kerala pop 2011 revised

GUINEA GRASS 245 FODDER CROPS GUINEA GRASS (Panicum maximum) (Ad hoc recommendation) Guinea grass is a popular fodder grass of Under Kerala conditions, the best seasonthe tropics suited to the agro-climatic of planting is with the onset of southwestconditions of Kerala. It can be profitably monsoon during May-June. As an irrigatedgrown as a component of agro-forestry crop planting can be done at any time of thesystems and comes up well under coconut year.and other trees. As an excellent fodder it ismuch valued for its high productivity, Seeds and slips can be used as plantingpalatability and good persistence. material. Since seed germination is poor vegetative propagation is preferred. To It is a perennial bunch grass, 0.5 to 4.5 m obtain slips for planting, old clumps arehigh. The stem is stout to slender, erect or uprooted and slips with roots are separated.ascending, glabrous or hairy. Leaves are 10 For planting one hectare, 1.25 lakhs of slipsto 100 cm long and 3.5 cm wide. Panicle are required. If seeds are used (3 kg ha-1), itloose and much branched, the lower most should be sown in nursery and the seedlingsbranches being in a distinct whorl. The small transplanted in the main field.seeds are enclosed in smooth glumes. Theseeds shatter. The root system is deep, dense The grass requires thorough cultivation toand fibrous. prepare a weed-free seedbed for establishment. For this, two or three ploughings and one The important varieties are Makueni, levelling are sufficient. In the prepared field,Riversdale, Hamil, PGG-4, FR-600, Haritha, trenches of 10 cm width and 20 cm depthMarathakom and Harithasree. Makueni is a are made. In these trenches, FYM should bedrought resistant cultivar suited to rainfed applied along with phosphorus and potassiumsituations in the state. fertilizers. Mix with soil and cover the trenches and form ridges of 15 cm height for Guinea grass thrives well in warm moist planting slips. In acid soils, application of limeclimate. It can grow from sea level to 1800 @ 500 kg ha-1 in alternate years is desirable.m altitude. It is frost sensitive. It thrivesbetween a temperature range of 15 to 38 ºC. Slips are planted on ridges @ threeThe grass tolerates shade and grows under slips per hill. The spacing of 40 cm x 20 cmtrees and bushes and is best suitable as an is followed when grown as an intercrop.intercrop in coconut gardens. The grass is For a pure crop, a wider spacing of 60 cm xadapted to a wide range of soils. It usually 30 cm is required.grows on well-drained light textured soil,preferably sandy loams or loams, but is A basal dose of 10 tonnes of FYM, 50 kgbetter suited to medium to highly fertile loams. P2O5 and 50 kg K2O ha-1 (applied inIt cannot tolerate heavy clays or prolonged trenches) is recommended. For top dressing,waterlogging. use 200 kg N ha-1 in two split doses, the first dose immediately after-first cutting and

246 GUINEA GRASS, GAMBA GRASS AND SETARIA GRASSthe second dose during the northeast intercultivationmaybe necessary after threemonsoon period. If irrigation facilities are or four cuttings.available, topdressing can be given in moresplits. The fertilizer may be applied on The crop is ready for harvest when iteither side of the plants, along the row and reaches 1.5 m height. Cutting at 15 to 20 cmearthed up. above the ground level is advised. The first cut is usually ready in 9-10 weeks after At planting two irrigations are required planting and subsequent cuts are taken atwithin seven to ten days for quick establish- 45 to 60 days intervals. About six to sevenment. The crop should be subsequently harvests can be made in a year.irrigated depending upon the rainfall and soiltype. Usually irrigation once in 7-10 days is Approximately 80-100 t ha-1 of greenrequired. Irrigation with cowshed washing or fodder is obtained per year.sewage water within 3-4 days after cuttinggives better growth. Guinea grass can be grown mixed with leguminous fodder crops such as cowpea, The delicate seedlings or newly emerged stylo and siratro.shoots from slips or cuttings requireprotection from weeds in the first The grass is nutritious, palatable and freetwo months. Two intercultivations from oxalates. It makes good hay and silage.should be given during this period. Later, The crude protein and the crude fibre content of this grass vary from 8 to 14 per cent and 28 to 36 per cent respectively.GAMBA GRASS (Andropogon gayanus) (Ad hoc recommendation) Gamba grass is also known as in partial shade and is a good intercrop in‘Sadabahar’. It is a tufted perennial grass coconut gardens. The crop can be propa-and the stems are usually 1-2 m high. The gated through rooted slips or seeds lightlyinflorescence is a large spathe or panicle. drilled. The grass tolerates drought and suits Cultural operations and management areareas where dry season lasts for five months similar to that of guinea grass.or so. In areas with less severe drought itcan remain green throughout the year. It In general about 50 to 80 t ha-1 of greentolerates deep seasonal flooding. The grass matter is produced in the first year. From theavoids heavy soil, is resistant to grass fires second year onwards there is a slight increaseand develops new leaves and shoots a few in green fodder yield. The grass has excellentdays after burning. The crop comes up well palatability with 5.5 per cent crude protein and 32.6 per cent crude fibre.SETARIA GRASS (Setaria anceps) (Ad hoc recommendation) Setaria anceps is also called as Golden Important varieties are Nandi, Narok andTimothy. The grass comes up well in the Kazungula.medium rainfall areas in the tropics and The grass is a tufted perennial with erectsubtropics. stems and grows 1-2 m in height. Leaves are

SETARIA GRASS 247about 40 cm long, 8-20 cm wide and green to application of fertilizers especially N. Thedark green in colour. Panicle is dense, fertilizer requirement depends on the initialcylindrical, about 10 to 30 cm long and nutrient status of the soil.orange to purplish in colour. Spikelets aretwo in number, the lower one is the male or The grass flourishes in moist, but not wetsterile and the upper one is bisexual. soils. Setaria plots should be well drained during rainy season. At establishment, the Usually the grass grows under an annual crop requires two successive light irrigationsrainfall of over 750 mm. It grows vigorously in 7-10 days interval. Subsequent irrigationunder high annual rainfall ranging from should be given as and when necessary.1000 to 1500 mm. It can also survive long,hot and dry seasons. The grass grows One or two weeding or intercultivation iswell at 20 to 25 ºC. It is more cold tolerant given in the first 2 to 3 months. To controlthan most of other tropical and subtropical weeds and to encourage fresh sprouts, onegrasses. It can come up in a variety of soil or two intercultivation has to be carried outtypes. every year. This perennial grass requires thorough land The crop is ready for harvest by 9-10preparation; two or three ploughings/diggings weeks. Subsequent cuts can be taken afterfollowed by one levelling. The land should be every 40 to 60 days depending on the cropfree from weeds. growth. At harvest, a stubble height of about 8 to 10 cm is left for good regeneration. Propagation is through rooted slips as wellas through seeds. Seedlings can be raised in Generally, about 25-40 t ha-1 of greennursery and transplanted during rainy fodder can be harvested per year underseason under rainfed conditions. If irrigation rainfed situation. Irrigated crop yields aboutfacilities are available, planting can be 75-150 t ha-1 per year.done at any time between February andNovember. The grass can be used as green cut fodder, silage and hay. The grass gives As a pure crop it is planted at 50 cm x 30 satisfactory silage with molasses. The crudecm spacing. The row-to-row distance may protein and crude fibre content of the grassbe increased to 60-70 cm when the soil is range from 4.8 to 18.4 per cent and 24 to 34poor and irrigation facility is absent. For per cent respectively.intercropping with legumes, 100 cm x 30 cmspacing is followed. If seeds are used, seed Seed yields are low due to prolongedrate varies from 3.5 to 4.0 kg ha-1. In case of emergence of panicles, prolonged floweringrooted slips, the number of slips required of the same panicle, early shedding ofvaries from 33500 to 67000 per ha.Organic spikelets, bird damage etc. Denser standsmanure, either FYM or compost @ 10 t ha-1 give more uniform panicle emergence thanmay be applied at the time of land widely spaced plants. Fertilizer application ispreparation. The crop responds well to compulsory in seed production.

248 HYBRID NAPIERHYBRID NAPIER (Pennisetum typhoides x P. purpureum) (Ad hoc recommendation) Napier grass is also called as elephant The popular hybrids are Pusa Giant Napier,grass due to its tallness and vigorous Gajraj, NB-5, NB-6, NB-21, NB-35, Sugunavegetative growth. The plants tiller freely and and Supriya.a single clump may produce 50 tillers underfavourable climatic and soil conditions. Planting is done with the onset of south-Unfortunately, the grass is coarse-textured, west monsoon. Being a sterile hybrid, thethe leaf blade and sheaths hairy, leaf grass is planted by rooted slips or by stemmargins sharply toothed and stems less juicy cuttings. Cuttings of moderately mature stemsand fibrous. In 1953, a cross was made in India (3 months old) and preferably from the lowerwith bajra which is more succulent, leafy, fine two thirds of the stem length sprout bettertextured, palatable, fast growing and drought than the older stems. The cuttings with threeresistant than Napier to combine these nodes are stuck into the soil with the basalqualities with its high yielding potential. end down, either vertically or at an angle to such a depth that two nodes remain within Compared to Napier grass, Hybrid Napier the soil and one above the soil surface. Theproduces more tillers and numerous leaves. under ground nodes develop roots and shootsIt grows faster and produces more herbage while the upper ones develop shoots only.but the stems are hard and the plants lesspersistent. Pusa Giant Napier has larger A spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm is recom-leaves, softer and less persistent hairs on leaf mended for pure crop of Hybrid Napier. Inblades and sheaths and less sharp leaf edges. intercropping system, spacing is adjusted toThe stems are also less fibrous than Napier. accommodate the companion crops. TheThe tillers are more numerous and grow planting rate depends upon the spacing andfaster. the weight of the cuttings or rooted slips used. It is modified in crop mixtures or intercrop- The grass grows throughout the year in ping with other forage crops.the tropics. The optimum temperature is about31ºC. Light showers alternated with bright aatndthFKear2tmOimy@eaor5df0lmaknagdnuhprare-e1 @peaarc2ah5tiomt nha.ayA-1b,peapnlaydppNPl2iOe@d5sunshine are very congenial to the crop. Total 200 kg ha-1 in two or three split doseswater requirement of the grass is about 800- followed by gentle raking, if possible.1000 mm. Hybrid Pennisetum can grow on avariety of soils. Light loams and sandy soils The field should be provided with goodare preferred to heavy soils. The grass does drainage during the rainy season, as thenot thrive well on waterlogged and flood prone crop cannot withstand water stagnation.lands. Phenomenal yields are obtained from Frequency of irrigation depends upon thevery deep fertile soil rich in organic matter. rainfall and weather conditions.It tolerates pH ranging from 5 to 8. Early intercultivation once or twice Hybrid Napier requires a deep, thorough is necessary before the plants establishweed free and compact seedbed. Three or and grow vigorously. Subsequently,four ploughings followed by disc harrowing intercultivation should be given as and whenis ideal. necessary.

HYBRID NAPIER AND PARA GRASS 249 The first cut is taken 9-10 weeks after are softer and the margins less serrated andplanting. Subsequent cuts are taken after four hence the herbage is more palatable. It isto six weeks or when the plant attains a height juicier and succulent at all stages of growth.of 1.5 m. Annually at least six to eight cuts It is less fibrous and more acceptable. Theare possible. In order to encourage quicker oxalate content of some of the varieties mayregeneration from the basal buds, stubbles be high. It can be mitigated if harvested atof 10-15 cm is left out at harvest. longer intervals (45 to 60 days). Green fodder yield ranges 200-250 t ha-1 The grass is ideal for green fodder, silageper year from 6-8 cuttings. and hay. The grass can be intercropped with The fodder may be cut into pieces usinglegumes such as cowpea, Calapogonium, a chaff cutter and ensiled. Legume foddersCentrosema and Glycine legumes. Intercrop- may be mixed with the grass in the ratio ofping with legumes improves the quality of 1:2 to produce balanced silage. The fodderfodder. can also be converted into hay during the dry summer periods. The chaffed material is Hybrid Napier is superior in quality than exposed in the sun by spreading uniformlyNapier grass and contains about 10.2 per cent for a day. Further drying is done under thecrude protein and 30.5 per cent crude fibre. shade to preserve colour. The quality of theThe leaves are larger and greener, the sheaths silage or hay remains more or less the same as green fodder.PARA GRASS (Brachiaria mutica) (Ad hoc recommendation) This grass is also known as buffalo grass, 1500 mm. It can withstand short termwater grass, Angola grass and Mauritius flooding and waterlogging but cannot begrass. The crop responds well to sewage grown in dryland in arid and semi-aridirrigation and is usually grown near large regions. It is sensitive to cold. It makes nosewage disposal farms. growth during winter months. It is a coarse, trailing perennial that The grass grows in moist, but not in highlyspreads by surface runners which root wet soils. It thrives best on highly fertile clayprofusely at the nodes with flowering stems loam to clayey textured soils with high1 to 2 m high. The culms are erect, leafy, moisture retention capacity. It can be grownhollow, succulent and glabrous with hairy even on sandy soils with good irrigationnodes. The leaf blades are dark green in facility. It tolerates slightly acid to alkalinecolour, 25 to 30 cm long and 1 to 2 cm broad. soils. It is highly tolerant to saline or sodicInflorescence is a panicle. Flowering is soil conditions. It grows well on field bunds,hastened in shorter photoperiods. banks of streams and canals, lowlands and soils too wet for normal farm crops. The grass prefers hot and humid climateof the tropics and subtropics with high Prepare the land thoroughly by three orannual rainfall ranging between 1000 and four ploughings and remove weeds.

250 PARA GRASS AND CONGOSIGNAL GRASS Planting can be done at any time other crop. Later on, irrigation once in 10 to 15 daysthan winter months. The rainfed crop is in summer is advantageous.planted with the first monsoon showers. The land should be kept weed free for Stem cuttings or pieces of creeping shoots the first two months. Since it is a sturdy and15 to 30 cm long with about three joints are aggressive grass, once it gets established, thegenerally planted in a slanting position. In weeds that appear later are suppressed.order to save time and labour, the plantingmaterials are scattered in the field and The competitive vigour of para grasscovered by ploughing crosswise during interferes with the co-existence of legumes.monsoon season. Seeds can also be used for First harvest is done about three monthsdirect sowing or sowing in nursery for after planting when the grass attains a heighttransplantation. However, poor seed setting of about 60 to 75 cm. Subsequent cuts areusually discourages seed propagation. taken at 30 to 40 days interval. Annual yield of about 70 t ha-1 is obtained. Slips can be planted 50 to 60 cm apartboth ways between plants and rows. The As para grass herbage dries slowly whengrowing runners quickly root at the joints, tiller cut, it is not suitable for hay-making.profusely and cover the field. However, it can be used for ensiling. It is a nutritious high yielding and palatable forage The requirement of slips for planting grass. The grass appears to be free of anyranges from 27000 to 40000 per ha. The seed toxic effect. Nutritive value is comparativelyrate recommended is 2.5 to 3.5 kg ha-1. less. The crude protein ranges from 2.8 to 16.1 per cent and crude fibre from The crop is highly responsive to irrigation 28 to 34 per cent.with cattle-shed washing or sewage water.Apply 40 tonnes of FYM or compost along Seed yields are generally low. It iswith 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O per ha as observed that shorter or longer day lengthsbasal dose. Topdressing N 40 kg ha-1 after hasten flowering. The correct stage ofeach harvest is found to enhance the forage harvest is soon after the end of anthesis.production. Germination is affected if the seed is harvested late. There is no post-harvest Two or three light irrigations are to be dormancy for seed.provided for the initial establishment of theCONGOSIGNAL GRASS (Brachiaria ruziziensis) Congosignal can be grown as a sole crop but cannot tolerate waterlogging. It alsoin open areas and as an intercrop in coconut tolerates shade. So it is recommended as angardens. It is a creeping perennial with dense intercrop in coconut garden. It can be grownfoliage and therefore can be used for soil either as a pure crop or mixed with otherconservation purpose as strip crop. It grows grasses and legumes.to a height of about 50 to 100 cm andproduces 30 to 40 tillers on an average. The crop is generally planted in May-June and September-October with the onset of It prefers a warm moist tropical climate. rains. Prepare the land by ploughing one orIt can be grown in almost all types of soils two times, removing weeds and levelling.

CONGOSIGNAL GRASS AND SUBABUL 251Both seeds and slips can be used. A seed Intercultivation during early growth stagesrate of 2-5 kg ha-1 is recommended. For is advisable to check weed growth.sowing, a fine seedbed is required and seedsare broadcast at 1-2 cm depth. To protect It can also be grown as a crop mixturethe seeds from ants, dusting carbaryl 5 per with leguminous fodder crops.cent DP at the time of sowing is effective.When slips are used, they are planted at a The first harvest can be done 50 daysspacing of 40 cm x 20 cm. after planting and subsequently at 30-40 days interval. Rainfed crop yields about 35-45 t ha-1 Basal application of 5 t ha-1 of FYM along of green fodder whereas the yield will bewith 50 kg ha-1 each of P2O5 and K2O is increased to about 50-100 t ha-1 underrecommended. Nitrogen @ 100-150 kg ha-1 irrigated conditions.may be applied in two or three splits. FODDER TREESSUBABUL (Leucaena leucocephala) Subabul is also known as leucaena or Cunningham: It is a cross between Salvadoripil-ipil. It had its origin from Mexico and is and Peru types.now widely spread throughout the tropical andsubtropical countries of the world. Subabul is best suited for warm regions and grows well between 22 and 30ºC in It is a perennial hardy evergreen shrub. It regions of 500 to 2000 mm annual rainfall.has deep and strong taproot and even the Because of its strong and deep root system,seedlings are deep rooted. The leaves are the tree is highly drought resistant. It isbipinnate, 15 to 20 cm long with 10 to 15 pairs restricted to elevations below 500 m but itof pinnate leaves. Inflorescence is globular withstands variations in rainfall, sunlight,and the flowers are white. There are four windstorm, slight frost and drought. Ittypes of subabul. cannot withstand waterlogging. It requires a deep well drained neutral soil and canHawaiian type: The plants are short bushy tolerate saline and acid soil. It can also beand remarkably drought tolerant. It is suited grown in steep slopes, hilly terrains, gravellyto hilly terrains in drought prone areas. It is a areas and sandy loams.prolific seed producer and is good forfodder purpose. K-341 is a Hawaiian variety. Planting of seedlings can be done with the onset of rains in May-June or September-Salvador type: Tall, tree like and fast October.growing having maximum annual biomassproduction. Possesses large leaves, pods and Seed viability is high, but possessseeds than Hawaiian types. Responds to high dormancy because of hard seed coat. Tofertilization. Variety K-8 is useful for fodder. hasten germination seeds are to be dipped in concentrated sulphuric acid for four minutesPeru: Tall and extensively branching type and and then washed or put in hot water at 80ºCis ideal for fodder purpose. for four minutes. Sundry the seeds afterwards for about one hour before sowing.

252 SUBABUL, HEDGE LUCERNE AND AGATHI A seed rate of 3-4 kg ha-1 is recom- Leucaena combines well with manymended. Sowing is preferably done during grasses like guinea, pangola, dinanath,February-March in a nursery or polythene Hybrid Napier etc.bags or in situ at 2-3 cm depth. Give irriga-tion if there is no rain. Seedlings (1.5 to 3 Subabul is a highly nutritious leguminous treemonths old with 6-8 leaves) are planted in the fodder with 27-34 per cent protein. The foddermain field.Aspacing of 1 m x 0.1 m is recom- is rich in carotene and vitaminA. Pro vitaminAmended for a pure crop of fodder, 1.5 m x content is the highest among all plant species.0.2 m for planting in boundaries and borders The foliage contains an uncommon amino acid,of coconut gardens and 2 m x 0.2 m when mimosine, which is toxic to non-ruminants atraised along boundaries. levels of about 10 per cent of the diet. It can grow under a wide range of Subabul starts flowering at 125-150 daysconditions as a range plant, roadside plant, in after planting. First cutting is done afterpastures etc. The land should, however, be 5-6 months at a height of 70-80 cm from thecleared of bushes, ploughed and levelled ground level at a time when the plants reachbefore sowing. a height of 1.5-1.75 m. Subsequent harvests can be made at 50-60 days interval depend- A basal application of N:P2O5:K2O @ ing on the re-growth. When planted in20:50:30 kg ha-1 is recommended. boundaries, the main shoot is not cut; only side branches are cut for fodder, leaving the Since the early growth of the crop is slow, top three branches.the tender plants are to be protected fromaggressive weeds. Two or three inter-row In gravelly soil and in low rainfall areas, acultivation is essential to check weeds in early yield of 25-30 tonnes per ha per year may belife. Once established, even vigorous grasses obtained. The irrigated crop may produceseldom smother the plants. 100 t ha-1 of green fodder per year in seven to eight cuttings.HEDGE LUCERNE (Desmanthus virgatus) (Ad hoc recommendation) It is a small shrub, 2 to 3 m tall and roughly productive, yielding about 40 to 70 tonnes ofresembles leucaena. It is a native of tropics green fodder per ha per year. No poisonousand subtropics of the new world, palatable, principle is observed in the foliage.aggressive, persistent and tolerant to Because of its pithy stem, the harvesting isheavy grazing. It has 22 per cent protein in easier. It is an ideal plant for wastelandleaves and 10-15 per cent in stems. It is highly development.AGATHI (Sesbania grandiflora) (Ad hoc recommendation) The outstanding feature is its extremely Prolific nodulation and extremely largefast growth rate, especially during the first nodules are its characteristic features. Cattlethree to four years. Average wood yield of relish both its leaves and pods. After cutting,20 to 25 m3 per ha is commonly achieved. It shoots re-sprout with vigour. It is not toxicis easy to propagate by direct seeding. to cattle. It can be planted very densely

AGATHI, SHEVRI AND FODDER COWPEA 253@ 3000 stems per ha. It has been viewed as intercropped with S. grandiflora whosea source of pulp for paper industry. Leaves open crown allows sunlight to pass. It iscontain 36 per cent crude protein. Agricul- adapted to the moist tropics with annualtural crops continue to grow well when rainfall in excess of 1000 mm.SHEVRI (Sesbania aegyptica) (Ad hoc recommendation) It is a promising perennial fodder shrub form nutritious forage to animals. The plantsfor both dry and wet areas. The sub-mar- can be sown at a spacing of 100 cm x 50 cm.ginal lands that are not suited for agricultural When cut at 50 cm height at 60 dayspurposes can be used for growing this interval, green fodder yield of 12 tonnes perfodder plant. The leaves and young twigs ha per year can be obtained.FODDER LEGUMESFODDER COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata) Cowpea is the most important leguminous Cowpea is best suited for moderatelyfodder crop suitable for both summer and humid areas of the tropics and subtropics. Itrainy seasons, mainly due to its quick usually grows in latitude between 30º N andgrowing habit and high yielding ability. S and up to 1500 m elevation. The plant cannot withstand frost, excessive and Cowpea is indigenous to Africa and prolonged waterlogging, while some variet-India. It has been cultivated from very early ies are resistant to heavy rains. The optimumtimes for human consumption. Fodder temperature required for its growth variescowpea can be profitably grown as a from 15 to 27ºC. Cowpea can be grown on asummer crop in rice fallow of sandy loam wide range of soils from heavy to sandy loamsoils where water is not available to raise a with a pH range of 5.0 to 6.5. Saline, alkalinesubsequent crop. It can be considered as a or waterlogged soils should be avoided.complementary crop in the rotation sequence Heavy clays encourage vegetative growthof rice-rice-cowpea because of the legumi- with less seed production.nous organic residues available for fertilityenrichment. Cowpea for fodder purpose can be grown in any month if irrigation facilities exist. In Cowpea is grown as a seasonal crop, Kerala, it is raised as a rainfed crop duringwhich is bushy, trailing or climbing. Stems May and also as summer crop in riceare 1 to 3 m long, glabrous or slightly hairy. fallows.Leaves are trifoliate, inflorescence auxiliaryhaving a few to several flowers. Pods are Two to three ploughings are required tolinear and cylindrical. produce a coarse seedbed for the crop. Shallow furrows at 3 m apart for leading A number of varieties like Karnataka irrigation water may also be provided. It canlocal, RS-9, UPC-1956, UPC-5287 and be broadcasted or drilled in lines. For seedUPC-9805 are recommended for cultivationfor fodder purpose.

254 FODDER COWPEA AND STYLOcrop, line sowing is preferred. Seed rate maize, sorghum, bajra, guinea grass, Napierrecommended is 40 to 50 kg ha-1 for a broad- grass etc to get high yields. In Keralacast crop and 15 to 40 kg ha-1 for drill sown cowpea is also raised as an intercrop incrop. For drilling, spacing of 30 to 40 cm coconut gardens.between rows and 6 to 15 cm between plantsis recommended. As a fodder crop, the first cutting can be given 45 days after planting and subsequent For rainfed crop, at the time of land prepa- two cuttings at 30 days intervals. A singleration, FYM @ 10 t ha-1 is applied and basal cut crop yields 25 to 30 t ha-1 whereas greenapplication of N, P2O5 and K2O @ 25, 60 matter yield of 40 t ha-1 is obtained fromand 30 kg ha-1 is recommended. For irrigated multi-cut cowpea.crop in addition to the basal dose of 40: 30:30 kg N: P2O5: K2O ha-1, topdressing of N Cowpea is used as fodder crop for greenand K2O each at 10 kg ha-1 after each cut is feeding, hay-making, grazing and also forto be given. ensiling in mixtures with sorghum or maize. The grains are used as human food as well A pre-sowing irrigation is important for as animal feed. Cowpea is also used as greenthe proper germination of the crop. If there manure crop and as cover crop in plantations.is lack of soil moisture, shallow irrigation at The feeding value of cowpea forage is high.3-4 cm depth once in 15 days during summer It is superior to other legumes like soybeanand once in a month during post-monsoon because of its low fibre content andperiod is good. minimum wastage in feeding livestock. It has about 16 per cent crude protein and 20 per One or two weeding may be required in cent crude fibre.the early growth stages to combat weedproblems. Usually high seed rates are Cowpea is a self-pollinated short dayeffective in smothering weeds. plant. The percentage of hard seed is low and viability under storage lasts for 3 years. Cowpea is tolerant to moderate shade. Soit can be successfully grown as intercrop withSTYLO (Stylosanthes spp.) Stylosanthes is a genus of summer a crown of growing points near the soilgrowing perennial pasture / fodder legumes. surface. This enables the plants to overcomeMost of its species are native of south and the excessive damage caused by grazingcentral America and the Caribbean Islands. animals. They have indehiscent seeds, regu-This is a fodder cum leguminous cover crop, lating dormancy. The seed has hooks forwhich is suited for intercropping in coconut dispersal through animals. The seeds can alsogardens, either alone or in combination with pass through the digestive system of animals.other fodder grasses. The crop controls soil In some species due to the presence oferosion by giving a protective soil cover. viscid hairs, they are not eaten in someIt also helps to smother weed growth. seasons of the year. The plant thrives well in light soils due to its deep rooting system. The genus Stylosanthes consists entirelyof herbs and small shrubs. Usually they have The crop is suited for growing in warm, humid tropical climate. It is fairly drought

STYLO 255resistant and shade tolerant. It can be Stylo is usually nodulated by naturallycultivated in areas receiving less than occurring Rhizobium strains, these however,1000 mm of rainfall and in less fertile soil, will not be as effective as the commercialacid soils, gravelly sandy soils and also in strains. The main variety commercially grownill-drained soils. is Schofield. This is an erect variety and very late in flowering. Other varieties are Cook, In humid tropical environments, Endeavour and Graham.S. guianensis thrives very well and canwithstand flood and drought lasting for short Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis): Thisperiods. Germination and growth are favoured annual type stylo is also found suitable forat high temperatures. growing in Kerala. In less fertile soils like sandy coastal soils, Caribbean stylo (Stylosanthes hamata cv.phosphorus fertilizer should also be added Verano): This is a short-lived perennialalong with sowing of seeds so as to help the legume similar to Townsville stylo. It is slowdevelopment of root nodules. growing and develops a flat crown under grazing. Erect stem may grow up to 80 cm. Sowing is to be done with the onset of The stems of Verano are smooth. As againstsouthwest monsoon during May-June. the bristly stems of Townsville stylo it has aIrrigation is required if there is no proper soil line of very fine, short white hairs on one sidemoisture at the time of sowing. only. The flowering spike of Verano produces double seeds; the upper has a reduced The following are the perennial types of hook about 3 to 5 mm long, while the lowerstylosanthes, ideally suited for growing in the seed has no hook. Verano combines many ofstate. the virtues of both annuals and perennials. Brazilian lucerne (Stylosanthes Shrubby Stylo (Stylosanthes scabra): Thisguianensis): This is used as a pasture is a perennial shrub. Its deep root systemlegume in a number of tropical countries; enables the plant to remain green even in veryVarieties are usually erect to semi-erect. dry season. The recommended varieties ofThey are generally not profusely branched shrubby stylo are Seca and Fitzroy.at the base. It can grow up to 1.5 m in height,particularly when it gets support from the Seeds of stylo are very small. The seedassociate grasses. The trifoliate leaves are rate is 2 to 3.5 kg ha-1 when grown as anlong, rather narrow and pointed. The stems intercrop in coconut gardens. For grassare coarse and hairy. In some of the variet- legume mixtures, 1.5 kg ha-1 is sufficient.ies the leaves are sticky. The flowers are Seeds are soaked in water overnight andsmall and yellow producing single seeded mixed with Rhizobium culture beforepods. It does not tolerate shade and can grow sowing.very well in areas receiving 900 to 4000 mmof rainfall. It is very tolerant to low fertility, Prepare a fine seedbed. Seeds are mixedbut responds well to phosphate and is sensi- with sand when sown as a pure crop or mixedtive to copper deficiency. Stylo seed shouldnot be sown below 7 to 13 mm. A seed rateof 2 kg ha-1 is usually satisfactory. Although

256 STYLO AND FODDER MAIZEwith grass seeds for mixtures. Seeds are potash @ 30 kg ha-1 may be applied insown broadcast and covered with thin layer subsequent years. Application of limeof soil or dibbled at a spacing of 30 cm @ 375 kg ha-1 is also recommended in acidbetween rows. The depth of sowing should soils.be 5-10 mm. Seeds germinate within a week. Gap filling may be done 15 days after The variety Cook produces seeds well. sowing. First weeding is given 45 days afterA seed rate of 5 kg ha-1 is better for seed sowing.Asecond weeding and hoeing may alsoproduction. Apply phosphorus @ 120 kg and be done after the first harvest. Gentle raking oflime @ 375 kg per ha for maximum yield. the interspace after the application ofFor seed production, irrigate with 33 mm of fertilizers in the subsequent years may be done.water once in 9 days during summer monthsfrom January to March. A total of 10 such First harvest is taken 3-4 months afterirrigations are required during the period. sowing and subsequent harvest at 45 days intervals or according to the growth of the Recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O crop. A maximum of 4-5 harvests can befor both annual and perennial stylosanthes are taken in a year for a perennial crop, which20, 80 and 30 kg per ha respectively. For will remain in the field for 3 years. The cropperennial crops, phosphorus @ 80 kg ha-1 and yields 25-30 t ha-1 green fodder per year. FODDER CEREALSFODDER MAIZE (Zea mays) Maize grows best in warm climate where Ganga safed-2, and Ganga-3 and compositethe day temperature is fairly light. Heavy variety Vijay.rains and dry hot winds are not suitable.Favourable annual rainfall is 60-100 cm. The Seed rate for broadcasting is 80 kg ha-1crop comes up well in soils with good and for dibbling 40-60 kg ha-1 (to be dibbleddrainage and fair moisture status. at 5-6 cm depth @ two seeds per hole). The optimum season for sowing is the FYM @ 10 t ha-1 may be applied at thelast week of June to second week of time of preparation of land as basal dressing.July and September to October. The crop N, P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 120, 60 andcan be raised throughout the year in areas 40 kg/ha respectively, may be given aswhere irrigation facilities are available. topdressing. Weeding may be done accord-The land is ploughed two or three times and ing to necessity.beds and channels are formed. Seeds can beeither broadcasted or dibbled at a spacing of First cutting of maize can be taken after30 cm between rows and 15 cm between 60 days of planting or at the milky stage ofplants. the crop. A second cut can also be taken if there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Hybrid varieties are Deccan, Ganga-5,

FODDER SORGHUM AND GREEN MANURE CROPS 257FODDER SORGHUM (Sorghum sp.) Fodder sorghum is an ideal tropical sandy soils are suited for the crop. Apply N,forage crop. It is fairly drought resistant and P2O5 and K2O fertilizers @ 60, 40 and 20 kgsuited for areas where moisture is a limiting per ha, respectively. Important varieties arefactor for crop growth. The crop can be M.P.Chari, MPKV-1, JS-20, S-1049 andraised during both monsoons. All soils except JS-3.GREEN MANURE CROPS (Ad hoc recommendation)Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) thoroughly with fresh water and sown immediately. A green matter yield of 15 to 20 It is a vigorous growing green manure t ha-1 equivalent to 150-180 kg N ha-1 iscrop, which can be incorporated at 10 weeks obtained within a period of 8 to 10 weeks.after sowing. It does not withstand water-logging. The seed rate is 25-35 kg ha-1. The Wild indigo or kolingigreen matter yield is 15-20 t ha-1. Quantity (Tephrosia purpurea)of nitrogen fixed by the crop is 75-80 kg ha-1. It is a slow growing green manure cropDaincha (Sesbania aculeata and S. rostrata) suitable for light soils. It resists drought but does not withstand water stagnation. TheSesbania aculeata seed have a waxy, impermeable hard seed coat and do not quickly germinate. To It is a quick growing succulent green hasten germination, the seeds are to bemanure crop, which can be incorporated at abrased with sand or steeped in hot water atabout 8 to 10 weeks after sowing. This crop 55ºC for two to three minutes. The seed rateadapts to varying conditions of soil and is 20-25 kg ha-1 and the green matter yieldclimate. It can be grown even under adverse varies from 8 to 10 t ha-1. When kolingi isconditions of drought, waterlogging, salinity sown in an area for two or three seasonsetc. Recommended seed rate is 20 to 25 kg continuously, scattered seeds will give riseper ha. The green matter yield is 10-20 tonnes to volunteer plants and there is no need forper ha. Quantity of nitrogen fixed is 75 to 80 further sowing.kg per ha. Indigo / Bengal indigoSesbania rostrata (Indigofera tinctoria) It is a green manure crop, which has nod- Indigo resembles kolingi, but has moreules both on the stem and root. It thrives well leafy habit. It shows resistance to drought.under waterlogged condition. The normal Better yield is obtained when two irrigationsseed rate is 30 to 40 kg per ha. To get early, are given and when grown in clayey soil. Seeduniform germination and vigorous seedlings, rate is 20 kg ha-1. Green matter production isseeds have to be scarified with concentrated 8-10 t ha-1.sulphuric acid for 15 minutes and then washed

258 GREEN LEAF MANURE CROPSGREEN LEAF MANURE CROPS (Ad hoc recommendation)Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata) Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) It is a shrub, which takes up a tree habit This species, a native of Central America,under favourable conditions of soil and occurs as a branched shrub. It is a promisingclimate. For green leaf purposes, the shrub forage tree crop, the leaves of whichshould be kept low by pruning or lopping at a contain about 3-4 per cent of N. Leucaenaheight of 2-3 m. The shrub can be pruned fixes about 500-600 kg N ha-1 per year.two or three times a year and it withstandsrepeated lopping. Within two years after Cassia (Cassia auriculata)planting, the plants are ready for lopping.Each plant gives 5 to 10 kg of green leaves Propagated by seeds. During floweringannually. tree is topped (stem and branches cut) and loppings used for green leaf manuring.

AILANTHUS OR MATTI 259 AGROFORESTRY (Ad hoc recommendations) Agroforestry refers to land management forest plantations are managed for thesystems that integrate agricultural crops with concurrent production of wood and livestock.forest crops. It is a collective term for all They also refer to situations in which treesland use systems and practices in which are scattered in pasture/grasslands, proteinwoody perennials are deliberately grown on banks/cut and carry fodder production sys-the same land management unit as crops or tem involving woody perennials and the like.animals, either in some form of a spatialarrangement or in a time sequence and in Agrosilvopastoral systems, the mostwhich there is a significant interaction intensive form of land management, arebetween the woody perennials and the crops systems in which the land is managedor animals. concurrently for the production of agricultural and forest crops and for rearingTypes of Agroforestry of domesticated animals. The major classes of agroforestry include, In addition, there are many agriculturalagrisilviculture,silvopastoral,agrosilvopastoral practices associated with forest that strictlyand other (miscellaneous) systems. do not fall under the above categories. These include, collection of non-timber forest Agrisilviculture refers to systems in which products from forests, growing trees aroundagricultural crops are integrated with trees wetlands and other water bodies in which fishon the same land management unit culture is practised, apiculture with trees andeither in time or space. Examples include multipurpose woodlots etc.taungya, alley cropping, multipurpose treeseither as woodlots or as scattered trees on Trees in Agroforestryfarmlands or on farm boundaries, cropcombinations involving woody perennial Many tree species (woody perennials) areplantation crops, growing commercial crops encountered in agroforestry. These includein association with planted shade trees or common timber species such as ailanthustrees in natural forests, shelterbelts, energy (matti), teak, wild jack and multipurpose treeplantations, enriched fallow and so on. species such as mango, jack, tamarind, erythrina, gliricidia etc. Species-specific Silvopastoralism represents land manage- recommendations for some importantment systems in which forests including timber (softwood and hardwood) trees are given below.AILANTHUS OR MATTI (Ailanthus triphysa) Ailanthus trees flower in February-March be stored only for a few months. Alternateand the fruit, a reddish brown samara, wetting and drying improves seedripens in March-April, which represents the ger-mination. The procedure involves soak-ideal time for seed collection. The seeds can ing the entire quantity of seeds in cold (room

260 AILANTHUS OR MATTI AND CASUARINAtemperature) water in the evening and drain- of intercropping, the row-to-row spacing caning the water next morning, followed by be altered. Ailanthus is ideal for planting indrying the seeds under shade during the day. the homestead or farm boundries either inThe cycle is repeated for two to three days. single or staggered paired rows at a spacing of 2.5 m x 2.5 m.Nursery practices Two to three weedings may be necessary Raised beds of 10 m x 1 m are formed.Preferably sand, soil and FYM (1:1:1 ratio) in the initial years to keep the plantation weedmust form the top layer of the beds. Sowingis done after the bed is watered. Usually -free. Fertilizers may be applied @ 30-40 gsowing is done by broadcast method (ordibbling) in Nov-December, for June N, 15-20 g fPr2oOm5 and 15-20 gyeKar2Oto per yearplanting and March-April, for October- per sapling the second the fifthNovember planting. After sowing, a thin layerof soil is sprinkled on the beds to cover the year and thereafter once in three years for aseeds. The beds are also mulched with greenleaves to reduce the evaporation losses and pure plantation.dusted with carbaryl 10 per cent to preventinsect attack. Seed rate is 1 kg per bed. After In case too many lateral branches aresowing, watering is done with a fine rose- produced, pruning may be practised. Thecan twice a day for 10-15 days and once a trees can be felled/harvested over a periodday afterwards. The nursery beds also must of 8 to 10 years.be weeded as and when necessary. PestsPricking out Nursery: The two major pests are shoot Germination takes place in about 8-10 days webber (Alteva fabriciella) and defoliatorafter planting and the seedlings attain a height (Eligma narcissus). Shoot webber isof 10-15 cm in six weeks time. They are then economically more important because it willpricked out into polythene bags containing damage the terminal shoot and can result in1:1:1 mixture of sand, soil and FYM. epicormic branch formation. It can be controlled by application of quinalphos atPlanting practices 0.05 per cent. Containerised stock (commonly in Young plantations: The above two are thepolybags, but also in root trainers) is planted major pests in young plantations also, butin pits (15-20 cm cube) at 2 m x 2 m spacing control measures may not be cost effective.with the onset of rains, in the case of mono- If required, 0.1 per cent quinalphos can bespecific woodlots. To suit the requirements applied using rocker sprayer. Shoot webber affects seed production. Usually control measures are not adopted but any insecti- cide, which is recommended under the nursery, can be used.CASUARINA (Casuarina equisetifolia) Casuarina is a large evergreen tree with green and perform the functions of leaves.a straight bole and numerous, long, slender, Leaves are minute scale like and arranged indrooping, jointed, leafless branchlets arising the form of a cup at the joints of the branchlets.from rough woody branches. The jointed Bark is brown, rough, fibrous and exfoli-branchlets, which are partly deciduous, are ating in longitudinal strips. Wood is very

CASUARINA 261hard, but liable to crack and split. It is used ranging from arid regions to coastal zones.as timber, poles, pulp and paper besides fuel- Being an actinorhizal plant, casuarina iswood. Casuarina is grown as an ornamental capable of biological nitrogen fixation. There-tree throughout the tropical and subtropical fore, it thrives best on sandy soils low inparts of India. In addition, it can be grown in nitrogen and has the potential to improve theagroforestry combinations involving diverse nitrogen capital of impoverished sites.crops. Fodder grasses, other agronomic cropssuch as pulses, oil seeds and vegetables, Site preparation includes ploughing thecoconut palms and tree crops such as teakand ailanthus are important in this respect. land 2-3 times and making 30 cm x 30 cm xPropagation 30 cm pits before the onset of monsoon. The Propagation is by seeds or through pits are filled with FYM and topsoil. Plant-vegetative means. For seedling production,about half kg seeds are sown on raised nurs- ing is done immediately after the first rain.ery beds of 10 m x 1 m. This will produceabout 10,000 good quality seedlings. If the Block planting, row planting and line or stripsoil is sandy, mix farmyard manure with thetopsoil. After sowing the seeds, a thin layer planting are common. Spacing variesof sand is sprinkled to cover the seeds.Usually sowing is done in Nov-December. depending on the objective and the endRegular watering and shading of thenursery beds are necessary to facilitate rapid product. Usually a spacing of 75 cm x 75 cmseed germination. Germination takes about10 days and seedlings attain a height of is adopted. One or two weeding is done10-15 cm in 6 weeks. They are then prickedout into polythene bags or transplanted into immediately after the rains. When the treesbeds of size 1 m x 10 m in January-February. are about 3 m in height, the lateral branches Vegetative propagation is by branchcuttings, stump cuttings and layering. For are pruned to a height of about 2 m. Pruningvegetative propagation by rooting of branchcuttings, treat 5-7 cm long cladode cuttings is usually done at the end of the second yearwith rooting hormones. The hormone-treated cladodes are transferred to presoaked or after the beginning of the third year. Invermiculite and kept in a mist chamber. Abouthundred per cent rooting is obtained within plantations established at close spacing15 days. The rooted cuttings are thentransferred to a mixture of sand, soil and farm (75 cm x 75 cm), one thinning in the secondyard manure (2:1:1) for hardening. After15 days, the hardened propagules can be year or third year depending on tree growthtransferred to the field. is desirable, where 25-50 per cent of the treesPlanting and stand management are felled. In mixed species systems such Casuarina has a wide environmentaladaptability and hence occupies sites as agroforestry, spacing and thinning practices are mainly dependent on the cropping systems and the nature of the associated species. If the associated crops are shade intolerant generally wider spacing and or intensive thinning are recommended. Fertilizers may be applied at the rate of 20-25 g N, 15-20 g Pfr2oOm5 and 15-20 g Ky2eOarpteor seedling per year the second the fifth year. Injuries and protection Damping off, seedling blight, stem canker and seedling rot are encountered in the nurseries. Stem wilt or bark blister disease caused by Trichosporium vesiculosum is a serious disease in the plantations. The disease affects trees of

262 CASUARINA AND EUCALYPTUS3-4 years and causes mortality up to 80 per Insect pest problems to the tune of regu-cent. Maintaining a soil pH of 6.5 to 6.8 and lar epidemic infestations inflicting extensivetreating the plantation with fungicidal sprays economic losses rarely occur in casuarina.can control this disease. Other diseasesinclude stem canker and dieback caused by HarvestPhomopsis casuarinae, pink disease caused Casuarina seedlings growing rapidly at theby Corticium salmonicolor, root rot diseasecaused by Ganoderma lucidum and heart rate of about 1.2 to 1.5 m per annumrot caused by Polyporus glomeratus, Fomes during the initial seven to eight years arefastuosus and F. senex. Stem canker and usually harvested in about 7-10 years. Yielddieback can be controlled by carbendazim of high density fuel-wood plantations varies@ 0.01per cent. from 10-20 tonnes per ha per year on 7-10 years rotations. Higher yields are reported from irrigated and fertilized sites.EUCALYPTUS (Eucalyptus spp.) Eucalyptus is an Australian genus seeds can be expected per gram. In thecomprising of 140 species. They are case of E. tereticornis one gram containsevergreen species, all more or less aromatic approximately 540 seeds.and containing oil glands in their leaves.Mysore gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis), Planting stockflooded gum (Eucalyptus grandis), bluegum (Eucalyptus globulus) and lemon- Three-month-old containerized stockscented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora) are the (polybag seedlings or root trainer seedlings)important eucalyptus species grown in is recommended for planting. For seedlingKerala. Of these, Mysore gum and flooded production, sow the seeds in seed tray ingum are important timber species in the February. Trays should be kept moist with alow- and mid-altitudinal zones of the state, fine spray of water until germination begins.respectively. The cultivation practices of Germination begins 7-9 days after sowing.these two species are described below. The seedlings should be pricked out when they have two pairs of leaves into polybags E. grandis grows best in deep, perma- of size 22 cm x 10 cm or root trainers. Plant-nently moist, well-drained soils. E. ing stock of high yielding disease resistanttereticornis also prefers moist and clones are available at the KFRI / Keralawell-drained soils such as loamy sands or Forest Department nurseries.alluvial loams, with high nutrient availability.A certain degree of salinity is tolerated, Planting and stand managementbut strongly acid soils are ill suited.E. tereticornis adapts to a variety of sites, Best time for planting is the beginning ofbut responds poorly to excessively long dry rains. Planting is usually done in 20 cm xperiods. It is very easy to regenerate both 20 cm x 20 cm pits (for clones use 30 cmspecies and they are good coppicers. The cube pits) at 3 m x 3 m spacing. For productionnumber of seeds per kilogram for E. grandis of pulpwood and fuel-wood, 6-10 year rotationsis 2.5 million, whereby roughly 630 viable are used without thinning. Depending on site conditions, E. grandis and E. tereticornis may respond to mineral fertilization with

EUCALYPTUS AND MANGIUM 263accelerated growth. Fertilizers may be the nursery with carbendazim 0.05 per cent. Bordeaux paste is recommended against pinkapplied at the rate of 30 g N, 30 gduPr2iOng5 and disease. Use disease tolerant clones for,1se5cgonKd2,Othipredrasnadpfloinugrthpeyreayresa. r the preventing the incidence of both diseases.Injuries and protection Uses Polyphagous insects seem to attack the E. grandis wood is pink to pale reddishnursery stock. Quinalphos or malathion 0.05 brown in colour. It has good bending proper-per cent is recommended against them. ties. It is used for housing construction, floors,Drenching the containers with chlorpyrifos furniture, crates, and veneers, in the paperis a preventive measure against termite attack industry and as fuel-wood. E. tereticornisin plantations. Quinalphos 0.05 per cent produces dark red wood. It is hard, strong,solution is recommended to control stem borer tough, heavy, very durable and resistant toattack. termite attack. It is used for a wide range of construction applications, suited for trench Cylindrocladium leaf blight and pink linings and fuel-wood. E. globulus anddiseases are common in eucalyptus trees. To E. citriodora leaves are used for commer- cial production of Eucalyptus oil.control Cylindrocladium leaf blight, drenchMANGIUM (Acacia mangium) Mangium is a major fast-growing tree Pre-sowing treatment and nurseryspecies in forestry plantation programmes in practicesAsia and the Pacific. It tolerates varied siteconditions and has adaptability to different To break dormancy of mangium seeds,planting objectives.Mangium shows most hot water treatment is recommended. Thevigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils seeds are tied in porous cloth and immersedin high rainfall areas (>2000 mm annually) in in near boling water (90°C) removed fromthe humid tropics. the heat source for not more than 30 seconds. Pour off the water. Add coldPropagation water (room temperature) 20 times of the seed volume. Let stand overnight to imbibe Flowering in mangium is precocious. It and sow the seeds in the nursery beds/seedstarts to flower and produces seeds 18-20 trays. Seed inoculation with appropriatemonths after planting. Pods can be collected rhizobial strain is recommended before sow-from the trees in January-February under ing. Mangium seedlings are ready for prick-Kerala conditions, when the pods turn very ing out in 6-10 days after sowing. Polythenedark-green to light-brown in colour. Seeds bags are the most common containers usedare extracted manually after sun-drying. Pods in thetropics for pricking out. Mangium seed-and seeds should not be left to dry in the sun lings attain a target size of 25-40 cm height infor long. Store the seeds under dry and about 12 weeks. Seedlings are hardened byinsect/rodent-free conditions. The number progressively reducing watering andof seeds in one kg of pure seed varies among removing shade in the nursery. If thetrees (mean: 125,000 seeds per kg). seedlings have grown larger than the target size in the nursery, they may be lopped.

264 MANGIUMPlanting and stand management regular intervals depending on weed growth. Planting is usually done in pits of 20 cm On favourable sites, mangium plants emerge and dominate the weeds within two years,depth and 10-12 cm diameter. In monospe- thus not requiring any further weed control.cific stands, spacing of 2 m x 2 m or 2.5 m x Fertilizers may be applied @ 30-40 g N,2.5 m is common. However, if saw log 15-20 tghPe 2Os e5caonnddKy2Oe aprert osetehdelinf igf tpheryyeeaarr.production (large diameter stems) is the fromobjective, wider spacing (3-3.5 m between Mangium needs regular pruning and thinningrows and between plants) should be followed. if the plantation objective is to produceIn agroforestry situations, spacing within quality saw logs on 15 to 20 year rotation.rows and between rows must consider the These operations in general are not requiredeffect of shade and root competition on the for pulp wood production on 6 to 8 yearsyield of associated crops. Shade tolerant rotation. However, multi-stemmed seedlingscrops such as turmeric and ginger can be may be ‘singled’. In pruning, branches areintercropped with Mangium trees planted at carefully removed in one or more steps along2 m x 4 m or 4 m x 4 m spacing. The crops the bottom trunk up to about 6-7 m height.can be raised in one meter wide beds laid in For saw log production regimes the follow-between the planting rows of Mangium. ing silvicultural schedule is recommended. The average wood yield per tree on a First weeding must be carried out two 15 years rotation is about 0.7 to 1.0 m3.months after planting and thereafter atTable 26. Silvicultural management schedule for mangium saw log regimeAge Activity Remarks4 months after planting General slashing Uproot all climbers within 45 cm radius of each6 months after planting General slashing plant. Remove branches at height less than 30 cm from the ground. As above12 months after planting General slashing Remove all branches up to 1.5-2.0 m height.2 years after planting and first pruning First thinning and Remove 300 trees/ha, retaining 600 trees per ha. high pruning Prune branches up to 6 m height of the 200 selected trees (to be retained till end).4-5 years after planting Second thinning Remove another 200 trees/ha retaining 400 trees/ha.8-9 years after planting Final thinning Remove another 200 trees/ha.Injuries and protection causes the disease, there may be dark reddish granular rusty brown encrustation or Although root rot disease caused by white thread-like rhizomorphs on the surfaceGanoderma sp. (red rot), Phellinus sp. of the rots. The usual method of controlling(brown rot) and Rigidoporus lignosus are root rot caused by fungi that spread by rootmajor problems in mangium stands, there are contact is to remove and destroy all diseasedno specific control recommendations against roots and woody debris.these fungi. Signs of the disease are evidenton the roots after the tree has fallen or upon Chemical protection against pink diseaseexcavation. Depending on, which fungus (Corticium salmonicolor), especially in

MANGIUM AND TEAK 265endemic areas, can be achieved by using chlorpyrifos application to the soil orcopper fungicides. The best way to prevent seedbeds. To prevent branch and twig borerpink disease, however, is to plant tolerant (Sinoxylon anale) occurrence, remove andvarieties. burn all broken branches in which breeding takes place. The only effective method to Progressive decay of the heartwood control red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)(heart rot) is another malady afflicting damage is to inject insecticide into the holesmangium trees. Normally, fungi that decay where larvae push out their frass.heartwood do not attack sapwood; such treescontinue to grow to maturity and may Utilization of mangium woodoutwardly appear healthy and vigorous.However, since heart rot is progressive, there Timber is used for a variety of purposeswill be considerable decay cull at the end of like wood-based panels, pulp and paperthe rotation. A variety of basidiomycete fungi industry etc. Mangium wood gives attrac-have been associated with this malady. At tive furniture, cabinets, moulds and door/present there are no control measures against window components. However, the presencemangium heart rot. The best way is to avoid of flutes and incidence of rots and termiteinjury to trees and wound dressing. attack will detract both the quality and quantity of sawn timber from mangium logs. Although about 30 insect species are Therefore, mangium has greater potential asreported to be pests of mangium, only a few a component of composite wood productssuch as root feeders, branch and stem such as veneer and plywood, laminatedborers and the red coffee borer are consid- veneer lumber, fibre boards etc. and forered economically important. Root feeders chemical uses such as pulp, paper and(Sternocera aequisignata) can be controlled by tannin production, besides fuel-wood. TEAK (Tectona grandis) Teak is the paragon among Indian fertile soil. Being a strong light demander ittimbers. It is a large tree that attains a height does not tolerate overcrowding and does notmore than 30 m. Teakwood is extensively withstand waterlogging.used in construction, for making door/window shutters and frames, furniture, Propagationcabinets, railway coaches and wagons, andship/boat building. It is an ideal wood for Seeds (fallen fruits) should be collectedparquet and decorative flooring and excel- from vigorously growing middle-aged treeslent wood for wall panelling. The species is characterized by straight boles, desirableindigenous to India and the Southeast Asian branching habit, good form and less fluting.region. In India teak is distributed naturally in Freshly fallen intact fruits with inflatedthe peninsular region. It prefers a warm moist calyx from such trees can be collectedtropical climate with mean annual precipita- during December-February. The groundtion of 1100-2000 mm and a well-drained must be cleared before hand by removing litter and other materials to facilitate seed collection.

266 TEAKAfter cleaning and drying the seeds may be root at 2-3 cm of stem prepared with sharpsafely stored in gunny bags or sealed knife are commonly used for planting. Teakcontainers. Seeds of diameter greater than seedlings can be produced in shorter9 mm are usually collected. For conveniencein storage and transport, the bladder like duration by using polythene bags or rootcalyx of the fruit is removed. This is done by trainers. Three to four month old teakhalf-filling a bag with the fruits and seedlings are pricked out from the germina-vigorously rubbing and shaking it or bybeating with sticks, after which the remains tion beds into polythene bags (30 cm xof the calyces are separated from the nuts 20 cm) in the month of March/April.by winnowing. Due to hard seed coat, Three-month-old root trainer seedlings aregermination of one-year old seeds is betterthan that of fresh seeds. also popular, of late.Pre-sowing seed treatment Planting1. Teak seeds kept in jute sacks should be With the pre-monsoon showers, stump soaked in water during night time and dried planting is done in crowbar holes during April- in sun during day time. This practice is to May (four to six weeks before the onset of be continued for one week. regular monsoons). The site must be cleared of stubble or other competing vegetation, if2. Termite feeding: Spread the teak fruits any. If containerized planting stock (polybags, on the ground in a 5 cm layer immedi- root trainer) is used, then optimal time of ately after collection. After about five planting may be after the onset of southwest weeks the termites remove the exocarp monsoon in June-July. They are usually and subsequent germination after planted in pits of size 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm. alternate wetting and drying is found to Spacing recommended for monospecific be better. woodlot is 2 m x 2 m. However, if intercrops are proposed to be raised, then row-to-rowNursery practices distance can be altered. For one or two row strip plantings at farm boundaries, a closer Raised beds (30 cm high, supported with plant-to-plant spacing of 1 m could besplit areca stems) of 10 m x 1 m are formed. employed initially and later thinned to attainSand and soil mixed with FYM form the top better size.layer. Sowing is done after the bed iswatered. Usually the sowing is done by Weeding and fertilizationbroadcast method or dibbling in April-May.Seed rate is 3-5 kg of seeds per bed. After Six or seven weeding may be necessarysowing, the seeds may be pressed into thebeds. A thin layer of soil also can be sprinkled during the first two years. Teak is veryto cover the seeds. The beds are alsomulched with green leaves to reduce evapo- susceptible to weed competition. Fertilizersration losses. The bed is then dusted withcarbaryl 10 per cent to prevent insect attack. may be applied @ 30-40 g N, 15-20 g P2O5 and 15-20 g Kto2Othpeefrifptlhanytepaerraynedarthferoremafttheer One-year-old seedlings of 1-2 cm (thumb second yearthickness) at the thickest portion below thecollar are uprooted from mother beds and used once in three to four years for 10-12 years.for making stumps. Stumps with 15-20 cm of In agroforestry situations, if the intercrops are fertilized, the quantities of chemical fertilizers applied to teak can be proportion- ately reduced or even skipped. Providing life-saving irrigation during the summer season favours teak growth.

TEAK AND THORNY BAMBOO 267Thinning Pests, diseases and their control For a fifty-year rotation, monospecific teak White grubs feed on roots in the nursery.plantation on a good site (initial spacing Vascular wilt disease (Burkholderia2 m x 2 m), thinning may be carried out at solanacearum) is noticed in nursery and4, 8, 12, 18, 26 and 36 years after planting. young plantations. As preventive measuresThinning in short rotation (25-30 years) high against this disease, maintain properinput plantations can be at 4, 8, 12 and drainage and avoid root injury. Leaf spot16 years. The thumb rule governing disease (Phomopsis sp. and Colletotrichumthinning is that trees should not be allowed to gloeosporioides) in nursery and youngcompete with each other for site resources, plantations can be controlled by mancozebas intense competition may depress teak 0.05 per cent or carbendazim 0.05 per centgrowth. Therefore, considering the site application. Against pink disease (Corticiumcharacteristics, tree growth rate and salmonicolor) in young plants, applymerchantability of the thinned out materials, Bordeaux pastea flexible thinning schedule can be adopted.A teak density management diagram can be Defoliators (Hyblaea purea) andused for this purpose. In general thinning is skeletonisers (Eutectona machaeralis) candelayed on poor sites. be controlled by quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 per cent spray. However, only in small planta-Mixed plantations tions / woodlots chemical control through insecticide spray is advocated. For control- Fruit/spice/medicinal trees also can be ling stem borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus)successfully intercropped with teak through- apply 0.2 per cent quinalphos at the site ofout its growth. Additionally, inclusion of infection after removing the frass. Avoidnitrogen fixing trees such as Gliricidia or injury to root and collar to prevent bud rotLeucaena (subabul) either in alternate rows and heart rot occurrence. Cut and removeor every third row not only improves teak the parasitic plants (Dendrophthoe falcatagrowth but also saves chemical nitrogenous var. pubescens) before fruiting.fertilizers. However, manage (by lopping orpruning) the nitrogen fixing tree componentin such a way that it does not compete withteak for light.THORNY BAMBOO (Bambusa arundinacea) Bamboos are woody perennial grasses exist under diverse ecological conditions,that occur in the tropical and subtropical often as an under-storey in many forest types.evergreen and deciduous forest formations In agroforestry, thorny bamboo is perhaps theof Asia-Pacific. Important uses of bamboo most important species in Kerala.include paper and pulp industry, fuel, food,feed, house construction, and scaffolding, Propagationmaking several articles of everyday use,besides controlling soil erosion. One hundred Bamboos are propagated either by seedsand thirty wild and cultivated bamboo or vegetative means (offsets, division, culm/species are reported to occur in India. They rhizome cuttings or layering). In general,

268 THORNY BAMBOObamboos are monocarpic, i.e. they flower only about 200 ml of NAA (1-naphthalene aceticonce and die after producing seeds. Most of acid) solution (100 ppm) carefully into thethe economically important bamboos flower culm cavity through the slit and close the slit/gregariously at long intervals of 30-40 years. hole by wrapping with a polythene strip.Although large quantities of seeds are Ensure that the polythene wrapping is tightproduced during gregarious flowering, they so that the solution does not leak out. Afterare viable only for about six to eight months. extraction, the culm cuttings should be treatedSeeds can be germinated in nursery beds and with NAA as quickly as possible.pricked out into polybags of size 18 cm (flatwidth) x 22 cm. One year-old seedling can Prepare raised nursery beds of 10 m x 1 mbe used for planting. However, when seeds and fill with a mixture of soil and sand (3:1).are not available, bamboos are propagated One week prior to planting, drench thevegetatively. nursery bed with 30 litres of carbendazim 0.05 per cent to prevent fungal attack. Place Propagation by offsets is the common the cutting horizontally (the opening facingmethod of vegetative propagation. One-year- upwards) across the nursery bed. Aboutold culms in a clump are given a slanting cut 50-60 cuttings may be conveniently plantedat about 90 to 120 cm above the ground. The in a raised nursery bed. Cover the cuttingsrhizomes to which they are attached are dug with a thin layer of soil. Provide shade andout with the roots intact. The shoot portion water the beds regularly till the onset ofis then cut off to a length sufficient to monsoon but avoid waterlogging. Rootedinclude a well-developed bud. These offsets cuttings can be transplanted to the field inare planted out sufficiently deep in the soil to about four months.Cuttings sprouted andcover the first two or three nodes. Planting rooted at both the nodes of a culm cuttingshould be carried out immediately before the must be separated carefully through therainy season. During extraction care must middle to get two plants.be taken to avoid damage to roots andrhizomes of mother clumps. Propagation by division is usually done in the case of dwarf bamboos, which are easy Work at the KFRI has shown that using to handle. It involves splitting / dividing therooted culm cuttings is a viable alternative to mass of rhizomes and planting out the culmsthe laborious offset method. For vegetative in small clumps with two or three culmspropagation using culm cuttings, extract 2 to attached. Other methods of vegetative3 year old culms from healthy clumps by propagation include rhizome cuttings and aircuttings just above the first node during layers. Sections of fresh living rhizome ofMarch-April. Trim the leaves and side the preceding year about 15 to 30 cm longbranches without injuring the axillary buds. containing at least one bud and air layers formPrepare two-node cuttings (leaving about successful means of propagating some bam-5-7 cm on either side of the nodes) using a boo species.sharp knife or saw. Make a small slit (about2 m long and 1 cm wide) or drill holes (about Planting and fertilization7 mm diameter) in the middle of the internode. Wrapping in moist gunny bag or Spacing recommended for mono-specificembedding in boxes containing moist saw dust bamboo plantations is 10 m x 10 m. Propagulesmight minimize exposure of the cuttings. Pour can be planted in pits of size 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm. Fertilizers may be applied @ 40 g N,

THORNY BAMBOO, WILD JACK OR AINI AND ROSEWOOD 26910 g P2O5 and 75 g K2O per plant per year in Pests and diseases1-2 year old plantations. The bamboo plantations in Kerala do notCompetitive interactions in bamboo- face any serious insect problems. Youngbased agroforestry plants, however, are likely to be affected by shoot borers and sap suckers. In bamboo Being perennial grasses, bamboos have nurseries, damping off caused byhigher root length densities than dicots. Thus Rhizoctonia solani is a major disease. Itin mixed species system, bamboos may out- can be controlled by prophylactic fungicidalcompete the field crops or other tree crops treatment and by regulation of shade andgrown in association. However, interspecific watering. In young plantations, rhizome budcompetition in bamboo-based agroforestry rot (Pythium sp., Fusarium sp.), rhizomesystems can be overcome by planting crop decay (Pseudomonas sp.) and basal culm8-9 m away from the bamboo clumps. decay (Fusarium sp.) are important.Trenching (30-40 cm wide and 50-60 cm deepat 5-6 m away from the clumps) to Extraction of bamboo culmsspatially isolate bamboo roots from the restof the crops is recommended, if crops are to Either all the old culms, i.e. those morebe planted at shorter distances. Bamboo root than three years old (six years in the case ofcompetitiveness is usually a function of its clumps regenerated from seedling) or arooting intensity with crown radius. Larger certain number of mature culms are removedclumps have wider foraging zones usually annually. Older culms in the interior of theextending to about 8 to 9 m. Therefore canopy clumps should be removed in a horseshoereduction treatments such as pruning and culm pattern. The height of cuttings is usually atthinning are appropriate to surmount 30-50 cm above ground. It is necessary thatinterspecific competition. Pruning up to a cuttings should leave at least one node aboveheight of 1.5 above the ground is recom- the ground to prevent rainwater soaking intomended in plantations of four year and above. the rhizome.Also remove the dry and dead culms fromthe centre of the clump to reduce congestion.WILD JACK OR AINI (Artocarpus hirsutus) Ideally suited for boundary planting and the farm fields) can be collected duringas scattered trees on the farm field. the monsoon season and planted at the desired spots in the field. On farm Performance under monocultural boundaries, closer plant-to-plant spacingsituations is not promising. Seeds or wildings (1 m) can be adopted.(scattered seedlings found profusely onROSEWOOD (Dalbergia latifolia) Rose wood is an important timber yield- mum growth in the southern region of Westerning tree of South India. It is the costliest Ghats. It reaches to a maximum height oftimber in the world trade. It varies in size 40 m and a girth of 6.0 m. Uncontrolled fellingaccording to locality and attains its maxi- caused the widespread removal of rose

270 ROSEWOODwood from our forests. Wayanad district of fairly moist soil. For the further developmentKerala is famous for the abundance of rose of saplings overhead light is necessary. Thewood trees. seedlings should be protected from fire, weeds and cattle. The tree produces a largeArtificial Propagation number of root suckers from its long, horizontal, superficial root branches. Root Propagation is possible both by direct suckers can also be used for propasowing and by planting seedlings, root gation.Wounding of roots by digging aroundsuckers and sections of lateral roots. Stump trees stimulates root sucker production.planting of nursery seedlings is favoured,particularly in the west coast. Mature Planting and stand managementpods are collected from the trees duringNovember-December. For direct sowing it Saplings of rosewood can be planted inis advisable to break the pods into one seeded pits of 30cm cube made at a spacing ofparts. It can be stored up to 6 months after 5x5m. Pits are taken before the onset ofsun drying. Seed weight is 18000 seeds/kg. monsoon and filled with 5 Kg of FYM andSoaking in cold water for 24 hours before top soil. Initial growth of tree is found to besowing will result in 80 per cent germination. relatively low. Even though habitat is decidu-Instead of direct sowing, nursery raised ous, it is evergreen in the moist zone of itsseedling or stumps are also used to raise distribution. In dry areas it shed leaves duringplantations. Seeds are sown in raised February-March and then flushes soon.nursery beds during rainy season. Seeds White flowers will be produced duringstart germinating within one week. The beds January-February. Fruit will start develop-are regularly watered and weeded. One year ing during March and takes 7-8 months toold seedlings are used to prepare stumps. mature. It is drought resistant. It stands aStumps are prepared by pruning shoots fair amount of shade, especially when young,having a diameter of more than 3 cm and but benefits greatly by overhead light. In tooroots at a length of 30 cm. Seedlings of 30cm open situations, it tends to become crookedtall, 3cm collar diameter, 30-40 leaves, 10-15cm and branchy. Though it can withstand fire,root length are normally transplanted. Through fire protection measures are beneficial fortissue culture, good planting materials can be the economic development of Indian roseproduced which was proved by the research wood forests. The growth of the tree is verywork carried at the Kerala Agricultural slow . It thrives best on well drained, deep,University, College of Forestry. During moist soil, particularly in the neighbourhoodinitial years, the seedlings should be protected of perennial streams. Weeding particularlyfrom weeds, cattle and fire. during the early stages are recommended. Depending up on the age and size, aboutNatural regeneration 50-70g of N.,30-50 g P2O 5 and 30-50g K2O along with 30 Kg of FYM per plant is applied Under natural conditions, regeneration by from second year onwards during monsoon.seeds and root suckers takes place. Winddispersed seeds will germinate in the early Plant protectionpart of the rainy season. The conditionsfavourable for seed germination and seed- Fungi belonging to the genusling growth are moderate shade, loose and Polystictus, Schizophyllum, Trametes etc.

ROSEWOOD AND SANDAL 271produce rot diseases. Damping off disease a slightly higher elastic limit than Burma teak.by phytophthora is also common particu- Harvesting is done after 60-70 years. Onelarly in nursery which can be controlled by cubic meter wood weighs about 880 kg.carbendazim 0.05 per cent. Pests ofCoccidae and Membracidae family also Usesattack these plants. Shoot webber Attevasp and defoliator Eligma is seen in some Indian rosewood ranks among the finestplaces which can be controlled by Quinalphos woods for furniture and cabinet work. It is0.05 per cent. also a valuable decorative wood suitable for carving and ornamental ply boards andTimber veneers. It is used for making windows, doors, agricultural implements etc. It is grown The sapwood is narrow and pale yellowish in coffee plantations as a shade tree. Thewhite in colour, often with a purple tinge. The bark of the tree contains tannin. Parts of theheart wood ranges in colour from golden tree are reported to be useful as stimulantbrown through shades of light rose, purple and appetiser and also used for thewith darker streaks to deep purple with rather treatment of dyspepsia, diarrhoea, leprosy,distinct black lines, darkening with age. It is obesity etc. Leaves are used as fodder.fragrant, heavy, narrowly interlocked grained It increases the soil nitrogen content. So itand medium coarse textured. The timber is is use in agro forestry and social forestrystronger and much harder than teak and has programmes. SANDAL (Santalum album) Sandal is a beautiful sacred tree and has water and dried well after removing fleshybeen widely described in the ancient Hindu portion.1 kg pod contains 6000 seeds.scriptures and epics. The tree is a native of Dipping seeds in Gibberellic acid 50ppm willIndia. This crooked thin branched evergreen be effective for germination. Cold watertree is one of the costliest timbers. The world dipping for 24 hrs will result in 30-40 per centfamous sandal wood oil is extracted from its germination. Soil beds of size 10 x 1m are usedheartwood. Full grown trees will attain about for sowing. Before this, soil has to be12-13 m height and 1-2 m diameter.It is found thoroughly mixed with Ekalux. 2 ½ kg seedsin most parts of India. Sandal, which is can be sown in each bed. Beds have to bedistributed from sea level up to about 1800 m covered with hay. Healthy seedlings are toheight, is found to grow in a variety of soils. be transferred in polythene bags. If seedlingsSandal which grow on sandy soil are more are to be retained in the polythene bagsfragrant. Places where average annual beyond one year, host plants are necessary.rainfall is about 700-1600 mm is best suited Host plant will help it in its early stages offor its growth. growth. Branches of the host have to be cut down (removed) frequently.Artificial propagation Natural regeneration Usually nursery raised seedlings aretransferred to field. Pods are collected Natural regeneration is by bird dispersedduring the month of April, May, September seeds. Seedlings are naturally seenand October. Collected pods are soaked in

272 SANDALin shrubby areas / places well surrounded are seen arising from the cut portions.by thick vegetation. This is meant for Sunlight will produce small cracks on theprotection against sun rays, animals, drought outer skin surface of the plant especially inetc. Natural propagation becomes easier if the case of young trees. In extreme condi-soil is wet and a host plant like Lantana is tions, the wood may get exposed and theavailable near. plant will undergo total damage. In order to give protection from this, the surroundingPlanting and management vegetation has to be retained. Fertilization is done with 30-50 g N, 25-50g P2O5 and After a period of 8-10 months, seedlings 30-50g K2O in addition to 40 g FYM per plantof size of 20 cm tall, 5cm girth with 20-25 per year depending upon the size and age ofleaves with brownish stem and small plant.branches are transferred to field. Threemethods are used for field preparation. In one Plant protectionmethod, seeds are allowed to germinate byplacing in small pits. This method is Sandal spike disease is a seriouspracticed usually in shrubby areas, where problem. This is believed to be caused bysprouting seedlings are well protected mycoplasma like organisms.In affectedduring rainy season. plants, growth of leaves gets stunted (assumes a spike like form and hence the In the second method, seeds are placed name “spike disease”) and later prematurein large pits / soil mound along with host leaf fall occurs. Within 2-3 years, plant willplants. In the third method, seeds are allowed die. A preventive measure is yet to be known.to geminate within polythene bags and trans- However, removal of affected plant parts orferred to field in 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm pits plants as a whole from the field is recom-with a spacing of 3 m between plants filled mended against spike disease. Spike diseasewith 5kg FYM. Host plant is also planted is transferred by pests like Jassidus indicus,along with each sandal seedling. This is Moono albimaculata etc. These vectors canthe best method. Suitable host plants are be controlled by quinalphos 0.05 per cent.Pongamia pinnata and Casuarina Sandal is also affected by stem borers suchequisetifolia as Zeuzera coffeae, Aristobia octo- fasiculata etc which can be controlled by Sandal is a semi root parasite. It means spraying dimethoate 0.05 per cent.that during the early stages of its develop-ment, it absorbs food from another plant Timber(host plant). Flowering begins after 2-3 yearsof vegetative growth. It happens twice in a Sapwood is whitish or yellowish whiteyear from March to May and September to with no smell. Heartwood changes in colourDecember. As these two flowering from yellowish brown to reddish brown andseasons coincide, both buds as well as has a good smell. Heartwood is producedmature pods are found on the same plant. only after 20 years of growth. Usually treesSimultaneously, shade bearing capacity are uprooted instead of cutting from thechanges gradually and the tree later becomes ground level as oil content in roots is greater.a light dependent one. Small root suckers One cubic meter wood weighs about 897-1137 kg. The “Kerala Preservation of Trees

KAMPAKAM 273Act 1986” has put restriction on cutting this Usestree. Permit is needed for its collection,retention or sale. One can keep up to 3 kg of Dark red coloured oil from seeds is usedsandal for domestic purposes without in making varnishes. It is also found to belicence. A sanctioned certificate of owner- effective in skin diseases. Sandal wood oilship from Tahsildar is to be submitted from heartwood and roots is useful forbefore Divisional Forest Officer by people the synthesis of powder, soap, perfumeswho have sandal tree at home. About 75 per and other cosmetic items. Sandal woodcent of the selling price of a sandal tree goes and oil are medicinal and also has religiousto its owner. On the basis of quality, grade importance. Sandal wood is used in making small boxes, stationery items, jewellery1kg sandal costs about Rs. 250-500/-. boxes etc. KAMPAKAM (Hopea parviflora) In Kerala, Kampakam is also known as more than 4 mm is given. If there is noThampakam, Irippu, Irumpakam etc. This rainfall, regular watering is essential. Germi-round headed huge tree is found in the wet nation takes place within 2-3 weeks.evergreen forests of Western Ghats. Fullgrown tree usually attains 30-37 m height and Natural regeneration4-4.5 m breadth at the end of 40 years.Mostly distributed in areas which are located Seen in forests by germination of windin between sea level and 1100 m above it. dispersed seeds during rainy season. OnlyHeavy rainfall and properly drained and in sunny regions, seedlings are found to growaerated soil are necessary for its growth. well.Seen abundantly along river banks and hillslopes with fertile soil. Planting and managementArtificial propagation Seedlings of 14 to 16 months old plants are to be transferred to fields. Planting is done Artificial propagation is by seeds.Seeds in pits of 45 cm cube with the onset of mon-can be stored in sacks up to 20 days. 1 kg soon at a spacing of 4m x 4m filled withwill contain about 2500 seeds. Both direct 5kg FYM. Weeding and thinning aresowing or by transferring nursery raised necessary for seedling growth. From secondseedlings to fields are practiced. It is good year onwards depending on size of plant,to sow seeds soon after collection as they 50-70g N,40-50g P2O5, 40-60g K2O alongare recalcitrant. In the case of direct with 30 kg FYM are applied to each plant.sowing, shady and weed free localities are If the area is fertile, within 40 years, timberpreferable. Shade trees should be removed of above 20 m height and 150 cm diameterafter 4-5 years of growth. Usually a dis- will be obtained.tance of 3m x 3m , or 4m x 4m are used. Ifnursery raised seedlings are used for plant- Even though Kampakam is an ever greening, shady areas have to be preferred. tree, it will drop mature leaves during theAfter sowing, soil covering of thickness not months of December and April. They will produce pale yellowish flowers during

274 KAMPAKAM AND IRULJanuary to February. Seeds attain maturity borers like Xyleborus, Mussicus etc whichduring the months of May-June. They can can be controlled by quinalphos 0.05 per cent.overcome drought as they are deep rooted.They prefer wet areas. Although they are Timbershade tolerant during their early stages ofgrowth later it becomes a light demander. Timber is having more strength, weightDense vegetation will destroy its seedlings. and hardness than teak. One cubic meterIt is sensitive to fire and frost. timber weights about 945 kg. It is not easy to differentiate heartwood and sapwood.Plant protection Reddish brown timber possess white patches here and there. Usually the tree is affected by fungi likeFomes lamaocnis, Tramelies spongi pellis Usesetc which will cause rotting. Leaf spot byBotryodiplodia theobrommae is serious in As bark contains tannin, it is used insome parts. Plants are also affected by stem tanning industry. Termite and pest infections are rare, so it used in manufacture of furniture, railway sleeper, buildings etc.IRUL (Xylia xylocarpa) Locally this is also known as Irumullu, the seeds in cold water overnight enhancesKadamaram, Iruppool, Panka, Pankali etc. germination. Seeds are sown on loose soil.These large sized trees are commonly seen Avoid clay soil. Weeding is necessaryin the deciduous forests. Mostly found in during seedling stage. Soaking the seeds inplaces located about 600 m above sea level. growth hormones like IAA 250ppm orIn the forest areas of malabar, a large num- GA 50 ppm for 30 minutes will enhanceber of trees having 30 m height and 2.5 m germination to 70 per cent..diameter can be seen. Profusely branchedstem is its characteristic feature. Reddish Natural regenerationash bark is very rough and cracky. In dryareas stunted growth is reported. Grows well Large number of seedlings are naturallyin places where annual rainfall is above 1000 found growing in forests. They are fire andmm and atmosphere is hot as well as humid. drought resistant.River banks and places with red soil are bestsuited for its growth. Lateritic soil is also Planting and managementfound to be good for this species.Poor growthin clay soil. Planting in the field is done at a spacing of 4m x 4m .Standard pits are filled withArtificial propagation rich top soil and FYM 5 kg. In addition to FYM, from second or third year onwards, This is effected by direct sowing, or by 50-70g N,50-60 g P2O5 and 50-70g K2O isplanting stumps and seedlings from nursery also added to each plant depending on size.or seedlings from forest. Sun dried seeds Growth is fast during favourable season. Itare used for sowing in the field. This method attains a diameter increment of about 6 cm/is found to be the most efficient one. Soaking year. Felling can be done after a period of 30-50 years growth.

IRUL AND MAHAGONY 275 At the end of the winter season, leaf fall Timberwill start. Soon after new sprouts andflowers will be produced. Light yellow flow- Reddish brown heartwood posses whiteers possess a good smell. Pods are of length lines. Sapwood is pale coloured. Has more10-15 cm and diameter 4-5 cm and these strength and hardness than teak. One cubicbrownish red pods have the shape of shoes. meter timber weights about 832-944 kg.8-10 seeds are present in one pod. Wood is termite resistant. Sawn wood can1 kg pod contains more than 3000 seeds. be stored for about 10-15 years without anyDuring the early stages of growth, shady preservative treatment.regions are preferred. Later they becomelight demanding. Root suckers are abun- Usesdantly produced in certain regions. It is avery good coppicer also. Due to the presence of resin in the wood, they can resist the attack of fungi, termitesPlant protection etc. Hopea timber was used in the manu- facture of railway sleepers. It is also used in In fire damaged areas, xylia trees are making pillars of huge building, bridges etc.found to be infected by fungi like Fomes, It can resist damage by water. Pulp is usedPolystictus etc. Stem borers and defolia- in paper industry. During the ancient period,tors also cause severe damage. Growing of the timber was used for making coal in irontrees in healthy environmental conditions, furnace. Bark is having medicinal value.preventing fire, grazing etc is found to be Powdered bark mixed with honey is amore effective than using pesticides, good medicine for diarrhoea, vomiting,fungicides etc. gonorrhoea etc. Skin contains tannin also. Pod is edible. Leaves can be used as a bio fertilizer. Suitable for rearing Lac insect.MAHAGONY (Switenia macrophylla) It is an evergreen tree attaining a height about 20 leaves are transferred to pits in theof about 30-40 m and a diameter of about field. Direct sowing is found to be success-3-4 m within a span of 30-35 years. This is ful. Seedlings can also be transplanted inan exotic species with bark peeling feature. polythene bags. Polybaged seedlings havingAbundant growth occurs in places with a height of 30cm with 20 leaves are found toaverage annual rainfall of 1500-5000 mm and be better planting materials in the main field.in fertile laterite soil. Natural regenerationArtificial propagation By the germination of fallen seeds. Easiest method of propagation is by Removal of shade is essential for itsusing seeds.Seeds are obtained by drying germination.the collected pods. Viability lasts for only upto 7 months. Seeds are placed in small pits Planting and managementat a distance of 7.0 cm x 7.5 cm or 10 x 10 cm. Poly bagged seedlings are the best planting Germination starts within 2 weeks. Seed- materials in the main field. Planting is donelings of height of 30cm, 2cm diameter with in pits of 35cm cube filled with top soil and 10 kg of FYM. Pits are taken with the onset

276 MAHAGONY AND THEMBAVUof monsoon and planting is done during leaf spot disease. This can be controlled byJune-July. Unlike other species slightly wider spraying carbendazim 0.05 per cent .The stemspacing of 3m x 3m is given in the main field. borer, Hypsophylla robusta is also found toThough the trees are evergreen in nature, leaf infect the tree. Cultivating mahagony infall occurs during the months of February, blocks, along with cashew tree willMarch. Red coloured young leaves appear prevent the attack of stem borers.to develop at about the beginning ofApril-May months. Pod maturation occurs in Timbera year. The tree is somewhat shade tolerant.Extreme shade is detrimental. Frost One cubic meter of timber with annualsensitive. Can be cultivated as a mixed crop rings weighs about 560 kg and is of lightin teak plantations. Fertilization at the rate of reddish in colour. The wood is durable,30-50 g N, 40-50 g P2O5, 50-70g K2O along attractive and has high demand in thewith 20-30 kg FYM per plant depending on market.size is good from second year onwards. UsesPlant protection Wood is used for making furniture and oil Fungi like Botryodiplodia theobromae from seed is used in soap industry. It is oneand Coletotrichum gloeosporioides produce of the best materials for staining and design works.THEMBAVU (Terminalia tomentosa) This tree is known as “Crocodile barked Planting and managementtree” as the thick, dark coloured, spitted barklooks like the skin of a crocodile. Very Planting is done in pits of 30 cm cubesuitable for afforestation purposes in open along with onset of monsoon at a distanceplaces with clayey soil. It grows to about of 5mx5m. Plants are generally sensitive36 m height and attains a diameter of about and watering and weeding are important4 m if the climate is favourable. It grows during the initial years of establishmentwell in places located at about 800 m above of plantation. Leaf fall occurs duringsea level. January-February. Young leaves appear during March and April. Bunches of whiteArtificial propagation flowers are produced during the months of May-June. Pods get matured within 5-6 By direct sowing or by planting nursery months. Root system grows deeply in theraised seedlings. In the case of direct soil. Small suckers are seen sprouting out fromsowing, seeds are sown in lines keeping a the exposed roots. Best coppicer also.distance of 12 cm between. Soaking the seeds Though the tree can grow in almost all typesin cold water for 24 h will result better of soils, laterite soil with proper drainage isgermination. Weeding is necessary. best suited. It is drought sensitive andThinning is also essential for their healthy frost resistant.growth.

THEMBAVU AND VENGA 277Plant protection that of teak, industrially it is very important. One cubic meter wood weights about Wood rot is caused by Dacdalea flavida, 375-761 kg.Fomes melanoporus, Ganoderma lucidumetc. Metanestria hyrtaca, Denia litura etc Usescause premature leaf fall.Fungal diseases canbe controlled by spraying carbendazim Wood is used for making building, furniture,0.05 per cent. railway sleepers etc. Tassar silkworm moths eats its leaves. Bark contains tannin, henceTimber used in tanning industry. Gum from the tree has medicinal value. Juice from bark is a Heartwood is dark ash coloured good colouring agent for cotton and silkwith black spots and lines. Sap wood is cloths.reddish white. Though this is not good asVENGA (Pterocarpus marsupium) Venga is one of the largest trees of ploughing the soil enhances natural propagationdeciduous forests. Highly branched (spread-ing) crown is its characteristic feature. Planting and managementReddish gum is seen flowing through thetimber. It attains a height of about 30 m and Site preparation includes ploughing thediameter of about 2 ½ m. Grown in steep hill land and making 30 cm cube pits before theslopes and plain areas. In Kerala, it is found onset of monsoon. Pits are filled with red soilin regions located about 1070 m above sea and 5 kg FYM. Planting is done at a spacinglevel. Even though they grow in almost all of 4m x 4m along with south west monsoon.types of soil, good drainage is essential. Fertilizer mixture of 60-70gN, 50-60g P2O5,Regions having rainfall 75-200 cm is best 50-70g K2O along with 25-30 kg FYM persuited.This light dependent tree becomes frost plant is recommended from 2nd or 3rd yearsensitive during the later stages of growth. onwards. In the seedling stage shading is necessary. Lateral branches are pruned fromArtificial propagation third year onwards. Artificial propagation is by seeds. Seeds Plant protectionare collected from full grown trees andsoaked in cold water for about 2-3 days The fungi, Polyporus gilvus,Ganodermabefore sowing. Germination stars with in lucidum, Fomes fastuvosue etc are10-15 days.Seedlings of 10cm height are commonly found to infect this tree. Commontransplanted in polythene bags filled with fungicides can be used to prevent theirpotting mixture. Bagged seedlings are kept attack.under partial shade in nursery. One kg of seedlot contains about 1000 seeds. TimberNatural regeneration Sapwood is pale white. Yellowish brown heartwood possess dark lines. 1 m3 timber Natural propagation is by seeds. In the weighs about 800 kg. The timber is highlyseedling stage, shade is necessary. Protect- durable upto or more than 20-22 years.ing trees from animals and fire and also Drying of timber in sun light, after soaking in

278 VENGA AND CHADACHIwater for about 6 weeks is effective in Pterocarpus is used for dyeing, printing,improving durability and also useful for tanning etc. Leaves are used as cattle feedremoving stains. and green manure. Flowers and bark have medicinal properties also.Uses Timber is used for the manufacture of This tree is best suited for agroforestry posts, buildings, beams, furniture, boat,and social forestry. Used as a shade agricultural instruments etc.tree in the tea and coffee plantations ofSouth India. Gum-keno obtained fromCHADACHI (Grewia tilifolia) Chadachi, also known as Uthi, has Planting and managementthe timber looks like that of teak and ismost commonly found in the moist decidu- Planting and management practices areous forests of Kerala. Usually they attain a similar to that of venga.height of 12 m and 1.5 m diameter. Butremarkable growth is seen in trees Plant protectiongrowing along the Western ghats whichpossess a height of 24 m and a diameter In the case of old trees, wood rot is causedof 2m. This grows well on soil which is by the fungus Ganoderma sp. Therefore,best suited for teak plantations. Even though aged trees have to be cut and removed asbest growth occurs in full sun light, they are early as possible. Grown up trees are alsoshade tolerant. It is also frost sensitive. Root affected by stem borers and defoliators,suckers are produced abundantly. This which can be controlled by sprayingspecies is also a good coppicer. Leaf fall quinalphos 0.05 per cent.occurs during the month of March, and newleaves are produced during the month of TimberApril. Flower production is in February andseeds begin to mature during May. Heart wood is reddish brown with black patches. Brown colour of sapwood deepensArtificial propagation with age. More strong and elastic than Teak. One cubic meter timber has about 785 kg Seeds can be collected during the months weight. Easy for felling and sawing.of June-August and can be stored up to4 months. Artificial propagation is possible Usesby direct sowing or by planting stumps ornursery raised seedlings in the field. Warm Timber is used for making furniture,water treatment of seeds are found to be good vehicle parts, windows, doors etc. Skinfor better germination. and timber have some medicinal property. Coir is made from skin fibres. Seeds are edible. Leaves are good cattle feed. Mucilaginous extract from leaves is good for hair health.

PUNNA AND AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM 279PUNNA (Calophyllum ionophyllum) This is a medium sized evergreen tree Fertilizers at the rate of 25-30g N.,15-20gbest suited for protecting sea shores. Ash P O and 20-25 g K O can be appliedcoloured or dark green leaves are its char- de2 pe5nding up on size2 and age. There isacteristic features. Grown well in sandy and regional variations in flowering seasons. Inalluvial soils. Mostly distributed along sea Kerala, flowers are produced during the monthsshores and also in the tropical evergreen of March-April. Pods get matured at theforests. Cultivated as shade giving plants time of May-June. This is a light demandingalong road sides and also as ornamental one. tree. Fire and wind will cause severe damage.Artificial propagation Plant protection Artificial propagation is by direct Rotting is caused by fungi belonging to thesowing or by planting nursery raised genus Fomes. Young plants are also infected byseedlings. Pods are collected during the fungi like Trichosoma which can bemonth of March. One kilogram contains controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeauxabout 250 seeds. Hard coat is to be removed. mixtureSoaking the seeds in cold water for 12 hoursor warm water for 40 minutes is recom- Timbermended for enhancing germination. Soakingin dilute sulphuric acid for 20 minutes is also Sapwood has pale reddish white colour.found to enhance germination. Heartwood is reddish brown with mottled dark lines. Felling and sawing are very easy.Planting and management It can be kept in water for a long period of time without any damage. One cubic meter Planting is done mainly during the timber weighs about 655 kg.monsoon season. Pit planting is recom-mended at a spacing of 3m x 3m. It prefers a Usessandy loam soil. Watering is essential in sum-mer months particularly during initial stages Wood is used for making posts, beams,of development. It can be raised both as pure furniture etc. Used in plywood industry also.crop and also interplanted with banana or Dark green coloured oil from seeds is a goodpepper. Two to three weeding are neces- fuel and used for making soap, varnishes etc.sary during the initial stages of development. Oil cake is a fertilizer. Saponin in the leaves is detritus to fishes.AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMAgrisilvicultural systems Shade loving crops such as ginger with other field crops including medicinalperform better in the inter-spaces of tree plants such as kacholam. Depending on thespecies such as ailanthus (at four years of space available (between coconut palms),age, planted at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m; with one or two rows of multi-purpose trees can60 per cent of the light in the open). be accommodated in the middle (spacing 1-2 m between plants). Tree management Multipurpose tree species like ailanthus, such as lopping / pollarding etc. is importantteak, vellapine, silver oak and green manure to prevent any possible inter-specificyielding trees can be successfully interplanted competition between the multipurpose treein the older coconut plantation (preferably component and the coconut palms.above 30 years of age), often in association

280 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONESAGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA Four parameters that together evolve tum of annual precipitation is concentrateddistinct agronomic environments wherein a around lesser periods towards the northerndistinct cropping pattern flourishes are part of the state while it is spread over longeraltitude, rainfall pattern, soil type and periods in the southern parts.topo-graphy. The parameters and theirlevels used for delineating agro-climatic zones The co-efficient of variation of theare summarised in Table 27. The levels of annual rainfall is below 20 per cent and hence,each parameter are broadly determined to agriculture is expected to flourish underavoid complexity in the process of land evalu- relatively stable conditions. Howeveration. In reality, there can be several more coefficient of variation of monthly rainfall islevels for each parameter (For example, there high. As a result, stability in production canare 38 soil associations identified in Kerala, be ensured only with the support ofat 1:250,000 scale). irrigation at least for most of the major cropsAltitude so as to increase their production and productivity. Altitudinal variations influence thetemperature regime. High altitude generates The state was divided into two halvestemperate climatic conditions in a tropical area namely the areas south and north of 11ºNlike Kerala. Sizeable areas in the high ranges latitude (approximately south and north ofof Idukki and Wayanad districts fall under Thrissur) with rainfall pattern I and II respec-this category, even though high altitude tively. The southern region is havingareas are found all along the Western Ghats. relatively well distributed rainfall and JuneThe low altitude region, endowed with maxima for SW monsoon while thehumid tropical climate is spread over the northern region has relatively ill distributedentire length of the state. rainfall and July maxima for SW monsoon.Rainfall Soil Types The State is relatively rich in rainfall Soil type is the third factor for distin-endowment; with an annual precipitationaround 2600 mm. Ninety percent of this guishing specific zones. The major groupprecipitation is during the two monsoons, June under the soils of Kerala is laterite and itsto August (south west) and October to No- variations. In the traditional midland region thevember (north east). About 60 per cent of dominant soil type is typical laterite with theannual rainfall is received during southwest B-horizon present. The areas skirting themonsoon period and about 30 per cent Western Ghat and the high ranges whichduring northeast monsoon. From December together form the traditional highland regionto March there is very little rainfall, but the has lateritic soil where the B-horizon isoccasional rainfall during this period is a very absent. Red loam is found in the southerncritical requirement for cultivation as we still most tip of the state. All these variabilitydepend upon rainfall for raising many of the constitute distinct homogeneous agroeco-crops. logical zones, though the rainfall pattern is the same. Distinct zones have been identified based The spread of rainfall is relatively better on special soil types such as river bank alluvium,with 6-7 months having rainfall above or peaty soil (kari) as in Kuttanad and sandy soils,nearly around the monthly average. The quan- though the rainfall pattern and topographic models are the same. In the coastal area, the texture of the soil especially of the garden lands is considered as a distinguishing

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 281feature in identifying two separate zones one thirteen agro-climatic zones. Block Panchayatwith sandy loam and the other with sandy soil. has been taken as the unit for purposes ofThe soil characteristics of the paddy land such delineation. All the Blocks, Municipalities andas peaty (kari) and saline soils (pokkali) havealso been associated in delineating the zones. Corporations have been grouped into appro- priate agro-ecological zones. Whenever a BlockTopography or Municipality was found to fall in more than one agro-climatic zone, it was assigned to that Areas having similar rainfall pattern and soil zone which has the largest area. Though 13type are further delineated into zones based on agro-climatic zones have been identified, notopographical features. For instances, themidland region north of 11ºN latitude has a Block was assigned to one zone viz. thecommon rainfall pattern and the soil is of Riverbank alluvium as it is found scattered intypical laterite with B-horizon. It is further several blocks. This zone is found generally alldelineated into two zones based on the differ- along the banks of the major rivers. It is foundences in topography with one zone having relatively extensively in the lower basins of thetopographic Model II-b and the other Model Periyar and Pumpa river systems. Further,II-c. Similarly the midland region south of 11ºNhas been delineated into two zones based on such alluvium deposits are generally found inthe differences in topographic features as the paddy fields that form the valley portionsmodels II-a and II-b. of the undulating landscape, which is inter- spersed with mildly sloping hills. The principalAgro-ecological zones characteristics of each zone are summarised in Table 28. Each of the zones identified is Following the above approach and using amatrix built upon altitude, rainfall, soil and assigned a popular name. Many of them aretopography, the state has been delineated into currently in vogue and are associated with areas having singular agro-climatic features and cropping patterns. Table 27. Parameters for identifying agro-ecological zonesParameter Level DescriptionI. Altitude Type I Up to 500 m above MSL (Low altitude zone-hot humid tropics, spread over the entire state) Type II More than 500 m above MSLII. Rainfall Pattern I Both the south west and north east monsoons are active and moderately distributed. Southwest monsoon with June maximum (South of 11ºN latitude). Pattern II Poorly distributed rainfall; south west monsoon with July maximum and concentrated in 3-4 months. North east monsoon relatively weak (North of 110 N Latitude).III. Soil types 1 Alluvial soil (Spread over river banks) 2 Sandy soil (Coastal areas) 3 Sandy loam soil (Coastal areas) 4 Laterite soil with well defined B horizon (Natural midlands) 5 Laterite soil without B-horizon (Natural highlands). 6 Red soil (Southern-most Kerala) 7 Black soil (Chittur taluk of Palakkad district) 8 Peat (kari) soil (Kuttanad) 9 Acid-saline soil (Pokkali and Kaipad areas) Valleys Hill tops SlopesIV. Topo- Model-I Extensive valleys with level but raised garden lands graphy Model-IIa Valleys less extensive Hills with moderate gradients Slopes having mild gradients Model-IIb Valleys less extensive Hills with moderate gradients Steep slopes Model-IIc and top with egg shaped hump Model-III Valleys less extensive Hills with table tops Steep slopes Narrow valleys Hills with steep gradients Steep slopes

282 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONESTable 28. Agro-ecological zones of Kerala: Main features and distributionNo. Zones Altitude Rainfall Topography Soil type type patterns model1 Onattukara II I Sandy loamQuilon ©, Chavara, Karunagappally, Ochira, Kayamkulam (M), Mavelikkara, Mavelikkara (M),Muthukulam1, Haripad 2II Coastal sandy I I I Sandy loamAmbalappuzha 2, Alleppey (M)2, Aryad 3, Kanjikuzhy 3, Cherthala (M), Pattanakkad 3, Thykkattussery3,Vaikom (M), Vaikom 3, Vyttila 4, Edappally4, Palluruthy4, Kochi © 4, Vypeen 4, Parur 4, Parur (M), Kodungallur,Thalikkulam, Mathilakom, Chavakkad, Andathode 5, Ponnani 5III Southern midlands I I III Laterite without B-horizonTrivandrum ©, Trivandrum Rural, Kazhakkuttam, Chirayinkeezhu, Attingal(M), Varkala, Kilimanoor,Ethikkara, Mukharthala, Anchalummude, Chadayamangalam, Kottarakkara, Vettikkavala, Chittumala,Sasthamkotta, Elanthur, Pandalam, Kulanada, Bharanikkavu, Chengannur7, Koippuram7, Thiruvalla (M)7,Mallappally 7, Changanachery (M), Madappally 2, Pallom, Kottayam (M), Ettumannur2, KaduthuruthyIV Central midlands I I & II IIa LateritePampakuda, Vadavucode, Koovappady, Perumbavoor (M),Vazhakkulam, Aluva (M), Alangad7, Parakadavu7,Angamaly, Mulanthuruthy, Mala, Vallangallur5, Irinjalakkuda (M), Irinjalakkuda5, Cherpu5, Anthikad5, Thrissur ©,Puzhakkal5, Mullassery, Kunnamkulam (M), Chowannur, Thrithala, Pattambi, OttappalamV Northern midlands I II IIb LateritePandalayani3, Balusseri, Perambra, Maladi, Vadakara (M), Thodannur, Kunnummel, Tuneri, Badagara,Thalasseri6, Thalassery (M), Kuthuparambu, Edakkad, Cannanore (M), Irikkur, Cannanore6, Thaliparambu,PayyannurVI Malappuramtype I I II c LateriteTirur, Kuttipuram, Tanur, Tirurangadi, Vengara, Malappuram, Manjeri, Kondotty, Kozhikode3, Kozhikode ©,Chevayur, Kunnamangalam, Koduvally, Nileswar8, Kanhangad9, Kasargod9, Manjeswar9VII Malayoram II III Laterite without BPerumkadavila, Vellanad, Nedumangad, Vamanapuram,Anchal, Pathanapuram, Parakode, Konni, Ranni, Vazhur,Kanjirappally, Pampady, Erattupetta, Lalam, Pala (M), Uzhavur, Thodupuzha, Elamdesam, Muvattupuzha,Muvattupuzha (M), Kothamangalam, Chalakudy3, Kodakara7, Ollukkara, Pazhayannur, Mannarkkad,Sreekrishnapuram, Perinthalmanna, Mankada, VandurVIII Palakkad plains I II II Red loamAlathur, Palakkad, Palakkad (M), Kuzhalmannam, Nenmara10IX Red loam II III Red loamNemom, Neyyattinkara (M), Athiyannur, ParassalaX Chittiir black soil I II IIa Black soilChittur, KollengodeXI Kuttanad II I Peat (Kari)Chambakulam, Veliyanad, Pulikeezhu7XII Riverbank alluvium I I I AlluviumDistributed as narrow stretches in the river banks all over KeralaXIII High ranges II I & II III Red loamArudai, Devikulam, Attapadi, Kalpeta, Sultan Batery, MananthavadyM – Municipality, © – Corporation, 1 – Kayal land, 2 – Kuttanad, 3 – Kari land, 4 – Pokakli land, 5 – Kole land,6 – Kaipad lands, 7 – River bank alluvium, 8 – Brown sands, 9 – Sandy (tobacco), 10 – High ranges

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 283

284 VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOSTCOMPOSTINGVERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST Composting is a biological process in biological agents. Vermicompost containswhich microorganisms decompose organic major and minor nutrients in plant availablematter and lower the carbon-nitrogen ratio forms as well as enzymes, vitamins and plantof the substrate. It is generally prepared from growth hormones.organic waste material such as crop residue,household waste etc. Species suitable: Eudrillus eugineae has been identified as the most ideal species ofMethods of composting earthworm for vermitechnology under Kerala conditions. The available residues in the farm arecollected and stored till they form sufficient Vermicomposting of farm wastesmass for compost making. A trench ofsuitable size, say, 4-6 m long, 2-3 m broad Pits of size 2.5 m length, 1 m breadth andand 1-1.5 m deep is dug, the accumulated 0.3 m depth are taken in thatched sheds withresidues is well mixed, and spread in a layer sides left open. The bottom and sides of theof 30 cm in thickness, along the length of pit are made hard by compacting with athe trench. This layer is well moistened by wooden mallet. At the bottom of the pit, asprinkling cowdung slurry and water over it. layer of coconut husk is spread with theA second layer of identical thickness of the concave side up to ensure drainage of excessmixed residues is then spread over the first water and also for proper aeration. The husklayer. The process is repeated till the heap is moistened and above this, biowaste mixedrises to a height of 45 cm to 60 cm above with cowdung in the ratio of 8:1 is spread upground level. The top is then covered with a to a height of 30 cm above the ground levelthin layer of soil. After three months of and water is sprinkled daily. After the partialdecomposition, the mass is taken out of the decomposition of wastes for 7 to 10 days,trench and formed into a conical heap above the worms are introduced @ 500 to 1000the ground, moistened with water if numbers per pit. The pit is covered withnecessary, and covered with soil. After one coconut fronds. Moisture is maintained at 40or two months, the manure will be ready for to 50 per cent. After around 60 to 75 days,application in the field. when the compost is ready, it is removed from the pit along with the worms and heaped inVermicompost shade. The worms will move to bottom of the heap. After one or two days the compost Vermitechnology is a process by which from the top of the heap is removed. Theall types of biodegradable wastes such as undecomposed residues and worms arefarm wastes, kitchen wastes, market wastes, returned to the pit for further composting asbiowastes of agro-based industries, livestock described above. The vermicompostwastes etc. are converted to nutrient rich produced has an average nutrient status ofvermicompost by using earthworms as

VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST 2851.5 per cent N, 0.4 per cent P2O5 and 1.8 disturbance for a week. When the compostper cent K2O with pH ranging from 7.0 to is ready, the box can be kept outside for 2-38.0. The nutrient level will vary with the type hours so that the worms come down to theof material used for composting. lower fibre layer. Compost from the top, may be removed, dried and sieved. ThePrecautions vermicompost produced has an average nutrient status of 1.8 per cent N, 1.9 per1. The composting area should be provided cent P2O5 and 1.6 per cent K2O, but with sufficient shade to protect it from composition will vary with the substrate used. direct sunlight. Mass multiplication of earthworms2. Adequate moisture level should be maintained by sprinkling water whenever Earthworms can be multiplied in 1:1 necessary. mixture of cowdung and decaying leaves in a cement tank or wooden box or plastic3. Preventive measures should be adopted bucket with proper drainage facilities. The to ward off predatory birds, ants, rats, etc. nucleus culture of earthworms is to be introduced into the above mixture at the rateVermicomposting of coconut leaves of 50 numbers per 10 kg of organic wastes and properly mulched with dried grass, straw Weathered coconut leaves can be or wet gunny bag. The unit should be kept inconverted into good quality vermicompost in shade. Sufficient moisture level should bea period of three months with the help of maintained by occasional sprinkling of water.earthworm, Eudrillus sp. On an average, Within 1-2 months, the earthworms multiply6-8 tonnes of leaves will yield 4-5 tonnes of 300 times, which can be used for largescalevermicompost with about 1.2, 0.1 and 0.5 per vermicomposting.cent N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. Preparation of vermiwashVermicomposting of household wastes Method 1 A wooden box of 45 cm x 30 cm x 45 cmor an earthen/plastic container with broad The system consists of a plastic basinbase and drainage holes may be selected. A having a capacity of 20 litres, a plasticplastic sheet with small holes may be placed perforated wastepaper basket and a PVCat the bottom of the box / container. A layer pipe of 5 cm diameter and 30 cm length.of soil of 3 cm depth and a layer of coconut The waste paper basket is covered with afibre of 5 cm depth may be added above it nylon net and placed at the centre of the basinfor draining of excess moisture. A thin layer upside down. A hole is made at the bottomof compost and worms may be added above of the waste paper basket so that a PVCit. About 250 worms are sufficient for the pipe of 5 cm diameter can be placed into thebox. Vegetable wastes of each day can be basin through the hole in such a way that onespread in layer over the coconut husk fibre. end of it touches the basin. The PVC pipeTop of the box may be covered with a piece is perforated so that the leachate from theof sac to provide dim light inside the box. basin seeps through the wastepaper basketWhen the box is full, it can be kept without

286 VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOSTand collects in the PVC pipe, which can be Then a thick layer of coir fibre along withsiphoned out by a kerosene pump. The basin humus containing 1500-2000 worms ofoutside the wastepaper basket, is lined with Eudrillus euginae or Isenia foetidae isa layer of brick pieces at the bottom and a added to the pot. The hole situated at the2-3 cm thick layer of coconut fibre of 2-3 bottom of the pot is fixed with a water tapcm placed above it. After moistening this, through which vermiwash is collected. The2 kg worms (about 2000) are introduced into kitchen waste of each day is added to theit and 4 kg kitchen waste is spread over it. container. The composting process isAfter one week, the kitchen waste turns into allowed to continue for a week or more tilla black well decomposed compost. Two brownish black mass of compost is obtained.litres of water is sprinkled over the compost Occasionally, two or three tablespoons ofcontaining worms. After 24 hours, the fresh cowdung slurry is poured on the humusleachate collected in the PVC pipe is as feed for the worms. After the formationremoved by siphoning. The collected of compost, the entire mass is soaked withleachate is called vermiwash, which is two litres of water. After 24 hours, about 1.5actually an extract of compost containing litre of vermiwash can be collected. Thisworms. This is used for soil application and process can be continued for one or twofoliar spray in different crops. Vermiwash weeks till the brown colour of washis honey-brown in colour with a pH of 8.5 disappears. The less enriched compost thatand N, P2O5 and K2O content 200, 70 and remains in the pot can be collected and used1000 ppm respectively. For large scale as fertilizer. Later, the pot can be emptiedcollection of vermiwash, a cement tank of and set up again to continue the process.size 80 cm x 80 cm x 80 cm with a side tapis constructed. A layer of small brick pieces The vermi wash, either alone or inor gravel is placed at the bottom of the tank. combination with botanical pesticides can beAbove it a layer of fibre of 3-4 cm thickness used for pest management in kitchen gardens.in placed. A definite quantity of biowaste(4 kg) is added to the system along with 2 kg Recommendation for cropsof earthworms. After two weeks, the entiremass of biowaste will turn to brownish black When vermicompost is applied as organiccompost. It is sprinkled with 2 litres of water. manure instead of FYM, the quantity ofVermiwash is collected through the side tap in-organic fertilizers can be reduced to aboutafter 24 hours. Biowaste can again be added half the recommended dose.to the system and the process repeated. Coirpith compostingMethod 2 Coirpith, is produced in large quantities as This is a simple and economical technique waste material of the coir industry.to collect vermiwash. The system consists Every year, approximately 2.5 lakh tonnesof an earthen pot of 10 kg capacity with a of coirpith accumulate in Kerala as waste.hole at the bottom, which is filled with pieces Coirpith has wide C:N ratio and its lignin richof stone up to a height of 10 cm from the nature does not permit natural compostingbottom. A plastic net is spread over this. process as in other agricultural wastes. Mushrooms belonging to the genus Pleurotus

COIRPITH COMPOSTAND BIOFERTILIZERS 287have the capacity to degrade part of the of one layer of coirpith with spawn followedcellulose and lignin present in coirpith by by another layer of coirpith with urea upto1mproduction of enzymes such as., cellulases height. Sprinkle water if necessary to keepand lactases, bringing down the C:N ratio the heap moist. Allow the heap to decomposeas well as lignin content. for one month.Method of composting The coirpith is converted into good manure after 30-40 days and the lignin Materials required: Coirpith 1 tonne, urea content is reduced from 30 per cent to5 kg, mushroom (Pleurotus) spawn 1.5 kg. 40 per cent. Another significant change is the lowering down of C: N ratio from A shaded place of 5 m x 3 m dimension 112:1 to 24:1.may be selected and levelled after removingweeds. 100 kg coirpith may be spread This coirpith compost containsuniformly. Spread 300 g (one bottle or cover) macronutrients as well as micronutrients. Itof Pleurotus spawn on this and cover with a has the unique property of absorbing andsecond layer of 100 kg coirpith. On the retaining moisture to about 500-600 per cent.surface of the second layer, spread 1 kg urea It improves the water infiltration rate anduniformly. Repeat this sandwiching process hydraulic conductivity of soil.BIOFERTILIZERS The use of biofertilizers is important while upland conditions and thereby reduces thepractising integrated plant nutrient manage- requirement of nitrogen fertilizers byment as well as organic farming. Some of 10-20 per cent. Methods of application arethe commonly used biofertilizers in Kerala seed treatment, seedling dip and direct soilare as follows. application.1. Rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium and 3. Azospirillum Azorhizobium) It is suitable for both upland and wetland It induces better root nodulation and stem conditions and is available as carrier-basednodulation in inoculated plants and thereby inoculum. It fixes about 20-25 kg N per habrings down the requirement of nitrogen under ideal conditions, thereby effecting afertilizer for the cultivation of pulses, oil seeds reduction of 25 per cent in the quantity of Nand legume green manures. Commercially it fertilizers required. Treatment withis available as carrier based inoculum. Azospirillum also induces better root forma-Method of application is seed treatment. tion in inoculated plants. Hence this biofertilizer is also recommended for root2. Azotobacter induction in polybag raised seedlings of plantation and orchard crops as well as Suitable for upland crops like vegetables, vegetables. The isolates of Azospirillumtapioca, plantation and orchard crops. It is brasilense strains AZR 15 and AZR 37 fromavailable as carrier-based inoculum. It fixes Kuttanad soils are highly effective for rice,about 15-20 kg of N per ha under ideal vegetables and nursery plants.

288 BIOFERTILIZERSMethods of application 5. Azolla Seed treatment: For treating 5-10 kg It is suitable for wetland rice cultivation.seeds, 500 g culture is required. Moisten the The required quantity of azolla will have toseeds by sprinkling water or rice-gruel be raised in the farmers field itself. Fixeswater. Take 500 g culture in a plastic tray/ about 25 to 30 kg N per ha.basin, add moistened seeds, mix well and dryin shade for 30 minutes. This may be sown Method of application: Apply freshimmediately. azolla at the rate of 10 t ha-1 at the time of ploughing. Seedling root dip (for transplantedcrops): Slurry of the culture is prepared by 6. Phosphate solubilising bacteria and fungimixing 500 g culture with 50 ml of water andthe roots are dipped in the slurry for Recommended mainly for upland crops15-20 minutes before transplanting. raised in neutral and slightly alkaline soils. Available as carrier-based inoculum. Enables Soil application: Mix the culture with the efficient utilization of cheaper sources ofFYM or compost in the ratio 1:25 and apply phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphatedirectly in the soil. by the crop plants. Inoculation for paddy: Mix 2 kg of Method of application: Seed treatment andculture in 60 litres of water and soak the seeds direct application.required for 1 ha (60 kg) for 24 hours beforesowing. At the time of transplanting, dip the 7. Vesicular/Arbuscular mycorrhizaroots of seedlings for 15-20 minutes in the (VAM/AMF)culture slurry prepared by mixing 2 kg inocu-lum with 40 litres of water. This slurry can Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza is mostlybe used for treating seedlings required for recommended for upland crops, especially for1 ha. Another 2 kg culture may be applied in raising container and tissue culture plantletsthe field along with FYM or compost. and transplanted crops. It mainly improves the uptake of available P by inoculated plants.4. Blue green algae (BGA) There is also an enhanced absorption of water and other nutrients such as N and K Mainly recommended for wetland rice and certain micronutrients. Mycorrhizacultivation. It is available as carrier-based inoculation can improve the survival andinoculum and it fixes about 25-30 kg N per establishment of tissue culture plantletsha under ideal conditions. However, the use under field conditions as well as induceof this biofertilizer is not feasible in acidic soils better resistance against certain soil bornewith pH below 6.0. plant pathogens. It is commercially available as granular inoculum consisting of infectedMethod of application roots and soil with mycorrhizal spores. It is given as soil application. Broadcasting in the rice fields at the rateof 10 kg ha-1 one week after transplanting. VAM fungus Glomus microcarpum var. microcarpum is suitable for tropical tuber crops. The inoculation can be done by placing

BIOFERTILIZERS 289inoculum (3-5 g/sett) beneath the sett before compost or vermicompost at the rate of 1:25.planting. The rate of spore load in the inocu- For crops of six-months duration, the recom-lum should be to the tune of 50 to 400 spores mended dose is 1-2 kg ha-1. This can beper 100 g soil medium. Method of applica- increased to 2-4 kg ha-1for crops of moretion is the rooted infected cutting technique. than six months duration. For perennial crops, 10 to 25 g of the biofertilizer is to be appliedApplication techniques of biofertilizers in the root zone during the first year and 25 to 50 g during subsequent years. This can1. Seed treatment be done at the time of sowing, transplanting or during intercultivation. Five hundred grams of commerciallyavailable inoculum will be required for treat- Factors influencing the efficient use ofment of seeds for one hectare area. For this, biofertilizers in Keralathick slurry of the carrier-based inoculum isinitially prepared by mixing 500 g of the 1. Use adequate quantity of organicinoculum in 1.25 litres of water. The sticki- manure (as per the recommendation forness of the biofertilizer on seed surface can each crop) along with biofertilizerbe significantly improved by using 10 per cent application. This is essential to ensurejagerry solution or 5 per cent sugar solution better survival, growth and activity of thesupplemented with 40 per cent boiled and introduced microbial inoculum in acidiccooled gum arabic solution or rice-gruel soils.water. The required quantity of seedmaterial is then gently mixed with this slurry 2. Liming is essential if the soil pH iswithout damaging the seed coat. The treated below 6.0. In moderately acidic soils,seeds are spread evenly over a gunny bag the application of lime at the rate ofand dried in shade and sown immediately in 250 kg ha-1 is recommended along withmoist soil. The treated seeds should never biofertilizer treatment.be exposed to direct sunlight for a longperiod of time since the UV rays of solar 3. Irrigation is essential during summerradiation will reduce the population of inocu- months after biofertilizer application tolated bacteria on seed surface significantly. ensure the survival of the introduced microbial inoculum in the soil.2. Seedling treatment 4. Since N biofertilizers can supplement only This method is mainly recommended for a part of the nitrogen requirement of thetransplanted crops. The roots of seedlings to inoculated plant, low dose of nitrogen andbe transplanted are dipped in water slurry of full doses of phosphorus and potassiumthe biofertilizer (500 g in 2.5 litres of water) as per the recommendation may befor 20 minutes, prior to transplanting. applied. This is essential to ensure better plant growth and yield. Similarly, in the3. Soil application case of P biofertilizers, the full doses of nitrogen and potassium should be applied. Soil application is generally recom- However, there should be a gap of atmended for all types of biofertilizers least one week between application ofexcept Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and biofertilizer and chemical fertilizer.Azorhizobium. The method is to apply thebiofertilizer after mixing with dried FYM,

290 BIOFERTILIZERS5. Use only biofertilizers, which are and proliferation of BGA, the population manufactured as per the quality param- of green algae should be controlled ini- eters prescribed by the Bureau of Indian tially by applying copper sulphate at the Standards. In the case of bacterial rate of 4 kg ha-1. biofertilizers, the prescribed standard is that in the final product, the population of 9. In moderately acidic soils of pH around the desired bacterium should not be 6.5, root nodulation by Rhizobium and less than ten million per gram of the Bradyrhizobium can be improved by carrier material and there should not be pelleting with finely powdered calcium any contamination with other microorgan- carbonate. (See recommendation under isms when examined at 1:100000 cowpea) dilution. Further, it should have a shelf life of at least six months. 10. Application of P O at the rate of ha-1 256. The commercially available biofertilizer 1 kg is once in 4 days should always be used before the expiry recommended date marked on the culture packet. in P O deficient soils to ensure good7. Top dressing with superphosphate 25 at the rate of 25 kg ha-1 10 days after inoculation of BGA will enhance its growth of azolla. The development of a growth under field conditions. reddish purple colour in azolla is a typi-8. Since the occurrence of green algae in rice field can affect the normal growth cal symptom of P O deficiency. 25 11. Since a floating population of azolla can release its bound nutrients only during decay in the soil, it is essential to incor- porate azolla in the soil prior to the transplanting of rice seedlings.

FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY 291GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY Choice of a fertilizer depends on unit cost ammoniacal fertilizers or urea sinceof nutrient present in it and its agronomic ammonia may be lost by volatilizationefficiency under a given situation. Fertilizer under alkaline conditions.is a valuable input and measures should betaken to reduce its losses and to increase its Management of nitrogenous fertilizersuptake and utilisation by the crop. Selectinga situation-specific fertilizer and choosing the 1. Almost all the nitrogenous fertilizers aretime and method of application according to highly amenable to losses and since mostcrop demand would minimize losses and of the crops require nitrogen during theincrease its efficiency. entire growth period, split application is necessary to ensure maximum utilizationNitrogenous fertilizers by crops. Most crop plants recover only 25-35 per 2. More number of splits may be given forcent of the nitrogen applied as fertilizers. long duration crops as well as perennialLosses occur by ammonia volatilisation, crops.denitrification, immobilization to organicforms, leaching and run off. Utmost care 3. Nitrogen losses from fertilizers are moreshould be bestowed in selecting the type of in coarse textured soils with lowfertilizer as well as the timing and method of cation exchange capacity (CEC) than inapplication. fine textured soils. Hence more number of splits is necessary to reduce loss ofChoice of the nitrogen fertilizer fertilizer nitrogen from sandy and other light soils.1. In submerged rice soil, ammoniacal and ammonia producing fertilizers like urea 4. For medium duration rice varieties, are most suitable since ammonia is the nitrogenous fertilizers should be given in most stable form of nitrogen under such three splits, as basal, at maximum tillering conditions. and at panicle initiation stage.2. For acidic upland soils, ammoniacal 5. In coarse textured sandy or loamy soils, fertilizers are most suitable during rainy the entire dose of nitrogenous fertilizers season since ammonium is adsorbed on may be applied in 3-4 splits at different soil particles and hence leaching losses stages of growth of rice crop. are reduced. Adsorbed ammonium is gradually released for nitrification and thus 6. In areas where split application of becomes available to crops for a longer nitrogen is not feasible due to water stag- period. nation after planting/sowing, full dose of nitrogen as basal may be given in the form3. In highly acidic upland soils, urea is of neem coated or coal tar coated urea. preferred to ammonium sulphate as the former is less acid forming. 7. In double cropped wetlands, 50 per cent of N requirement of the first crop may be4. In alkaline upland soils of low rainfall applied in the organic form. regions, nitrate fertilizers are preferred to

292 FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY8. As far as possible, liming should be done 7. As far as possible, urea may be applied one or two weeks prior to the application by deep placement or plough sole place- of ammoniacal or ammonia forming ment. Deep placement of prilled urea or fertilizer like urea since ammonia is likely super granules during the last ploughing to be lost by volatilization if applied along followed by flooding and planting is with lime. beneficial in light soils. Urea briquettes or super granules may be placed between9. Almost 70 per cent of N in urea applied four hills of transplanted rice, whereas by broadcast to flooded soil is lost by sulphur coated or lac coated urea may be volatilization, immobilization and by broadcast on the surface. denitrification 8. Foliar spray of 5 per cent urea solutionMeasures to reduce the loss of N from can be practised in situations where quickapplied urea response to applied nitrogen is required. If power sprayers are used, the concen-1. Urea super granules or urea briquettes tration may be increased to 15 per cent. may be used in places where soil is clayey Fresh urea should be used to avoid and has cation exchange capacity more toxicity due to biuret. than 10 cmol (+) per kg of soil. Phosphatic fertilizers2. Sulphur or lac coated urea is suitable where soil is liable to intermittent flooding Fertilizer phosphorus is an expensive and in situations where water manage- input and its management poses serious ment is difficult. This is more suitable for problems due to several complexities in its direct sown crop. behaviour in different types of soil. This often results in its poor recovery from3. Urea may be mixed with moist soil and applied fertilizers. kept for 24-48 hours before application to the field. Alternatively, urea may be mixed Choice of phosphatic fertilizer with moist soil, made into balls of about three inch diameter and dried under 1. In slightly acid, neutral or mildly alkaline shade. The balls may be placed deep into soils, water soluble phosphatic fertilizers subsoil. are more suitable.4. Mixing urea with one fifth its weight of 2. In wetland rice soils, water soluble phos- neem cake (5:1) prolongs the period of phatic fertilizers are preferable as pH of nitrogen availability to the crop. most of the submerged soils is near neutral.5. For submerged soils, coating urea with coal 3. In strongly acidic soils whose pH does not tar and kerosene (100 kg urea is mixed rise above 5.5 to 6.0 even on submer- with 2 kg coal tar dissolved in one litre gence, phosphatic fertilizers containing kerosene) before mixing with neem cake citrate soluble form of P like basic slag, is preferred to simple mixing with neem dicalcium phosphate, steamed bone meal cake. etc. are suitable.6. Coating urea with neem extract (contain- 4. For highly acidic upland soils or ing about 5 per cent neem triterpenes) at submerged soils whose pH will not rise 1 per cent rate and shade drying for 1 to above 5.5 even on submergence, 1.5 hours before applying in direct seeded powdered rock phosphate is suitable. Soil puddled lowland rice increases nitrogen use acidity converts tricalcium phosphate in efficiency. rock phosphate to plant available monocalcium form.

FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY 2935. For short duration crops where quick with for the rice crop, if the second crop response is required, water soluble (usually legume or green manure) is given phosphatic fertilizers are most suitable. phosphatic fertilizers.6. For perennial crops like rubber, oil palm, 6. In case of rice-legume cropping sequence coffee, tea, cardamom etc. phosphorus in in acid soils, application of rock the form of rock phosphate can be phosphate to the pulse crop helps to skip applied. phosphatic fertilizers in the succeeding rice crop.7. In black soil (Chittur taluk of Palakkad District) phosphatic fertilizers containing 7. Since phosphorus requirement of seasonal water soluble phosphate like single crops is confined to the early stages, superphosphate are most suitable. phosphatic fertilizers are to be applied at the time of seeding or planting. TopManagement of phosphatic fertilizers dressing of phosphatic fertilizer leads to wastage of the fertilizer nutrient. Further,1. Acid soils have to be amended with lime, excessive phosphates may lead to dolomite or magnesium silicate and deficiency of micronutrients such as zinc, alkali soils with iron pyrite or sulphur boron etc. before application of phosphatic fertili- zers. This will help to reduce fixation and 8. Under adverse soil conditions and where increase availability of P. quick result is required, spraying water- soluble phosphatic fertilizers like triple2. Surface application or broadcasting is superphosphate or hot water extract of preferred for shallow rooted crops superphosphate can be resorted to. whereas placement in the root zone is advantageous in deep rooted crops. Potassium fertilizers3. Rock phosphates can be used advanta- For most crops, potassium can be geously in rice, grown in acid soils supplied as muriate of potash. But in crops during the virippu season. Powdered rock like tobacco and potato, muriate of potash phosphate may be applied and mixed may cause chloride injury, reducing quality thoroughly with soil by ploughing. After of the produce. In such cases, K may be two or three weeks, the field may be applied as potassium sulphate. flooded, worked up and planted with rice. Under this situation, phosphorus in rock Management of potassium fertilizers phosphate gets converted to iron phos- phate, which on subsequent waterlogging 1. In coarse textured soils and in heavy becomes available to the rice crop. rainfall regions, potassium fertilizers should be applied in as many splits as4. Rock phosphate can be used successfully possible, to reduce loss of potassium. as a phosphatic source for leguminous crop since its root system can extract 2. In fine textured soils, the entire dose of phosphorous from rock phosphate. potassium fertilizers may be applied as basal.5. In single crop wetlands where rice is grown in the virippu season, application 3. In acid soils, potassium fertilizers should of phosphatic fertilizers can be dispensed be applied only after lime application to prevent loss of potassium by leaching.

294 FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCYAND BEEKEEPINGLime 3. For better results, liming materials should be incorporated into the soil. Acid soils are characterised by highsaturation of the exchange complex with 4. For seasonal crops and in situations wherehydrogen and aluminium. Crops grown in such immediate results are required, burntsoils suffer due to unavailability of most plant lime or slaked lime may be used. Fornutrients, especially calcium. Application of perennial crops, powdered lime stone orliming materials increases the availability of dolomite is sufficient.nutrients and alleviates Ca deficiency. 5. Extreme care should be taken whileLiming materials broadcasting burnt lime and slaked lime as they can cause scorching of leaves. Burnt lime [CaO], slaked lime [Ca (OH) ],powdered limestone [CaCO ] and dolomi2te 6. In case of wetland rice, drain the field[CaMg (CO )2] are some o3f the materials prior to lime application and refloodused as sourc3 es of calcium. after 24 hours. Flushing the soil by sequential flooding and draining will helpManagement to wash out the displaced acid from the soil.1. In acidic submerged soils, flooding brings about rise in soil pH and hence response 7. In extreme case of calcium deficiency, to lime is less marked. 1 per cent solution of calcium chloride may be applied by foliar spraying.2. Legumes are benefitted most by liming.BEEKEEPING (APICULTURE) True honey bees belong to the family Rock bee (Apis dorsata): They are giantApidae and genus Apis. They are social bees found all over India in sub-mountainousinsects living in colonies. A colony consists regions up to an altitude of 2700 m. Theyof a queen, several thousand workers and a build single comb nests with an area up tofew hundred drones. There is division of 1 m2 or more. They are good honey gather-labour and specialization in the performance ers with an average yield of 50-80 kg perof various functions. They build nests colony.(combs) with wax secreted from the waxglands of worker bees. The bees use these Little bee (Apis florea): They are the small-cells to rear their brood and store food. Honey est of the true honeybees found in plains ofis stored in the upper part of the comb; India up to the altitude of 500 m. They buildbeneath it are rows of pollen storage cells, single vertical combs. They are poor honeyworker brood cells and drone brood cells in yielders and yield about 200-900 g of honeythat order. Some Apis species build single per colony.comb in open, while others build multiplecombs in dark cavities. Indian bee (Apis cerana indica): They are the domesticated species, which constructSpecies of honeybees multiple parallel combs with an average honey yield of 6-8 kg per colony per year. There are four species of honeybees inIndia. They are: European bee/Italian bee (Apis mellifera): They are also similar in habits to Indian bees and build parallel combs. They