beekeeping with Italian bees. Set up the beehives as described above Bee-boxat the new site. Inspect the condition of combsand tighten loose threads, if any. This inspec- Langstroth beehive with ten frames eachtion should be done only in dim light. Next in brood and super chambers and a divisionmorning remove the cotton plug at bee brood chamber is recommended. The broodentrance. Later provide comb foundation and super chambers are of the same size.sheets, if necessary and provide sufficientspace for storage of honey. Procuring bee coloniesExtraction of honey Colonies can be obtained either by Honey is extracted only from super combs dividing existing colonies or by buying from other agencies.using honey extractor. The sealing of cellson combs is removed with sharp knife Location of beehivesbefore placing in the extractor. Extractorshould be worked slowly at the beginning and Follow the practices as in Indian bees, butat about 150 rpm at the end for about 1 to 2 use a strong four-legged stand well protectedminutes. Then the sides of the frames are from ants and other crawling insects byreversed and the extractor is again worked. providing ant wells.Extracted honey is filtered through muslincloth. Providing a bee escape between the Management of coloniesbrood and super on the day prior to honeyextraction keeps the bees away from the Apart from the management practicessuper. Remove the escape soon after honey followed for Indian bee, the practices asextraction. mentioned below may be followed. Sources of pure water should be available near the apiary. Stagnant water or water in a

298 BEEKEEPINGcontainer is not appropriate because it can Processing of honeyspread nosema disease. Flowing water nearthe apiary should serve as a good source. As To be done as described under Indianan alternative, water trickling from a bees. During the lean season (May-Septem-container set on a stand and falling on a ber), remove the super chambers, arrangeslanting wooden plank can be provided. the available healthy brood combs in the brood chamber and use division boards to restrict During the brood rearing season (growth the space. Provide artificial feeding once inperiod) from October to January, replace- a week by way of 1:1 sugar syrup in water.ment of old queens by young healthy ones, Each colony may require syrup prepared fromuniting the weak colonies and giving supple- 500-750 g sugar a week depending on thementary feeding as and when required should size of the colony and availability of storedbe done. Colonies should be provided with food. When there is dearth of natural source,enough space for brood rearing and food pollen substitutes may be provided in thestorage, by giving comb foundation sheets one colony.at a time. Pests and diseases In areas where queen mating is aproblem, especially when only a few Brood mite (Tropilaelaps clareae): Infestscolonies are kept in isolated pockets, the the brood and the infestation is severe duringcolony with virgin queen is to be transferred the major brood rearing season (October-to areas where more number of colonies are January). These ectoparasites feed on thekept so as to ensure the availability of queen haemolymph of developing broods slowlyin sufficient numbers and afterwards returned killing them. Dusting sulphur on the topbarsto the former apiary. of the frames @ 200 mg/ frame at 7-14 days interval during brood rearing season is very During honey flow season (January- effective in checking the infestation.April), provide raised combs in the super andthe number of combs to be added depends Yellow-banded wasp (Vespa cincta):on the strength of the colony. Only ripe honey These predatory wasps catch the bees fromis harvested when two-third of the comb cells both the hive entrance and inside the hives.are capped so that honey contains less than Locating and destroying their nests by20 per cent moisture. Care should be taken burning or insecticidal usage is an effectiveto see that the bee colonies are not stripped control measure.of all the honey stores. Enough stores ofhoney should be ensured in the hive at the Wax moth (Galleria mellonella): Infestsend of honey flow for use during the following weak and unattended colonies. Proper clean-lean period. For migratory bee keeping, fol- ing of the hives periodically and keeping thelow the practices as adopted for Indian bees. hives without cracks and crevices can avoid infestation.Extraction of honey Black ants: Various species of black ants The sealing of comb is removed with a intrude beehives and take away honey andsharp knife and the extraction done in an pollen and kill the brood and bees, which mayextractor designed for langstroth size frames. lead to absconding of colony. The apiaryExtracted honey is filtered through a coarse should be kept clean and the ant nestscloth to remove the impurities. destroyed by insecticidal applications. Ant wells should be provided for the beehive stands.

BEEKEEPING 299Red tree-ant (Oecophyla smaragdina) boat shaped scales, which are easily removable from the cells. If not protected properly, the red tree-antscan cause considerable damage to the bees The sequence of visible symptoms foundand the brood. The bees that come in in the field is:contact with the ground are attacked andkilled by the ants and dragged to their nests 1. Presence of unsealed cells in brood areaby a number of ants. In the apiary, if the containing diseased larvae with their headbranch of a tree with these ants happens to directed outwards like the prow of a boat.come in contact with the hive, the entirecolony is attacked and destroyed. Providing 2. Dead larvae are seen lying stretched outant wells will keep away the ants. Care should on their back on the floor of brood cellsbe taken not to keep the colonies near or and look like a sac filled with milky whiteunder the trees having ant nests. fluid when lifted up.Bee-eater bird (Merops orientalis) 3. Appearance of dead larvae strewn on the floorboards, hive entrance or on the floor These predatory birds do much harm in near the hive.certain localities. They pick the bees on wingsand 30-43 honeybees have been found in the 4. Mottled appearance of brood combs withstomach of a bird. Attack by these birds is uncapped cells interspersed with cappedmostly seen during December-January. cells or cells with perforated capping.These birds are also very useful in keepingdown the insect population in a locality and 5. Appearance of more and more deadhence no large-scale measures against them larvae left within the cells without beingcan be recommended. Scaring them away ejected by the worker bees.from apiaries is suggested. 6. Appearance of sac like remnants of deadThai sac brood virus larvae within the cells.Symptoms 7. Lack of cleaning activity within the hive. All the larval instars are susceptible to the 8. Decrease in egg laying rate and irregulardisease, earlier instars being more placement of eggs.susceptible. Affected larvae appear slightlyplumby compared to healthy ones when 9. Decrease in foraging activity andexamined on taking out of the comb cells. presence of idling workers inside the hive.The infected larvae seen stretched on theirback in the cells with the head directed 10.Dwindling of bee population of the colony.outwards and turned upwards like the prowof a boat. The dead larvae look like a sac 11. Desertion of infected hives by the beesfilled with milky white fluid when lifted up causing total loss to the apiary.and it ruptures even with the slight pressurereleasing the milky fluid. The cadavers Managementchange their colour from white to paleyellow and sunk down to the floor of the cell Being a virus disease there is no knownand dry up in 10-15 days as brownish black remedy. However, the following measures may help in minimizing the possibilities of further spread: a) Keep colonies strong; b) avoid exchange of hive parts, combs etc. from infected colonies to healthy colonies; c) avoid procurement of colonies or swarms from infected areas.

300 SERICULTURE SERICULTURE(Ad hoc recommendation)Moriculture For rainfed crop, three cuttings are to be planted per pit in a triangular manner with a Mulberry can be grown under various distance of 15 cm, keeping only one budclimatic conditions ranging from temperate exposed.to tropical. Its growth depends on manyclimatic conditions such as temperature, Maintenance of the garden (1st year)humidity, rainfall etc. A temperature rangeof 24-28ºC, humidity range of 65-80 per cent After 8 months of planting, 50 kg each ofand 600-2500 mm rainfall are ideal for N, P O and K O should be applied per haoptimum growth of mulberry. The soil should after2we5 eding. 2First harvest can be taken sixbe deep, fertile, well drained, clay loam to months after planting by leaf picking.loam and with good moisture holding capac- Second dose of 50 kg N per ha should beity. Slightly acidic (6.2-6.8 pH) soil free from applied 8 weeks after the first leaf harvest.injurious salts is ideal for the growth of Two more crops can be taken at an intervalmulberry. of 3 months, by leaf picking.Land preparation Manuring The field is levelled and ploughed deeply For rainfed crop apply FYM @ 10 t ha-1before the onset of monsoon. FYM may beapplied @ 10 t ha-1 for the rainfed crop and as a basal dose and topdress every year at20 t ha-1 for the irrigated crop during landpreparation. the time of annual pruning. Fertilizers are applied @ 130:65:65 kg ha-1 of N:P O :K OMethod of planting and spacing in two split doses. For irrigated crop,2FY5 M2is given @ 20 t ha-1 as basal dose. Fertilizers (1) Pit system (rainfed crop): Spacing are applied @ 300:120:120 kg ha-1 of N: P O :75 cm x 75 cm (pit size 30 cm x 30 cm x 2530 cm)(2) Row system (irrigated crop): Spac- K O in five split doses.ing 60 cm x 60 cm (ridges and furrows) 2Planting material Pruning The variety K2 gives higher yield and For rainfed crop, bottom pruning is donebetter quality leaves. Cuttings must be in May-June. Two top clippings in August/prepared from shoots of proper maturity (6- September and December/January are also8 months) and thickness with well developed practised. Middle pruning is done inbuds. Cuttings of 7-10 cm length and pencil October/November. For irrigated crop,thickness with 3 or 4 active buds are ideal. bottom pruning at 15-30 cm height in May, two top clippings in August and DecemberPlanting and two middle pruning at 60 cm height in October and February/March are practised. For irrigated crop, two cuttings shouldbe planted at each spot along the margin Pestsof the ridge. Tussock caterpillars (Euproctis fraterna) Larvae eat the leaves of the mulberry plant. Their incidence is frequent during

SERICULTURE 301March to August. Collection and destruction February. White powdery patches appear onof egg masses and spraying 1 per cent DDVP the lower side of the leaves.are effective. Waiting period is 3 days. Leaf rust (Ceratelicum fici)Jassids (Empoasca flarescens) The attacked portion of the leaves have Greenish hoppers feed on the underside whitish brown pustules on both sides, areof the leaf, suck sap and cause hopper burn. deformed and non-nutritive. Infection isSpraying 0.05 per cent dimethoate is more in November-February. This can beeffective. Waiting period is 10 days. controlled by spraying carbendazim 0.05 per cent or tridemorph 0.08per cent.Thrips Leaf spot (Cercospora moricola) These are frequent during summerseason. Attack is severe in rainfed gardens. Diseased leaves have a number ofSpraying 0.02 per cent DDVP is effective. circular or irregular brownish black spots ofWaiting period is 3 days. varying size. Infection is more common in rainy season. This can be controlled byMealy bugs (Maconelliococcus hirsutus) spraying 0.05per cent of carbendazim. It causes ‘tukra disease’. The affected Yieldleaves show curling and stunted growth atthe growing point. Rainfed crop : 12000-15000 kg/ha/year Irrigated crop : 25000-30000 kg/ha/yearScale insect Silkworm rearing When attack is severe, branches dry andbecome yellow. Spraying lime sulphur Requirements for silkworm rearingsolution is effective. 1. Good quality mulberry leavesLeaf eating caterpillar (Diacrisia obliqua) 2. Rearing house of approximately 20 m2 for Appears frequently between November 100 dfls (disease free layings), with goodand January. Collection and destruction of ventilation, mild temperature (24-28ºC)egg masses, deep ploughing and flood and humidity (65-85 per cent).irrigation to kill the pupae and application of0.05 per cent DDVP on the leaves can 3. Rearing equipments like chawki standprevent the attack. (one), wooden trays (10), rearing racks (5), chopping board (one) and knife,Root knot disease (Meloidogyne incognita) wooden / bamboo rearing trays (50), chandrika / netrika (mountage) (40), leaf Common in sandy loam type of soil chamber, feeding stands, ant wells, rockerunder irrigated conditions. Controlled by sprayer, wet and dry bulb thermometerapplying neem oil cake at the rate of 400 kg and materials like formaldehyde / bleach-per ha per year in four equal split doses. ing powder, paraffin paper, cleaning nets, foam rubber strips, and RKO powder areDiseases required.Powdery mildew (Phyllactina corylea) It is more common during November-

302 SERICULTURERearing techniques paper should be removed and spread on the bed to dry up. If there are more feeding Disinfect the rearing house and worms, a light and thin feeding may be given.equipments two-three days before rearing to All the worms settle in 6-8 hours. Duringprevent silkworm disease. First, wash the moulting, worms should not be disturbed andrearing house and the equipments with 2 per full ventilation should be provided. Feeding iscent bleaching powder. Then spray the room resumed when 90 per cent of worms haveand equipments with 5 per cent bleaching moulted. RKO powder is dusted over thepowder or 2 per cent formaldehyde. Keep worms 30 minutes before feeding. After twothe rearing houses closed for 24 hours for consecutive feedings, the larvae with the netthe fumes to get diffused. are transferred to a new tray. Mature larvae stop feeding and prepare themselves for spin- First incubate the dfls (egg card) at a ning. Its body becomes translucent, shrinkstemperature of 24-26ºC and RH of 75-80 per in length and constrictions appear on fourthcent, one day prior to hatching (blue egg and fifth segments. They move towards thestage); cover the eggs with black paper periphery of the trays. Such worms are picked(black boxing). Next day morning, open it and transferred to Chandrika / Netrakae.and expose to diffused sunlight. As the About 1000 worms (400-450 larvae/m2) canlarvae emerge out, fresh tender leaves be mounted in a mountage. Mount the entirecollected from the plant are chopped into larvae within a maximum period of 48 hours0.5 mm x 0.5 mm size and sprinkled over the and provide sufficient ventilation during spin-hatched larvae. After half an hour, transfer ning. Cocoon should be harvested on the fifththe larvae to the paraffin paper spread in the and sixth day after mounting. In rainy andchawky trays (wooden trays) using fine cold seasons, it should be delayed for onebrush. Provide wet foam strips around and more day. The cocoons are collected fromprepare a compact bed. Give another feed- Chandrika and transported in light gunny bagsing in the bed. Cover with paraffin paper and to cocoon market. The cocoon should bestack the trays one over the other on the marketed immediately after harvest, so as tostand. Upto 20 layings can be brushed in a avoid adult emergence. Under averagetray of 90 cm x 60 cm. conditions, 100 dfls of bivoltine will yield 40-60 kg cocoons and cross breed will yield Feeding schedule (for 100 laying) 30-50 kg cocoons.Instar Leaf position Quantity Larval Diseases from the tip of leaf (kg) duration 1 (days) Pebrine 2 2nd and 3rd 3 3rd, 4th and 5 th 2-2.5 3-4 It is the most destructive disease of silk 4 5th, 6th and 7th worms and is caused by protozoa, Nosema 5 Lower leaves 6-7 2-3 bombyscis. The worms become inactive with Still lower leaves poor appetite, the skin becomes wrinkled and 25-30 3-4 moulting becomes irregular. 75-80 4-6 600-650 6-7 At the end of each instar, larvae stopfeeding and cast off old skin in 18-30 hours.When the worms set for moulting, paraffin

SERICULTURE AND RODENTSAND THEIR CONTROL 303Flacherie 3. Dip the egg cards in 2 per cent formalin solution for 20 minutes before incubation. It is caused by bacteria and poor rearingconditions like high temperature, high humid- 4. Collect undersized larvae and destroyity, poor ventilation, bad leaf quality, over regularly by burning or burrowing in soil.feeding etc. aggravates the disease. Diges-tive and circulatory systems are damaged and 5. Feed good quality leaves of correctthe symptoms are loss of appetite and diar- stages.rhoea. 6. Avoid over feeding and under feedingGrasserie 7. Clean the bed every day and burn the Mostly seen in ripening larvae. Caused infested litter.by Borrelina virus. Infection is induced byextreme low and high temperature. 8. Use RKO powder at every moultingSwelling of the inter-segmental region, before resumption of feeding.shining skin, rupture of body wall, oozingof body fluid and endless crawling are symp- 9. Maintain humidity only to the desired level.toms. Such worms do not moult and spin. PestsMuscardine Uzi-fly (Trycholyga bombycis) The fungi Beauveria bassiana, Spicariaprasina and Isaria farinosa are the causal It is a serious parasite of silkworm larvaeagents. The infected larvae lose appetite. and pupae causing heavy loss. Adult is a largeSpecks of oozing oily substance without any fly with prominent black and grey stripes. Theclear-cut margins appear on the skin. Body fly prefers later instars to the earlier ones forgenerally hardens and becomes stiff. oviposition.Prevention and control Management1. Disinfect the rearing room and equipment Prevent the entry of fly into the rearing before rearing. room by providing wire mesh or nylon net on doors and ventilators. Burn the parasitized2. Use only disease free layings from larvae. Apply chlorpyrifos on the ground and authorized agencies. crevices of walls of rearing house. Other pests include ants, lizards, rats, squirrels, dermestid beetles and birds.RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL (Ad hoc recommendation) Rats are important non-insect pests and the other with grey belly. Tail length is morecan be grouped into two different groups as than the length of head and body. They aredomestic rats and field rats. found in houses and eat anything that man eats. They also cause qualitative damage byDomestic rats deposition of faecal matter, urine and hairs. It damages gunny bags, plastic containers,These are found near human dwellings. clothes, electric wires etc. House rats damage tender coconuts and cocoa pods in 1. House rats (Rattus rattus): Thereare two subspecies; one with white belly and

304 RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROLthe fields. They also act as carriers of 5. Long tailed tree mouse (Vande-several human and animal diseases. leuria oleracea): The fur is soft and tail is much longer than the body. They are found 2. House mouse (Mus musculus): Fur in most parts of India inhabiting trees andis short without spines. Tail is almost naked shrubs. They damage the inflorescence ofand larger than head and body. The mouse is arecanut and leafy vegetables by cutting itsvery active and is found in houses and gar- leaves.dens. It can climb up walls. It damages clothes,plastic containers and food materials. 6. Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus): These rats are found in waterlogged areas. 3. Large bandicoot rat (Bandicota This is a medium sized rat with tail more orindica): This is the largest domestic rat. Fur less equal to the length of the head and body.is coarse. Tail length is almost equal to the These rats damage paddy crop. It cuts thebody length. Body weight ranges from 750 to plants at the base and chews the cut portion.1000 g. It damages all tuber crops. It also Maximum attack is at the booting stage. Thedamages concrete buildings by making attack ceases after initiation of flowering. Theburrows under the basement. damage is usually observed in patches away from the field bunds.Field rats 7. Soft furred field rat (Millardia 1. Large bandicoot rat (B. indica): meltada): These rats are found in cultivatedLarge bandicoot rats are also seen in the field. field in pairs or small groups of 5 or 6. TheySo this can be considered both as domestic are soft furred without spines. These rats cutand field rat. the rice plants in the transplanted crop. The damage starts at the time of planting and 2. Lesser bandicoot rat (B. bengalensis): continues up to harvest. The tillers are cut atIt is a short tailed mole rat. Tail length is only the water level.70 per cent of the body length. Fur is shortand coarse. It is seen making burrows in the 8. Bush rat (Golunda elliotti): Thesepaddy field bunds and also in areas where rats are seen in places near forest area. Theycrops like tubers, vegetables, coconut and live under bushes in nests. These rats areyoung rubber are cultivated. destructive to coffee plants. They feed on their buds and flowers. They damage paddy 3. Field mouse (Mus booduga): Fur is by cutting the plants in dryland paddy areas.short and coarse and is mostly found ingardens and fields.Tail is slender and nearly Integrated control of field ratsnaked. Tail length is shorter than body andhead. The burrows of this species are found Rats cause considerable damage toin the paddy fields. They are found feeding agricultural practices and other humanon paddy grains in the mature crop as well as possessions in addition to acting as carrierson seeds sown in the nursery. of several human and animal diseases. Diseases like bubonic plague and weils 4. White rat (Tatera indica): More than disease (due to contamination of food by theone rat per burrow is common in this urine of rats) are caused by rats. It is neces-species. The eyes are large.The tail is longer sary that the importance of rat control bethan the body and is provided with a terminaltuft of long hairs. It is double coloured.

RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL 305understood by all. An integrated approach to pumped or released from pellets or tabletscontrol rats involves the joint utilisation of all put in through burrow entrances.feasible control measures in a complemen-tary manner to maintain the rat population at Zinc phosphidea very low level. Integrated control of fieldrats involves the following: (a) preventing It is a dark grey powder and its toxic ac-their entry into a region or a building by tion is due to release of phosphine gas. Whenputting up mechanical barriers or treating with it is ingested, phosphine is released causingrepellents; (b) encouraging predators such injury to the kidneys, liver and lungsas snakes, cats, dogs, mongooses etc.; (c) followed by death after a few hours. Zinccausing death by a variety of methods. phosphide is used in food baits containing 2 per cent active ingredient.Methods of control Pre-baiting for 3-4 days consecutively isEnvironmental control necessary to overcome bait shyness. For pre-baiting and baiting, the same carrier In this method of control rats are rendered material has to be used. Crushed wheat,to a hostile environment in which they can- maize, bajra, puffed rice, popcorn or rice mixednot survive. The mud walls in villages may with a little jaggery and oil are excellentbe replaced by thorny hedges thereby carriers. To prepare the carrier, 95 parts bypreventing the rats from making burrows. weight of cereal ingredient is to be mixed withGood house keeping is regarded as the most 5 parts of jaggery.economical and effective way of reducingrat population. Proper sanitation should be For baiting, zinc phosphide is mixed withmaintained by keeping food material groundnut oil and carrier in the ratio 2:2:96inaccessible to rats in rat proof containers. by weight. At each bait station, 30-40 g ofThe heap of garbage and sweepings in streets the bait mixture will have to be exposed. Theand towns should not be kept for a long stations may be selected in areas where ratsperiod. Designing rat proof godowns and are frequent, such as areas around kitchen,other buildings is another step to ensure store and in homesteads. Expose baits in theenvironmental control. evening and collect them in the following morning. Conduct baiting for threePoisoning successive days. Three types of poisoning are usually Repellentsemployed to control rats. Chemical repellents include malathion 1. Acute poisons are those that can kill and cyclohexamide which are repellents torats with a single dose; e.g. zinc phosphide. house rats. 2. Multiple dose or chronic poisons Biological controlrequire repeated ingestion over several succes-sive days; e.g. anticoagulants. Both field and domestic rats are subjected to attack by a range of predators, parasites 3. Fumigants are gases and are usually and pathogens. The predators include cats,

306 RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROLdogs, snakes, owls, mongooses etc. The 3. Glues:Aform of trapping in which a stickypractice of rearing cats in house has been substance entangles the animal.found to adversely affect rat population. Theutilization of microbial pathogens has not 4. Pot traps: These traps are extensively usedproved successful in any part of the world. for catching rice field rats. This trap consists of a wooden plank, a mud pot ofTrapping 10 inch diameter, a metal strip which carry bait and a ‘Y’shaped wooden peg Trapping is the oldest method of to which needle is tied; e.g. Moncompucontrolling rodents.Almost any trap will catch trap.some rats, but the response varies with dif-ferent species. The rats are easily caught in The trap is to be set up in rice fields, aftercage or box, but a rat trapped in such trap placing the base plank above the canopywill be exposed to other rats which level on a specially erected platform, ondevelop trap shyness and they avoid such poles. The rats attracted by the bait climbtype of traps. The most effective rat taps are over to the base plank and try to snatchthose, which can completely conceal the rats off the bait tied on to the metallic strip.trapped in it; e.g. Moncompu trap. The rat Slight disturbance of the strip dislocatestraps can be grouped into a few categories. the wooden needle from the strip slot and causes the pot to fall down abruptly overLive traps (cage or box trap) the rat. The pot and the plank are tightly held and removed in that position and im-1. Automatic traps: These have counter mersed in water after inversion for balanced entrances. When an animal killing the trapped rat. Since the live rat enters this type of traps, its weight makes does not see the captured ones, they do it fall into a cage below. The counter not develop shyness against this type of balance on the trap door brings it back mechanical trap. into place, leaving the rodent in the cage. These are intended to catch more than 5. Snap traps: Most of the rat traps fall one rat; e.g. wonder trap. within this category and are widely used for trapping rats. These kill the rat instantly2. Remote triggered trap: These work by up- by snapping shut when the rat nibbles at setting a delicate balance when the bait the bait placed in the middle of the open stick is disturbed or when the weight is trap. These are variously called as “break put on a treadle. Common type of this is back traps”, “guillotine”, “spring traps”, the box or cage trap that captures one rat “saw toothed traps” and “bamboo traps” at a setting. A box trap is a wooden or depending upon the materials used in metal box open at one or both ends, hav- making them. ing one or two doors. Some have one or both will have overhead trigger on which 6. Kerosene tin trap: It is made by cutting bait is fastened and the door is released the top of the tin and filling it with water when the rat works on the bait. Others up to 15 cm from the top. Chaff is floated have a treadle in the floor on which the on the water surface so that the rat rat steps to drop the door. cannot see water. Attractive and strong

RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL AND BIOCONTROL OF SALVINIA 307 smelling bait like dry fish, fried coconut control in the houses and office building, etc. is pinned on to a piece of cork or because animals that get killed can be easily lightwood and floated on the chaff. Aplank removed. Traps can be used profitably to deal is leaned against the side to enable the rat with poison-shy and scattered survivors of to climb to the top. Seeing no water and poison campaign. eager to get the bait the rat jumps on to the chaff and gets drowned. Control of important species of rats Success or failure of trapping is depen- Lesser bandicoot rat: These attacking tu-dent up on the following factors. ber crops can be easily controlled by poison baiting in rodent burrows. Firstly, locate thea. Placement: Traps must be placed where burrows in the field. Open the burrows to a animals will regularly encounter them. length of 30 to 45 cm. The rats will come and close the burrows with soil within 30b. Concealment: It is not advisable to use minutes. Then it can be again opened and new shining traps against rats. To over- poison bait can be inserted into the burrow. come trap shyness it may sometimes be necessary to cover the trap with a slight From bait preference studies indicate that, coating of paper or dry leaves that does prawn powder as the most effective bait. Dry not interfere with the trigger or action. prawn available in the market is heated and powdered. A few drops of vegetable oil arec. Size and design: Traps should be neither added and zinc phosphide 1-2 per cent is too small nor too large for the anticipated mixed with the bait. This zinc phosphide bait catch. can be put inside the burrow preferably on a dry leaf. No pre-baiting is necessary for thesed. Mechanical conditions: Putting out traps rats in the garden lands since it has no bait that are in poor working conditions is a shyness. waste of time and effort. Norway rat: The most effective methode. Number of traps: Large number of traps of control has been found to be the Moncompu relative to the expected size of the rodent trap. Firstly, fresh rat-damages in the field population should be used. have to be located. The rats have a habit of visiting the same area on subsequent days.f. Bait used: Fresh aromatic bait that is most Hence the traps should be placed in such attractive to the largest species should be spots. used. Food grains in the houses should be properly covered so that the rat finds only the food in the trap. Trapping is the preferred method ofBIOCONTROL OF SALVINIA (Salvinia molesta) Release of Cyrtobagous salviniae are recommended for release in a particularweevils is found effective for the control of area. When collection of weevil is notsalvinia. Even one pair of weevil is sufficient possible, about one kg of infested salvinia canfor establishment in a locality. But for be used as the inoculum. Release maypractical consideration 50 to 100 weevils preferably be made whenever tender salvinia

308 BIOCONTROL OF SALVINIA, PAPAYA MEALY BUG AND ECOFRIENDLY......growth is available. If the plants are very old, The rate of natural dispersal of thethey may be removed mechanically to weevil is rather slow and hence it ispromote re-growth and then weevils are to desirable that the infested weed mats arebe released. Almost 100 per cent control of redistributed at periodic intervals. In canalsthe weed will be obtained in a span of 12-18 used for navigation, the rate of spread of themonths. weevil is found to be quite adequate.BIOCONTROL OF PAPAYA MEALY BUG USING PARASITOID Papaya mealy bug – Paracoccus Mass production of the parasitoid: Themarginatus (Pseudococcidae) : Papaya parasitoid can be successfully mass producedmealybugs colonise lower side of the papaya in the laboratory on papaya mealybugleaves along the veins and later cover the colonies grown on potato sprouts and shoots.fruits. Due to the mealy bug infestation, the Two month old potatoes are procured, washedyounger plants are killed outright. in water, disinfected using 5% Sodium hypochlorite solution. Make slight cut on the Biological control: Acerophagus papayae potato and treat in Giberelic acid 100 ppm(Encyrtidae) is a parasitoid imported from solution for half an hour.After air drying keepPuerto Rico. The parasitoid successfully the potatoes on sand and cover with blacksuppressed the mealybug population in cloth for germination. Good sprouts areKerala. The parasitoid is very specific and produced within two weeks for mass cultur-did not colonise other species of mealybugs. ing mealy bugs.The parasitoids are thenRelease rate is 25 to 50 numbers per plant. released to the colonies of the mealy bug.The parasitoid is parasitizing the second A. papyae has very less pre ovipositioninstar nymphs of mealybugs. It is very active period, sex ratio is 1:1, fecundity 50-60, Totaland have good host searching ability and life cycle is completed in 16-20 days.suppress the mealybug within 3 to 4 monthsdepending upon the size of the colony.ECOFRIENDLY MANAGEMENT OF WATER HYACINTH (Eichhornia crassipes) IN WATER BODIES Water hyacinth in water bodies can be are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolvemanaged by spraying 5 per cent Cashew Nut in 500 ml of water. Pour 500ml.of CNSLShell liquid (CNSL) emulsion followed by slowly and stir vigorously to get a goodspraying 40 per cent Wetable Powder for- emulsion. Dilute this one litre solution bymulation (WP) of Fusarium pallidoroseum adding 9 litres of water to get 10 litres of(5 per cent). Spraying may be repeated with 5 per cent CNSL emulsion.WP 5 per cent alone, after 2 weeks if anynew sprouts develop. * A minimum of 30 minutes may be given between the application of CSNL andPreparation of 5 per cent CNSL emulsion Fusarium pallidoroseum. To prepare 10 litres of 5 per cent CNSL * In moving water bodies fencing with ropeemulsion, 500 ml of CNSL and 50 g bar soap and coconut leaf is recommended.

BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENS 309BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENSArbuscular mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) alone is used, mixing has to be done at 5 days interval and it will be ready for use only on Inoculation with AMF at the time of plant- the 15th day. This Trichoderma incorporateding in the nursery or main field improves the neemcake- cowdung mixture can be used ingrowth and tolerance of crop against root the potting mixture in nursery beds and in thepathogens, particularly Phytophthora, field; i.e. wherever cowdung is used as aPythium, Rhizoctonia and root nematodes manure.of black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric,cowpea, rice and transplanted vegetables. Trichoderma harzianum is recommended by fortifying 50kg farmyard manure or neemTrichoderma cake with 1kg of the mother culture and incubated for 10-15 days before application Biocontrol of soil borne plant pathogens in the field (@ 1kg/vine). The mother cultureinvolves mass introduction of antagonistic in liquid formulation can be incorporated withmicroorganisms in the soil. Trichoderma spp. sterilized coir compost @ 1l/20kg and applyis a group of broad-spectrum antagonists @1kg/vine as above.subjected to detailed studies for their poten-tial as biocontrol agents. They are effective Fluorescent pseudomonasagainst the quick wilt of pepper (T. viride (ad hoc recommendation)T6, T. longibrachiatum T2), rhizome rot ofcardomom (T. longibrachiatum T2, T. virens Fluorescent pseudomonas are a group ofT9) and ginger (T. viride T10). A non-axenic bacteria very effective against disease incitedsystem, viz. neemcake-cowdung mixture is by species of Phytophthora, Pythium,used as food base for Trichoderma spp. Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Ralstonia and Xanthomonas in various crop Dry neem cake and cowdung are to be plants in the nursery as well as in the mainpowdered and mixed at 1:1 ratio to get a field.coarse texture and then moistened bysprinkling water. Add the commercial Two isolates of Pseudomonas fluor-preparation of Trichoderma spp. (available escens (P1 and P14) have been developedin polythene packets) @ 1-2 kg per 100 kg by the Kerala Agricultural University for theof neemcake cowdung mixture. After thor- disease management and growth promotionoughly mixing, cover it with a perforated of crop plants. This is found highly effectivepolythene sheet or ordinary newspaper and for the management of foot rot and fungalkeep it in shade for 4-5 days for multiplica- pollu of black pepper, sheath blight andtion. Again mix well and keep for three more bacterial leaf blight of paddy, bacterial leafdays for further multiplication. This prepara- spot and Phytophthora infestation in beteltion is ready for incorporation in the soil. vine, bacterial wilt of solanaceousCowdung alone can also be used as the food vegetables, bacterial leaf blight of anthuriumbase; but, since neem cake is found to be a and Colletotrichum and Phytophthorabetter substrate, a mixture of the two is found infestation in vanilla and rhizome rot ofbetter than using cowdung alone. If cowdung ginger. The organism significantly improves

310 BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENS AND SOIL SOLARIZATIONthe growth and biomass production of crop in 750 ml for 20 minutes). For seed treat-plants. ment in paddy the talc based culture may be added to the water used for sprouting at the Application of Pseudomonas fluorescens rate of 10 g per kg of seed.at the rate of 10 g formulation (1010 cells pergram) mixed with 2 kg of well decomposed For transplanted crop, root dip treatmentfarmyard manure or compost and applied in at the time of transplanting, followed by athe basin of the vine in the field can also help spray 30 days after transplanting. For blackcontrol foot rot. pepper, drenching the nursery plants imme- diately after planting followed by one or twoMethod of application sprays depending on the extent of disease. For managing foot rot of pepper in the main The time of application and the frequency field, drenching the base of the vine andof application may vary depending on the spraying the plant with Pseudomonascrops. The application may be repeated based culture at the rate of 10 g/litre at the onseton the intensity of the disease incidence. of monsoon can be practised. A second spray may be given, if necessary, during the The talc-based formulation at 1-2 per cent mid-monsoon period.level may be used for soil drenching andspraying. Seedlings/cuttings are treated with Chemical fertilizers and plant protectionPseudomonas culture by dipping the root/tip chemicals should not be used along withof cuttings in slurry of Pseudomonas (250 g biocontrol agents.SOIL SOLARIZATION Solarization is a method of hydrothermal position in order to maintain the temperaturedisinfection. This is done by covering moist and moisture inside the polythene mulch.soil with transparent polythene sheet and Adequate care is also to be taken to see thatexposing it to direct sunlight during the the sheet is in close contact with the surfacehottest period of the year. of soil to prevent the formation of air pockets between the soil and polythene sheet.Methods of solarization Keep the sheet in this way for 20-30 days. Protect it from stray animals and birds.a. Nursery bed After the period of solarization, remove the sheet and the bed is ready for sowing and The nursery bed for raising seedlings is transplanting.to be levelled and pebbles present on thesurface removed before solarization. b. Potting mixtureIncorporate the required quantity of organicmanure in the soil and irrigate at the rate of The required type of potting mixture is to5 litres per m2. Cover the beds with 100-150 be prepared as per the recommendedgauge transparent polythene sheets. Seal the practice. Spread this mixture on a levellededges of the sheet with soil to keep it in

SOIL SOLARIZATION 311ground to a height of 15-20 cm. Moisten with control at deeper layers.water using a rose-can and cover the soil withpolythene sheet and solarize for 20-30 days 6. Summer showers will not affectas described above. After solarization, the soil solarization. However, excessive seepagecan be used for sowing/planting. This method of water into the bed during solarizationis found to be very effective to raise disease should be avoided.free pepper cuttings. 7. Potting mixture should never be heapedc. Main field and solarized, as this will drastically reduce the efficiency of the technique. Solarization can also be effectively usedfor the control of soil borne diseases in the 8. Soil should be in good tilth allowing closemain field. The land used for planting is contact between the plastic sheet and theinitially prepared to a fine tilth and pebbles soil to prevent the formation of airremoved. Solarization and planting can then pockets, which will reduce heat conduction.be done as already described. All the otheragronomic practices are to be followed as Benefits of solarizationper the package of practices recommenda-tions. Biopesticides and fertilizers can be 1. Control of fungal pathogens: Several soilincorporated in soil after removing the borne pathogens can be controlled bypolythene sheet. solarization. This includes fungi like Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium,Hints for solarization Rhizoctonia etc.1. Solarization is to be done in open field 2. Control of nematodes: Population without any shade. reduction of nematodes like Meloido- gyne, Heterodera, Xiphinema, etc. can2. Transparent thin polythene sheet be achieved by solarization. (100 to 150 guage) is to be used, as it is both cheaper and more effective in 3. Control of weeds: A number of commonly heating due to better radiation transmit- occurring weeds particularly annuals can tance than thicker sheets. be effectively controlled by solarization. These include, among monocots,3. Summer months are more suitable for Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus rotundus solarization. and Digitaria ciliaris and among dicots, Crotalaria muconata, Indigofera4. Soil should be kept moist during hersuita and Noxia sp. solarization to increase the thermal sensi- tivity of resting structures of soil-borne 4. Plant growth response: Increased growth plant pathogens and weeds, and to response is observed in plants cultivated improve heat conduction. in solarized soil. This is mainly evident as increase in plant height, number of leaves,5. Solarization period may be extended to better root formation, increased root one month or more to ensure pathogen nodulation in legumes and yield.

312 MUSHROOM CULTIVATIONMUSHROOM CULTIVATION Species of Pleurotus, commonly known surface sterilization or to achieve pasteuriza-as oyster mushrooms, grow saprophytically tion and then taken out and kept insideunder natural conditions on trees, dead wood, the basket to drain excess water and isstumps and branches. Today several species allowed to cool to room temperature. Theof Pleurotus are commercially grown in pasteurized straw is ready for filling themany parts of the world. The tropical bags. Instead of straw bits, small round strawclimate prevalent in the state is ideal for mush- bundles of 20 cm diameter are alsoroom cultivation. Species of Pleurotus and used for filling the bags. This method isVolvariella can be successfully cultivated in followed to save time and labour. Now thethe State all round the year on a variety of perforated polythene bag is filled for aboutagro-wastes like saw dust, vegetable and 5 cm height with the above processed strawpaper wastes, oil palm pericarp waste and and pressed with hand for making it even.straw. But the most suitable substrate is found Care should be taken to fill the bags asto be paddy straw. compactly as possible for the proper growth of mycelium. For getting maximum yield,Variety 2-2.5 per cent (125 g) of spawn is used. Spawn is taken out from packets and kept Ananthan is a short duration variety of inside a clean container or paper. From this,oyster mushroom released from KAU. It is one tablespoon full of spawn is sprinkled overan inter-stock hybrid of Pleurotus petaloides the filled straw around the peripheral region.with firm flesh, pure white colour and is A second layer of processed straw is filledresistant to pest and diseases. It has good and spawned as above. Repeat the processcooking quality as well as consumer accept- as above until the soaked straw is finished.ability and can be grown on wheat, paddy Every time before spawning, press the strawand sorghum straw. On an average, it takes with hand for making it compact. If bundleseight days from spawning to harvest. Yield are used for filling the bags care should bepotential is 800 g per kg straw. taken to keep the bundles inside the bag as compact as possible without leaving anyMethod of cultivation space in between the bundle. Finally the bag is closed tightly with twine and beds are kept Polythene bags or tubes of 30 cm x 60 cm undisturbed for spawn running for aboutsize and 150-200 gauge thickness are taken 15-20 days inside the rooms, thatched rodent-for filling the substrate. If the tubes are used, proof sheds or in verandas. The bestthe free-end is tied with a string. Seven to temperature and humidity for spawn runningeight holes of 0.5-1.0 cm diameter are made ranges from 28-30ºC and 80-85 per centall over the bag for aeration. One kg of well respectively. The beds can be arranged overdried, one year old paddy straw is cut into a platform or in shelves. The spawn runningsmall bits of 5-8 cm in length and immersed can be judged from the whitish growthin water for 18 hours. Then the soaked straw covering the straw completely. Periodicallyis taken out from water and kept inside the observe the beds and discard the conta-basket for 1-2 hours to drain away excesswater. The soaked straw is kept underboiling water (100ºC) for 30-40 minutes for

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION 313Table 29. Salient characters of common edible species of mushrooms of KeralaCharacters Termitomyces Termitomyces Termitomyces Pleurotus Pleurotus Boletus edulis robustus mammiformis microcarpus cornucopiae squarrosulus1. Pileus: Large Medium Small Medium Medium Large SizeShape Convex to Convex to flat convex Flabelliform Flabelliform GloulkarColour planoconvex Whitish grey White to White White to cream Pale Pale cream cream with scales green Soft FleshyTe x t u r e Not very Soft Fleshy, turns Fleshy, turns soft Lacerate fibrous fibrous Involute when old when old White, free Absent; Margin Smooth, Entire Decurved, Decurved instead, tubes2. Gills lacerate White slender; later expanded are present White, free tendency to Tough, thick3. Stipe White, free form Creamy white White to with decurrent White, solid, pseudorhiza to lilac creamy and solid4. Annulus pseudorhiza Absent decurrent5. Spores tooth hollow with Pink decurrent6. Habit In groups7. Habitat White, solid, blunt end Very short, Stipitate taper to pseu- Persistent On soil often absent dorhiza which White Common Absent Absent Absent is also solid Gregarious arikoon; very Lilac Creamy white Olivaceous widely used in In clusters Scattered Absent Associated In clusters with termite Kerala Pale-pink On wood logs Logs, wood Mycorrhizal, hills and tree stems, espe- associated Solitary or stems scattered cially on with trees like, Known as mango tree jack, mango etc. Associated marakoon with termite Known as Known as marakoon pannikoon hillsRemarks Commonly Common name known as up- perumkala pukoon, highly deliciousminated ones. After 15 days when the spawn harvested by placing the thumb and forefin-running is complete, remove the polythene ger near the base of the fruiting body andbag by cutting it with blade and keep the bed twisted in clockwise direction to get itfor sporocarp formation. The opened beds are detached from the mycelium.An average yieldkept in well-ventilated rooms. Relative humi- of 500-700 g can be harvested from 1 kg ofdity of the room should be 80-85 per cent. If straw. The spent straw can be used astemperature inside the room rises above 30ºC, enriched cattle feed.the room should be sprinkled with water tolower the temperature. Diffused light is es- Management of Pests and contaminantssential for normal fruiting. Pinhead forma- of Oyster mushrooms in Keralation starts on 20th day and 2-3 days arerequired for the maturation of the fruiting body. • Maintain the pH of the water used to soakCropping and yield the substrate at 8.0 by adding lime. Matured and fully opened sporocarps are • Cover the holes with cotton or alterna- tively put 30 - 40 pin pricks on the polythene cover of the mushroom bed.

314 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION• Spray 2 per cent garlic in and around the These two layers form the first layer to be spawned. Break open the spawn bottles and vicinity of mushroom beds carefully divide the spawn into small bits of 2-2.5 cm thick. Place these bits of spawn all• Spot application of Carbendazim (at the the rate of along the periphery of the bed, about 5-8 cm away from the edge and 10 cm rate of 50 ppm) in mould affected parts apart. Sprinkle a teaspoon full of coarsely of the bed. powdered red gram powder before and after spawning the first layer. Build the next• Erect Yellow Light traps for every 25m 2 layer with one row of twist as done before and spawn it. Make successive layers until at a height of 60 cm from the ground in the straw twists are finished. After placing the mushroom house. the last of twists, press the bed thoroughly from the top in order to drain excess water.• Hang an yellow bulb (15W) in between Make the bed as compact as possible and cover with a transparent polythene sheet to two card board pieces (15 cm x15cm size) maintain the temperature and relative humid- coated with mustard oil. Switch on the ity within the bed. Place another wooden bulb from 5 pm to 8 am. Remove insects plank over the bed and keep 4-5 bricks above trapped on the sticky surface everyday. the plank to get more compactness. Keep the bed undisturbed for 6-7 days. SlowlyCultivation of paddy-straw mushroom remove the sheet and observe the moisture(Volvariella volvacea) level of the straw. If the moisture is excess remove the sheets for half an hour and then The paddy straw mushroom can be cover it again as before. Small white roundsuccessfully cultivated in the plains of Kerala pinheads appear all along the sides of the bedthroughout the year where the temperature after 7 days and mature into button and eggranges between 28-32ºC. The straw beds can stage on 9th day. Harvest the maturebe laid out in sheds, veranda of buildings and sporocarps in egg stage. About 2-3 kg ofeven under shades of trees during summer. mushrooms can be harvested from 10 kg ofBeds should not be kept under direct straw. Cropping lasts for 2-3 days. After thesunlight. Prepare a raised platform of 1 m harvest, the spent straw can be sun-dried andlong and 0.5 m broad with wooden planks or used as cattle feed.bricks. Ten to fifteen kg of well-dried andhand-threshed straw is required to raise a Instead of twists, the beds can be laid outsingle standard bed. For spawning this bed, using small bundles of straw each weighingtwo bottles of spawn and about 100 to 150 g about one kg. Place four such bundles ofof red gram powder are needed. First the straw side by side over the platform with loosestraw is made into twists of about 5 to 8 m ends towards the same direction. Over this,long and 20-25 cm diameter. The twists are place another four bundles, the loose endstied into small bundles and are kept immersed towards the opposite direction. These eightin clean water in tanks for about 6 to 12 hours. bundles form one layer, which is to beAfter this, the bundles are taken out and kept spawned as in the case of twists.aside for some time to drain the excesswater. The bundles are untied and thestraightened twists are placed length-wiseover the platform in a zigzag fashion. Thetwists are placed as close as possible. Keepanother layer over the first layer crosswise.

TISSUE CULTURE PROPAGATION OF CROPS 315TISSUE CULTURE PROPAGATION OF CROPS (Ad hoc recommendation) Plant tissue culture is the in vitro culture and Skoog basal medium) with a few dropsof plant cells, tissues and organs under of either alkali or acid, using a pH meter. Addaseptic condition in defined or semi-defined the required quantity of agar and make upmedia. Tissue culture techniques are increas- the volume to 1.0 litre. Pour the solution intoingly being used for the rapid vegetative a glass beaker and heat, while stirring, untilpropagation of plants. It helps in the mass the agar is dissolved. Dispense theclonal propagation of crop plants. It is medium (5 to 15 ml) in test tubes or flasksuseful for plants which do not set seeds or and plug with cotton. Plastic lids or alumi-where the viability of the seeds is poor. Even num foil may also be used for the purpose.when conventional methods of vegetative Culture jars may be plugged with plastic lids.propagation are commercially acceptable, tis- Autoclave the vessels containing culturesue culture propagation can be adopted as it medium for 15 minutes at 1.06 kg/cm2has definite advantages. It offers an pressure (121ºC). While using a pressureextremely rapid rate of multiplication. The cooker, wait for the continuous flow of puregeometric progression of tissue culture propa- steam, put the weight and sterilize forgation makes it possible to produce millions 20 minutes. Explants collected from fieldof plants from an initial explant in a few grown plants will have to be disinfectedmonths. It can speed up the process of es- before inoculating in the culture medium. Thetablishing new varieties. Only a limited quan- explants are washed in running taptity of plant tissue is required as the water first and then in soap solution. Theyinitial explant. Tissue culture propagation are then surface sterilized and trimmedensures the availability of plants throughout using sterile knives. The commonly usedthe year. It helps in the production of surface disinfectants are sodium hypochlo-uniform progeny from cross-pollinated plants. rite (0.1 to 2.0 per cent for 15 to 30 minutes)Disease free planting materials can be made and mercuric chloride (0.05 to 0.1 per centavailable to the farmers. Special laboratory for 3 to 20 minutes). The efficiency of thefacilities and technical skill are essential for surface sterilant can be increased, by addingadopting this technique for mass multiplica- a few drops of surfactants. After surfacetion of crop plants. Training in tissue culture sterilization, the explants should be washedis offered by various research organizations with sterile distilled water four to five timesin Kerala. to remove the residues. The explants are then transferred to the sterile culture media inProcedure vessels. This process is called inoculation. Surface disinfection and inoculation must be Pipette out the required volume of stock carried out in a laminar airflow chamber. Thissolutions of chemicals into a one litre glass equipment can filter the air through a highbeaker. Add components like sucrose and efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter of verymyo-inositol as solid and allow them to dis- small mesh size. This will remove bacteriasolve. Make up the volume to approximately and fungal spores. The steady outward flow950 ml with distilled water. Adjust the pH to of filtered air will ensure a sterile zone in thethe required value (5.6 to 5.8 for Murashige equipment, suitable for aseptic manipulations.

316 PROPAGATION OF CROPS AND KEEPING QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLESThe needles, forceps, blades and petri-dishes environment is a critical process, essentially due to the anatomical and physiologicalused for the manipulation of explants should peculiarities of the plantlets. A period of humidity acclimatization is necessary for thebe pre-sterilized. newly transferred plantlets to adapt to the outside environment, during which the The tools used in the airflow cabinet may plantlets undergo morphological and physiological adaptations, enabling them tobe kept dipped in 70 per cent ethanol in a develop typical terrestrial plant-water control mechanism.beaker and periodically flamed over a spirit Tissue culture techniques for masslamp. After inoculating the explants in multiplication have been standardized forsuitable culture media, the cultures are crops like banana, pineapple, papaya, blackincubated in rooms under controlled pepper, cardamom, vanilla, orchids, anthu-conditions of temperature (26 + 2ºC), light rium, gladiolus and several medicinal plants.(200 lux, 18 hours) and humidity (60-80 per The commercial adoption of tissue culturecent). Response of an explant largely clonal propagation is feasible only when thedepends on the composition of the culture rate of multiplication is satisfactory and themedium. There are several basal media, cost of plantlets is acceptable to the farm-which can be used for various needs with ers. Protocols for the tissue culture propaga-necessary modifications. The basal medium tion of a number of crops like red banana,is selected to suit the plant species and the nendran, pineapple, orchid and anthurium,method of in vitro culture. In general, culture black pepper, vanilla, medicinal plants etc.medium consists of salts of major and minor have been developed at the Kerala Agricul-nutrient elements, vitamins, amino acids, plant tural University and are available forgrowth substances and a source of carbon. commercial adoption.The established cultures are sub-cultured tofresh media at intervals of 3 to 5 weeks. Themedia provided at each subculture decide theresponse of the tissue. Hardening theplantlets to make them adapt to the outsideIMPROVING THE KEEPING QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES (Ad hoc recommendation) About 30 to 40 per cent of the harvested b) Harvesting must be done preferably in thefruits and vegetables are estimated to be lost morning hours or late evening to avoiddue to improper harvesting, handling, storage exposure of the produce to excessive heat,and transportation in India. If proper care is which will hasten spoilage.taken during these operations, the loss canbe minimized to some extent. Some of the c) Harvesting must be done preferably withtechniques, which can be adopted, are as proper harvesting devices suited to thefollows. commodity. For example, mango harvest- ers with cutting edges and plastic net canHarvesting prevent the damage during harvest and collection.a) Harvesting must be done at the appro- priate maturity depending up on the d) Avoid impact shock while harvesting fruits marketing distances and purpose. from tall trees; eg., jackfruit, mango, etc.

KEEPING QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES AND LOW COST....... 317 which will cause bruising, leading to cent ventilation with polyethylene cover of infection. 150 gauge can increase the keeping quality upto 10 to 12 days under ambient conditions.e) Avoid too loose or too tight packing in (2) Packing fresh mushroom (Pleurotus sp.) gunny bags while transporting harvested in 100 gauge polypropylene pouches without produces to minimize bruising. any ventilation can extend the storage life upto 36 hours at room temperature and up to 7Packing days under refrigerated conditions. (3) Fresh tomato can be stored up to 25 days undera) Wash the harvested produce in plain ambient conditions when packed with 35 to water or in chlorinated water to clean it 40 per cent moistened saw dust in the ratio of the adhering mud, dirt and residual of 1 : 0.5 (tomato : saw dust). (4) Fresh pesticides. mature and ripe sapota can be stored up to 6 days under ambient conditions whenb) Remove the infested, rotten and spoiled individually wrapped with cling film. friuts. General storage methods practised toc) Grading the produce can improve extend the keeping quality are: market acceptability. This can be done at farmer’s level or at collection points to 1. By storing the commodity under optimum/ suit the standards established by individu- low temperature and humidity. als, industry or government. Grading will also increase farmer’s bargaining power, 2. By skin coating using wax emulsion as they are likely to get premium prices containing permitted fungicides at for better-grade products. Similarly optimum concentrations. buyers can choose the grades they wish to buy. Possible grading can be based on 3. By adopting controlled/modified atmos- colour, shape, size, weight etc. of the pheric storage modifying the oxygen/ commodity carbondioxide ratio within the package.During storage 4. By sub-atmospheric pressure storage.a) Pre-cool the commodity immediately 5. By ventilated storage using ventilated after harvest to reduce the field heat. films/bags.b) Pre-packaging the commodity into unit 6. Using evaporative cool chamber packs can reduce the handling losses. constructed to store temporarily the harvested produce at the field before Some of the packaging techniques are (1) marketing.Packing of banana hands at 0.2 to 0.4 perLOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION (Indigenous auto irrigator for irrigating potted plants) Indigenous auto irrigator can be fabricated holes. Insert hospital drips through theseby fitting certain low cost accessories in holes. Garden pots designed in this mannerordinary garden pot. First of all plug the holes can serve as auto irrigator. One autoof the garden pot with corks provided with irrigator can serve as water source for a

318 LOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATIONmaximum of six pots. Place the irrigator at a on opposite sides of the pipe, 5mm awaylevel above plant height and arrange the pot- from both ends, at 900 from bottom. It isted plant around this auto irrigator. Plants are centrally attached to a 6mm micro tube andirrigated by exploiting gravitational force. then to the lateral of the pipe networkAdjusting the regulator attached to the through pin connectors. The micro tubehospital drips can regulate the flow of water. with sprinkler head unit is held erect byIrrigate the pots to bring it to field capacity. tying to a riser pipe, fixed near the plant toDaily loss of water from the pots can be be irrigated.computed. The flow rate can be adjustedaccording to water requirement of the plant. The maximum allowable length of laterals in this system is 50m with aboutKAU Micro sprinkler 20 sprinkler heads. An area of 1.0 ha can be irrigated in two splits by a 0.5 to 1.0 HP pump- KAU Micro sprinkler is a farmer friendly ing unit with a pressure of 1.0 to 2.0kg/cm2.irrigation system, simple in design, with The units are capable of discharging 35 toless clogging susceptibility, ensuring uniform 45 lph with an area of coverage upto 2.5mwetting of the basin of the crops. The maincomponent of the system is the rotating sprin- diameter. Coconut, Arecanut, banana,kler head, made of a small piece of 12mm/ vegetables, vanilla, medicinal plants, lawns,8mm dia. LDPE pipe plugged at both ends ornamental plants etc. have been found toby end caps. The length of pipe is respond well to this system of irrigation with6cm for 12mm pipe and 8cm for 8mm maximum efficiency.pipe. Nozzles of 1mm diameter are drilled Low cost greenhouse for protected cultivation Naturally ventilated greenhouse made of bamboo/arecanut/GI pipes and covered with UV stabilized polyethylene sheet are suitable for growing high value crops like cabbage, cauliflower, capsicum, tomato and cucumber round the year. Temperature and humidity

LOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION 319 Roof ventilator provided with insect proof net side ventilator provided with insect proof net UV stabilized polyethylene sheet (200 micron)0.55 12.5m4.35m 2.25m 6mbuild up inside the green house can be greenhouse. Hence height of greenhouse hascontrolled by natural ventilation through to be increased with increase in floor area.insect proof nets (40-50 mesh) and byproviding the required height to the structure. The structure can be made of arecanut/The optimum height of a greenhouse depends GI pipes/bamboo poles. The bamboo/on floor area, ambient temperature, relative arecanut poles should be treated withhumdity, solar radiation and wind velocity of chlorpyriphos (0. 2 per cent) to preventthe locality. termite attack. The structure should be covered with UV stabilized polyethyleneDesign of low cost greenhouse sheet (200 micron) with at least 85 per cent light transmissibility. Side ventilators should An optimal design of a low cost green- be provided on either side of greenhouse athouse suitable for homesteads of Kerala is the floor level and roof ventilators should bea gable shaped structure with a floor area of provided at the top level throughout the length75m2 provided with roof and side ventilation. of the greenhouse as shown in figure. Venti-The structure should have a ridge height of lators should be provided with insect proof4.35 m and gutter height of 2.5m. The roof net. Crop yield under the naturally ventilatedslope should be around 300, effective side greengouse is generally 3.5 times more thanventilation not less than 30 per cent and that of open field. Insect and other pesteffective roof ventilation not less than attack is limited to thrips and mites for which9 per cent the floor area of the greenhouse. suitable control measures should be adopted.The temperature inside the greenhouse Off season production of vegetables is alsoincrease with increase in floor area and possible in greenhouse which fetches a highdecreases with increase in height of the market price to the farmer. •

320 FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALAFARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALAKAU Helical Blade Puddler approximately 0.1 ha/h and has a saving of KAU Helical Blade Puddler is an energy 75 per cent labour and 70 per cent cost in transplanting. The transplanter costs aroundefficient tractor drawn implement for Rs 3000.puddling wet lands. When used with a cagewheel attached tractor, there is a saving of Yanji Shakti 8-row rice transplanterabout 40 per cent time and a correspondingsaving in fuel. The implement helps to avoid Rated speed: 2600 rpm; row number:over puddling and achieve better soil condition 8; row spacing: 238 mm; distance between hills: 120-140 mm; number of seedling persuitable for mechanized transplanting. The hill: 3-8; suitable width of seedling mat:other advantages are less distortion of level 2-20 mm; planting depth: 0.60 mm.of the paddy fields and enhanced life of cagewheels. The implement is easy to operate 5 HP self-propelled paddy reaperand can be manufactured locally. The costis about Rs.22,000. The 5 HP engine-operated improved IRRIManually operated paddy transplanter reaper harvests paddy in 1 m width both in dry and wet fields of Kerala, except in sticky The improved IRRI six-row paddy kole fields. A person operates it by walkingtransplanter is simple in construction and easy behind the reaper. Maximum recovery ofto operate. Six numbers of seedling mats grain and straw is achieved.of 20 cm x 50 cm size are placed in thetransplanter tray, which is operated by a It harvests broadcasted or transplantedsingle person. It weighs only 20 kg.It is non-lodged paddy. It is suitable for own useoperated in puddled and leveled fields with a as well as for custom hiring. It coversthin layer of water. Row spacing is 20 cm approximately 0.18 ha/h and has saving ofand hill spacing is adjustable. It covers 85 per cent labour and 65 per cent cost in harvesting paddy. The machine costs approximately Rs 40,000 including diesel engine. Tractor operated paddy reaper The tractor front mounted paddy reaper harvests at a distance of 2.2 m width. Power is taken from PTO for cutting and conveying the crop and the hydraulic system is used for controlling the height of cutter bar. It is suited to all makes of tractor. Cage wheels and pneumatic wheels are used for wet and dry fields respectively. Broadcasted or trans- planted non-lodged paddy can be harvested. Maximum recovery of straw and grain is

FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA 321achieved. It is suitable for tractor owners for higher head (100-200 cm) has been found tocustom hiring. It covers approximately 0.4 be 330-340 rpm for a 15 HP pump. Beyondha/h and has a saving of 85 per cent labour 340 rpm, the pump gets overloaded.When notand 65 per cent cost in harvesting. Approxi- operated at optimum speeds, it incursmate cost is Rs. 25,000. energy loss.Portable power-operated rasp-bar Coconut husking toolpaddy thresher-cum-winnower This consists of a stationary wedge, a The crop is fed in the thresher with movable wedge, a lever and a pedestalmodified concave powered by an 8 HP having a base. The stationary wedge isengine. After threshing and winnowing it mounted upright on top of the pedestal at adelivers straw, chaff, stone and clean paddy convenient height. Bottom of the movablein separate outlets. It has good threshing and wedge is hinged to the bottom of the station-winnowing efficiency. Transportation ary wedge facilitating its opening andis made easier by its pneumatic wheels. closing. The lever fixed to the movable wedgeIt is suitable for paddy crops even with high provides the necessary mechanicalmoisture and long straw. Suitable for custom advantage needed in husking. Self-weight ofhiring. Straw is not cut and damaged. It the lever forces the wedges to remainthreshes crop from approximately 0.3 ha h-1 together forming a large wedge. Holding the(100 kg h-1) and has saving of 85 per cent coconut with both hands, it is thrust onto thelabour and 60 per cent cost in threshing paddy. wedge piercing the husk at its Pedicel endApproximate cost is Rs 30,000 without and parallel to its longitudinal axis. Onengine. pulling the lever upwards, a section of the husk is prized out. By repeating this action atKAU jack-fruit harvester different points across the nut, the husk can easily be removed. The trade name is This consists of two sub-units as adjust- Keramithra and approximate cost is Rs 180.able telescopic long handle with a hood knifeat the outer end and a basket suspended from Udyanamithraa nylon rope. The basket can be placed just (Garden transplanting tool)around the fruit by a handle and rope andthen harvested into it for safe lowering. It ‘Udyanamithra’ is a simple handcan be used for normal and medium tall trees. operated transplanting tool. Seedlings can beWith two people, a fruit can be harvested in transplanted using Udyanamithra without4-5 minutes. Weight is 4-5 kg (if made of any shock. The seedling with the soil corealuminium). Approximate cost is Rs 500. containing it’s root zone is transferred without any disturbance to a circular pit which is dugPetti and para by the same tool. The tool is useful for seedlings up to an age of two weeks and The petti and para is used very widely to about 20-25 seedlings can be transplanted indewater the low-lying kole lands and an hour if the distance is within 10 metersKuttanad padasekharams. The optimum (capacity is variable depending on distancespeed for high level of efficiency at relatively from nursery to pit). The tool is very useful

322 FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA polythene sheet. The sides can be kept open to ensure ample ventilation or can be provided with insect proof netting or shade net. Permanent rain shelter with or without roof ventilation can also be utilized for grow- ing vegetables during rainy season. Frame work can be made by GI pipes and cladding with UV stabilized film of 200 micron thickness. The total cost for constructing a 100 m2 rain shelter will be approximately about Rs. 10,500. Garden transplanting tool Estimate of low cost rain shelter of 100 sq.m areas.for gap filling of vegetables and fortransferring rootstocks to polythene bags. Bamboo poles 30 Nos. @ Rs. 50 1500The cost of the tool is about Rs. 450/- Arecanut splitsRain shelter cultivation 200 micron 22m x 7m 25/m2 3850 U.V. sheet Rain shelter is a low cost greenhouse.The frame of the rain shelter can be made of Wages 20 Nos 200.00 4000bamboo or arecanut palm poles and the roof- 1150ing can be done with U. V. stabilized Miscellaneous (coir, copper wire etc.) Total Rs.10500

APPENDIX 1 323 Appendix 1 AGROCLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF KERALAAgroclimatic zones identified by superimposing six moisture availability regimes over seven soil groupsSl. Zones Location Crops grownNo. 3 412 In and around Chinnar Plantation crops other than spices, coconut and tapioca1. Dry Forest Loam2 Semi Dry Isolated pockets in Thiruvananthapuram Coconut, tapioca, paddy Red loam and Neyyattinkara Taluks and fruit plants like cashew and mango3. Semi Dry Laterite Parts of Kollam, Chirayinkil, Paddy, coconut and fruit Thiruvananthapuram, Neyyattinkara & crops like mango and cashew Nedumangad taluk4. SemiDryAlluvium River beds and coastal areas of Kollam, Paddy, coconut, tapioca, Chirayinkil, Thiruvananthapuram, mango and cashew Neyyattinkara, Ottappalam, Thalappilly, Palakkad and Alathur taluks5. Semi Dry Eastern most parts of Chittur and Paddy, cotton and coconut Black soil Palakkad taluks6. Semi Dry Kumily and parts of Peerumedu taluk Tapioca, tea, coffee and Forest Loam rubber7. Sub humid Kasaragod and Kannur, Parts of Coconut, cashew, paddy, Red loam Kasaragod, Hosdurg and rubber, pepper and arecanut Taliparamba taluks8. Sub humid Laterite Parts of Kannur, Tirur, Choughat, Parur, Paddy, coconut, rubber, Kasaragod, Hosdurg, Taliparamba, cashew, pepper, arecanut, Tellichery, Badagara, Talappilly, Thrissur, tapioca and mango Mukundapuram, Aluva, Kanayannur, Alathur, Chittur, Ernad, Mannarghat, Palakkad, Kunnathur, Kottarakkara, Pathanapuram, Neyyattinkara and Nedumangad taluks9. Sub humid Coastal areas and river beds in the Paddy, coconut, mango, Alluvium regions under item 8 cashew, rubber, pepper, arecanut and tapioca10. Sub humid Saline Pokkali lands in the coastal parts of Paddy and coconut Parur, Kanayannur and Cochin taluks

324 APPENDIX 112 3 411. Sub humid Parts of Ernad, Mannarghat, Devikulam Pepper, tea, cardamom,tapioca forest loam and Pathanapuram taluks and paddy12. Humid laterite Parts of Kasaragod, Taliparamba, Vegetables, nutmeg, cashew, Tellicherry, Quilandy, Kozhikode, fodder grass and pineapple Badagara, Kunnathunad, Meenachil, Kanjirappally, Pathanamthitta, Chengannur, Mavelikkara and Nedumangad taluk13. HumidAlluvium River beds of taluk areas described Paddy, coconut,cocoa,tapioca, under item 12, western part of arecanut, mango and banana Chengannur and Mavelikkara taluks, coastal areas of Cherthala, Ambalapuzha and Karunagappally taluks14. Humid Greyish Onattukara – parts of Mavelikkara, Paddy, coconut, sesamum and Onattukara Karunagappally and Karthikappally taluks tapioca15. Humid saline Around Vembanad lake (Areas with acid Paddy and coconut saline soils)16. Humid forest loam Parts of Ernad, South Wayanad and Coffee, tea, pepper, cardamom, North Wayanad, Kasaragod, Hosdurg, rubber, ginger, paddy, mango Taliparamba taluks; Tellicherry, and jack Pathanamthitta, Pathanapuram, Neyyattinkara, Devikulam and Peerumedu taluks17. Per Humid laterite Parts of S.Wayanad, Quilandy, Ernad, Paddy, coconut, tapioca, Kunnathunad, Devikulam, Thodupuzha rubber, pepper, arecanut, Kothamangalam, Meenachil and cocoa, mango, jack, cashew, Kanjirappally taluks ginger and banana18. Per Humid A small pocket in and around Vythiri, Paddy, coconut, coffee, Forest loam parts of Devikulam, Thodupuzha and tapioca, pepper, tea, cocoa Peerumedu taluk and cardamom19. Wet laterite Parts of South Wayanad, Ernad, Cardamom, tea, coffee, rubber, Mukundapuram, Devikulam, pepper, tapioca, ginger and Peerumedu, Pathanamthitta taluk paddy20. Wet Forest Loam Parts of Neriamangalam, Devikulam, Paddy, tapioca, pepper, tea, Thodupuzha, Kanjirappally, Meenachil coffee and cardamom and Peerumedu Taluk

APPENDIX 2, 3 325 Appendix 2AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF COMMON MANURES AND FERTILIZERS Material Nutrient content (%) N P2O5 K2O - -Ammonium sulphate 20.5 - -Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26.0 - -Ammonium nitrate 33.5 20.0 -Ammonium phosphate 20.0 - -Calcium ammonium nitrate 20.5 / 25.0 - -Nitrate of soda 16.5 - -Urea 46.0 18.0 -Superphosphate (single) 35.0 -Superphosphate (double) - 46.0 -Superphosphate (triple) - 18-20 -Mussooriephos - 18-20 -Rajphos - - 50 / 60Muriate of potash - 21.0 -Bone meal - 3.9 0.3-1.5Fish meal 3.5 1.4 -1.8 0.8-0.9Poultry manure 4.1 0.3-0.4 0.3-0.4Sheep manure 1.2-1.5 0.5 1.0FYM 0.8-1.6 0.4 0.8Compost 1.0 1.5 1.5Groundnut cake 0.5 2.0 1.3Castor cake 7.0 1.0 1.5Neem cake 4.3 2.0 1.2Gingelly cake 5.0 6.2 1.9 1.8Coconut cake 3.0Note: Composition of organic manures vary widely Appendix 3 NEUTRALIZING VALUE OF LIMING MATERIALS Liming material Chemical formula Neutralizing valueCalcium carbonate (powdered lime stone) 100Burnt lime (quick lime) CaCO3 179Slaked lime CaO 136Dolomite 109 Ca (OH)2 CaMg (CO3)2

326 APPENDIX 4, 5 Appendix 4CONVERSION OF NUTRIENTS (kg ha-1) TO COMMON FERTILIZERS (kg ha-1)Rate of Ammonium Urea Superphosphate Muriate of potash (46% N) (18% P2O5) (50% K2O) (60% K2O)application sulphate (20% N) 56 22 111 20 1710 50 43 167 40 3320 100 65 222 60 50 87 278 80 6730 150 109 333 100 8340 200 130 389 120 10050 250 152 444 140 11760 300 174 500 160 13370 350 196 556 180 150 217 611 200 16780 400 239 667 220 183 261 722 240 200 90 450 283 778 260 217100 500 304 280 233110 550120 600130 650140 700150 750 326 833 300 250 Appendix 5 GUIDE FOR MIXING FERTILIZERSMuriate of Potash Potassium Sulphate Ammonium Sulphate Calcium ammonium nitrate Sodium nitrate Urea Super- phosphate Ammo- nium phosphate Calcium carbonateÖÖ Ö y y y Ö ÖÖ Muriate of potashÖÖ Ö y y y Ö ÖÖ Potassium sulphateÖÖ Ö Öy y Ö ÖX Ammonium sulphateyy Ö Öy y y yÖ Calcium ammonium nitrateyy Ö ÖÖ y y y Ö Sodium nitrateyy y yy Ö y yy UreaÖÖ Ö y y y Ö ÖX SuperphosphateÖÖ Ö y y y Ö ÖX Ammonium phosphateÖÖ X ÖÖ y X XÖ Calcium carbonate Ö Can be mixed y May be mixed only prior to application X Should not be mixed

APPENDIX 6 327 Appendix 6CALCULATION OF INSECTICIDE AND FUNGICIDE FORMULATIONSA. Calculation of insecticide formulationI. Sprayable formulationQuantity of insecticide formulation = Strength (per cent) required x Quantity of spray solution required (l) Strength (per cent) of formulatione.g. :- Malathion 50 EC @ 0.2% required to prepare 10 litres (10,000 ml) of spray solution = 0.2 x 10 x 1000 = 40 ml 502. Granular formulation Quantity of granular formulation (kg) = 100 x recommended rate (kg a.i ha-1) x Area (ha) % a.i in the commercial formulatione.g.:- cartap hydrochloride 4 G required to apply in one hectare @ 750 g a.i ha-1 = 100 x 0.75 x 1 = 18.75 kg 4B. Calculation of fungicide formulations1) Wettable powder (WP) e.g:- carbendazim 50 WP (0.1%) Dissolve 1 g carbendazim 50 WP in 1 litre of water.2) Emulsifiable concentrate (EC) e.g:- Kitazin 48 EC (0.1%) Dissolve 1 ml Kitazin - 48 EC in 1 litre of water

328 APPENDIX 7 Appendix 7 HOME MADE INSECTICIDAL PREPARATIONS KEROSENE EMULSIONMaterials requiredKerosene – 900 mlBar soap – 50 gWater – 20 litreMethod of preparation Slice 50 g bar soap into fine flakes and dissolve in 450 ml of boiling water. Cool it andthen add to 900 ml kerosene under violent agitation till the oil is fully emulsified. Dilute thisstock solution by adding 15-20 litres of water for spraying. It is effective against manysucking insects.TOBACCO DECOCTIONMaterials requiredTobacco waste – 100 gBar soap – 24 gWater – 6 litreMethod of preparation Soak 100 g of tobacco waste in 900 ml of water for 24 hours. Then squeeze thetobacco waste and remove all debris by filtering the extract through a muslin cloth or astrainer. Slice 24 g of bar soap into thin flakes and dissolve in 100 ml of water in anothervessel. Pour the soap solution into the tobacco decoction under violent agitation. Dilute thisstock solution by adding 6 litres of water. This can be recommeded for managing aphids andother soft bodied insects infesting vegetable crops.NEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACT (NSKE 3%)Materials requiredNeem seed kernel – 30 gWater – 1 litreMethod of preparation Grind neem seed kernel into coarse powder and put it in a small muslin cloth bag. Keepit immersed in 1 litre of water in a vessel for 12 hours. Thereafter, squeeze the cloth bag bydipping in water repeatedly till the water coming out from the cloth bag becomes clear.Squeeze the cloth bag thoroughly and then remove it. Now the 3% NSKE is ready forspraying.NEEM OIL – GARLIC EMULSION (2%)Materials requiredNeem oil – 200 mlBar soap – 50 gGarlic – 200 gWater – 9 litreMethod of preparation Slice 50 g bar soap into thin flakes and dissolve in 500 ml of hot water by agitation. Pourthe soap solution to 200 ml of neem oil slowly and stir rigorously. Grind 200 g of garlic byadding 300 ml of water. Filter the garlic extract through a muslin cloth and then add to theprepared neem oil soap emulsion. Dilute this one litre stock solution by adding 9 litre of waterto get 10 litres of 2% neem oil – garlic emulsion.

APPENDIX 8 329 Appendix 8 PREPARATION OF COMMON FUNGICIDESBordeaux mixture (1%) Dissolve 1 kg of powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water. In another50 litres of water, prepare milk of lime with 1 kg of quick lime. Pour the copper sulphatesolution into the milk of lime slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Test the mixture beforeuse for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plants, by dipping a polishedknife in it. If the blade shows a reddish colour due to the deposits of copper, add more lime tillthe blade is not stained on dipping. Always use wooden, earthen or copper vessels for thepreparation of Bordeaux mixture. In order to confer sticking quality to Bordeaux mixture, rosin washing soda mixture,may be added. The addition of the sticker is particularly recommended for sprayingconducted during rainy season. For preparing the mixture, 10 litres of water out of 100 litresrequired for preparing Bordeaux mixture may be kept apart. Boil 10 litres of water,preferably in an earthen pot and add 500 g of good quality washing soda (sodium carbonate).Boil again until the solution becomes slightly dark in colour. Add 1 kg of powdered rosin(arpoos) in the boiling washing soda solution. Reduce the flame for avoiding frothing,foaming and spilling over. Boil the solution for 5-10 minutes till black bubbles appear. Coolthe solution until the temperature reaches below 45ºC. The cooled mixture (10 litres) is thenadded slowly to the prepared Bordeaux mixture (90 litres) under vigorous stirring.Bordeaux paste Dissolve 100 g of copper sulphate and 100 g of quick lime each in 500 ml of waterseparately. Mix together to make one litre of the paste.Cheshunt compound Weigh 60 g copper sulphate and 330 g of ammonium carbonate. These two are wellpowdered and thoroughly mixed. The dry mixture is stored in an airtight glass container for24 hours before use. About 25 g of this mixture is dissolved in a little hot water and solutionis made up to 8 litres with cold water and used for soil drenching.

330 APPENDIX 9 Appendix 9 FUMIGANTS AND ITS USE (For restricted use only)Aluminium phosphide Aluminium phosphide can be used for fumigating rat burrows and for control of pestsinfesting stored grains. This is available as ‘Celphos’ or as ‘Aluminium Phosphide’ tablets(3g) or pellets. For rat control, locate the burrows which contain live rats. For this, seal allburrow openings with mud in evenings and examine the closed burrows next day. If the mudseal is opened, such burrows are marked as live ones. In such live burrows, introducealuminium phosphide tablets @ 1-2 per burrow and seal off the openings immediately.For fumigating grains and grain products under cover, use aluminium phosphide@ 1-2 tablets per tonne of grains, giving an exposure period of 5 days followed by aerationfor a day. For room fumigation, use 5-7 tablets for every 28 cubic metre storage space.This has to be used under strict supervision of the approved pest control operators.

APPENDIX 10 331 Appendix 10 PESTICIDE GUIDE The pesticides may be applied according to the severity of infestation of the pest/infection of the disease in a need-based manner. Whenever the government bans a chemical,recommendation for its use automatically stands cancelled. Central Insecticide Board andRegistration Committee, Government of India has published the list of pesticide formulationsbanned in India in its official website (http://cibrc.gov.in). This list is periodically updated byCIB&RC which will stand applicable to the KAU recommendations, as and when modified.The list of banned, withdrawn and restricted pesticides as on date by CIB&RC is given inAppendix 12. The substitutes for pesticides banned by Government of Kerala, proposed asinterim recommendation based on approved use by CIB&RC, notified vide G.O(M.S)No.123/2011/Agri dated 12/5/2011 are given in Appendix 13. Dosage/haGeneric name Trade name a.i (g/ha) Formula- Per cent Remarks concentration tion (in 500 L g/kg or water/ha) ml/L per ha12 3 45A. INSECTICIDES1. CarbamatesCarbaryl Sevin 5 DP 1000 – 1250 20 – 25 kg Broad - spectrum Hexavin 5 DP insecticidal action. Effective against Sevin 10 DP 2000 20 kg a wide range of pests. Not recommended Carvint 10 DP for control of mites. Hexavin 10 DP Should not be sprayed in crops Sevin 50 WDP 750 – 1000 1.5 – 2 kg 0.15 – 0.2 at flowering. 0.1 Killex Carbaryl 500 588 g Effective against Carvint 85 WP 1000 16.67 kg rice caseworm andCarbosulfan Marshal 6 G brown plant hopper. Effective against rice leaf folder, rice bug, gall midge, rice swarming caterpillar and brown plant hopper. Effective against rice stem borer

332 APPENDIX 10 12 3 452. Organophosphorous compoundsMalathion Cythion 5 DP 500 10 kg Safe insecticide for controlling pests of Malamar 50 EC 500 – 750 1000 – 1500 ml 0.1– 0.15 vegetables and Cythion 50 EC 330 435ml storage pests. Star Mal 50 EC Malathion 50 EC For control of pests Malatox 50 EC of vegetablesDichlorvos Vapona 76 EC 0.05 Contact and fumi-(DDVP) Nuvan 76 EC 0.05 + 0.125 gant; less residual; Luvon 76 EC toxicity lasts for only 24 hours; saferDDVP + 250 (DD 250 ml of to be applied oncarbaryl for VP)+ 625 DDVP+ vegetables. Effec-combined (carbaryl) 1250 g tive against rice leafapplication of carbaryl folder. 300Quinalphos 20 kg Effective against brown plant hopper and rice thrips. Quinalphos Broad spectrum 1.5 DP insecticide; parti- cularly effective against mealy bugs and scale insects.Phosalone Quinalphos 250 5 kg 0.05 For control of rice 5G 250 1000 ml 0.07 pests 0.04 – 0.14 For control of Quinalphos 350 1000 ml cardamom thrips. 25 EC Kinalux 25 EC Broad spectrum Ekalux 25 EC insecticide cum acaricide, effective Zolone 35 EC against brown plant hopperDimethoate Rogor 30 EC 200 – 700 660 – 2330 ml Systemic insecticide Tara 909 30 EC cum nematicide. Killex- Dimethoate 30 EC Corothioate 30 EC

APPENDIX 10 23 333 45 1 0.2 For seedling dip Nugor 30 EC against rice Hilthoate 30 EC nematode 0.2% 3.3 L in 0.05 For foliar applica- suspension 500 L water tion against thrips 0.05% 833 ml in suspension 500 L waterTrichlorfon Dipterex 50 EC 500-750 1000-1500 ml 0.1-0.15 Useful only against chewing insects;Chlorpy- Dursban20 EC 100–300 500– 0.06 contact actionriphos Classic 20 EC 1500 ml feeble. Effective Radar 20 EC 0.2 against rice swarming 0.02 caterpillar. 0.2% 5 L in 0.1-0.15 suspension 500 L water Effective against stem borer and 0.02 % 500 ml in gall fly. Useful for root dipping. suspension 500 L water Germinated seedAcephate Asataf 75 SP 500–750 666–1000 g dip for 3 h against gall midge Starthene 75 SP Seedling root dip for 12 h against gall midge Effective against rice leaf folders and brown plant hoppers. Safe to green mirid bug (BPH predator).3. NeonicotinoidsImida- Confidor 200 SL 30 150 ml 0.006 Effective againstcloprid Tatamida 200 SL 25 100 g 0.005 brown plant hopper.Thiameth- Actara 25 WG 200 ml 0.006 Effective againstoxam brown plant hopper and safe to green4. Oxadiazines 30 mirid bug (BPH predator)Indoxacarb Avaunt 15.8 EC Hindoxa 15.8 EC Effective against rice stem borer, whorl maggot, leaf folder and blue beetle

334 APPENDIX 10 1 2 3 4 55. Spinosyns 45 100ml 0.009 Effective againstSpinosad Tracer 45 SC 1000 25 kg 0.1 rice stem borer, Spintor 45 SC 500 1 kg whorl maggot, leaf folder.6. Neriestoxin analogues Effective againstCartap Cartox 4 G rice stem borer andhydro- Cartox 50 SP leaf folderchloride7. Anthranilic diamides (Bisamide / Diamide)Fluben- Takumi 20 WDG 25 125 g 0.005 Effective againstdiamide 0.005 rice stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf Fame 480 SC 25 50ml folder Effective against rice stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf folder8. Synthetic pyrethroidsLambda Karate 5 EC 0.6 ml/L 0.003 Foliar spray against tea mosquito bugcyhalothrin Reeva 5 ECB. FUNGICIDES1. Copper based productsCopper Blitox 50 WP 600 – 1000 1200 – 2000 0.12 – 0.2 Foliar sprayoxychloride Blue Copper 50 WP Cupramar 50 WP Copper 50 WP Fytolan 50 WP Starcop 50 WP Killex copper fungicide 50 WP2. Sulphur based productsSulphur Cosan 80 WP 1000 – 2500 1250 – 3125 0.2 – 0.5 For foliar spray Esso Wettable against powdery Sulphur 80 WP mildew. Also Thiovit 80 WP effective against Microsul 80 WG mite.

APPENDIX 10 335 5 12 3 43. Dithio carbamates and others 0.225 – 0.3 Broad spectrum foliar fungicideZineb (zinc Dithane Z-78 1125– 1500 1500 – 2000ethylene Sandoz Zbisdithio- Zineb 75carbamate) Hexathene 75 WPThiram Thiride 75 WS 18.8 – 22.5 25 – 30 For seed treatment(tetramethyl Hexathir 75 WSthiuram JK Thiramdisulphide) 75 WSMancozeb Indofil M-45 1125 – 1500 1500 – 2000 0.225 – 0.3 Foliar fungicide(zinc ions & 75 WPmanganese Dithane M-45ethylene 75 WPbisdithio- Hilthane M45carbamate) 75 WP Uthane M-45 75 WP Manzeb 75 WP4. Chlorinated nitrobenzeneDinocap Karathane 108 – 144 225 – 300 0.021 – 0.028 as foliar spray for 48 EC powdery mildew control of cucurbits and rose5. Heterocyclic nitrogen compoundsCaptan Captan 75 WP 1250 – 1500 1667 – 2000 0.25 – 0.3 For seed treatment Hexacap 75 WP at 1.5 g per kg of seed6. Systemic fungicidesCarben- Bavistin 50 WP 125 – 250 250 – 500 0.025 – 0.05 Effective againstdazim B-Stin powdery mildew Bengard 50 WP disease in ornamental JK Stein 50 WP plants; and blast, Zoom 50 WP sheath blight and sheath rot of riceCarboxin Vitavax 75 WP 1.5 – 1.875 2 – 2.5 kg/ For seed treatment Vitavax 80 WP g/kg seed seedIpropenphos Kitazin- P 48 EC 250 500 0.05 For foliar spray against blast

336 APPENDIX 10 1 2 3 4 5Hexaco- Contaf 5 EC 40 – 50 800 – 1000 0.008–0.01 For foliar spraynazole against sheath 0.025 blightPropico- Tilt 25 EC 125 500 0.12 For foliar spraynazole against sheath 0.08 blightPotassium Akomin 40% 0.1 Growth regulatorphospho- 0.15 effective againstnate 40% 0.1 Phytophthora foot 0.1 rot of black pepperTridemorph Calixin80EC 0.03 Coconut stem bleedingCarpropamid Protega 27.8 EC 500 ml For control of blast Arcado 27.8 EC and sheath blight of riceIsoprothio- Fugione 40 EC 750 ml For control of blastlane Topsin 50WP 500 g disease of riceThiophanate Cercobin 50 WP For control of blast and sheath blight ofThiophanate Topsin 75WP 500 g ricemethyl Cercobin 75 WP Foliar spray for control of powderyOxy carboxin Plantvax 20 EC 150 ml mildew in cowpea Foliar spray in coffee7. AntibioticsAntifungal Aureofungin sol – 0.005 % 0.002 For foliar spray inmaterials 46.15% SP 100–150 rice For foliar sprayStrepto Streptomycin ppmcycline Sulphate 9% + Tetracycline Hydrochloride 1% SPValidamycin Validacin 3L 60 2 ml/L 0.006 Control of sheathA3 blight8. HERBICIDESCommon Commercial Recommen- Product Crops Hints onname formulations ded dose per ha recommended time and kg ai/ha method of and Rice – for application concentrations control of broad leaved Apply at 20-252,4-D Fernoxone 1.0 1.0 – 1.2 kg weeds and DAS/DATsodium 80 % WSPsalt sedges

APPENDIX 10 2 34 337 Agrodar 0.8 – 1.0 1.4 – 1.71 Do 5 1 96 - 58 WSL Do 2,4-D amine 15-20Metsulfuron Almix 0.004 20g Rice DAS/DATethyl 10% 20% WP+ Chlorimuronethyl 10 %Pendimethalin Stomp 30% EC 1– 1.50 3.3 – 5.0 l Rice – dry Pre-emergence sown and spray at vegetables 0-6 DASButachlor Machete 50 EC 1.25 2.51 Rice–dry sown 0-6 DSA Butachlor 50 EC Rice–wet sown 6-9 DAS Rice - 6-9 DAT transplanted Machete 5 G 1.25 25 kg Rice – wet Broadcast evenly sown and on soil surface at transplanted 7 DAS or at 4-8 DATOxyfluorfen Goal 23.5 EC 0.15 0.641 Rice – dry 0-3 DAS 0.1– 0.15 0.44 – 0.64 l sown Pre- emergent spray BananaPretilachlor Refit 50 EC 0.50 – 0.75 1.00 – 1.50 l Rice – dry 0-6 DAS sownPretilachlor + Sofit 30 EC 0.45 1.50l Rice – 3-5 DASsafner wet sownCyhalofop Clincher 10 EC 0.08 800ml Rice – for Spray 18-20butyl control of DAS Echinochloa sppDiuron Klass 80 WP 1.00 – 1.50 1.25–2.00kg Banana, Pre- emergenceGlyphosate Pineapple spray For clearing Roundup 41 SL 0.82 – 1.64 2.0 – 4.0 l Rice-land weeds before Glycel 41 SL preparation land preparation. Weed All 41% SL Plantation Directed crops, application in pineapple inter-row areas and banana

338 APPENDIX 11 Appendix 11 DETAILS OF PESTICIDES AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET This table is only for reference on products available in the market and should not be treatedas recommended by Kerala Agricultural University. It is compiled from various sources includingwebsites of industry and hence the product list may not be complete. Generic names included areregistered by CIB&RC and their uses are approved for specific pests in certain crops (http://cibrc.gov.in/mup.html). But some pesticides are yet to be evaluated by KAU / other research organizations andhence all pesticides included here may not have the status “recommended by Kerala AgriculturalUniversity”. For list of recommended insecticides, their doses and uses, refer Appendix 10 only. Generic name Strength of Chemical Class Colour Code Trade names of formulations available 1 Formulation (Toxicity Class)A. Insecticides in the market 23 4 5 Acephate 75 SP Organo Blue Asataf, Starthene, Lancer, Acetamiprid phosphate Tagace, Lucid, Acet, Alphamethrin Tamaron, Gold, Dethene, Azadirachitin 20 SP Neonicotenoid Yellow Dhanraj, Tremor, Azadirachtin 10 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Hycephate Bifenthrin 1 EC, 5 Neem Based Green Manik, Pride, Rekord Buprofezin Green Carbaryl concentrate Gem, Concord, Numethrin, Yellow Sherpa, Alphadhan, Axis Carbosulfan 0.03 EC, Neem Based Blue Cartap 0.15 EC, Blue Neemazal, Econeemplus, hydrochloride 0.03 WSP Margoplus Yellow 10 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Nimbecidine, NeemAzal, Azadi, Hilneem, Supreme, 25 SC Chitin Synthe- Azadex sis Inhibitor Talstar, Impeder 5 DP, 10 DP, Carbamate 50 WP,85 WP, Applaud, Jawaa 4 GR, 85 S Sevin, Hexavin, Sofin, Tagvin, 25 EC, 6 G, Carbamate Carvint, Killex carbaryl 25 DS Marshal, Electra 4 GR, 50 SP Nereistoxin analogue Cartox, Padan, Caldan

APPENDIX 11 339 1 2 3 4 5 Diamide Green Coragen, FerterraChlorantr- 18.5 SC,aniliprole 0.4 GR Organo- Yellow Dursban, Durmet, Classic, phosphate Radar, Dhanusban, Coroban,Chlorpyriphos 1.5 DP, Blaze, Tagban, Durtax, 20 EC, 50 EC Calban, Soflan, Hilban, Tafaban, PredatorClothianidin 50 WDG Neonicotinoid GreenCypermethrin Pyrethroid Yellow Dantop 25 EC,10 EC, 0.25 DP Cymbush,Tatacyper, Hilcyperin, Cilcord, Bilcyp,Deltamethrin 2.8 EC, Pyrethroid Yellow Cybil, Guru, Ustaad, Cyrex, Blue Cymba, Ralo, Ankush,Diafenthiuron Yellow Indothrin, Sakthi, Dynamite, Super killer, CyperDichlorvos(DDVP) Decis, Tagcis 2.5 WP, 1.8 EC 50 WP Insect Growth Pegasus/Polo Regulator 76 EC, Organo- Nuvan, Vapona, Luvon, 100 EC phosphate Domar, Madhuvan, Doom, DivipanDiflubenzuron 25 WP Chitin Synthesis GreenDimethoate 30EC Inhibitor Dimilin Organo- Yellow Rogor, Tara909, Dimor, phosphate Diadhan, Novagor, Ultragor, Digor, Robgor, Rosgor, Tagor,Emamectin 5 SG Avermectin Yellow Danadin, Killex Dimethoate,benzoate 50 EC Yellow Corothioate Organo-Ethion phosphate Yellow Proclaim, Prabhav YellowEthofenoprox 10 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Tafethion, Indothion, MITFenpropathrin 505, Bilthion, Mitkill,Fenvalerate 10 EC, 30 EC Pyrethroid Novalthion, Lazor, Miticil 20 EC, 0.4 DP Pyrethroid PunkasoFipronil 80 WG, Fiprole Yellow Danitol Tatafen, Stalker, Lufen, Anchor, Jawa, Fencel, Dallan, Hilfen, Fenhit, Ultrafen, Agrofen Jump, Regent 0.3 GR, 5 SC

340 APPENDIX 11 1 23 4 5Flubendiamide Green Fame, Takumi 39.35% SC DiamideFluvalinate (480 SC), Yellow MavricImidacloprid 20 WDG Yellow Tatamida, Confidor, Confidor Super,Admire, Termex,Indoxacarb 25 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Imidagold, Magik, Seamer,Lambda Yellow Chemida, Jumbo, Imidacel,cyhalothrin 17.8 SL Neonicotenoid Imiden, Gaucho,Warrant,Admire (200 SL), Avaunt, Daksh, Hindoxa 30.5 SL, Agent, Agent Plus, Karate, 70 WS, Kungfu, Icon,Reeva, Propal, 70 WG, 48 FS Cyhalo king, Lambda Queen, Cilva, Demand, Command, 14.5 SC Oxadiazine Santri, Samurai, Warrior, Veera, Jaya 2.5 EC, Pyrethroid Cigna 5 EC, 4.9 CS Cythion, Hilmala, Hilthion, Aduthion, Jaithion, Laximal,Lufenuron 5.4 EC Chitin Synthesis Green JKPmal, Fytanon, Malamar,Malathion 5 DP, 50 EC Inhibitor Star Mal, Malatox Snailkil Organo- Blue phosphate Lannate Rimon, CaesarMetaldehyde 2.5 DP Acetaldehyde YellowMethomyl polymer Elsan, Tagsan, Phendal,Novaluron 40 SP DhanusanPhenthoate 10 EC Carbamate Yellow Zolone, Phosalone,Phosalone AgrosaloneQuinalphos 2 DP, 50 EC Chitin Synthesis Green Ekalux, Vazra, Hilquin, Flash, Inhibitor Kinalux, Tagquin, Chopper, 35 EC, 4 DP Sofinex, Bayrusul, Quinaltaf Organo- Yellow Tracer, Spintor, Success 25 EC, 5 GR, phosphate Calypso, Alanto 1.5 DP Organo- Yellow Actara, Anant, Maxima phosphate Larvin, Spiro Organo- Yellow phosphateSpinosad 45 SC, 2.5 SC Spinosyn BlueThiacloprid Yellow 240 SC, NeonicotinoidThiamethoxam 21.7% SC BlueThiodicarb Yellow 25 WG Neonicotinoid 75% WP Carbamate

APPENDIX 11 341 51 23 4 Ekatin, Hexatin, Thiotox Yellow Dipterex, Trigon,Thiometon 25 EC Organo- Blue Trichlorfon phosphate Yellow DivineTrichlorfon 50 EC, 5 DP, Organo- 5 GR phosphate Yellow Koranda 505, Anaconda, Nurocombi, Ducord,B. Combination products of Insecticides Kissan Gold, Super D, Stampede, Nurelle D 505,Acephate 25 EC 25 EC + Organo Action 505, Canon+ Fenvalerate 3EC phosphate+ Viraat3 EC Pyrethroid DadeciChlorpyrifos 50 EC + Organo50 EC + 5 EC phosphate+ Nagata, ColphosCypermethrin Pyrethroid5 EC CaesarCypermethrin 3 EC + Pyrethroid + Yellow Amistar, Heritage, Abound3 EC + 20 EC Organo Benlate, Cure-500Quinalphos phosphate Baycor20 EC 0.72 EC + Kapthar, Captaf, Captra, 5.65 EC Chitin synthesis Yellow Dhanufan, Hexacalt, Captan,Deltamethrin inhibitor + Hexacap0.72 EC + 40 EC + pyrethroid Carzim, Benfil, Zoom,Buprofezin 5 EC Bavistin, Daezan, Dhanustin,5.65 EC Organo Yellow Fungaas, Laxim, Jaistim, phosphate+ Yellow Saldazim, Tagstin, B – Stin,Ethion 40 EC + Pyrethroid Bengard, JK Stein, BatistaCypermethrin5 EC Oxadiazene+ NicotenoidIndoxacarb 14.5 SC +14.5 SC + 7.7 SCAcetamiprid7.7 SCC. FUNGICIDESAzoxystrobin 23 SC Strobilurins Green Benzimidazole GreenBenomyl 50 WP Triazoles Green Pthalimide GreenBitertanol 25 WPCaptan 50 WG , 75WP 75 WSCarbendazim 50 WP Benzimidazole Green 46.27 SC 5GR

342 2 3 4 APPENDIX 11 1 75 WP Carboxanilide Blue 5 Carboxin VitavaxCarpropamid 27.8 SC Cyclopropane Green Protega, Arcado carboxamide BlueCopper 50 WP Biltox, Blue copper, Trucop,oxychloride 50 WG Inorganic Fytolan, Dytoan, copper Dhanucop, Hilcopper, Tagcop, Cupramar,Copper 77 WP Inorganic Blue Esso fungicide, Killex Copper,hydroxide Copper Starcop, Copper fungimar KocideDinocap 48 EC Dinitro fungicide Blue Karathane, Arathane CurzateCymoxanil 50 WP Acetamide Blue Score RubiganDifenocunazole 25EC Triazoles Blue NustarFenarimol 12 EC Pyrimidines BlueFlusilazole 40 EC Triazoles BlueFosetyl - Al 80 WP Ethyl Phosphonates Green AlietteHexaconazole 5 EC, 5 SC, Triazoles Blue 2 SC Contaf , Contaf Plus, Danzole, Hexzol, Sitara, Sudden, Titan,Iprodione 50 WP Dicarboximides Blue Alert, Hexacone, Samaarth, 40 EC TriggerIsoprothiolane 48 EC Organic Sulphur Blue 44.3 SC RovralProfenphos Organo phosphate Blue 75 WP FujioneKresoxim - Strobilurins Greenmethyl 10 WP Kitazin - PMancozeb 10 EC Ethylene Bis - Green(zinc ions and 22.9 SC Dithio - Ergonmanganese 40% carbamateethylenebisdi- Luzen 45, Saviour M-45,thio carbamate) Triazoles Blue Dithane M-45, Uthane M- 45,Myclobutanil Blue Hilthane, Sona, Dhanuka M-45, Triazoles Green Indofil M-45, Dithane, Manzeb,Penconazole Green Manzane Phenyl Urea Systhane, IndexPencycuron Plant Growth TopasPotassium Regulatorphosphonate Monceren Akomin

APPENDIX 11 2 3 4 343 25 EC Triazoles Blue 5 1 Tilt, Banner, Bumber, Result, Propiconazole Radar, Dhan, Pinade AnthracolPropineb 70 WP Propalene bis Blue Dithio-carbamate Insignia Sultaf, Share, Thiovit, Insuf,Pyraclostrobin 20 EC Strobilurins Blue Dhanusal, Sulfex Gold,Sulphur Welwet, Cosan, Microsul, 80 WP, Inorganic Green Esso Wettable Sulphur 40 SC Sulpher Folicur, Raxil Spencer, Vista, PulserTebuconazole 25.9 EC, 2 DS Triazoles Blue Topsin M BlueThifluzamide 24 SC Carboxanilids Blue Tag thiram, Thiram, Thiride, Hexathir, JK ThiramThiophanate 70 WP Thioureamethyl Bayleton CalixinThiram 75 WS Dithiocarbamate Blue Dithane-Z 78, Sandoz Zineb,(tetra methyl Hexathane, Indofil Z-78thiuram 25 WP Triazoles Bluedisulphide) 80 EC Taquat 75 WP Morpholene BlueTriadimefon Companion, Saaf, Sixer, Ethylene Bis - Green ReviveTridemorph Dithio -carbamate CosakaZineb(zinc ethylene Curzate M8bisdithio-carbamate)D. COMBINATION PRODUCTS OFFUNGICIDESCaptan 70 + Combination Blue70 WP + 5 WP fungicide ofHexaconazole Pthalimide and5 WP 12 WP + Triazole 63 WPCarbendazim Combination12 WP +Mancozeb fungicide of Green63 WP Benzimidazole & Dithio -carbamateCarboxin 37.5 37.5 DS + Carboximide &DS + Thiram 37.5 DS Dithio -carbamate Blue37.5 DS 8 WP + Acetamide BlueCymoxanil 8 64 WP CombinationWP + Mancozeb64 WP Product

344 APPENDIX 11 5 1 2 34 Acrobat MzDimethomorph 9 WP + Cinnamic acid- Blue9 WP + 60 WP morpholine Equatium ProMancozeb derivative &60 WP Dithio -carbamate SectinFamoxadone 38.7 SC Oxazolidinedione Blue Verita16.6 SC + & AcetamideCymoxanil combination Matco 8-64, Master, Dithomyl,22.1 SC Unilax, Ridomil MZ-72, Assault, Dhanuxyl, SpectraFenamidone 60 WDG Imidazolinone & Blue Ridomil gold10 WDG + Dithio - carbamateMancozeb combination Melody Duo50 WDG AureofunginFenamidone 71 WG Imidazolinone & Blue Plantomycin, Agrimycin-100,4.44 WG + Ethyl PaushamycinFosetyl Al Phosphonate Sheathmar, Rhizocin,66.7 WG combination Validamycin-A, ValidacinMetalaxyl 8 WP + Phenyl Amide + Blue8 WP + 64 WP Dithio - carbamateMancozeb 72 WP64 WP Phenyl Amide + Blue 4 WP + Dithio - carbamateMetalaxyl - M 64 WP4 WP + Carboxylic acid – BlueMancozeb 66.75 WP Amide64 WP CAA groupIprovalicarb5.5 EC +Propineb61.25 SCE. ANTIBIOTICSAntifungal 46.15 % WV Antifungal Bluematerials SP antibioticStreptomycin 9 % + 1% Antibiotic Greensulphate + SPTetracyclineValidamycin 3%L Antifungal Green3L3L antibiotic