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BIRDS GALAH LIFE IN THE DESERT Birds are well-equipped Only a few types of plants and animals can survive in deserts with for life in deserts, extremely dry climates. In some deserts a little rain falls each year – because most can fly these deserts provide a habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals, to find water, prey, or from tiny insects to big hunters like the coyote. In parts of other deserts plants that have seeded rain has never been recorded. after local rainstorms. The ostrich cannot DESFAWLEFORTITWTEHRSEPRMIRTINAINRGNAGYAISNTPTSLOO,ATNLNHCITFEEES, fly, but is able to walk long distances. ROADRUNNER GILA The fierce great WOODPECKER horned owl preys on small mammals, and may nest in a cactus LANNER FALCON The coyote eats The giant saguaro fruit and insects as cactus has a pleated well as larger prey stem that expands to store water Brittlebush has hairy leaves that reduce water loss OSTRICH BURROWING TURKEY OWL VULTURE INVERTEBRATES Insects, spiders, and scorpions have hard-shelled bodies that do not dry out easily. Many can go for days without eating at all, which helps them survive where food is scarce. DESERT LOCUST HARVESTER ANT JEWEL WASP DOMINO BEETLE DESERT DARKLING CRICKET BEETLE MEXICAN CRAB FALSE WHIP RED-KNEED SPIDER SCORPION TARANTULA Venomous The kangaroo rat Globemallow has flat rattlesnakes catch can use its long back orange flowers that small mammals, legs to roam widely attract butterflies and sometimes in their in search of food bees in the summer own burrows 149 SCORPION

Polar POLAR SEASONS LAND MAMMALS habitats As Earth spins, most places The Arctic is the only polar experience day and night. But region with land mammals. In winter, there is little sunlight because of the tilt of Earth’s Some are summer visitors, near the cold North and South axis, the polar regions are but others such as the musk poles. In summer, the seas teem always dark in midwinter, ox live in the Arctic all with life, which supports large and stay light in midsummer. year round. Polar numbers of fish and other animals. This is one reason why polar bears live mainly Many land animals live in the winters are so bitterly cold. on the sea ice. Arctic, but only a few tiny invertebrates live in Antarctica. NORTHERN WINTER ARCTIC In December, the Arctic HARE is in almost constant darkness. COLLARED SNOWSHOE FOOD WEB PIKA HARE In the Antarctic, all the animals get their food from the sea. Tiny drifting algae (phytoplankton) feed swarms of krill, which are in turn eaten by baleen whales, seals, penguins, and birds. Fish are eaten by seals and birds, while orcas eat anything they can catch. ORCA WHERE SEAL ON EARTH? NORTH EUROPE ASIA ARCTIC The polar regions consist AMERICA AFRICA OCEANIA LEMMING of the Arctic Ocean and nearby land, and the EQUATOR PENGUIN continent of Antarctica and the surrounding SOUTH ERMINE ocean. Large areas of AMERICA the seas in these regions are frozen in winter. BIRD MARINE LIFE POLAR ASIA EUROPE BALEEN SQUID Giant whales cruise the polar REGIONS WHALE KRILL oceans, eating vast numbers of ARCTIC krill and fish. Smaller whales There are two OCEAN and seals hunt fish, squid, different polar and shellfish. regions on Earth. The Arctic is at FISH Earth’s North Pole, and Antarctica at ANTARCTICA the South Pole. THE ARCTIC ANTARCTICA The Arctic is an icy ocean Antarctica is an icy PHYTOPLANKTON BOWHEAD continent, and most of its WHALE with land all around it, animals live in the ocean. where animals can live. LIFE IN THE ARCTIC Arctic foxes have Ptarmigan BIRDS thick fur coats The Arctic has a greater diversity of life than to keep out Musk oxen dig Many land birds range over the Antarctic, because it has many different the cold through the snow the Arctic, but all Antarctic birds, types of land animals. Arctic seas are also to find food such as penguins, find their rich in food and marine life. food in the ocean. Ermine In winter and Snowy owls spring, polar seize lemmings Arctic bears prowl from their runs hare the sea ice in under the snow search of seals ALBATROSS Lemmings The walrus live and hunts shellfish feed under on the seabed the snow Polar bear cubs The male narwhal Ringed SNOWY OWL has a long spiral tusk. seal Narwhals eat squid and PEREGRINE large fish such as cod Orcas hunt seals and FALCON big fish in the open sea 150

WOLVERINE ARCTIC FOX ARCTIC WOLF REINDEER MUSK OX POLAR BEAR BELUGA BEARDED SEAL LEOPARD SEAL ARCTIC TERN WALRUS HARP SEAL ORCA NARWHAL GREENLAND SHARK PLANTS Only the toughest plants can survive the extreme cold of a polar winter. Most are low-growing, so they are sheltered from the wind, and there are no tall trees. In the Arctic, all the plants flower at once when spring arrives to make the most of the short summer. ARCTIC SKUA SOUTH POLAR SKUA AMERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER LITTLE AUK PUFFIN ROCK SNOW BUNTING PTARMIGAN COTTONGRASS ARCTIC WILLOW BALD EAGLE CANADA GOOSE KING PENGUIN ARCTIC POPPY PASQUE FLOWER 151

SUNLIT ZONE SUNLIT ZONE CANDY TWILIGHT ZONE STRIPE Near the ocean surface, sunlight FLATWORM DARK ZONE provides vital energy that fuels the growth of tiny organisms drifting in BOTTLENOSE ABYSSAL ZONE the water. The algae feed swarms of DOLPHIN small animals that are eaten by fish HADAL ZONE and other marine life. KILLER WHALE LONGNOSED HAWKFISH HERMIT CRAB FLAMBOYANT SPOTTED FLYING CUTTLEFISH SEAHORSE GURNARD GARFISH SEA LION SUNLIGHT DUGONG CLOWN TRIGGERFISH OCTOPUS TWILIGHT ZONE Below 200 m (660 ft) there is only faint blue light. Algae that need light cannot survive, so there is not much food for small animals. Bigger animals hunt each other. RED LIONFISH SUNLIGHT SEAL LIZARDFISH SPERM WHALE DARK ZONE Deeper than 1,000 m (3,300 ft), the water is dark apart from the eerie glow produced by luminous animals. Life is scarce, but some deep divers visit from the surface. SUNLIGHT PELICAN FRILLED SHARK EEL ABYSSAL ZONE This is the deepest part of the dark zone, and includes the ocean floor. Most of the animals here feed on dead algae and scraps that drift down from above. THE ABYSSAL ZONE IS COLD, DARK, AND THE PRESSURE IS SO INTENSE THAT IT WOULD CRUSH A HUMAN STOPLIGHT LOOSEJAW SUNLIGHT PACIFIC GRENADIER 152

NURSE SHARK TIGER SPOTTED Ocean PRAWN CLEANER WHITETIP SHRIMP The oceans form the biggest environment REEF SHARK for wildlife on the planet. Most organisms SEAMOTH live near the sunlit surface, especially in shallow water near land, where the water is BLUE-SPOTTED PRICKLY PANAMIC rich in food. But some animals are able to RIBBONTAIL RAY PACIFIC ARROW CRAB live in the ocean depths, where there is no DRUPE light and very little to eat. TIGER SHARK SEA STRAWBERRY FLUTED SOFT CORAL GIANT CLAM WARTY FROGFISH ROYAL WHERE ON EARTH? ARCTIC OCEAN ANGELFISH HUMPBACK The five interconnected oceans cover more GROUPER than two-thirds of the planet. The biggest ocean is the Pacific, while the smallest is STONEFISH BLUE the Arctic Ocean at the North Pole. The ATLANTIC PACIFIC CHROMIS Atlantic extends all the way from the Arctic OCEAN OCEAN SPOTTED BOXFISH BROWN TUBE SPONGE to the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. EQUATOR All the oceans, whether cold or warm, are INDIAN ATLANTIC teeming with life. PACIFIC OCEAN HORSESHOE CRAB OCEAN SOUTHERN OCEAN ANTARCTIC KRILL ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS GROUPS OF FISH The oceans are full of dangers, so some animals Many open-water fish travel in big join forces to improve their chances of survival. groups called shoals or schools. Others tag along with larger animals to feast on Some contain thousands of fish. scraps of food that their big partners ignore. Living together like this makes it difficult for big hunters such as CLOWNFISH sharks to pick out individual fish. AND ANEMONE BRITTLE STAR ORANGE The stinging GIANT SQUID ROUGHY tentacles of a big sea anemone LONGNOSE do not affect the LANCETFISH clownfish, but they protect it HADAL ZONE from predators. In some places, deep MANTA RAY AND ocean trenches plunge REMORA FISH deeper than the ocean A sucker on its floor. Some animals live head allows the in this zone, but very little remora to cling is known about them. to big fish, like this manta ray, as they cruise the oceans. BOXER CRAB AND ANEMONES This tiny tropical crab holds a stinging sea anemone in each claw. It uses them for defence, and to stun prey. VIPERFISH CUSK EEL BLACK Erupting SMOKERS “smoke” COMMON FANGTOOTH ANGLERFISH Mineral SUNLIGHT SNAILFISH In some of the deepest chimney parts of the ocean, water seeps into the ocean floor Animal and is heated by hot volcanic life rock. The hot water forms a spring on the ocean floor, Cold which erupts. As the hot seawater water hits the cold sea, the minerals turn into solid Heated particles that build up to water form smoking “chimneys” up to 55 m (180 ft) high. Amazingly, there are unique animals, including some tubeworms, that can survive this extreme heat. 153

Coral reef TYPES OF REEFS BIG VISITORS Tropical coral reefs are the most Many reefs grow around islands, forming The animals living on the reefs attract big hunters complex of all underwater habitats. fringes of coral in the shallow water. If an such as giant groupers, sharks, and dolphins. These They are created by simple animals island is an extinct volcano, it gradually sinks, usually hunt in the deeper channels between the called corals that live in big colonies while the reef keeps growing upwards. This corals. Sea turtles may visit to lay their eggs in and have hard, stony skeletons. The creates a barrier reef. Eventually, the island the coral sand of the lagoon beaches. coral colonies shelter an amazing sinks from sight, leaving a coral atoll. variety of marine life, including many kinds of fish and invertebrates. FRINGING REEF TIGER This tropical volcanic SHARK island is surrounded by a fringing reef. The GREY REEF SHARK GIANT extinct volcano slowly GROUPER starts to sink. WHERE ARCTIC OCEAN REEF FISH IN THE The island sinks, WORLD? ATLANTIC PACIFIC but the coral The water around the coral is alive with small fish OCEAN OCEAN keeps growing that may swim in shoals. Some live in crevices Coral reefs grow in the reefs, and slip out to feed when it is safe. in clear, shallow, EQUATOR INDIAN BARRIER REEF Most of them feed on small animals, but some warm water near OCEAN As the island continues tropical shores. PACIFIC to sink, the reef grows nibble seaweed. Most of them lie in OCEAN SOUTHERN OCEAN upwards, forming a the western Pacific barrier reef around and Indian oceans. a ring-shaped lagoon. Reef encloses PORCUPINE FISH a shallow central lagoon ATOLL The original island sinks below the waves, leaving behind a ring of coral – an atoll. LIFE IN A CORAL REEF Banded sea krait SURGEON FISH (a sea snake) FIREFISH Reef corals have stinging cells that capture food. They also have tiny algae living in their tissues – the Sea grass growing coral uses some of the sugar the algae produce, and in coral sand in return provides the algae with a safe environment to live in. Corals also provide food for many other types of animals – reefs swarm with colourful fish, starfish, shrimps, crabs, and even sea snakes. Golf ball sponge Royal MANTA RAY angelfish REEF INVERTEBRATES Table coral – one of the biggest types As well as corals, many other invertebrates live of reef coral on the reefs. Sponges, sea squirts, and clams filter the water for food, while sea slugs, shrimps, and crabs search for scraps and living prey. SCARLET CLEANER GIANT CLAM SHRIMP Cloth of gold CORALS cone shell – a venomous hunter Every coral reef is made up of many different types of coral. They include Finger coral brain corals, staghorn corals, and sea fans. Each one is a colony of animals sharing a hard, stony skeleton. Giant grouper Tube sponge filters water for food MUSHROOM CORAL BRAIN CORAL Sea slug grazing on coral 154

BLACKTIP REEF WHALE SHARK SHARK HAWKSBILL TURTLE BOTTLENOSE HAMMERHEAD ORCA DOLPHIN SHARK PARROTFISH GREAT BARRACUDA MANDARIN OTWFHT1OEH.R5SELLMDDOW,W(W5A.E2IRS5TFTHFSTFAEI)SAPTHHEOROIPNRHSTSOPEHEUEEIRSD FISH ELECTRIC RAY BLUE-SPOTTED CLOWN TRIGGER FISH QUEEN ANGELFISH YELLOW DAMSELFISH RIBBONTAIL RAY SHRIMP GOBY CLOWN FISH YELLOW TANG SEAHORSE JEWELFISH LION FISH CORAL TROUT THREADFIN BUTTERFLY FISH LONGNOSED HAWKFISH RED HERMIT CRAB SEA SEA SLUG SEA SPONGE SQUIRT SOFT CORAL SEA FAN STAGHORN CORAL CORAL REEF Live coral grows on top of the stony remains of dead coral to build the reef.



Geography

Earth MAGNETIC The solar wind is mostly Earth FIELD deflected by Earth’s Formed more than 4.5 billion years ago, Earth is the only magnetic shield Magnetic place in the Universe known to support life. Its breathable With its iron core, shield atmosphere, liquid-water oceans, and large areas of dry Earth acts like an land support a rich diversity of living things. enormous bar Sun magnet with north Magnetic field and south poles. As Earth spins, swirling currents occur in the molten metal within its outer core. This movement generates a powerful magnetic shield. EARTH’S STRUCTURE INNER CORE OUTER CORE MANTLE CRUST OCEAN The mantle is The solid outer layer Saltwater oceans cover Earth is made up of many different This solid iron-nickel alloy core A layer of liquid iron solid but slowly of Earth is the only part almost three-quarters layers. At its centre is a hot, metallic is boiling hot but stays solid due and nickel surrounds moves around. we can see. of Earth’s surface. core surrounded by a thick the inner core. It is layer of solid but slowly to the extreme pressure at in constant motion. ATMOSPHERE moving rock, called Earth’s centre. Earth is surrounded by a the mantle. layer of gases known as Earth’s thin the atmosphere, which crust sits gradually merge into space. on top. Over a quarter of Earth’s surface is land made up of continental crust. This is thicker than the oceanic crust that occurs under the oceans HABITATS Plants and animals live in natural environments on Earth, called habitats. These habitats vary, depending on rainfall, temperature, and location. OCEAN CORAL REEF POLAR REGIONS GRASSLAND The largest habitat on Earth, the Formed in clear, warm, shallow waters, With freezing temperatures, Found on every continent except ocean is home to as many as a coral reefs are like beautiful underwater the Arctic and Antarctic are the most Antarctica, grassland covers about million types of plants and animals. inhospitable places on Earth. one-third of Earth’s land surface. gardens, teeming with marine life. 158

INSIDE EARTH’S KEY TECTONIC PLATES NORTH EURASIAN KEY CRUST Oxygen 47% AMERICAN Convergent Silicon 28% Earth’s crust is broken into PLATE Divergent The rocky crust layer Aluminium 8% pieces, or tectonic plates, PLATE Uncertain that makes up Earth’s Iron 5% that fit together like a jigsaw PACIFIC Transform continents and ocean Calcium 3.5% puzzle. These plates float on the floors contains many Sodium 3% mantle – solid but slowly moving PACIFIC AFRICAN PLATE ON THE MOVE different chemical Potassium 2.5% rock with pockets of liquid PLATE PLATE Earth’s plates are elements. Most of the Magnesium 2% magma. When the mantle constantly moving crust is formed of silicon All other moves, so do the plates. SOUTH towards, away dioxide, which consists elements 1% from, or alongside of joined-together silicon Tectonic plate AMERICAN AUSTRALIAN one another. and oxygen atoms. 500 km (310 miles) PLATE PLATE ELEMENTS IN EARTH’S CRUST Aurora ANTARCTIC PLATE ATMOSPHERE 80 km Plate is MOVING MANTLE Earth is surrounded by a thick (50 miles) pushed into Heat currents rise up from blanket of gases that make up upper mantle the lower mantle, cool near the its atmosphere. Without it, life Meteors surface, then sink back down. on Earth would not exist. Around Molten 20 per cent of the atmosphere outer core Currents in lower consists of oxygen, the rest is mantle rise up mostly nitrogen, with just small amounts of other gases, such TYPES OF PLATE Volcano Earthquake as carbon dioxide. BOUNDARIES Trench EXOSPHERE Different types of plate This is the outer zone. Gas boundaries occur Oceanic molecules can escape into depending on whether crust plates are moving space from here. together, apart, or Magma along each other. (molten THERMOSPHERE In this zone, temperature Continental crust CONVERGENT rock) DIVERGENT TRANSFORM Plate movement increases with height. MOUNTAIN BUILDING Valley formed MESOSPHERE between folds A zone where temperature Most mountains are “fold mountains” that have been created over millions of years by the movement of tectonic plates across Earth’s surface. Many decreases with height. mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, are still being pushed upwards. Rock layers are Thrust Rock layers pushed horizontally fault continue to buckle 1 FAULT FORMS 2 SECOND FAULT FORMS 3 THIRD FAULT FORMS As two plates meet, The plates continue to Over time, a complex of the rock of Earth’s crust lifts converge, leading to further fractured and buckled rock up, forming a thrust fault. faulting and folding upwards. layers form a mountain range. STRATOSPHERE 50 km HIGHEST AND DEEPEST LIFE ON EARTH Absorption of ultraviolet (30 miles) sunlight adds energy to At 8,848 m (29,029 ft), the top of Mount Everest, part More than 3.5 billion years ago, life on 16 km of the Himalaya mountain range in Asia, is Earth’s Earth began. Over time, it has evolved and the stratosphere, so (10 miles) highest point. By contrast, the Mariana Trench, in diversified to suit its natural environment. temperature increases Aeroplane the Pacific Ocean, is the deepest, reaching 10,920 m LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE (35,829 ft) below sea level. with height here. 9,000 M MT EVEREST Weather balloon K2 TROPOSPHERE 6,000 M All weather occurs 3,000 M in this layer. 0M Clouds 3,000 M ARCHAEA BACTERIA A very early form Microscopic bacteria 6,000 M of life, consisting of live in most habitats. Some cause diseases. single cells. 9,000 M TONGA TRENCH 12,000 M MARIANA TRENCH PROTISTS FUNGI Made of single cells with Fungi get their nuclei, some protists can nutrients from dead organic matter. make their own food. DESERT RIVER AND WETLAND MOUNTAIN FOREST PLANTS ANIMALS With sparse rain and Despite covering less than one per cent of Wildlife is plentiful on warm, lower Forests are made up of the biggest plants Plants use sunlight to Animals get their extreme temperatures, mountain slopes, but at higher altitudes, make food, and release food from eating little life survives here. Earth’s surface, freshwater rivers and temperatures drop, and little can survive. on Earth – trees. They provide shelter other organisms. wetland support a lot of plants and animals. and food to a vast array of life. oxygen into the air. 159

Volcanoes WHAT IS A VOLCANO? Ash cloud Deep inside Earth are pockets of hot, molten rock. Now A volcano is an opening in Earth’s Main opening and then, this fluid surges up to the surface and pours out surface through which a mixture through which in a volcanic eruption. Some volcanoes stay active over of gases and molten rock, or magma millions of years, whereas others erupt only for a few years. magma, escapes from an escapes underground chamber. The outflow cools Magma is and sets, shaping called lava the volcano. when it flows on the surface HOW A VOLCANO GROWS Further More eruptions material A volcano builds itself up out of its own erupted needed to materials, such as lava and ash. Red-hot when raise height it flows out, this matter cools to form solid rock. Cone Erosion Molten matter builds up wears explodes from a vent down cone 1 FIRST ERUPTION 2 RAPID GROWTH 3 LATER PHASE Hot material bursts from Each eruption adds more The volcano grows a vent and builds up a mound layers of material and the new more slowly and erosion of lava, cinders, and ash. volcano grows fast. wears down its slopes. VOLCANO TYPES Not all volcanoes have a steep “smoking mountain” shape. Other forms include shield volcanoes – which look like huge, upturned dinner plates – and small cindery cones. Calderas are craters that appear when a volcano collapses. Many thin Steep sides Very wide Cinder lava layers crater layers Bedrock SHIELD STRATOVOLCANO CALDERA CINDER CONE Gently sloping sides formed Tall, with steep sides tapering Wide, deep crater where Steep cone of loose cinders, a volcano has collapsed. from runny lava. to the summit crater. with a wide crater. LARGEST ACTIVE SHIELD VOLCANOES ERUPTIONS Vast ash Small Lava flows cloud ash from crack LOCATION SHAPE SUMMIT MAXIMUM Volcanoes have many different cloud HEIGHT WIDTH OF eruption styles. They may Mauna Loa, BASE produce lava in short bursts, Hawaii start erupting with a terrific 4,169 m 95 km bang, or pump out mushroom (13,677 ft) (59 miles) clouds of ash. Erta Ale, 613 m 80 km Red-hot PLINIAN STROMBOLIAN FISSURE OR ICELANDIC Ethiopia volcanic Steady, powerful blast. Short lava showers. Erupts from crack in ground. “bombs” (2,011 ft) (50 miles) Ash explodes out of sea Sierra Negra, 1,500 m 50 km Flow or surge Underground Galápagos (4,921 ft) (31 miles) of material water Nyamuragira, 3,058 m 45 km VULCANIAN SURTSEYAN PELEAN PHREATIC AND Democratic Republic (10,033 ft) (28 miles) Starts with a bang. Erupts below the Flows and surges PHREATOMAGMATIC of Congo Molten rock meets water. 1,247 m 50 km sea surface. of gas and ash. Kilauea, (4,091 ft) (31 miles) Hawaii VOLCANIC Volcanic bombs Cinders Ash cloud LAVA FALLOUT The red-hot flow that pours An eruption blasts a lot from a volcano is lava – the of dangerous material name given to molten rock, into the air. Molten lava or magma, once it reaches “bombs”, hot cinders, the surface. The hottest lavas rocks, and ash fly are thin and runny, and flow upwards then fall to a long way before cooling and the ground. Poisonous, solidifying. Others are thick suffocating gases are and sticky, and creep just a also given off. short way before coming to a stop. 160

CALDERAS Magma rises Volcanic cone Emptying Water may New LIVING NEAR A VOLCANO falls inwards magma fill caldera eruptions A caldera is a vast bowl chamber may begin Many people spend their lives next door to in the ground. Calderas a volcano. They are prepared to put up with form when a volcano the risk of danger because there are a few comes apart during advantages, too. an eruption, and the surface collapses POSITIVES NEGATIVES into the emptying magma chamber. 1 VOLCANO ERUPTS 2 CONE COLLAPSES 3 CALDERA FORMS Magma explodes The volcano Water sometimes fills upwards, emptying the collapses into the a caldera to form a lake. inner chamber. emptying chamber. A new volcano may arise. Magma ACATTNHOITCCAKOKOLEALYVDEAOAFWRLSONW FLOWS FLOW TOURISM DEATH erupts from COMPLETELY AND SURGES Dense currents of Sightseers bring Eruptions can kill surface rock, ash, and gas people and ruin land. crack Pyroclastic flows are lethal in money. currents of hot gas, ash, 1,200°C (2,190°F) and rocks. These currents SURGE race down a volcano, Faster and The temperature destroying everything in more turbulent at Earth’s their path. Just as deadly than a flow surface of the are billowing, choking hottest lavas. clouds called pyroclastic surges. They contain more gas than pyroclastic flows AGRICULTURE MUDFLOWS and can move faster. Volcanic soil is Violent floods wash good for growing crops. down volcanic debris. 600°C (1,112°F) VOLCANIC ISLAND CHAINS ENERGY REFUGEES The flame Hot underground water People lose their homes temperature Beneath some ocean floors are volcanic areas, or “hotspots”. of a lighted If these erupt, lava builds up until it rises out of the sea as an island. is used by industry. and livelihoods. match. As the moving plates of Earth’s surface 100°C (212°F) pass over a hotspot, their paths The boiling may be marked by chains point of water of volcanic islands. at sea level. MOST DEADLY Chain of previously erupted islands These are 10 of the biggest volcanic disasters. The worst, Tambora, Chamber full RED-HOT Volcanic island killed more than 70,000 people. The of molten rock, most famous is Vesuvius’s eruption or magma Scientists are exploring ways of tapping Hotspot beneath in 79 CE. into the huge energy produced by hot Earth’s outer shell magma. One day, this could provide the 1 MOUNT TAMBORA, 1815 world with a big new source of power. Sumbawa island, Indonesia. Ejected SUPERVOLCANOES WHERE IN OLYMPUS MONS ash blocked the sun and lowered THE WORLD? MT EVEREST global temperatures. These are the monsters, capable of eruptions thousands of times larger Volcanoes emerge in clusters 2 KRAKATOA, 1883 than those of any other kind of volcano. in just a few places around Luckily, there aren’t many of them. Here the world. There are large Krakatoa island, Indonesia. Made the are some of the most important. numbers in the area called the loudest bang ever recorded and blew “Ring of Fire” that circles up most of the island. YELLOWSTONE the Pacific Ocean. Iceland, This map shows East Africa, and the Caribbean 3 MT PELEE, 1902 the vast area of are big volcanic regions, too. North America Martinique, Caribbean Islands. Ash affected in one IN SPACE and gas flowed at speeds of more than of Yellowstone’s 600 kph (370 mph). ancient eruptions. Earth is not the only body in the Solar System to have volcanoes. Some of our neighbours 4 NEVADO DEL RUIZ, 1985 Yellowstone caldera in space have many volcanic regions. Colombia. Gigantic mudflows overwhelmed YELLOWSTONE CALDERA TRITON IO SLEEPING GIANT an entire town. Volcanic eruptions on Olympus Mons, a vast volcano Wyoming, USA. Makes up much Neptune’s biggest moon This moon on Mars, is three times as 5 MOUNT UNZEN, 1792 of Yellowstone Park. can last a whole year. of Jupiter high as Mount Everest. It is has many not active at the moment. Japan. Created a landslide and a tsunami. LONG VALLEY CALDERA active volcanoes. VENUS 6 LAKI, 1783 California, USA. Recent uplifting The planet’s surface of ground observed. Iceland. Poisonous gas killed half of Iceland’s is made almost farm livestock. VALLES CALDERA entirely of volcanoes. 7 KELUT, 1919 New Mexico. Hot springs are a sign of volcanic activity. Java, Indonesia. Mudslides destroyed more than 100 villages. LAKE TOBA 8 SANTA MARIA, 1902 Sumatra, Indonesia. World’s largest volcanic lake. Guatemala. Ash detected 4,000 km (2,500 miles) away. LAKE TAUPO 9 GALUNGGUNG, 1882 New Zealand. Has erupted 28 times. Java, Indonesia. Destroyed 114 villages. 10 VESUVIUS, 79 ce Italy. The cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were wiped out. An eruption in 1631 caused further deaths. AIRA CALDERA CAST OF A POMPEII DISASTER VICTIM Japan. Contains a currently active volcanic cone. NEPTUNE URANUS SATURN JUPITER MARS EARTH VENUS MERCURY 161

Earthquakes EARTHQUAKE- JAPAN PRONE ZONES Earth’s surface is broken up into different ITALY TURKEY sections, called tectonic plates. These are Some countries are more always on the move, and sometimes shift affected by earthquakes IRAN CHINA in ways that cause violent vibrations. Such than others because they PAKISTAN vibrations are called earthquakes. lie on the boundaries of tectonic plates. The ten HAITI INDIA countries shown here PERU have the highest death INDONESIA rates in the world due to violent earthquakes. WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES? FAULT LINE FAULT TYPES Line of movement The plates on Earth’s surface move in ways that makes one plate push on Earth’s surface Faults are the boundaries between two moving tectonic over or slide past another. If the rocky surface is not strong enough to bear between two plates. plates. They are often the sites of earthquakes. The blocks the stress, it breaks. This sends out vibrations called “seismic waves” of rock on either side of a fault can shift and slide past that travel outwards from the breaking point (the focus). each other in various ways. EPICENTRE Point on Earth’s surface directly above the location, or focus, where the earthquake begins. Plate movement NORMAL FAULT REVERSE FAULT Rock on one side of the fault moves One block is pushed up relative down, so it is lower than the rock on to the other, so it ends up at a the other side of the fault. higher level. FOCUS STRIKE-SLIP FAULT OBLIQUE-SLIP FAULT The point in Earth’s The rocks on either side of the fault The rocks on either side of the fault move sideways and up or interior where an move in different directions, earthquake begins. scraping side by side. down relative to each other. SEISMIC WAVES HOW SEVERE? MAJOR EARTHQUAKES Two types of seismic waves created by an earthquake can The Mercalli scale, below, is one way of measuring the Earthquakes can cause terrible devastation. travel right through Earth’s interior. P-waves pass through intensity of an earthquake. For more precise estimates, The following have some of the highest-ever both solid and liquid layers. S-waves, slower but more scientists use the “moment magnitude” scale, which measurements on the moment magnitude scale. dangerous waves, move only through solid rock. measures the amount of energy released during a quake. 1 CHILE, 22 MAY 1960 Focus of S-waves earthquake Registering at magnitude 9.5, this is the largest recorded earthquake. It occurred in the Pacific Ocean and caused Liquid a series of tsunamis that left two million people homeless. outer core 2 PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA, Rocky I–II III–IV V–VI layer, or 28 MARCH 1964 mantle Hardly felt by Felt indoors as a Rocking motion people, but can quick vibration that felt by people; This huge earthquake (magnitude 9.2) caused a tsunami P-waves be measured by that rose to 67 m (220 ft) and hit Hawaii, Canada, and the makes hanging also makes USA. In the first day there were 11 aftershocks with instruments. objects shake. buildings tremble. magnitudes greater than 6.0. Solid iron VII–VIII IX–XI XII 3 NORTHERN SUMATRA, 26 DECEMBER 2004 inner core Buildings shake Buildings crack Most buildings are This ruptured the longest fault of any recorded quake, badly, and tree and some fall; destroyed; rivers spanning 1,500 km (900 miles) in ten minutes. More than branches break underground 227,000 people were killed by the resulting tsunami. pipes torn apart. are forced to and fall. change course. 4 HONSHU, JAPAN, 11 MARCH 2011 This 9.0-magnitude earthquake occurred off the coast of Japan and reached depths of 24.4 km (15 miles). The resulting tsunami caused more than 15,800 deaths. 5 KAMCHATKA, RUSSIA, 4 NOVEMBER 1952 Registering a magnitude of 8.2, this earthquake set off a Pacific-wide tsunami that hit Peru, Chile, New Zealand, many Pacific islands, and California, USA. 162

MEASURING 1855 Palmieri’s 1902 1925 AROUND 500,000 EARTHQUAKES seismometer Americans Harry Wood and EARTHQUAKES ARE Italian physicist Luigi Italian scientist James Anderson’s seismometer Scientists measure earthquake Palmieri designs a 1880 Giuseppe Mercalli is precise enough to be used ten RECORDED BY vibrations with an instrument seismometer that can While working invents a scale years later for the Richter scale. INSTRUMENTS called a seismometer. In various record the direction, in Japan, British for measuring forms, the seismometer has been intensity, and duration geologist John earthquakes based Seismograph, EVERY YEAR in use for thousands of years. of earthquakes too Milne develops on observation recorded 1920s small for humans the first accurate of effects. 2015 1700 to notice. seismometer. 1703 1751 1907 1934 1979–PRESENT French inventor Jean de Italian teacher German physicist American seismologist The moment Hautefeuille builds a basic Andrea Bina uses Emil Wiechert Charles Richter develops magnitude scale seismometer by filling a a pendulum with a a widely used scale that is introduced as bowl with mercury and pointer to trace builds a machine measures the energy a more accurate noting the amount and movement in the that records an released by an earthquake. version of the direction of spill during sand below during Richter scale. an earthquake. an earthquake. earthquake using Bina’s an oscillating Wiechert’s pendulum pendulum. pendulum EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS EARTHQUAKE DRILL Early warning systems act to protect people, animals, and property by One simple emergency drill has been proven to reduce injuries alerting people of incoming seismic waves from an earthquake. This gives from earthquakes: Drop, Cover, Hold On. This is because most people time to take cover, businesses and power stations time to make injuries come from falling objects such as lamps and glass, equipment safe, and emergency services time to prepare for action. rather than from building collapse. 1 DROP 2 COVER 3 HOLD ON Drop to the ground Take cover under a Hold on to the desk 1 MOVEMENT DETECTED 2 ALERT DISPATCHED immediately to protect sturdy desk or table if or table while covering Early warning systems quickly detect the first The time between the first alert and the arrival of yourself as much as possible; if not, move to your head and neck signs of an earthquake, estimate the location and strong tremors is short. Warnings are transmitted to possible where you are. the corner of the room. with your arms. magnitude, and calculate areas under threat. as many broadcasting stations as possible. RESISTING EARTHQUAKES MASS DAMPER While no structure can be guaranteed completely safe One way to help skyscrapers cope with an extreme ground shake is to install from earthquake damage, the buildings listed here have a mass damper – a huge steel sphere – at the centre, suspended by cables. proven to be very resistant to massive ground shakes. It moves back and forth to counter any motion by the building itself. CHECHEN ITZA, MEXICO Sphere Sphere moves to moves to The Mayan pyramid of El Castillo at Chechen Itza is very the right strong as it has a base much broader than its summit. to counter the left ground to counter TOMB OF CYRUS, IRAN Hydraulic vibration rams to ground Built in 400 BCE, this uses “base-isolation” to survive move vibration shakes: its base moves independently of its foundations. sphere YOKOHAMA LANDMARK TOWER, JAPAN This skyscraper has a mass damper system, sits on rollers, and is made from flexible materials. TRANSAMERICA PYRAMID, USA Ground Ground shakes to shakes to Rising to 260 m (853 ft), this skyscraper in San Francisco the left the right has foundations that reach 16 m (52 ft) into the ground. TAIPEI 101, TAIWAN TAIPEI 101 MOVEMENT OF BUILDING COUNTER MOVEMENT OF DAMPER During an earthquake, the entire The huge sphere moves in the Stretching twice as high as the Transamerica Pyramid, building moves with the horizontal opposite direction to the shake this relies on a huge mass damper to resist movement. to keep the building secure. vibrations from the ground. TSUNAMIS A block of In the open ocean, The top of a MAJOR TSUNAMIS seafloor each wave is not large tsunami When an earthquake very high and may wave usually Tsunamis are assessed according to the size of their occurs in the seafloor, shoots up pass unnoticed forms as it waves, how many occur in one event, how far they it can cause a part approaches come on shore, and how much damage they cause. of the seabed to rise As the seabed the shore Sometimes upwards, triggering a rises, the wave 1 SUMATRA, INDONESIA, 26 DECEMBER 2004 tsunami wave on the slows down and water is drawn surface of the sea. gains in height away from the This tsunami’s waves reached 50 m (164 ft) and killed more shore a few than 227,000 people, affecting 14 countries. minutes before a tsunami 2 NORTH PACIFIC COAST, JAPAN, 11 MARCH 2011 wave arrives Travelling at 800 km/h (497 mph), the 10 m (33 ft) high waves Powerful vibrations Tsunami waves are of this tsunami forced 450,000 people from their homes. spread out from evenly spaced at the epicentre in distances of up to 3 PORTUGAL, 1 NOVEMBER 1755 all directions 200 km (120 miles) Set off by an 8.5-magnitude earthquake, this tsunami hit Epicentre (the spot on Portugal, Morocco, and Spain with waves 30 m (98 ft) high. the seafloor above As each wave passes, the point in Earth’s there is a circular 4 KRAKATOA, INDONESIA, 27 AUGUST 1883 interior where the movement of rupture started) seawater under it Caused by the eruption of the Krakatoa Caldera volcano, this tsunami created multiple waves reaching 37 m (121 ft) high. 5 ENSHUNADA SEA, JAPAN, 20 SEPTEMBER 1498 Waves from this tsunami were powerful enough to cross a section of land separating Lake Hamana from the sea. 163

Shaping EROSION GLACIER the land Huge ice masses Water, wind, and ice wear down rocks called glaciers scrape Earth’s surface changes constantly but so gradually and soil. They also move the resulting away rocks and earth we can hardly see it. Wind, waves, moving ice, and materials to new places, and in doing as they move down other forces wear away rocks and mountains and so change the shape of the land. The mountain valleys. create valleys. At the same time, Earth’s plates process is called erosion. Natural move, forming mountains and continents. forces cause most erosion but human WIND activity, such as deforestation, A powerful erosive also contributes. force, wind blows away the top surface WATER of soil and wears Moving water erodes away rock. coasts, cliffs, and riverbanks, picking up and transporting rocks, pebbles, and soil. EROSION AND DEPOSITION U-SHAPED VALLEY 20SRSBEIEIVDLAELIMREIOSVENENDRTTUYOMIYNNPETNAAOEBRSTOHOUEFT Moving glacier ice Rivers and streams mould the landscape. From erodes rock to form FLOODPLAIN glacier beginnings, a river travels fast, picking up U-shaped valley. Sediment deposited rocky debris and carving deep into valleys. The river by river creates slows but continues to erode the landscape GORGE flat floodplain. and also deposits some material along Fast-moving river or the way. When it reaches the sea, waterfall deepens MEANDER it drops silt to form deltas valley or gorge. River bend caused by and beaches. erosion on one side and silt deposits on the other. KETTLE LAKE Melting ice from ARCH retreating glacier Pounding waves forms shallow lake. form arch in TERMINAL MORAINE POOL headland. Ridge of rock, gravel, Cascading water and soil at final point of glacier’s advance. forms pool at base of waterfall. GLACIERS Icy glaciers flow through mountain valleys, reshaping them. They move slowly, usually less than 1 m (3.3 ft) a day, but are so large they carve out vast depressions in the rock and U-shaped valleys. Ice forms from compacted snow Small glacier flows Rock debris into larger glacier piles up Ice collects Terminus, or BEACH in cirque end, of glacier Beaches are created (hollow) from eroded material Ice melts carried by the sea. Cirque glaciers feed forming water into valley glaciers SAND SPIT DELTA On the coast, sandy Rocky mountain deposits settle and peak eroded A delta forms where a project out into the sea. by glacier slow-moving river Tarn (lake-filled deposits sediment where hollow) created it meets the sea. by glacier GLACIATED VALLEY WATERFALL Rapids Pool forms FORMATION at base of Glacier has carved Hard waterfall out U-shaped valley A waterfall forms when rock a river pours over a WATERFALL Long, ribbon- rocky edge. The water Soft When a river erodes soft rock, shaped lake flow erodes the rock, rock beyond the rapids, it carves out creating a pool and a pool into which the water cascades. Stream formed undermining the ledge. RAPIDS by melted glacier Soft rock erodes more Rapids occur when the flow of a shallow quickly than hard rock Flat valley so the amount of erosion river is broken up by hard rock floor that varies, as does the height projecting out of the water. floods and flow of the water. periodically Flat-bottomed valley eroded by glacier AFTER THE GLACIER 164

WATER EROSION ARCHES AND STACKS CWRAEINARCTDHEADENSBDAYWNADAMTSIETXRATCEUKRROSESAOIROFEN Helped by strong winds, ocean waves batter against coastal As waves approach a headland, they curve around, attacking landforms. Dislodged rocks and pebbles are ground down the sides. In a process called corrosion, stones flung up by and rub abrasively against headlands, cliffs, and standing rocks. the waves erode the sides, causing cracks. Compressed air brought in by waves expands, enlarging cracks and forming arches and stacks. 1 ARCH FORMATION 2 STACK FORMATION Waves batter the A sea stack is formed headland from both sides, when waves continue to damaging rock and erode the headland and causing cracks. a pillar of rock (the Pressure of water stack) becomes enters cracks separated. to form an arch. Water penetrates Water pressure through headland collapses arch creating an arch leaving sea stack ERODED ROCK, LOCH ARD GORGE, AUSTRALIA LIMESTONE OXBOW LAKES LANDSCAPES On low-lying land, snake-like meanders may form when the course of Deep below Earth’s a river bends and may eventually become oxbow lakes. Meanders have surface are large cave two sets of curves: one side is formed by erosion as the river erodes systems. Rainwater, the land, the other side forms from deposits of silt and sediment. which is slightly acidic, gradually dissolves the 1 LIMESTONE WEAKENS 2 CAVE SYSTEM 3 GORGE Steady bend River wears River Old loop of limestone, creating Only rainwater can As water continues Eventually, the roof in river away land straightens river gets cracks. Flowing water widens the cracks, forms out cut off channels, and eventually creates cave systems. dissolve limestone. Over to erode the limestone, collapses, creating centuries, the slow drip cracks widen to become sinkholes. These merge of rainwater weakens large cavities or caves. to form large sunken limestone, forming cracks. Rock falls help the process. regions called gorges. INSIDE A CAVE 1 RIVER MEANDERS 2 BEND TIGHTENS 3 BEND IS CUT OFF A river curves As the erosion and River flows through Limestone caves are wondrous places. Over centuries, erosion has created huge chambers, often containing many incredibly shaped pillars, slightly. Water deposits of sediment neck of meander cutting and river-filled tunnels. Caves vary in size. Some are shallow but the deepest, in France, lies nearly 1.5 km (1 mile) below ground. erodes the far bank and increase, the meander, it off. Sediment deposits Stalactite and deposits sediment or curve, tightens into close ends and an oxbow stalagmite meet to on the inner bank. a C-shaped loop. lake is formed. form column Dry cave River falling Rock pillar left without water over rock forms behind after WIND EROSION waterfall cave collapsed Wind is a powerful erosive agent. It blows away soil, sand, and other light substances, depositing them at different locations, often sculpting new landforms. Wind erosion can be destructive, particularly for farmers. Trees and terraces help protect land. Water drops Fir cone Curtain stalactite form stalactite stalagmite STALACTITES AND STALAGMITES CONICAL FORMATIONS, TURKEY SANDSTONE SWIRLS, USA In some parts of the world the impact of Wind, and the sand particles it carries, Slim, beautifully shaped stalactites hang down from the roof of a cave. Stalagmites rise wind has changed landscapes, eroding erode sedimentary rocks such as up from the floor of the cave. Both form from a mineral in the rocks called calcite that rocks into new forms. sandstone, creating fantastic swirls. dissolves in drops of water seeping through the roof. Over time, they form fantastic shapes. MUSHROOM-SHAPED ROCKS, EGYPT Desert winds fling sand about, which causes erosion. The sand blasts against rocks, producing strange shapes. 1 WATER SEEPS IN 2 STALACTITE FORMS 3 STALAGMITE 4 PILLAR FORMS Mineral-saturated Water continues FORMS Over time, the water drips through seeping. The residue Some water lands on the stalactite and the cave roof. The builds up and a stalactite floor. It dries and leaves stalagmite continue water dries, leaving forms, hanging down deposits that gradually forming until they join a mineral residue. from the roof. form a stalagmite. to create a pillar.

Rocks and minerals WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? The outer layers of Earth are mostly solid rock. This is easy to see where there are mountains or canyons, but much more rock Minerals are natural is hidden under the soil and the sea. Rocks are made of minerals. chemical substances They can be changed or destroyed by weather or water at the that usually form as surface, or by heat and pressure inside Earth. solid crystals. Each type can be recognized by its hardness, colour, and atomic structure. Rocks are a mixture of minerals locked together. For example, granite is made of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica. IGNEOUS ROCKS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS MINERAL: QUARTZ Formed from volcanic material as These rocks form mostly at the bottom LIMESTONE WITH it cools down, igneous rocks are of of seas and lakes. They are made from FOSSILS two types. Some, such as pegmatites, grains of sand and clay worn away form deep underground. Others, such from older rocks by wind and water. as andesite, form when volcanic lavas Over a very long period of time, the cool at Earth’s surface. grains settle into layers of mud, or sediment. These layers are buried PUMICE ANDESITE and eventually harden into new rock. GRE Y WACKE OBSIDIAN PINK GRANODIORITE TOURMALINE PEGMATITE RHYOLITE PORPHYRY FLINT OIL SHALE SHALE PUDDINGSTONE MINERALS There are thousands of different minerals, though only about 30 make up most rocks. They usually form from water solutions and molten rock, sometimes deep inside Earth. Some, such as diamonds, are cut and polished to make gemstones. ENARGITE TENNANTITE CHRYSOPRASE COCKSCOMB ARSENOPYRITE BARITE MAGNETITE HORNBLENDE BROOKITE CHALCOCITE HALITE CHALCOPYRITE NAILHEAD CALCITE GALENA CORUNDUM SULPHUR GOLD 166

MEASURING DIAMOND HARD Glaciers carry away Rain and snow ROCK CYCLE MINERALS cool volcanic rock fill streams Rocks are made and A test called the “Mohs scale” ABSOLUTE HARDNESS Volcano Streams and remade in an endless was invented more than 200 SCALE winds carry cycle. Molten rock rises years ago to measure a mineral’s Molten rock away rock grains from inside Earth to the hardness. The scale is based forced up to surface. Weathering on how scratch-resistant one Rock grains breaks down surface mineral is compared to others. surface reach the coast rock into grains. The TALC as sediment grains build new rocks, GYPSUM Rock becomes which are buried and CALCITE molten then melted by heat. FLUORITE Sedimentary rock Sediment sinks APATITE changes under ORTHOCLASE Pressure QUARTZ heat and pressure turns sediment into rock TOPAZ CORUNDUM SOFT ROCK: PINK GRANITE MOHS HARDNESS SCALE METAMORPHIC ROCKS Intense heat or pressure deep inside Earth can change the minerals in rocks from one type to another or may rearrange the mineral grains. This process produces what are called metamorphic rocks. LIMESTONE DOLOMITE CLAYSTONE BRECCIA SKARN MYLONITE ECLOGITE MIGMATITE RED MARL CHALK LOESS IRONSTONE SANDSTONE GREEN MARBLE SERPENTINITE SLATE GNEISS DIAMOND PURPLE FLUORITE REALGAR ROSE QUARTZ SPHALERITE AZURITE HEMATITE NICKELINE PROUSTITE STIBNITE BOTRYOIDAL COVELLITE ORPIMENT ARSENIC CHRYSOBERYL BERYL RUTILE RHODOCHROSITE SMOKY BLUE SAPPHIRE HEMIMORPHIITE MALACHITE BORNITE QUARTZ 167

Gems GEM SHAPES BIRTHSTONES A gemstone, or gem, is a mineral Gemstones can be shaped in many ways. Some gemstones are traditionally associated with that has been polished and Some shapes, or “cuts”, are very popular for certain months of the year. It is believed to be lucky shaped by a skilled craftsperson rings, especially diamond rings. More than to wear the gem for your birth month. in order to enhance its beauty. three-quarters of all diamonds today are cut The most highly prized gems are into the “round brilliant” shape. hard-wearing and rare. There are more than 5,000 known JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL minerals on Earth, but fewer than 100 are used as gemstones. ROUND BRILLIANT CUSHION SQUARE GARNET AMETHYST AQUAMARINE DIAMOND MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SCISSORS PEAR STEP EMERALD PEARL RUBY PERIDOT SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER EMERALD HEART OVAL BRILLIANT SAPPHIRE TOURMALINE TOPAZ TURQUOISE PRECIOUS STONES MILKY OPAL PINK AND HELIODORE YELLOW SAPPHIRE TURQUOISE OPAL Traditionally, gems such as opal, emerald, sapphire, ruby, and diamond MULTICOLOURED were named “precious” stones. This OPAL was because their rarity made them the most valuable. Today, gems are valued in several different ways. The term “precious” is outdated, although jewellers still find it useful. FIRE OPAL BLACK OPAL WHITE OPAL GREEN EMERALD MORGANITE GREEN SAPPHIRE SEMI-PRECIOUS STONES GREEN FLUORITE YELLOW FLUORITE PINK TOURMALINE Gems found in large quantities were once said to be “semi-precious” and had a lower value than rare stones. However, a gem’s beauty and popularity are now also considered part of its value. Some “semi-precious” stones sell for more money than “precious” ones. CLEAR FLUORITE AMBLYGONITE BLUE APATITE YELLOW APATITE DANBURITE GREEN TOURMALINE PINK-VIOLET KUNZITE LABRADORITE PREHNITE RHODONITE SCAPOLITE BLUE TOURMALINE GREEN-YELLOW TOURMALINE ONYX QUARTZ GEMS Quartz is one of the most common and varied minerals on Earth. It comes in an amazing number of colours and intricate patterns. RUTILE QUARTZ TIGER’S EYE PALE YELLOW HONEY- COLOURED CITRINE QUARTZ CITRINE DENDRITIC AGATE HAWK’S EYE QUARTZ SARDONYX PHANTOM QUARTZ AVENTURINE QUARTZ 168

FACETING Table facet Crown A DIAMOND Girdle Pavilion When mined, gemstones often look dull; they must be cut and 1 SELECTION 2 ROUNDED 3 “MAIN” CUTS 4 INCREASING SHINE 5 FINISHED polished to shine. The best way A gem-quality piece The stone is rounded The 16 “main” facets Thirty two facets are BRILLIANT CUT to maximize the beauty of a transparent gem is to cut the of rough diamond – an on a lathe using another or planes are then cut cut into the crown (top) and The final “brilliant surface into a series of flat, reflective faces called facets. octahedral crystal – is diamond and the top facet, above and below the pavilion (bottom) to increase cut” emphasizes the MINING selected for cutting. called the table, is cut. mid-point, or girdle. brilliance and shine. brightness of the gem. Gemstones are KEY BIGGEST GEMS found in different Diamond areas across Emerald Gemstones can be huge. The Olympic Australis the world. They opal weighs 3.45 kg (7.5 lb); the American Golden are sometimes Sapphire topaz is 4.57 kg (10 lb); and the largest colourless brought to the Ruby diamond, the Cullinan, is 10 cm (4 in) long. Earth’s surface Aquamarine by volcanic Topaz eruptions. Opal CULLINAN AMERICAN OLYMPIC DIAMOND GOLDEN AUSTRALIS TOPAZ OPAL LIGHT BLUE TOPAZ BLUE SAPPHIRE PADPARADSCHA WHITE SAPPHIRE PINK TOPAZ SHERRY TOPAZ AQUAMARINE DIAMOND RUBY SAPPHIRE JASPER AZURITE GREEN PERIDOT MOONSTONE DRAVITE CUPRITE HOWLITE HEMATITE RED GARNET TURQUOISE BLUE ZIRCON BLUE TANZANITE SPHENE SUNSTONE KYANITE ALEXANDRITE MALACHITE MAUVE SPINEL RED SPINEL PINK SPINEL VESUVIANITE SUGILITE ORGANIC GEMSTONES Organic gemstones are made from animal or plant materials. For instance, coral is formed from sea creatures, pearls develop in certain shellfish such as oysters, and amber is made of fossilized tree resin. DUMORTIERITE IN QUARTZ AMETHYST MILKY QUARTZ ROSE QUARTZ SMOKY QUARTZ YELLOW-GREY CAT’S VIOLET CORAL BLACK PEARL NEXT WHITE PEARL AMBER EYE QUARTZ TO PEARL OYSTER 169

Water ABOUT 97 PER CENT OF WATER TEMPERATURE on Earth Deep-ocean water is permanently cold, but the temperature of surface water varies. It is warmest around the equator, where the Sun’s heat is more intense. But in the polar regions, the Sun is less powerful, resulting in permanently cold water. THE WORLD’S WATER 30°C 20°C 10°C 0°C Constantly warm LIES IN THE OCEANS 90°F 70°F 50°F 30°F water temperature Water is the most common substance on Earth’s surface – Permanently cold it fills the colossal oceans, swirls in clouds as water vapour, water temperature and falls as rain on land. It is vital to all life and is why our planet is unique: water vapour and ice may exist on other planets but only Earth has oceans of liquid water. ARCTIC OCEAN Kara Sea Chukchi Beaufort Baffin Greenland Barents Sea Sea Bay Denmark Strait Sea NorwSegeiaan Sea ASIA vis Strait North Himalayas Labrador Sea Bay of Gulf of Hudson Sea Red Sea Bengal Alaska Bay Da EUROPE NORTH Black Sea Caspian AMERICA Mediterranean Sea Sea Gulf of Sargasso GPuerlfsian Mexico Sea AFRICA Gulf of Aden Arabian Caribbean Sea ATLANTIC Sea OCEAN Great Rift Valley PACIFIC SOUTH OCEAN AMERICA INDIAN OCEAN THE WORLD’S OCEANS Cape of Good Hope Oceans cover 71 per cent of the surface of our planet Cape Scotia and have a total volume of about 1.3 billion cubic km Davis Sea Horn Sea (332 million cubic miles) of water. Continents divide the global ocean into five geographical regions. Weddell Sea OCEAN FLOOR SALT WATER The ocean floor is not just a featureless plain filled with water. Most of Earth’s water is salty. Over millions of years, rain pouring down Underwater volcanoes, towering mountains, vast plains, and on the land weathered the rocks and carried dissolved minerals on its the deepest trenches on Earth lie hidden beneath the waves. journey to the seas. The minerals included sodium chloride (common salt). This process is still happening today. Continent Seamount, Mid-ocean Abyssal Ocean Volcanic plain trench island chain Clouds an extinct ridge volcano Rain Minerals Evaporation Vent Dissolved salts Continental Continental Underwater Oceanic Tectonic Magma beneath crust slope plate an active volcano plateau crust 170

WATER CYCLE Water returns Clouds blow Rising water vapour LARGEST LAKES to land in the over land cools and forms Powered by the Sun’s heat, form of rain clouds made of tiny Some lakes are just shallow the water cycle circulates droplets of water pools that eventually dry out, between sea, air, and land. or snow while others are so vast that The Sun-warmed surface Some of the water they are like inland seas. water is constantly Plants release Sun draws moisture evaporates and evaporating (turning into moisture into from the ground rises into the air 1 CASPIAN SEA water vapour). The rising the air into the air as water vapour vapour cools and condenses, Area: 371,000 sq km (143,000 sq forming clouds that may be miles) This lake was once part of the carried over land. Here, it Mediterranean Sea; it was cut off falls back as rain or snow, when sea levels fell during the last and flows over the land ice age. before the water finds its way back to the sea. 2 SUPERIOR Rain and melting ice Some of the water Rivers carry water Area: 82,414 sq km (31,820 sq miles) feed rivers and lakes seeps into the ground back to the sea One of the five Great Lakes of North America, and the largest freshwater ARCTIC OCEAN East LAKE TYPES lake in the world. Siberian Sea Laptev Sea Lakes form in various ways, depending on how the hollow on Earth’s 3 VICTORIA surface was created, and most contain fresh water. They are found in a number of environments, including mountains, deserts, and plains. Area: 69,485 sq km (26,828 sq miles) Some lakes are millions of years old but most are much younger. The waters of Lake Victoria in Africa fill a shallow basin in the centre Sea of of a plateau. Okhotsk 4 HURON Area: 59,600 sq km (23,000 sq miles) This is the second largest of the North American Great Lakes. 5 MICHIGAN Area: 58,000 (22,000 sq miles) Also one of the five Great Lakes but located entirely within the USA. Sea of FAULT LAKE KETTLE LAKE CALDERA LAKE MAN-MADE LAKE LONGEST RIVERS Japan (East Sea) Tectonic movement of Depressions left This type of lake Some lakes are Earth has some incredibly Earth’s crust creates behind when an forms when rain fills man-made to provide long rivers that snake across East long hollows, which fill underground block the huge crater left a reservoir of clean its surface. These are the five China with water. These are of ice melts creating after an eruption has water for homes and longest rivers of the world. Sea among the oldest and a steep-sided blown away the top industry, or to create deepest lakes on Earth. 1 NILE South Philippine circular lake. of a volcano. hydroelectricity. China Sea Length: 6,670 km (4,145 miles) Sea Africa’s River Nile has two major tributaries (branches): the Blue Nile PACIFIC RIVERS and the White Nile. OCEAN Most rivers begin life as small, fast-flowing streams that join 2 AMAZON Arafura Sea up to form bigger, slower ones. They start life in higher ground, where rainwater or melting snow collects and trickles downhill. Length: 6,450 km (4,005 miles) AUSTRALIA Some rivers also form when lakes overflow or from springs. More water flows through South America’s mighty Amazon than Coral any other river. Sea 3 YANGTZE Fast-moving water is Mid-speed Slow-flowing MOUTH cooler and clearer flow of water murkier water Length: 6,378 km (3,964 miles) near the source China’s Yangtze River is the Tasman Meander LOWER COURSE world’s deepest river as well Sea SOURCE as the third-longest river. MIDDLE COURSE As a river reaches lower SOUTHERN OCEAN UPPER COURSE On flatter ground, the river ground, it widens and slows, 4 MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI ANTARCTICA The water at the source slows down. Winding curves of a river is fast-flowing, called meanders form, and as then flows into a lake or a Length: 5,970 km (3,710 miles) the flow cuts away the outside sea. The sediment carried The Mississippi and Missouri rivers and full of gravel and of the curve, the meanders by the water is left behind combine to form North America’s pebbles. This in turn at the mouth of the river. longest river system. erodes and deepens become more extreme. the stream channel. 5 YENISEI Length: 5,539 sq km (3,445 sq miles) The Yenisei River starts in Mongolia and flows through Russia. OCEAN SIZES WATER POWER HYDROELECTRIC TIDAL SURGE This chart shows the total area covered Earth’s essential resource can move with Hydroelectric dams Tidal barrages work by each ocean. The Pacific is the deepest considerable force, and modern techniques have are built to convert in a similar way to and by far the largest ocean, covering been developed to harness this incredible power a river’s kinetic hydroelectric dams, almost half the Earth. The Arctic is the into energy. energy (energy generating power smallest, coldest, and shallowest ocean. of movement) into from rising and electrical power. falling tides. SOUTHERN 6% ARCTIC 4.2% HYDROELECTRIC Reservoir Dam Generator Turbine Power line Water ENERGY flows out Hydroelectric power Power station stations use the force of dam of moving water to produce electrical Penstock energy. The amount INDIAN PACIFIC of energy created is 20.4% 46.4% determined by the flow of water. ATLANTIC 1 WATER IS RELEASED 2 WATER PRESSURE 3 ELECTRICITY IS PRODUCED 23% Water is stored in a reservoir The force of the water spins Power lines carry away and released into giant tubes the blades of the turbines, which are electricity, while the water flows off (penstocks) inside the dam. connected to electricity generators. downstream, away from the dam. 171

Climate WHAT IS CLIMATE? WEATHER SYSTEMS A climate is the average weather pattern Local air masses have their own in an area, influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture content, the region’s distance from the equator. density, and pressure. A weather front occurs when one air mass and weather meets another. Sunshine, air, and water interact to create the TEMPERATURE PRECIPITATION WARM FRONT COLD FRONT constantly changing conditions we call weather. Places tend to be colder There are zones of Weather can change fast within a day and slowly the further they are from high and low rainfall Cold air is replaced Cold air pushes into from season to season. The average weather around the Earth. by warm air, which warm air, forcing it pattern in one place is what makes up its climate. the equator. slowly rises to form upwards to create clouds and then rain storm clouds and as the air cools. heavy rain. ATMOSPHERIC Polar easterlies CIRCULATION blow away from the North Pole Air is always on the move, and this creates WORLD’S CLIMATE the circulation of the atmosphere around the Polar-front jet globe. Hot air close to the equator is carried stream moves in The world is divided into climate zones, each one with a pattern of to high latitudes, and cool air is returned different seasons temperature and rainfall, and distinct vegetation. They range from a to the tropics. In each hemisphere, three hot and wet climate near the equator to a cold and dry one at the poles. “cells” with separate circulations create winds that blow from specific Hot, with rain all year directions. These in turn Hot, with a dry and a wet season produce surface currents Hot, with one rainy season in the oceans. Hot desert EQUATOR Cool coastal climate Subtropical Warm, with winter rain jet stream flows Cold, with warm summers Very cold and dry at about 30°N Mountain climate all year round SEASONS Spring Seasons differ in the northern and Earth’s spin southern hemispheres due to a tilt axis is tilted in Earth’s spin axis. In summer, the hemisphere tilted towards at 23.4° the Sun has longer, warmer days. Summer Northern hemisphere Sun tilted towards the Sun Winter Autumn SEASONS IN THE Direction NORTHERN HEMISPHERE of Earth’s rotation CLIMATE CHANGE Volcanoes release Clouds Clearing particles that release forests and Climate is made up of interactions between burning the land, ocean, and atmosphere. Human reflect solar energy rain vegetation activity can also alter these interactions and back into space releases cause climate change. CO² Melting land Plants and soil FTUSFHHIREEIRRORICEUOEKASISRNFOIIGNFUTGSTIIHEFXSOTW,RIAETINNSIEDDASSR, E Cool air subsides and sea ice absorb CO² at the South Pole affects ocean circulation Evaporation from land and sea Oceans store creates clouds and release Factories release CO² carbon dioxide (CO²) CLIMATE FACTORS 172

STATIONARY FRONT Lines PRECIPITATION SNOW RECORD-BREAKING called Snowflakes are WEATHER This occurs where isobars All precipitation is simply clusters of frozen air masses push join points falling moisture. Whether water droplets. Some places have extreme against one another with the water falls from a cloud as climates, or weather events without moving. Can same rain, hail, or snow depends HAIL that are talked about for years. cause heavy rain. pressure on how cold the air is. Ice pellets form from crystals WINDIEST OCCLUDED FRONT An area RAIN in storm clouds. with low Droplets in clouds The fastest wind speed in a tornado Fast-moving cold air pressure fall when they are was 450 km/h (280 mph), recorded overtakes a warm is called a too heavy to float. at Wichita Falls, USA, in 1958. front, and lifts the depression warm air mass. It HOTTEST can rain for days. A WEATHER MAP The hottest land-surface temperature POLAR CELL SLEET FOG ever recorded (by satellite Cold air at the Sleet is a mix of Fog forms when measurement) was 70.7°C (159.3°F) pole flows south snow and rain in warm, moist air in the Lut Desert, Iran, in 2005. then returns. air above freezing. hits cold ground. COLDEST Winds produced by Ferrel Cells flow The coldest recorded temperature from the west was –93°C (–136°F), measured in Antarctica’s eastern highlands in 2010. Northeasterly WIND trade winds WETTEST Air moving between high and low pressure areas is called wind. Wind speed – from still air to a The highest rainfall recorded in one hurricane – is measured on the Beaufort scale. day was 18.25 cm (71.9 in) in Foc-Foc, Reunion Island, in the Indian Ocean CALM in 1966, during a tropical cyclone. LIGHT AIR LIGHT BREEZE DRIEST GENTLE BREEZE MODERATE BREEZE Arica, Chile is the populated area with FRESH BREEZE the lowest average annual rainfall in STRONG BREEZE the world at 0.76 mm (0.03 in). NEAR GALE HADLEY CELL GALE Moist air rises STRONG GALE at the equator and subsides at STORM the subtropics. VIOLENT STORM HURRICANE 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ARICA, CHILE BEAUFORT SCALE CLOUDS CLOUD NAMES Clouds are named All clouds fall into three main groups, although each type according to their has many different shapes. Cumulus form pillowy heaps; size, shape, and height. stratus have flat layers; and cirrus are wispy streaks. CIRRUS CIRROCUMULUS 10,000 M CIRROSTRATUS (33,000 FT) ALTOCUMULUS 8,000 M (26,000 FT) ALTOSTRATUS 6,000 M STRATOCUMULUS CUMULUS NIMBOSTRATUS CUMULONIMBUS (19,500 FT) STRATUS 4,000 M (13,000 FT) 2,000 M (6,500 FT) HOW CLOUDS FORM 1 MOISTURE 2 VAPOUR CONDENSES 3 CLOUDS RISE When the Sun shines, As the vapour rises and cools, During cloud formation, heat moisture in the ground and sea it condenses and forms clouds is released into the surrounding FERREL CELL rises into the air as water vapour. made of tiny water droplets. air and lifts the cloud higher. Air rises high WATCHING then divides – THE WEATHER some flowing to the poles and Weather stations are at work some towards all over the world, gathering the equator. information about local and global weather patterns. They Southeasterly use a range of instruments from DOPPLER RADAR WEATHER BALLOON SATELLITE trade winds simple thermometers and rain This type of radar uses Helium-filled balloons Satellites orbit from gauges to weather balloons and carry sensors high into Roaring satellites, which use sensors to microwaves to track pole to pole or sit forties wind monitor Earth’s atmosphere. moving bands of rain. the atmosphere. above one region. 173

Extreme weather CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING EXTREME Tornadoes, hurricanes, and flash floods destroy homes and WEATHER Since 1970 global countryside. Long dry spells cause water shortages and parched temperatures have crops. There have always been episodes of extreme weather, The Sun’s heat is a key factor, but now it seems likely that the increase in freak events all creating excessively high and risen by 0.5˚C around the world is due to climate change. low atmospheric pressure that (0.9˚F), adding heat can lead to extreme weather conditions. Dust from that may alter volcanoes can cause major weather patterns. disturbance, and global warming may play a part. WHAT IS EXTREME THUNDERSTORM MONSOON FLOOD TORNADO HURRICANE WEATHER? Thunderclouds form in These torrential rains Too much rain in a short These twisting The Earth’s most Many parts of the world experience wide hot, humid weather and that last for weeks are time may cause flash columns of wind can powerful weather variations in their weather, so when does it bring heavy rain, hail, just seasonal weather flatten houses and systems bring huge become extreme? In India torrential monsoons lightning, and thunder. in subtropical regions. floods in valleys and near are normal, as is a big freeze in the far North. rivers and the sea. pick up vehicles. winds and rain. Put simply, extreme weather is weather that is windier, hotter, colder, wetter, or more destructive than usual. TOTRANHBAEODUUOTSEA1S,H0I0AN0STETHVHEEERWYMOYORESLATDR– DUST STORM HEATWAVE DROUGHT SEVERE FOG HAILSTORM SNOWSTORM COLD WAVE In very dry places, sand During a heatwave, If there is high pressure The thickest fogs occur Showers of large A snowstorm is a rapid This dramatic dip in and soil is picked up in temperatures soar, for long periods, no in polluted areas. Tiny hailstones can break fall of snow, 15 cm (6 in) temperature to well the wind that grows into reservoirs dry up, and droplets of water settle below freezing can a suffocating dust storm. water is in short supply. clouds form and there is on particles in the air. glass and leave deep or more, that no rain. Vital crops fail. drifts of ice. disrupts daily life. threaten lives. MONSOON THUNDERSTORMS Huge cumulonimbus cloud Up- and Thermals has an anvil-shaped top downdraughts begin to Massive monsoon winds bring In hot, humid weather, an create a die down torrential rain to subtropical enormous cloud called a Warm, humid violent storm regions in summer. This rain is cumulonimbus can rapidly air rises from Downdraughts essential for crops to grow. The build up. This towering cloud the ground block warm air. winds change direction in winter brings gusty winds, torrential The rain stops to bring dry, cooler weather. rain, hail, and lightning. Flashes of lightning happen 1 CLOUDS BUILD 2 MATURE STAGE 3 ON THE WANE INDIA after droplets, ice crystals, Humid air is An updraught The strong and hail in the cloud become electrically pulls more warm downdraught charged. The flashes superheat the air, heated on the surface air upwards. High takes over. Cool creating claps of thunder. and causes thermal in the sky the drops air spills over currents. As these cool become rain, hail, the surface of the down they produce or snow and fall cloud and it begins a towering cloud. in a downdraught. to disappear. SUMMER LIGHTNING The South Asian monsoon STROKES blows from the Indian Ocean, bringing rain across India. It takes a huge voltage of electricity to overcome the INDIA resistance of the air, but once the process starts, strokes of lightning zig- zag towards the ground. When a leader stroke makes contact with a high point like a tree, it lights up with a brighter stroke called the return stroke. WINTER CLOUD-TO-CLOUD LIGHTNING CLOUD TO GROUND RIBBON LIGHTNING SHEET LIGHTNING Fine, dry weather spreads This most common type of Electricity in the Return strokes flowing Lightning flashing across India when the South back up the first stroke inside a cloud looks Asian monsoon reverses. lightning flashes from cloud to lightning joins currents create a ribbon effect. like a sheet of light. cloud then disappears in the air. rising from the ground. 174

SOLAR HEAT AIR PRESSURE EXCITING WEATHER KATABATIC WINDS GIANT HAILSTONE PHENOMENA The intensity of the Low atmospheric These winds occur at night on This whopper fell in Vivian, South Dakota, Sun fluctuates day- pressure causes Weather can produce some mountain slopes. Dense, cold air is USA, during a July storm in 2010. Hailstones to-day and its heat storms and strong amazing phenomena and pushed down the slope by gravity. can gather ice layers as winds in storm clouds causes changes in winds. Prolonged rare sights. whip them upwards high pressure can NONAQUEOUS RAIN again and again. atmospheric cause drought. SPRITES, ELVES, AND JETS pressure. Spiders, frogs, and even jellyfish can RECORD HAILSTONE Sprites and elves are dancing red be whipped up in strong winds and This hailstone weighed 1 kg (2.2 lb) and was 20 cm lightning flashes in the sky. Jets are then fall as rain. (8 in) across – three times the size of a tennis ball. cones of blue light on thunderclouds. ST ELMO’S FIRE GAIHNRSULIOMRSMR’AOIELCRSAA,BNROOEERYSNSEUA’VSMNEUANEADMFLOEALYSOFTDBHEUSARTVE BALL LIGHTNING This electric spark is like the glow in This glowing orb lasts for only seconds. It a plasma ball but it occurs naturally may be caused when elements in the soil on things like masts and lampposts vaporize and react with oxygen in the air. during thunderstorms. HURRICANES AIRFLOWS Warm air on the top spirals out from Hurricanes are violent tropical storms that develop over a warm ocean. Up to 4,000 km the eye, then cools and descends. (2,500 miles) across, with winds of more than 300 km/h (185 mph), they can leave a trail of destruction across islands and coastal regions. SPIRAL EYE This calm area of sinking RAIN BANDS Rising warm air air is usually 32–48 km (20–30 miles) wide. creates long, curved bands of thunderstorms. WARM, MOIST AIR Heated by the ocean, air picks up water and rises upwards. 1 THUNDERSTORMS 2 DEPRESSION 3 TROPICAL STORM 4 HURRICANE At first, clusters of A depression develops, As the winds spin faster, When they hit speeds of more than thunderstorms form high drawing in warm surface clouds rise high and produce 120 km/h (74 mph), the winds and clouds above the warm ocean. winds that start to rotate. torrential rain. form a spiral around a calmer central eye. TORNADOES 1 STEADY SPIN 2 FUNNEL GROWS 3 PEAK PROGRESS 4 COLUMN DIES As warm air rises from When the funnel reaches At its peak, the column can After a while the column These spinning columns of air reach from the clouds down to the ground it starts to spin. The the ground it draws in more hot be several kilometres wide and spins more slowly. It narrows the ground. They are shaped like a funnel with a core of air that can spin at anything up to 480 km/h (300 mph). Nicknamed “twisters” in the USA, they form during summer storms and can destroy crops and buildings. base of a cloud forms a funnel. air and begins to spin faster. destroy everything in its path. and is drawn up into the cloud. 175

Environment MOUNTAINS The air and streams are much in danger cleaner in the mountains. Pollution, deforestation, and the burning of fossil fuels are all changing the environment and ACID RAIN making it difficult for many species of plants Some pollutant gases and animals to survive. However, there are plenty of ways to slow down these harmful effects on acidify water in the the environment, from thinking carefully atmosphere. Rain about what can be recycled to finding formed from this water new, greener sources of energy. can destroy trees. PESTICIDES Chemicals used by farmers on their crops can wash off fields and into nearby water sources. GREENHOUSE Released CLEANING RUBBISH EFFECT energy Most rubbish is buried CHEMICALS in the ground in landfill Some gases, such as Chemicals are sites. It can release carbon dioxide, make released into water dangerous chemicals the atmosphere behave from household and gases. like the glass of a cleaning products. greenhouse, trapping FUEL solar heat. This Cars powered by process, which keeps fossil fuels release Earth at a comfortable greenhouse gases temperature, is called from their exhausts. the “greenhouse effect”. Atmosphere and greenhouse gases Trapped energy GLOBAL WARMING Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil releases more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, warming the planet. GLOBAL WARMING SOOT Soot, caused The warming up of the Earth may sound like a good thing at by burning coal first, but it actually has severe consequences. Even a tiny shift or oil, pollutes of one or two degrees in temperature can change the balance of the planet and eventually lead to the loss of wildlife habitats, the air. farmland, and even human lives. GAS EMISSIONS SEA-LEVEL RISES OCEAN BECOMES MORE ACIDIC As well as non-polluting As the ice in polar regions melts Sea creatures, including coral steam, many power stations and sea levels rise, coastal land produce invisible gases that reefs, are dying as their contribute to the greenhouse and homes will be lost. environment changes. effect and global warming. CHEMICALS Chemicals from industrial processes can make their way into rivers and the sea. SEWAGE Some waste from sewage plants is dumped in the sea, harming marine life. MARINE LIFE If plants on the seabed are killed by pollution, there is little for other marine life to eat. EXTREME WEATHER DESERTS EXPAND POLLUTION HAZARDOUS Global warming leads to destructive An increase in global temperature Human activities cause extensive WASTE storms, floods, and droughts. will lead to more desert areas, pollution around the world every day. Waste dumped in destroying habitats and farmland. The environment may be affected the sea or buried 176 on a small scale, or pollution may can leak harmful contribute to wider problems, like the greenhouse effect. Pollution affects all pollutants. forms of life on the planet, from animals on the land to plant life in the sea.

EUROPE NORTH AMERICA ASIA DES1T8ROTAMOFHPYIFELPEOLRDWIROOEEOXNVSRITMELARDACAYRTRAYEEORSLEUEYANRD DEFORESTATION SOUTH AFRICA OCEANIA AMERICA The effects of deforestation for KEY farming, logging, and living are Frontier forest – undisturbed by humans huge. Deforestation accounts Degraded forest – disturbed by humans for much of the world’s Frontier forest 8,000 years ago greenhouse gas emissions; it reduces biodiversity, disrupts Earth’s natural water cycle, and speeds up erosion. ENDANGERED WAYS TO HELP SPECIES THE PLANET Habitat loss, disease, There are things we can all do to help reduce our impact on the and hunting cause planet. If everyone takes a few small steps, it can have a greatly hundreds, or potentially positive effect overall. thousands, of species SWITCH OFF to become extinct PLANTS REPTILES AMPHIBIANS BIRDS FISH MAMMALS Save electricity by turning off lights and every year. There are more than About half of all Around 43 per cent About 13 per cent Millions of sharks Around 26 per cent computers when they are not in use. 10,000 endangered turtle species are of amphibians are of bird species are are killed for their of mammal species TRAVEL SMART plant species. endangered. threatened. vulnerable. fins each year. are threatened. Try to walk, cycle, or use public EVERYDAY COTTON BATTERIES PLASTIC BAGS GADGETS THE INTERNET transport, instead of cars. CONSUMERS Cotton is treated with pesticides and harmful Batteries can release Millions of marine Fifty million tonnes The internet produces SAVE WATER There are many things people dangerous chemicals animals die each year use every day that can have a big chemicals. of electrical waste is about 300 million Ban baths, take shorter showers, and impact on the environment. Using if they are not from swallowing turn off the tap when brushing teeth. one plastic bag in a shop might disposed of safely. plastic bags. thrown out every year. tonnes of carbon seem small, but if other people AVOID WASTE around the world do this also, the dioxide each year. effects on the planet can be huge. Buy products with less packaging, so MEAT CHOCOLATE WATER BOTTLES it is not wasted. OIL Spills from tankers Around 18 per cent About 25,000 litres Around 50 billion RECYCLE and oil rigs are life- of all greenhouse of water is needed plastic water bottles threatening to sea gas emissions to make just 1 kg (2.2 lb) are used each year Many things can be recycled, including creatures. comes from of chocolate. in the USA. paper, glass, and plastic. producing meat. REUSE WASTE RECYCLING PLASTIC GLASS PAPER ALUMINIUM Create compost from food waste. Materials like plastic and Plastic can be Recycling 1 tonne Recycling paper Recycling aluminium glass can take hundreds recycled into park of glass releases uses 70 per cent uses just 5 per cent DON’T LITTER or thousands of years to 315 kg (695 lb) less less energy than of the energy needed break down in a landfill site. benches, drain carbon dioxide than producing it from Littering harms animals, and litter Recycling these items can pipes, or even the production of raw materials. to make new can end up in the sea, where it stays save resources and energy, fleece jackets. aluminium. for a very long time. while also being healthier new glass. for the environment. PLANT A TREE Trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. WATCH WHAT YOU EAT Buy local and seasonal food. Eat less meat. SPREAD THE WORD Encourage your friends and family to help the environment. SHIPWRECK RENEWABLE WIND SOLAR TIDAL HYDROELECTRIC GEOTHERMAL BIOFUELS WOOD Objects like sunken ships on ENERGY the seabed can release harmful Wind can power Energy from the As tides rise and When water is Cool water Fuel can be Specially grown material from their cargo. Fossil fuels provide most of turbines that Sun is caught by fall, they move channelled is pumped produced from wood can be the world’s energy, but this solar panels and turbines that underground organic matter, has serious environmental convert the wind through a dam, through pipes, like plants, which burned for heat impacts and these fuels will energy into turned into convert the turbines are to absorb the are burned to and light. Trees become more scarce. There electricity. electricity. movement turned, which Earth’s heat. provide energy. are other sources of cleaner, into energy. must be renewable energy that can creates energy. replanted. be used instead. 177

Our physical LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE The equator is an imaginary line that divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres. Latitude shows how far north or south a location is in relation world to the equator. Longitude gives the east/west position from the prime meridian, which runs between the KEY North and South Poles through London, England. ELEVATION North Pole 4,000 m 75°N 2,000 m Most of Earth’s surface is covered in water. 60°N 1,000 m 500 m 45°N COORDINATESPRIME MERIDIAN The rest is occupied by seven vast landmasses, Combining latitude 250 m 30°N and longitude gives 100 m Below sea called continents: Europe, Africa, North 90°W 15°N 45°E every location a Sea level level America, South America, Asia, Australasia/ 30°E coordinate. New 75°E 15°E York City, for 250 m 60°W 45°W 15°W example, is 40.7° 2,000 m 4,000 m 30°W EQUATOR Oceania, and Antarctica. The tilt of Earth’s axis 15°S N, 74°W. Mountain Lowest point 30°S 45°S and its orbit of the Sun means that some places 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W are much hotter and drier than others. Chukchi Sea Beaufort Sea Victoria Baffin Is Baffin Island Bay Arctic Circle Mount McKinley land SURFACE AREA Bering Strait (Denali) ser Antilles Hudson 60°N 6,194 m The entire surface of the Earth is 510,066,000 sq km d s R O C K Y M O U N T A I NSSierra Madre Labrador tian Is l an Gulf of Bay Laurentian Sea (196,937,000 sq miles). Water makes up more than 70% of Alaska NORTH Ale u Mountains the surface area, most of which is salt water in the oceans. Vancouver Island Great Lakes Newfoundland Coast Ranges ountains Grand Banks of Newfoundland Gr Mississippi M A MERICA ains P l Appalachian 29.2% eat A T L A N T I CLAND 70.8% WATER 30°N Tropic of Cancer IHslaanwdasi’ia Gulf of West O C E A N Mexico Indies 4A0TR,0HO7OUE5FNCKTDIMRHTCE(HU2E4EMA,9EFR0QET1RUHEMANTICLOEERSI)S Hawai’i ns PYeunciantsaunlGar e a t e r Antilles Les CONTINENT SIZES PACIFIC Caribbean Sea Tens of millions of years ago, all land on Earth o Line OCEAN rinoco O was joined together in one huge continent called P Pangea. Over time, this broke apart and the Guiana Gran Chaco continents we know today gradually moved Equator Islands Galapagos to their present locations. Islands Highlands Brazilian Highlands Phoenix y Oceania Islands l A m a z o n ABmaazsoni n 8,525,989 sq km (3,291,903 sq miles) Marquesas D SOUTH AMERICA Europe e Islands N 10,498,000 sq km nCook A Planalto de (4,053,309 sq miles) Samoa SociTeutyaImsloatnudIsslan Peru Mato Grosso Basin Antarctica Tonga Trench Island i Pitcairn 14,000,000 sq km s ds (5,405,430 sq miles) Tropic of Capricorn Pampas South America 17,819,000 sq km a Islands Easter ES (6,879,000 sq miles) Island 30°S Southwest Juan Mount Pacific Fernandez Aconcagua Asia Basin 6,959 m 43,608,000 Islands sq km Patago n ia (16,838,365 Argentine sq miles) Basin Falkland Tierra del Islands Fuego Cape Horn s s a g e 60°S Drake Pa Antarctic Circle North America Africa 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 24,247,000 sq km 30,335,000 sq km (9,361,791 sq miles) (11,712,434 sq miles) 178

EXTREME PLACES TALLEST MOUNTAINS The place with the hottest average Slow, but gigantic, movements in Earth’s crust form mountains. temperature on Earth is Dallol in The tallest mountain range is the Himalayas in Asia, which contains the Ethiopia, at 24.4°C (93.9°F). The ten highest mountains in the world. The longest mountain range is place with the coldest average the Andes in South America, stretching for 7,200 km (4,500 miles). temperature, measuring –58.3°C (–72.9°F), is the highest point on DRIEST PLACE: DRY WETTEST PLACE: the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, called VALLEYS, ANTARCTICA MAWSYNRAM, INDIA Dome A. Mawsynram in India is the wettest place in the world, with an average annual rainfall of 1,187 cm (467 in). The driest place is the Dry Valleys in Antarctica, which receive no rain, snow, or hail. HOTTEST PLACE: COLDEST PLACE: MT EVEREST K2 KANGCHENJUNGA LHOTSE 1 MAKALU 1 DALLOL, ETHIOPIA DOME A, ANTARCTICA 8,848 m 8,611 m 8,586 m 8,485 m 8462 m (29,029 ft) (28,251 ft) (28,169 ft) (27,838 ft) (27,766 ft) TOP FIVE TALLEST MOUNTAINS 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E Barents Laptev Sea East Siberian Sea Greenland A R C T I C O C E A N Sea Lena Scandinavia Arctic Circle Denmark Strait M oUurnatla i n s Caspian Sea West North Siberian Ob’ S i b e r i a Kamchatka Iceland Sea 60°N Plain r British River Sea of Amu Okhotsk A S I AIsles E U R O P E Nile dTuDKTieeHhAusnaeslthrrDIaStKiMheMuGacancnAnoalguueonPLnsnfltaaTAMtiM8ine,b8Yooas4ueuuBL8ntAntaamEkitGkveaSeaYiroleenlslsbtowainMgtzPaeCGlnPahcrlihaiennauinatorifa(nCESEJSahaeaseaiptasnaSotanfeKa)yuHsHhJouoaknkpsahiaudno Mont Blanc A L P S Danube Black SCeaaucasus Volga Aral 4,807 m Sea Indus Hin Azores M e d i t Eastern GhatsElbrus Madeira ins 5,642 m Y Canary MAotulnatsa e r r a n e a n Se a M o uZnatgarionss -423 m Dead 30°N Sea S a h a r aIslands PerGsiaunlf PACIFIC Ahaggar Red Sea Tropic of Cancer Niger Tibesti Arabian Arabian Western Ghats Taiwan riana Trench OCEAN Peninsula Sea Philippine AFRICA Bay of Mekong Sea Mariana M Cape S a h e l Ethiopian Bengal Philippine Islands icron Verde es Islands Highlands Horn of Islands Challenger South Deep Adamawa Africa Sri China -11,200 m Ma Highlands Lanka Malay S e a Maldive Peninsula Islands Me lan ia Congo Great Lake Sumatra Borneo e Equator Basin Victoria Celebes New s C Kilimanjaro Guinea E a s t Solomon Lake 5,895 m n d i e Tanganyika Seychelles l Lake Nyasa Ascension Prime Meridian Rift Java Sea s Islands a Island i ongo Va l INDIAN Java I St Helena OCEAN sberg Timor Se Arafura Sea MMaozdaamgbiaqsuce aCrhanneley a OCEANIA Namib Desert D Great Barrier Reef Zambezi at Dividing Range Coral New Fiji Sea Caledonia Mauritius Great Sandy Kalahari Réunion Desert Tropic of Capricorn Desert Great Victoria Desert Orange NullGarrbeaotr Plain arling 30°S Tristan RiDverraken Austalian Gre m a n Sea da Cunha Bight T Cape of a s New Good Hope Tasmania Zealand Crozet Aoraki Islands (Mount Cook) Kerguelen 3,75 4 m Bouvet South Indian Basin 60°S Island OCEAN Antarctic Circle S O UT H E R N A NT AR C TI CA 150°E 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 179

Our political TIME ZONES 165°W 180°E 165°E world 150°W 150°E The world is divided into more than 24 time zones. From the 135°W 135°E prime meridian (0º longitude), 12 MIDNIGHT 11 PM which runs through Greenwich, 120°W 4 AM 10 PM 8 PM 120°E London, for every 15º you move 105°W 5 AM 1 AM 9 PM 7 PM 105°E west or east, you generally lose 2 AM or gain an hour. At the equator 3 AM a day is about 12 hours year There are 196 independent countries in the world round. Moving away from the 090°W 6 AM 6 PM 090°E today, all differing from each other in size, shape, equator, the day can increase population, language, government, and culture. to 24 hours or decrease to zero, 075°W 7 AM 4 5 PM 075°E depending on the time of year. PM PM Countries on similar latitudes 060°W 8 AM AM10 AM 3 have the same day lengths. 045°W 9 11 AM 060°E 12 NOON 2 PM 045°E 1 PM 030°W 030°E The size of a country, its boundaries, and natural COUNTING TIME 015°W 000° 015°E resources, such as oil and gas, are just some The time zone change is counted at 15º intervals, because Earth rotates 15º each hour. 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W elements that affect both its internal organization and its relationship with other countries. ARCTIC OCEAN Baffin Arctic Circle Bay Alaska (to USA) POPULATION 60°N CANADA There are more than 7 billion people in the world today. United Nations’ estimates of what the population will be in 2040 Aleutian Islands (to USA) Great St Pierre range from about 8 to 9.7 billion. Some areas of the world are Lakes more populated than others because of their climate, terrain, PACIFIC & Miquelon and natural and economic resources. Over half the world’s OCEAN UNITED STATES (to France) population live in cities, most in Asia, as a result of mass OF AMERICA migration from rural areas in search of jobs. ATLANTIC Bermuda OCEAN (to UK) North America Oceania 30°N MEXICO Gulf of 533 million 38.3 million Midway Islands (to USA ) South Mexico BAHAMAS America Tropic of Cancer CUBA DOMINICAN 389.86 Hawaii HAITI REPUBLIC million (to USA) Europe BELIZE JAMAICA 742.5 GUATEMALA HONDURAS Caribbean BARBADOS million EL SALVADOR Sea NICARAGUA Africa COSTA RICA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO 1.1 billion PANAMA VENEZUELA Asia GUYANA French Guiana 4.4 billion (to France) COLOMBIA SURINAM Equator Galapagos Islands ECUADOR (to Ecuador) Wallis & POPULATION CHART Futuna (to France) PACIFIC PERU BRAZIL KIRIBATI Tokelau OCEAN (to NZ) Cook Islands SAMOA (to NZ) MEGACITIES American French Polynesia BOLIVIA Samoa PARAGUAY A megacity is an urban area with (to US) (to France) more than 10 million inhabitants. The top five megacities by TONGA Niue population are in Asia. (to NZ) 1 TOKYO Tropic of Capricorn Japan: 37,843,000 Pitcairn CHILE Islands ARGENTINA 2 JAKARTA (to UK) Indonesia: 30,539,000 30°S URUGUAY 3 NEW DELHI 60°S S O UT H E R N Falkland Islands India: 24,998,000 Antarctic Circle (to UK) 4 MANILA OCEAN Philippines: 24,123,000 5 SEOUL South Korea: 23,480,000 150°W 120°W 90°W 60°W 180

Faeroe Islands NORWAY SWEDE N FINLAND BIGGEST AND SMALLEST COUNTRIES (to Denmark) RUSSIAN Covering a vast expanse of land, the Russian Federation is the world’s largest country. It has North ESTONIA FEDERATION 11 time zones and shares land borders with 14 other countries. Vatican City, the centre of the Catholic Church, is located within the Italian city of Rome and is the world’s smallest country. UNITED S e a DENMARK LATVIA KINGDOM RUSS. LITHUANIA FED. IRELAND NETHERLANDS POLAND BELARUS BIGGEST COUNTRIES SMALLEST COUNTRIES GERMANY 1 RUSSIAN FEDERATION 1 VATICAN CITY BELGIUM CZECH REPUBLIC UKRAINE 17,098,242 sq km (6,601,668 sq miles) 0.44 sq km (0.17 sq miles) Channel Islands FLLURIESXCAWEHMNITTBECZONEUESSRRTALGNEAINNMDARINOAUSLSOTHBVROEEINRSACNZIRAEIOASGHAL&OTUOVISNVAINEAGRRAKAOBIRIAMABYUANLGIAARMIOALDCOaVspAian 2 CANADA 2 MONACO (to UK) 9,984,670 sq km (3,855,103 sq miles) 2 sq km (0.7 sq miles) ANDORRAPORTUGAL M Corsica VAMCTIIOTCYNAINTTEANLEGYROALKBOMASANOCVIEAOD(OdiNspIuAtTed)U Sea Y RKE 3 UNITED STATES 3 NAURU SPAIN SWEDENSardinia rranean GREECE 9,629.091 sq km (3,717,813 sq miles) 21 sq km (8 sq miles) Gibraltar edite Sea (to UK) 4 CHINA 4 TUVALU MOROCCO ALGERIA TUNISIA MALTA CYPRUS 9,598,094 sq km (3,705,845 sq miles) 26 sq km (10 sq miles) 5 BRAZIL 5 SAN MARINO 8,514,877 sq km (3,287,612 sq miles) 61 sq km (24 sq miles) EUROPE 30°W 0° Svalbard 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E Greenland A R C T I (to Norway) A N (to Denmark) C OCE ICELAND NORWAY FINLAND Arctic Circle See inset map RUSSIAN FEDERATION 60°N for details IRELAND GERMANY BELARUS FRANCE UKRAINE KAZ AKHSTAN MONGOLIA ROMANIA MeditTIeTUrrANaLInSYeIaGAnRSEeEaBCUELLGETIABSRARUINAAEROGLNAEKROSMERYEGRYNIIIRAAIAAQAZETRIUBRRAKIUJMAAZENBNANEFISKGTIAHSNTAANNITSTAAJIKNKYISRTGAYNZSTAN SPAIN N A NORTH JAPAN PACIFIC PORTUGAL KOREA OCEAN SOUTH C H ICCO KOREA ITANIA MORO JORDAN AKISTAN 30°N CONGO CAMENRIOGOENRIA Canary KUWAIT NEPAL Islands BHUTAN (to Spain) A L G E R I A L I B Y A EGYPT BAHRAIN P Tropic of Cancer QATAR BANGLADESH UAE TAIWAN SAUDI OMAN I N D I A BURMA CAPE MAUR ARABIA Arabian (MYANMAR) ETNAMVI Northern VERDE Sea LAOS Mariana MALI NIGER SUDAN Islands SENEGAL CHAD ERITREA YEMEN THAILAND PHILIPPINES (to USA) GAMBIA BURKINA DJIBOUTI Socotra CAMBODIA Guam GUINEA- GUINEA MARSHALL BISSAU BENIN (to USA) IVORY CENTRAL ETHIOPIA (to Yemen) ISLANDS COAST AFRICAN SOUTH MICRONESIA SIERRA LEONE OMALIA SRI LANKA BRUNEI PALAU LIBERIA REPUBLIC SUDAN GHANA TOGO UGANDA S MALDIVES MALAYSIA Equator EQUATORIAL GUINEA KENYA INDIAN SINGAPORE NAURU SAO TOME GABON OCEAN KIRIBATI DEMOCRATIC RWANDA I N D O N E S I A PAPUA & PRINCIPE REPUBLIC TUVALU BURUNDI SEYCHELLES NEW SOLOMON Cabinda GUINEA (to Angola) OF CONGO TANZANIA EAST TIMOR ISLANDS COMOROS ATLANTIC ANGOLA MALAWI Mayotte (to France) St Helena ZAMBIA MOZAMBIQUE VANUATU F I J I (to UK) MADAGASCAR New ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS Caledonia OCEAN NAMIBIA (to France) BOTSWANA Réunion (to France) Tropic of Capricorn SWAZILAND AU S T R A L I A LESOTHO 30°S SOUTH AFRICA NEW ZEALAND 60°S Antarctic Circle A N TA R C T I C A 30°W 0° 30°E 60°E 90°E 120°E 150°E 181

Asia The largest of Earth’s seven continents, Asia 80˚ 50˚ 60˚ 70˚ 80˚ 90˚ occupies one-third of the world’s total landmass. It claims both the lowest and the highest points ARCTIC on the planet’s surface. More than 4 billion people live here and it is home to the world’s two most 50˚ populous countries, China and India. Kara Sea 70˚ Arctic Circle Noril’sk PETRA, JORDAN IMMENSE CARVING ns The Monastery at P Ob’ Once a thriving trading Petra is beautifully E centre, this unique city carved and so huge 60˚ R U S S I A S was carved into the pink that even the doorway Mountai N sandstone rock face more is several stories high. Yenisey than 2,000 years ago. O We s t Rediscovered in 1812, 30˚ R 50˚ the entrance today is E U50˚ Ural Yekaterinburg Si b e r i a n m through the Siq, a long, 40˚ Istanbul B l a c k 40˚ Ural’sk ChelyabinskIrtysh P l a i n Chuly narrow gorge flanked by high cliffs. Omsk Rudnyy Novosibirsk TURKEY Sea Ural ASTANA ANGKOR WAT, I N D I A3300˚D˚ T2e-r04Jao˚pEd2NiIcC3RSSoILefmUYCRGJCaEeBPSaOAadnBEARzcESdeaAILSUDrILRaNAEySUAeMOAJrSTsOdNiRePaARaAArAnDnenSYMtaARDUAaArnEMINASAtNaBY(ioYMMAArDAEAnblRNNADmRIiEIiaKsSKIuHApACauAUINbtUyRRY‘WnlMBMSAEAaQaAAaRRQAAloIsuENZTMQArKsBaViEauTAghArrEARGliAMtaGNNBDKeRElA.rHiIOUTO)QABDaHWRSbAoAAAGUBhrmHOAiTDIiMAAIzTrRIZBAAlKaEfMUAIBzEURLISURIANCSBITPDANIArAElHGTaTaIHuNnAJMtUlfARseiBRoaaaNAIfAKsunSONkhutMmharauDaEndAHNasoeArIrKgSSASSaaAuTetHraKKUzebaaAFrQaGaZaliNGnABcaAuPdhHBaenZAihtAAtAaaTKrhSANymrIKPIDFaTSSHeadaArsTHTiyahTSySsbKhaaAAudHawalySre(aNrKzldNaKriabyDntDTaErlAeaobUeNoBdBrAsafdNeSTUITdcraKHSaotDNALrnHYAmDtJNENIrRLBIKNoaSLLKaealEaGdL)EBHkllagaWIkhAYKeEhpSaIKiLZMoTushauSHArBABrKAr(ecTcaTalNh2ABklJmAlageko8inAganmiTNa,paKnro6gDiseeatahia1dwdcsuyk1lNhnabDanlmyCamEbC(lKAenIyhuhPnMsSd(oAIinedMmCnnAkTÜrihaaPdauTiKMtoL,aH)niVaksaralucluia)oaürslaoacMnati7uteluirntm8mnmkre,AaGn,Ee4t8alaednHtNqtv3a4duataen9bai8eDari)ygsenommesiUafsstCaspian Sea CAMBODIA The temple of Angkor Wat is covered with exquisite a carvings. Part of a vast EKAImSuTADNarya complex of sacred monuments spread over 400 sq km (155 sq miles), T Euphrates it was constructed between the 9th and 14th centuries. Parts of the complex are HINDU COSMOS Red Sea Zagros now grown over by trees. The temple is an earthly representation of the Hindu AFRICA s cosmos. Its five towers, shaped like lotus buds, form a pyramidal structure symbolizing the mythical Mountain Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods. Gu RIVER GANGES, INDIA KEY Persian Starting in the Himalayas and finishing ELEVATION at the Bay of Bengal, the River Ganges is worshipped by Hindus as the goddess Sea level 4,000 m Indus Ganga. The river is a lifeline for the 2,000 m people who live alongside it, but it has 250 m 1,000 m Easte Dec become heavily polluted by human 2,000 m 500 m and industrial waste. 4,000 m 250 m ts 100 m Below sea level 40˚ Aden Mumbai Pune Goda Gha (Bombay) Hyderabad Gulf of Aden Socotra K vari Bay of Mountain (to Yemen) 60˚ I N D I A N Lowest point We s t e r n rishna r n 50˚ POPULATION Capital city OCEAN BangaloreGhats Over 1 million Chennai 500,000 to 1 million 10˚ 100,000 to 500,000 Mysore (Madras) below 100,000 Kochi Jaffna TAJ MAHAL 70˚ SRI LANKA The Taj Mahal was COLOMBO commissioned by Mughal emperor MALDIVES SRI JAYEWARDENAPURA Shah Jahan in 1632 KOTTE 80˚ to house the tomb MALÉ of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. TCORAIBMTFUTTOIOSLRMDOE KTETNHH2A2EANYTNAED2AJ0AMR,0RSA0TA0HISNAADLNS HOLY BATHING MARBLE MONUMENT Pilgrims gather to bathe in the River Ganges at Haridwar, the “Gateway to God”. It is one of the seven holiest places Made of white marble, for Hindus. the colour of the building appears to change depending on the time of day. 182

80˚ 70˚ CHERRY BLOSSOM, THE GREAT WALL JAPAN OF CHINA 140˚150˚160˚17108˚0˚ East Bering 170˚ Siberian Sea 60˚ Spring is celebrated in Japan with Built to protect against raids from the 180˚ the arrival of the cherry blossom, north, the Great Wall of China is made up of Sea Anadyr’ a symbol of hope and renewal. different sections, built by various Chinese Japanese people get together to dynasties. The longest structure ever built, 120˚130˚ N I Arctic Circle marvel at these brilliant, fragrant much of the wall was constructed in the displays of colour. It is thought that 14th century during the Ming Dynasty. EA the blossoms help us to remember O C Kolyma Kolyma Range 170˚ P that lives should be lived to the full. Laptev ndigirka A Sea Yan Lena Kamchatka C Olenëk a I KChetae n t r a l a Magadan 160˚ F i Aldan r Yakutsk ON Petropavlovsk- I Kamchatskiy Siberian L C OCE Sea of Plateau e RATI Okhotsk Kurile Islands ib S ena Amur FEDE 50˚akhalin BLOSSOMING SOUTH TO NORTH BIG BUILD 150˚ The outside of the wall was built with stones Vitim The cherry blossom season begins in and fired bricks and the inside filled with Amur Okinawa in January and moves northwards stones and mud. Sections were up to 7.5 m (25 ft) Angara Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk A to Kyoto and Tokyo at the end of March. wide and stretched for thousands of kilometres. Khabarovsk Hokkaido N MOUNT EVEREST, NEPAL Sapporo 40˚ Krasnoyarsk Lake Argun At 8,848 m (29,029 ft) high, this is the Baikal Irkutsk Qiqihar Harbin highest mountain in the world. In 1953 climbers Edmund Hillary from New Zealand Vladivostok and Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay became the first people to reach the Erdenet ULAN BATOR Jilin Sea of Japan Sendai summit of Everest. M M O N G O L I Ao ongolia (East Sea) J A PA N Yellow Riverunlttaai NORTH Honshu TOKYO TOUGH CLIMB i PYONGYANG KOREA To date, more than 4,000 people have A Osaka Yokohama climbed Mount Everest. Climbers have M n s Gobi I n n e r BEIJING Dalian SEOUL SOUTH 140˚ to face avalanches, freezing temperatures, KOREA storms, altitude sickness, and a lack Hiroshima of oxygen. Datong Tianjin SEJONG CITY Busan Fukuoka 30˚ NEW HEIGHTS Jinan Qingdao Ye l l o w Kagoshima Zhengzhou Xuzhou S e a With the movement of tectonic plates, Lanzhou Taiwan Strait Everest continues to increase in Nanjing Shanghai E a s t Ryukyu Islands height by approximately 4 mm Xi’an (0.16 in) every year. Hefei China CHINA FAST FACTS Yangtze Wuhan Hangzhou S e a Tropic of Cancer Tibet More than half the world’s Chengdu Chongqing Nanchang ORANGUTANS, BORNEO population lives in Asia. (Much of Arunachal Pradesh The biggest cities are also found here. is claimed by China) Leshan Changsha Fuzhou TAIPEI Borneo is one of only two remaining natural Brahmaputra Guiyang Shantou habitats for orangutans. An endangered AREA: TAIWAN 20˚ species, they live in the tropical canopy, eating yas fruit and sleeping in nests made of branches. 43,608,000 sq km Guangzhou Gaoxiong (16,838,365 sq miles) THIMPHU BHUTAN POPULATION: Kunming Hong Kong 4,426,683,000 Nanning (Xianggang) BANGLADESH NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: Philippine DHAKA B U R M A 49 HANOI Hai Phong Luzon Sea (MYANMAR) LARGEST COUNTRY Baguio SWING TIME BY AREA: Chittagong NAY PYI TAW LAOS V Hainan MANILA Orangutans have I Dao long arms and a Russian Federation 17,075,400 NAM Legazpi City sq km (6,592,846 sq miles) T 10˚ E MekongChiang Da Nang S o u t h strong grip. LARGEST COUNTRY IrrawaddyMai China BY POPULATION: VIENTIANE Sea PHILIPPINES China 1,340,000,000 Rangoon THAILAND Cebu Bengal LARGEST CITY Mindanao BY POPULATION: BANGKOK CAMBODIA Palawan S u l u Davao 140E˚quator 0˚ Sea Tokyo, Japan 38,000,000 Andaman PHNOM PENH Ho Chi General Santos Islands Minh City Zamboanga HIGHEST POINT: (to India) Jayapura Mount Everest 8,848 m (29,029 ft) Andaman Sea Gulf of BANDAR SERI Celebes Halmahera New Guinea LOWEST POINT: Sea Nicobar Thailand BEGAWAN Manado Papua Dead Sea, Israel –413 m (–1,378 ft) Islands (Irian Jaya) MALAYS BRUNEI LONGEST RIVER: (to India) 90˚ KUALA LUMPUR IA Moluccas Yangtze, China 6,299 km (3,915 miles) Medan Borneo PUTRAJAYA SINGAPORE Balikpapan Celebes Ambon Su Pontianak DILI SINGAPORE EAST TIMOR t r a Jambi I N D O N E S I A0˚ m Equator a Padang Banjarmasin Makassar Sea 140˚ Palembang Java Sea Flores Semarang Surabaya Flores Timor OCEANIA JAKARTA Timor Sea 100˚ Java Malang 120˚ Bandung 130˚ 110˚ 183

North America FAST FACTS North America is the third largest of the continents. It is a hugely North America is bordered by three diverse land with mountains, plains, deserts, and ice. To the north oceans – the Arctic, Pacific, and is Greenland, the world’s largest island. To the southeast are the Atlantic. There are cities all along tropical islands of the Caribbean and central American rainforests. the coast and inland. AREA: 24,247,000 sq km (9,361,791 sq miles) POPULATION: 533,000,000 NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: 23 DENALI NATIONAL PARK NIAGARA FALLS LARGEST COUNTRY: This national park in Alaska is 19,187 sq km (7,408 sq miles) Three waterfalls on the Canada 9,984,670 sq km of tranquil wilderness with taiga forest, alpine tundra, and border of the United States (3,854,082 sq miles) snowy mountains. Grizzly and black bears roam, and more and Canada are known as than 100 bird species call the park home for the summer. the Niagara Falls. They are LARGEST COUNTRY BY renowned for their majestic POPULATION: beauty, and millions of FANTASTIC FALLS people visit them every year. USA c.315,000,000 The combined force of their Around 567,811 power is also a valuable litres (150,000 LARGEST CITY BY source of hydroelectricity. US gallons) of POPULATION: water flow over Niagara Falls Mexico City, Mexico 8,700,000 every second. HIGHEST POINT: Mount McKinley, Alaska 6,194 m (20,320 ft) LONGEST RIVER: Mississippi 3,969 km (2,466 miles) MOUNT MCKINLEY LARGEST LAKE: Situated near the Pacific Ocean 80˚ Lake Superior, Canada, USA 82,103 sq km (31,700 sq miles) and the Arctic Circle, Mount 30˚ McKinley, known locally as O C E A N150˚ 120˚ 90˚ 60˚ Denali, has some of the harshest GRIZZLY 80˚ 70˚ KEY weather conditions in the world. BEAR 20˚ 70˚ B r o o k ELEVATION ASIA ARCTIC Ellesmere Greenland 4,000 m Island 2,000 m Bering Strait (to Denmark) 1,000 m 500 m 30˚ Sea level 250 m 100 m Beaufort 250 m Below sea Sea 2,000 m level 4,000 m 60˚Bering s Victoria Island Baffin 170˚ A l Se a UNITED STATES Range Bay D avis Mountain I s OF AMERICA Baffin Islan Lowest point ia n e u t ds (Alaska) POPULATION l a n Mount McKinley St 40˚ 60˚ Capital city (Denali) 6,194 m NUUK Over 1 million Mackenzie rait 500,000 to 1 million 160˚ A l e u t i a n R a n g e Anchorage 100,000 to 500,000 Mackenzie d below 100,000 Foxe Iqaluit L a b r a d o r 150˚ G u l f o f Great Bear Basin (Frobisher Bay) A l a s k a 140˚ Lake Whitehorse Mountains Hudson Strait S e a 50˚ Yellowknife PAC I F I C Juneau R ocky Great Slave Hudson Labrador 50˚ Lake Bay Queen A Laurentian St.John’s Charlotte Lake AD Mountains Newfoundland Athabasca Alb Islands St. Lawrence Reindeer Lake 50˚ OCEAN CAN Edmonton any St Pierre & Miquelon Vancouver Vancouver o Calgary Saskatoon Lake Winnipeg (to France) 130˚ Island Seattle M Regina Winnipeg Halifax Québec

Missouri Lake Superior Montréal 60˚ O T TAWA untains OCEAN Mount Rainier 4,392 m Thunder Bay Portland YELLOWSTONE Coast Ranges Lake Huron Lake Ontario This national park is best Mississippi Boston known for its collection of Columbia Saint Paul Lake Michigan Toronto Albany thermal features, more than Colo alachian Mountains Hartford 40˚ 500 of which are geysers, U N I T E D S T A T E SBoise Detroit Lake Erie and the active super-volcano ATLANTIC New York the Yellowstone Caldera. It is 40˚ Chicago Cleveland also home to grizzly bears, Great Salt Plains Philadelphia bison, and elk. Reno Des Moines Lake rado Baltimore LIKE CLOCKWORK Indianapolis Old Faithful ejects hot water and Oakland Sacramento Salt Lake A Lincoln Columbus WASHINGTON DC steam every 35 to 120 minutes City for 1.5 to 5 minutes at a time. It is San Francisco Denver 70˚ the park’s biggest regular geyser. San Jose Kansas City Ohio Richmond ME Saint Louis GRAND O FDeath Valley -86 m Las Vegas Raleigh CANYON RICA Nashville Carved by the Colorado Los Angeles G Arkansas Oklahoma Memphis App Atlanta Columbia River, the immense and reat City dramatic Grand Canyon is San Diego Phoenix Albuquerque Little Rock Montgomery 446 km (277 miles) long, up Tijuana Mexicali Jackson to 29 km (18 miles) wide, El Paso and 1.6 km (1 mile) deep. 30˚ Lower Dallas 30˚ 120˚ Si Ciudad Juárez Baton Rouge Jacksonville Hermosillo er Austin New Orleans ra Mad ChihuahuaSie Houston Tampa Turks & Caicos British Virgin Gulf Mississippi Islands (to UK) Islands 20˚ Cal Rio San Antonio 60˚ Delta (to UK) Grande NASSAU Virgin Islands (to US) re Miami Anguilla (to UK) rra Madre of G u l f o f W e s t I n d i e sMonterrey if tal C Occiden aJUATMtHPBOAEeIRACTBGAr-uAAaUnH(tKta-oPnAIUaNRAMmSIG)oNASBHnCTaSDyEAOOItNRTMEIiDPINUOSl(ItABMoCNALlNAIIrTNeNuCPtOeGhbu(.aeO)tSrosSTtAoUNMKRSIJo)TiUcnToAtLSAsNe&enrrsSNatTstEieL(VltrUoIlSCUeIAKsAN) TGIDGuTGOaMURdRMAIaePENTSrl&IoNOTtNHIiBuDAnBRVIEpACDiAAITqeGRNADR-AuOBR(CBte&AoEEFU1(DNNF-0tTDSo˚rOATOaPAFDnSABr&caIIeAnNN)GcEeO)S o alifo Oriental HAVANA C rni GOLDEN GATE rn a One of the top construction M E X I C O M e x i c oGuadalajara achievements of the 20th ia century, the Golden Gate Bridge opened in San 20˚ León Mérida Gre Francisco in 1937. It is 110˚ Querétaro Yucatan 2.7 km (1.7 miles) long and Cayman Islands took four years to build. Volcán Pico Peninsula (to UK) de Orìzaba 5,700 m Puebla C a r i b b e a nMEXICO CITY Acapulco BELIZE Bonaire BELMOPAN 100˚ (to Neth.) G UAT E M A L A HONDURAS Sea Curaçao 60˚ GUATEMALA CITY TEGUCIGALPA (to Neth.) SAN SALVADOR NICARAGUA SOUTH SUPER EL SALVADOR Lake Nicaragua AMERICA MANAGUA SUSPENSION SAN JOSÉ PANAMA CITY 70˚ The Golden 90˚ 10˚ Gate Bridge is a suspension COSTA RICA PANAMA bridge with 80˚ cables between towers to carry its weight. CHICHEN ITZA COSTA RICA RAINFOREST FLORIDA EVERGLADES The native American Maya people built In the Costa Rica rainforest in central America, tall trees The Everglades are a vast area of semi-tropical temples and monumental cities, such as covered with orchids, vines, ferns and moss rise into the sky. wetland, home to mangrove, mahogany, bay, Chichen Itza, in the jungles of the Yucatán The rainforest teems with life and is home to many exotic and eucalyptus trees. The swampy conditions Peninsula in Mexico from c.200 CE. animal and plant species. are perfect for alligators and crocodiles. EL CASTILLO TREE FROG This pyramid The red-eyed tree frog is one of temple stands 133 species of frogs and toads in the centre that are found in Costa Rica. of Chichen Itza. IN THE PINK WILDLIFE WATCHING STTKHHILEELYSSMOCWALOYAEUARR’LESEDSACEOLSVITAPERSDNOEVSNPARONEMCDIEICCDATL Flamingos turn pink from Alligators, turtles, and the colour pigments in the egrets are just some of the algae and shrimp they eat. wildlife that can be seen. NATURAL WONDER ORCHIDS BUTTERFLIES AMERICAN Erosion has exposed many The Costa Rica rainforest supports a huge The country has an assortment of CROCODILE colourful rock layers, creating collection of orchids. There are more species butterflies including this beautifully an inspirational landscape. here than anywhere else on Earth. coloured Metalmark butterfly.

South America FAST FACTS Most of the continent of South America lies south of Most of the population of South America live around the coast. The wild inland areas are sparsely populated. the equator. Its different climates and habitats mean AREA: it is home to many unique animal species. 17,819,000 sq km (6,879,000 sq miles) POPULATION: 389,860,000 NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: GALAPAGOS ISLANDS ANGEL FALLS 12 independent countries 3 dependent territories The 19 islands of the Galápagos were Angel Falls is the world’s highest LARGEST COUNTRY: formed by volcanoes on the ocean uninterrupted waterfall at 979 m floor. They are now strictly controlled (3,212 ft). The falls lie on the Gauja Brazil 8,511,965 sq km (3,286,469 sq miles) to protect the many animal and bird GIANT TORTOISE LAND IGUANA River, in the Canaima National Park LARGEST COUNTRY BY species that live on them. These huge reptiles can weigh as The Galápagos land iguana in Venezuela. The indigenous name POPULATION: much as 300 kg (660 lb) and grow may look ferocious, but it is for the falls is Kerepakupai Vená, FRIGATEBIRD up to 1.2 m (4 ft) in length. actually a herbivore. which means “waterfalls of the Brazil 195,632,000 Male frigatebirds deepest place”. have impressive LARGEST CITY BY red throat BEAUTY SPOT POPULATION: pouches, which Angel Falls is one they inflate to of Venezuela’s top São Paulo, Brazil 11,821,873 attract females. tourist attractions. HIGHEST POINT: C a70˚ r i b b e a n S e a60˚ AT Cerro Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, 80˚ Barranquilla VGenuelfzuoef la Valencia CARACAS L10˚ Argentina 6,959 m (22,833 ft) Cartagena A Maracaibo Maracay Cumaná LONGEST RIVER: 10˚ Gulf of Lake Barquisimeto Venezuelan N Amazon 6,439 km (4,001 miles) Darien Maracaibo territorial T NORTH Ciudad Guayana LARGEST LAKE: AMERICA Gulf of Montería claim n o sSan Cristóbal Orinoco Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru Cúcuta 8,340 sq km (3,220 sq miles) I CGUYANA 50˚ O V E N E Z U E L APanama Cauca GEORGETOWN C Magdalena E Medellín A Bucaramanga l a PARAMARIBO N Pereira L Guiana SURINAM CAYENNE BOGOTÁ Boa Vista French Guiana Surinamese territorial (to France) Cali Río Negro H i g claims h COLOMBIA l a n ds Esmeraldas Pasto Branco Macapá Galápagos 0˚ Equator QUITO Caqueta Represa Amazon Belém Equator 0˚ 40˚ Islands Balbina Santarém E C UA D O R A m a z o nGuayaquil Cotopaxi 5,897 m Represa São Luís (to Ecuador) B a s i nMachala Manaus Sobradinho Putumayo Amazon Tocantins Chimborazo ruá Purus 6,310 m Amazon pajós Iquitos Ma deira Fortaleza Ta PACIFIC Marañón Ju Xingu Teresina Piura bo Ucayali Serra do Cachim Natal A RA Planalto da Borborema Trujillo P E R U Porto Velho Araguaia Tocantins Recife Nevado Huascarán n Rio Branco B Palmas 6,768 m Maceió ZI Juazeiro 10˚ 10˚ Represa de Aracaju dCallao LIMA L Sobradinho O Cusco Planalto de sco Salvador n

Paraguaye Franc omayo Arequipa Lake ia AltiplanoTiticaca ds A Arica E C O BOLIVIA Cuiabá Mato Grosso BRASÍLIA iBgrhalzainl s LA PAZ do Caiapó LAKE TITICACA São Cochabamba Situated between Peru and Bolivia, Goiânia Lake Titicaca is the world’s highest Lago Santa Cruz navigable lake, lying at a height of N P H 3,812 m (12,507 ft) above sea level. Poopó 80˚ Serra SUCRE Iquique AE t a c a m a D e s e r t Pilc P A R A G U A Y Campo Grande Belo Horizonte 20˚ Tropic of Capricorn es Ribeirão Preto Vitória 20˚ Antofagasta an Chaco araná Campinas Nova Iguaçu Londrina Osasco Rio de Janeiro Salta ASUNCIÓN Serra do Ma r São Paulo Tropic of Capricorn Santos 40˚ Gr Ciudad del Este Curitiba KEY PACIFIC OCEAN Cerro Ojos del Salado Resistencia ELEVATION 6,880 m A Posadas 4,000 m 2,000 m Paraná Florianópolis 1,000 m 500 m La Rioja amia Santa Maria 250 m Mendoza 100 m t Porto Alegre Below sea level Coquimbo L o 30˚ 30˚ d p Cerro Aconcagua IN o 6,959 m Córdoba s Sea level SANTIAGO e 250 m Concepción 2,000 m FLOATING HOMES ParanáM Tacuarembó CEAN 4,000 m The Uros people live on the lake on floating islands made out of reeds. Rosario Uruguay URUGUAY Mountain Lowest point SALT PLAINS HI SaladoN T BUENOS AIRES Río MONTEVIDEO POPULATION The Salar de Uyuni is the world’s largest salt La Plata pan, an area of ground that is crusty and An Pampas de la Plata Capital city covered in salt and minerals. It is located O Over 1 million in the Altiplano plateau in Bolivia. 500,000 to 1 million 50˚ 100,000 to 500,000 below 100,000 IC Colorado Bahía Blanca Mar del Plata Río Negro AMAZON RAINFOREST E 40˚ T More than 55 million years old, the Valdivia N Amazon rainforest accounts for 40˚ A approximately 50 per cent of the T world’s total rainforest. It contains Puerto Montt L C A P a t Aa g oRChicon iG a one in ten of every known plant and Rawson animal species in the world. Lago Colhué Huapí BATTERY POWER Gulf of ARGENTINE BEEF As well as providing salt, the Salar de Uyuni is also the DesSeaadno Jorge source of more than 50 per cent of the world’s lithium, Rearing cattle for beef production is which is used to power batteries and other devices. Golfo de Laguna del Carbón a major industry in Argentina. The Penas -105 m country has the second-highest THE ANDES MOUNTAINS consumption of beef, and is the third- 50˚ largest exporter of beef in the world. Running through seven countries in South America for 7,250 km (4,505 miles), the Andes Punta Arenas Bahía Falkland 50˚ PRIZE WINNERS LONGEST RIVER form the longest continental mountain range in Grande Islands Producing the best The Amazon River carries more water than the world. They contain the world’s Río Gallegos STANLEY cattle is a competitive any other river and can be seen from space. highest volcanoes. (to UK) business in Argentina. of Magellan TOP PREDATOR Strait Jaguars are some of the most fearsome Ushuaia 60˚ predators in the Amazon. Their spots WOOLLY WONDERS DRY LAND Beagle Channel GAUCHOS help to camouflage 70˚ Cape Horn them against the There are many herds of alpacas in The Atacama Desert lies in In Argentina, jungle around them. the Andes. They are bred for their a plateau west of the Andes HAUPMAPMTARHENOERXSIFICEMIAXRASIDSTTTAEEITLNVYEGIS9D0IBEN0AN0CSCbOKEcUTeOTOFH cattle herders, wool, which is made into blankets, and is the driest non-polar or gauchos, live ENORMOUS SNAKE sweaters, and other clothes. desert in the world. on the Pampas Anacondas keep grasslands and look after the growing their herds of cattle. whole lives. They can reach lengths of up to 6.5 m (21 ft).

Europe The continent of Europe is rich in cultural diversity, with a 50˚ history of wealth, industry, and empire building. There are 23 official languages spoken across the 47 European countries. FAST FACTS Den 20˚ 30˚ 40˚ 20˚ Europe is the second smallest ark Strait continent. It contains the m world’s smallest country, REYKJAVÍK C E L A N DArctic Circle 70˚ Y Vatican City, with a population 10˚ A of only 800. I AREA: 10˚ Murmansk 10,498,000 sq km 20˚ W N D Kola (4,053,309 sq miles) Peninsula Norwegian POPULATION: White Faroe Islands Sea N Sea 742,452,000 (to Denmark) 0˚ NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: O R E 47 C E a LARGEST COUNTRY BY A AREA: N A 60˚ thni Trondheim L Russian Federation 3,960,000 sq o FE km (1,528,560 sq miles) N E of B O D Lake N Onega LARGEST COUNTRY BY Shetland Islands I Lake POPULATION: Orkney Islands Bergen f Russian Federation 110,000,000 Outer Gul Hebrides F LARGEST CITY BY SCOTLAND Stavanger OSLO Turku HELSINKI Ladoga POPULATION: Aberdeen STOCKHOLM TALLINN St Petersburg W Örebro Istanbul, Turkey (14,377,000) HIGHEST POINT: NORTHERN Glasgow Vänern ESTONIA IRELAND Mount El’brus, Russian Federation AT L A NTIC Edinburgh Gothenburg Vättern Gotland 5,642 m (18,510 ft) Belfast North S LONGEST RIVER: I R E L A N D Isle Sea L AT V I A of Man ea Volga, Russian Federation DUBLIN U N I T E D DENMARK RIGA Wester n 3,690 km (2,293 miles) (to UK) S K I N G D O MManchester THUA IA LARGEST LAKE: COPENHAGEN Malmö L I N Dvina G E R M A N Y P O L A N D50˚ altic Lake Ladoga, Russian Federation 10˚ Poznan Vitsyebsk 18,390 sq km (7,100 sq miles) WA L E S Birmingham RUSS. FED. B Cardiff ENGLAND Groningen Hamburg (Kaliningrad) VILNIUS AMSTERDAM NETH. HanoveErlbe Kaliningrad MINSK BERLIN HAGUE LONDON Oder UM BELARUS Seine Homyel’ Channel English THE Düsseldorf Vistula WARSAW Islands ChannBeRl USSELBSELGI Brest (to UK) le Havre Dresden LUXEMBOURG Frankfurt Wroclaw PARIS KIEV MDAuDerVoRaIllDadolBBiZdaairsaySEgcBbtoia-loNzbBAyaafoaNozradDiPeraOeuyRxrTReoAnuloeueLsALseCoANMirDeVeLnaEMOMimLstRoLasorRnArigatOAsfeBelsrillLalénlayecno4sn,L81UNS0BWiXScmEteErIRaTMlsNMbZBoOEpuONRrTgUALsuCMARrOGiNGBinPlZeoDainuslnMoaorgiaacnuShmLatnLPFuIiolEJtMcoUtChrgVeBHaaneirLncTSntCeiJAAEcDAeNRNaUNnSOuATbBSSeAVELRITTIORNEAIVTENRCAEIPNPZNSIUR&IALEZAAAABACBGVHGLHHAOUIRECESERU.BZN. Krakow U K R A10˚ Rhône Carpathian L’viv F R A N C EA Coruña A Porto Rhine 40˚ R O M A N I A10˚ LISBON SLOVAKIA Chernivtsi Dniester MOLDO BUDAPEST VA G A R Y Cluj-Napoca Mountains CHISINAU Odesa KEY PORTUGAL ELEVATION ro Brasov 4,000 m Adriatic S BELGRADE Constanta 2,000 m BUCHAREST 1,000 m I 500 m S P A I N TBarcelona MARINO SARAJEVO S E R B I A Danube Ruse 250 m ea Mostar 100 m Corsica KOSOVO BUL G A R IA B Below sea ASeville MONTENEGRO level VATICAN PODGORICA (disputed) SOFIA Burgas 30˚ CITY Sea level Valencia Majorca PRISHTINË L YGibraltar 250 m Ibiza Minorca ROME SKOPJE Istanbul 2,000 m M e d i t e r r G R E E C E(to UK) Palma Sardinia Ty r r h MACEDONIA 4,000 m Málaga Murcia Bale nds Naples Bari c Isla Cagliari Ceuta a r i enian TIRANA Tu r k ey Palermo Mountain (to Spain) ALBANIA Salonica 40˚ Lowest point Melilla Larisa Aegean POPULATION Sea Sea (to Spain) Capital city Over 1 million a n e Sicily 500,000 to 1 million 0˚ 10˚ Messina 100,000 to 500,000 below 100,000 Mount Etna 3,263 m ATHENS Ionian a n Sea MALTA VALLETTA S e a188 20˚ Irákleio Crete

˚ 60˚ Kara 70˚ NORWAY’S FJORDS THE ALPS Sea Novaya Norway’s fjords (steep-sided The highest mountain range Zemlya waterways) were created by the entirely within Europe is movement of ice and rock during 1,200 km (750 miles) long. Barents successive ice ages. When the The Alps formed millions Sea glaciers retreated, seawater of years ago when two flooded these U-shaped valleys. tectonic plates collided. RUS Norway has the highest Mont Blanc, on the French– concentration of fjords in Italian border, is the Alps’ the world. highest mountain at 4,810 m (15,781 ft). Vorkuta DRAMATIC VIEW Norway’s fjords offer views of ALPINE FUN The Alps are a popular winter snow-capped mountains, destination for skiing, with lots ancient glaciers, and remote of ski slopes and resorts. fishing villages. Ural Arctic Circle RIVER DANUBE SIA N The River Danube is the second longest river in Europe. It starts in the Black Forest mountains of Germany and flows 2,850 km (1,770 miles) to the Black Sea, passing through ten countries on the way. Archangel Mountains 60˚ RIVERSIDE CITIES GREAT WHITE ern Dvina PELICAN North The Danube flows through More than 50 per D E R AT I O N four capital cities: Vienna, cent of Eurasian Bratislava, Budapest (shown great white pelicans live in here), and Belgrade. the Danube delta. Perm’ EIFFEL TOWER, FRANCE ROME, ITALY Kirov The Eiffel Tower was built as part of Once the centre of the vast Roman Empire, Rome is one the 1889 World Fair, to celebrate 100 of Europe’s most historical cities. With classical ruins, Vologda Ufa years since the French Revolution. An Renaissance buildings, and Baroque sculptures, the engineering achievement, it has become city is a showcase for many amazing engineering and Yaroslavl’ a cultural icon of Paris and France. artistic achievements. It is 324 m (1,063 ft) high. Kazan’ Nizhniy Novgorod MOSCOW Ul’yanovsk Tol’yatti Orenburg 50 Samara 6 Central Tula Voronezh Russian Saratov Upland RECORD-HOLDER Kharkiv Volgograd The tower was the INE Volga world’s tallest man-made Dnipropetrovs’k Astrakhan’ S structure for 41 Caspian Rostov-na-Donu 50˚ years until the DRAMATIC SETTING Chrysler Building The Colosseum was built as an arena for all kinds of Donets’k -28 m in New York City Roman entertainment: combats between gladiators, r was built in 1930. re-enactments of battles, and even executions. niepe Sea of Stavropol’ THE D Azov THE ACROPOLIS, GREECE MEDITERRANEAN Simferopol’ CNovorossiysk a u Groznyy u s ea The ancient ruins of the Acropolis sit above the This sea separates Europe city of Athens and are visited by millions of people from Africa. It has been cas a focal point for empires and civilizations, which (annexed by Russia, 2014) El’brus 5,642 m each year. The Acropolis is said to symbolize is reflected in the diverse cultures of the people the greatest achievements of the Ancient Greeks. living in this coastal region. lack Sea 40˚ AGFPRETRUEEIERNRKOCTPMEHESYESWTBEHAEUOASRULNOOTAPGIAMFYUIENLD TEMPLE TO ATHENA BEACH LIFE The Parthenon – one of the Acropolis’s most famous With hot, dry summers and buildings – was a temple built to honour Athena, the calm, blue sparkling sea, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. It once contained Mediterranean region is a hugely a huge statue of her. popular tourist destination. 189

Africa FAST FACTS The world’s second largest continent, Africa is rich in history, Africa makes up around language, culture, and geographic diversity. With a stunning 20 per cent of Earth’s land mass. collection of animals, reptiles, birds, and insects, it is also where It contains the world’s longest human beings first appeared on Earth. river – the Nile. AREA: 30,335,000 sq km (11,712,434 sq miles) POPULATION: 1,136,239,000 NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: 54 PYRAMIDS SAHARA DESERT LARGEST COUNTRY: AT GIZA The Sahara covers much of North Algeria 2,381,741 sq km During the 4th Dynasty Africa and is the world’s largest (919,595 sq miles) (2613–2494 BCE), Giza became hot desert. Constantly shaped by a royal burial ground for the the wind, around 25 per cent of LARGEST COUNTRY BY Ancient Egyptians. Three the desert is sand dunes. The POPULATION: pyramid complexes serve as rest is made up of a barren, rocky tombs for their dead kings. landscape with very little water. The Nigeria 177,155,754 The Sphinx was added to highest peak is Emi Koussi (3,145 m/ guard the pyramids, and each 11,294 ft) in the Tibesti Mountains. LARGEST CITY BY king’s royal family and courts POPULATION: were buried nearby. SAHARA TRANSPORT Camels’ feet allow them to move quickly Lagos, Nigeria 21,000,000 BUILDING BLOCKS and easily through sand. Camels can last The construction methods of the Pyramids are HIGHEST POINT: unknown. More than 2 million blocks of stone were up to 17 days without food or water. used just to make the largest, the Great Pyramid. Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 5,895 m (19,336 ft) LONGEST RIVER: Nile River 6,695 km (4,160 miles) EUROPE LARGEST LAKE: 10˚ 0˚ 10˚ Lake Victoria, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania 68,880 sq km (26,560 sq miles) Medit e r Tanger ALGIERS Annaba 20˚ Oran TUNIS Kairouanr a n THE SPHINX ea 30˚ KEY Batna The Sphinx is Sea modelled on a TUNISIAmythical animal with the head of M O R O C C Oa human and the body of a lion. 20˚ Madeira RABAT Fès Oujda a i n s Chott 40˚ ELEVATION (to Portugal) 30˚ Casablanca sM ount el Jerid Gabès n 4,000 m 30˚ ASIA 2,000 m TRIPOLI 1,000 m Canary Islands Tropic of Cancer 500 m (to Spain) Marrakech l a iental Misrátah Gulf of Benghazi Alexandria Port Said 250 m Sirte 100 m Jbel Toubkal t Below sea 4,167 m A Grand Erg Or Qattara CAIRO level Depression Giza Suez Canal Great WDee ss te er rt Sand n Eas Sea level Sea Western Sahara A L G E R I A L I B Y A E G Y P TTropic of Cancer (Occupied by Morocco)LAÂYOUNE te 250 m 2,000 m Libyan Des rn Deser 4,000 m Nile Luxor Mountain t Red Sea Lowest point Erg Chech Aswan S a h20˚ A h a g g a r e r t Lake Nasser POPULATION a Tibesti r a Nubian (Hala’ib 20˚ Capital city MAURITANIA Desert Triangle) Over 1 million R D 500,000 to 1 million CAPE Taou d enn i CHA Nile Port Sudan 100,000 to 500,000 VERDE Basin below 100,000 Lake Chad MNOUAKCHOTT A L I NI GE S U D A N ERITREA 50˚ Senegal Zinder SENEGAL Niger T O G O Omdurman Kassala ASMARA KHARTOUM Ras Dashen PRAIA DAKAR Kaolack fur Gulf of Aden GAMBIA BANJUL BAMAKO Niger NIAMEY Niger El Obeid Blue Nile 4,550 m WNhiitlee BURKINA Dar Lake Assal DJIBOUTI GUINEA- BISSAU OUAGADOUGOU Sokoto Kano NDJAMENA Lake Tana -155 m DJIBOUTI BISSAU GUINEA FASO 10˚ BENIN Kaduna Maiduguri 10˚ Bobo-Dioulasso Ethiopian SIFERCREOERNTAAOMKWLORENYNORONKVLEoIIAidBu1E0Y˚RAMIC(AOIÔVUTOSSEROYDUAKC’bIRViOdOOjAanISRGTE)HAVLoNalAtkaeCACRLAOMOPÉyOoRLTNaOgOo-NsMgIbOAoVGLmOAoBsOEhAoBURDAJdAHoauiICmgahlaAalAwaYMnaAdOEsURGNOaDroOuÉa Hargeysa Sarh dMe saBs soinf g ADDIS ABABA OMALIA o Dire Dawa ENTRA L AFRICAN Sudd Hi g h l a n d s Horn of Africa REP UBLIC BANGUI Ubangi E T H I O P I A S20˚ C N SOUTH SUDAN Shebe li Elemi Triangle Lake Turkana JUBA (Lake Rudolf)

A SAO TOME & EQUATORIAL CONGO Congo Lake Albert UGANDA MOGADISHU T PRINCIPE GUINEA MAASAI MARA SÃO TOMÉ C o n g o Kisangani Va l l e y KAMPALA K E N Y A Equator 0˚ Equator LIBREVILLE Between July and October, wildebeest migrate Kirinyaga 0˚ to the Maasai Mara nature reserve in Kenya 0˚ ANTIC Port-Gentil G A B O N Mbandaka B a s i n Lake Va l l e y 5,200 m Kismaayo from Tanzania’s Serengeti. They are hunted L VICTORIA by lions, cheetahs, leopards, and hyenas. The D E M . R E P. RWANDA Victoria NAIROBI plains are also full of zebras, impalas, giraffes, KIGALI hippos, and gazelles. Many tourists visit to view Bukavu the wildlife. CONGO BRAZZAVILLE Lualaba Rift BUJUMBURA Kilimanjaro 5,895 m KINSHASA Ilebo Kalemie Mombasa ANGOLA BURUNDI Rift (Cabinda) DODOMA Zanzibar Lake LUANDA Tanganyika Mbuji-Mayi Great TA N Z A N I A Dar es Salaam Great SEYCHELLES OCEAN 10˚ A N G O L A MALAWILubumbashi COMOROS OCEAN 10˚ Bié Z Lake Nyasa IQU E MORONI Zambez WILDEBEEST Plateau Kitwe Mayotte A type of antelope, Lubango ZAMBIA Nacala (to France) R wildebeest keep LILONGWE together in huge herds. Namibe LUSAKA Blantyre nel A Mahajanga They eat constantly. ambezi a n C Bi HIPPOPOTAMUS HARARE Ch S Hippos spend most of the ZEBRA day in the water, so they M10˚ Mozambique A Toamasina No two zebras don’t get too hot in the Sun. have the same N A M I B I A Okavango ZIMBABWE M O ZA Beira G ANTANANARIVO PORT Delta LOUIS pattern of stripes. 20˚ Bulawayo A Namib Desert OKAVANGO DELTA Walvis WINDHOEK BKOa lTa hSaWr iANMAahalapyeLimpopo D Fianarantsoa 20˚ MAURITIUS Tropic of Capricorn Bay Starting in the mountains of Desert A Réunion Angola, the Okavango River flows (to France) into the Kalahari desert, forming a great inland wetland that is Tropic of Capricorn home to a variety of wildlife. M Seasonal flooding swells the GABORONE PRETORIA N size of the delta, attracting animals from far away to this Luderitz Johannesburg MAPUTO oasis. It is a perfect wildlife- viewing destination: herds of 30˚ Ora n g e River Kimberley MBABANE SWAZILAND A antelopes, zebras, buffaloes, elephants, crocodiles, BLOEMFONTEIN Welkom I hippopotamuses, lions, and MASERU cheetahs all thrive here. LESOTHO Pietermaritzburg D 50˚ LIFE SUPPORT N 30˚ Situated in region of Botswana that is SOUTH Drakensberg I AFRICA dry for much of the year, this large East London inland delta attracts lots of wildlife. CAPE TOWN 40˚ Port Elizabeth Cape of Good Hope CATTLE HERDERS 20˚ 30˚ Living in Kenya, the Samburu people are traditionally cattle herders, and may also 6M5%DIFNIROAEOFRMMTAOHLANERFDWIRCSIHCOCA,ROALMDBEO’SUT keep sheep, goats, and camels. Cattle are highly prized, and ownership determines status and wealth. NOMADIC HERDERS The Samburu often graze their herds far from settlements in order to find water and vegetation. CAPE TOWN VICTORIA FALLS MOUNT KILIMANJARO One of the most popular African cities for tourists to Forming the border between The highest peak in Africa, and the tallest free-standing mountain visit, Cape Town is famous for its huge harbour. The Zambia and Zimbabwe, the in the world, Mount Kilimanjaro rises to 5,895 m (19,336 ft). It is a big, flat-topped Table Mountain overlooks the city. Zambezi River is transformed dormant volcano with three volcanic cones. Around 25,000 visitors into a ferocious torrent as it trek up its slopes each year. thunders over a wide, basalt cliff, forming Victoria Falls. Columns of spray can be seen from miles away as the river plummets over the edge into a gorge over 108 m (360 ft) below. ACTIVE HARBOUR GIANT FALLS AFRICA’S PEAK Cape Town harbour is one of the busiest ports in South Africa. The combination of its great The snow-capped height and enormous width make summit of Mount Victoria Falls the world’s largest Kilimanjaro is surrounded by dry, sheet of falling water. flat scrubland.

Oceania PACIFIC ISLANDS Oceania is the collective name for There are more than 20,000 islands Australia, New Zealand, and the island in the Pacific Ocean. These palm- covered paradises are either volcanic or part of natural reefs. While they may look similar, they are quite diverse in human culture. groups in the Pacific Ocean, including Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. ISLAND PARADISE Australia dominates the region in size, The Fijian archipelago (group of islands) is made up of more than 330 beautiful islands. population, and economic strength. 140˚ 150˚ 160˚ Wake Island 20˚ (to US) Mariana Islands ABORIGINAL CULTURE Northern Aboriginal people have been living in Australia for more Mariana than 50,000 years. They have a tribal culture of storytelling and art, and a strong spiritual belief tying them to the land. Islands Many still live in the Australian outback, where rocks feature their paintings. Philippine (to US) Saipan M i c r130˚ S e a Guam Bikini Atoll (to US) HAGÅTÑA o n 10˚ Yap C a r o l i n Chuuk Pohnpei PALIKIR e e Is MELEKEOK l ands Babeldaob Kosrae MICRONESIA PAL AU M e l a ne NAURU 0˚ Equator PAPUA NEW GUINEA s Bismarck New Ireland i Ne w G u i n e aWewak Sea New Rabaul Solo mon Isl Britain ROCK ART ULURU Bougainville HONIARA Some of the oldest Aboriginal paintings are Particularly sacred to the Anangu Aboriginal Mount Wilhelm 4509m Island more than 20,000 years old. people, this massive red monolith dominates Mount the surrounding landscape. Hagen Lae Solomon New a n Sea Georgia Islands d s Santa Cruz Islands Guadalcanal PORT MORESBY SOLOMON SYDNEY OPERA HOUSE A r a f u r a S e a Torres Strait ISLANDS The Sydney Opera House is a performing arts centre 10˚ Cape C o r a l designed by Danish architect Jorn Utzon in 1957. It Arnhem York R opened in 1973, and today is visited by more than T i m o r Darwin Land Great Barrier Sea seven million people every year. S e a Joseph Gulf of Peninsula Katherine Coral Sea Islands LIVING SCULPTURE Bonaparte Carpentaria Cairns The unusual roofs, designed to (to Australia) resemble sails, are covered with Gulf one million white and cream tiles. New Caledonia INDIAN120˚ Normanton e OCEAN (to France) Wyndham TownsvilleG ef Darlin NOUMÉA onKimberleyMount Isare Barcaldine PA Plateau a t Mackay Derby Tennant Creek D Rockhampton i Broome Tanami Desert viding Range Great Sandy A U S T R A L I A110˚ Desert Alice Springs Simpson Charleville Miles Brisbane Desert Port Hedland Toowoomba Grafton 20˚ Hamersley Range Gibson Lake Eyre -16m Barw Lord Howe Desert North g Bourke Island SURFING Tropic of Capricorn Great Victoria Lake Torrens Newcastle (to Australia) Australia is a first-class surfing destination, famous for both the Carnavon quality and the variety of its waves. The coastline has plenty of Lake Gairdner Port Augusta Wollongong Sydney beach, reef, and point breaks to challenge the experienced surfer, and easy rolling swells for beginners. Desert Mount Magnet Nullarbor Plain Ceduna Whyalla Murray Wagga Wagga CANBERRA Geraldton DarlinKalgoorlie Mount Kosciuszko 2228m Great Adelaide Bendigo Australian Tas man Kangaroo Melbourne g Range Bight Island Geelong ait Sea Mount Gambier ass St Launceston Perth r Esperance 30˚ Albany B Tasmania Hobart 110˚ 130˚ 140˚ 150˚ SURF CULTURE 160 With its world-renowned beaches, surfing and beach 40˚ 120˚ culture is a popular part of Australian life. 192

WILDLIFE TASMANIAN DEVIL KOALA FAST FACTS Australia Australia The islands of Oceania A widespread area, there are a long way from other EMU are 28 languages spoken landmasses, so they contain Australia across Oceania. a diverse range of animals and birds, many of which AREA: are not found anywhere else in the world. Some birds, 8,525,989 sq km (3,291,903 sq like the emu and kiwi, evolved miles) into flightless specivvves due to the lack of predators. POPULATION: 170˚ PLATYPUS 38,304,000 20˚ Australia NUMBER OF COUNTRIES: 180˚ SATAJTOYOESPYTOIEN(BUNAICTMBHSYOFMNKOOTARTHNUHSGPEARR’SOO) KANGAROO Australia 14 160˚ KIWI 10˚ LARGEST COUNTRY BY New Zealand AREA: OCEAN MARSHALL 170˚ Australia 7,617,930 sq km (2,941,283 sq miles) Ralik I S L A N D S LARGEST COUNTRY BY P A C I F I CChain Ratak Chain POPULATION: MAJURO Kingman Reef Palmyra Atoll Australia 23,788,274 (to US) (to US) LARGEST CITY BY ngaru Teraina POPULATION: Tabuarean a Sydney, Australia 4,576,433 i K I R I B AT I 150˚ s Equator 0˚ HIGHEST POINT: BAIRIKI Baker & Howland Kiritimati ine Tu Islands Jarvis Island L Mount Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea 4,509 m (14,795 ft) YAREN (to US) (to US) LONGEST RIVER: Murray-Darling, Australia 2,520 km (1,570 miles) LARGEST LAKE: Lake Eyre, Australia 8,884 sq km (3,430 sq miles) K I R I B AT I KEY Phoenix Islands Islands ELEVATION a Malden Island 140˚ 4,000 m T U VA L U Starbuck Island 2,000 m 1,000 m FONGAFALE Tokelau 500 m (to NZ) 250 m Northern Cook Islands Penrhyn 100 m Southern Al Below sea Wallis and Manihiki Millennium Island Sea level level e Futuna Flint Island s (to France) SAMOA American Cook 10˚ 250 m ia APIA Samoa Islands 2,000 m Banks (to US) 4,000 m Islands (to NZ) PAGO PAGO Vanua Mountain T u Lowest point VANUATU Levu Labasa la a m o t Society Is u TONGA PAPEETE Islands POPULATION Lautoka SUVA PORT-VILA Lau Group Niue Southern Cook nds Capital city Erromango Viti (to NZ) AVARUA Over 1 million Levu NUKU'ALOFA 500,000 to 1 million 100,000 to 500,000 Îles FIJI Islands Tahiti below 100,000 Loyauté French Rarotonga P o l y n e s i a 20˚ Îles A u (to France) es s t r a Tropic CIFIC OCEAN l of Capricorn ROTORUA n Rotorua on New Zealand’s North Island is a natural theme park full Norfolk Island Kermadec Islands y of steam clouds, bubbling mud (to Australia) (to NZ) pools, and soothing hot springs to bathe in. It is an area of great PNorth o l geothermal activity, where Earth’s inner heat rises to the surface. Island 160˚ 150˚ Bay of 30˚ Auckland Plenty GREAT BARRIER 140˚ REEF Hamilton Rotorua 170˚ The world’s largest coral reef New Plymouth Strait Hastings 40˚ is made up of around 3,000 Cook Palmerston North individual reefs and hundreds of islands. It supports lots of WELLINGTON marine life, including more than 1,500 species of fish. South ps HUGE REEF Island Aoraki Christchurch Chatham Islands The Great Barrier Reef is so big it can be seen from space. (Mount Cook) 3754m (to NZ) InvercargillN E WFovSetaeuwxarSttrait Dunedin ZEALANDIsland 0˚ 170˚ 180˚ CHAMPAGNE POOL Tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide rising Auckland Islands from the Earth make this hot spring (to NZ) look like a warm glass of champagne. 193

Antarctica The continent of Antarctica sits under huge masses of ice called ice sheets. This ice holds 90 per cent of Earth’s fresh water. Beneath it lies a continent of valleys, mountains, and lakes but only about 2 per cent is visible above the ice. The only people in Antarctica are scientists and staff working in research stations, and tourists. Orcadas 60° 10° (Argentina) EARLY EXPEDITIONS South Orkney S O U T H E R N20° Islands Georg von Neumayer By the late 19th century, Antarctica remained the last unexplored continent, and (Germany) the race was on to reach the most remote spot on Earth – the South Pole. In 1909 Signy (UK) Ernest Shackleton got within 180 km (111 miles) of the Pole before having to turn 30° back. It was finally reached by explorers Roald Amundsen and Robert Scott 50° in 1911 and 1912. Passage i a S e a Limit of summer pack ice Bransfield StrSaitc o t 65° General Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile) 40° 60° Drake Capitán Gr Esperanza (Argentina) Arturo Prat Marambio (Argentina) (Chile) James Ross Island ANTARCTICA South ah Halley Shetland (UK) SOUTH POLE a KEY 60° Islands mL Coats Amundsen’s route A Scott’s route WPalmer (US) Ice shelves e d d e l l S e aVernadsky RACE TO THE POLE an Larsen Land The Norwegian Roald Amundsen Ice Shelf beat the Englishman Robert Falcon n Scott by 33 days, to reach the South Pole on 15 December 1911. d t Limit of winter pack ice (Ukraine) a rct Belgrano II MTohuenrtoanins (Argentina) ic Pe Adelaide n i n Limit of ice shelf Filchner San Martín Ice Shelf SHACKLETON’S 70° Island s ula Berkner Recovery Glacier HOOD Island Rothera (Argentina) P a l m e r Land (UK) Fossil Bluff (UK) Ronne IceAlexander 65° Island Shelf Orville Coast Antarctic Circle English Coast SupporGt la Charcot Island Sky-Blu (UK) Henry Ice Pensacola cierForce Rise Latady Island Korff Ice 80° Smyley Island Rise T rMountains Bellingshausen A75° Na nT KEY Sea Vinson Massif untai n s 85° s a 4,897m COMPASS, SCOTT’S ELEVATION 70° Mo 80° EXPEDITION 90° Ellsworth Limit of summer pack ice Walgree n Co a s t BANJO, Ellsworth SHACKLETON’S Eights Coast Sea level 4,000 m Thurston Land EXPEDITION 2,000 m Island 250 m 1,000 m Mount Seelig W h i t m o r e ICY FEATURES 2,000 m 500 m 100° 3,022m M o u n t a i n s 4,000 m 250 m Antarctica is covered in ice. It has huge masses of glacial ice that 100 m We s t are known as ice sheets. Where the ice sheets meet the ocean Below sea A n t a r c t i c aMoHunortlaiicnks floating areas of ice form, which are called ice shelves. The edges level of these shelves can break away, forming smaller lumps of floating ice called icebergs. Mountain Amundsen Marie Byrd Land C oSa si p let Lowest point Sea Mount Sidley Research station 4,181m Carney Island 110° Hobbs Co Shirase Coast Lim Rockefeller 70° Plateau Roosevelt 120° ast Island Saunders Coast S Mount Siple O 3,100m U T H E R N R o s sit of 130° Sulzberger Bay summer pack ice 140° 150° OC 170° COLLAPSE ICEBERGS 160° Impressive crevasses from the Immense flat-topped icebergs are formed 170° glacier of the melting Larsen B ice when blocks of ice break away from the shelf, which collapsed in 2002. main ice shelf. 194

COALDNAEDNSTHT,AIODGRNRHCIETEESSIACTTRA,CTWOIHSNINTTDHINIEEESNTT, GETTING AROUND WILDLIFE Working and living in Antarctica is a The Antarctic continent is quite inhospitable to tough experience, as it is one of the life. The sea, rather than the land, supports the most extreme environments on the most wildlife. The Antarctic is the true home for planet. Most residents stay on the Emperor and Adélie penguins, and three Antarctica for the summer only, other types breed on the northern tip of the from November to March or April. Antarctic Peninsula. SOU DRIVING CONDITIONS EMPEROR Vehicles built to withstand extreme PENGUIN 65° 30° TH temperatures over long distances are ADELIE 20° Antarctic Circle used in Antarctica. PENGUIN 0° 10° E GENTOO PENGUIN OCEAN R40° FUR SEAL Sanae 70° Maitri (India) (South Africa) Prinsesse Novolazarevskaya (Russian Federation) Limit of summer pack ice CEAN O Astrid Kyst Prins Harald N Mawson Coast Prinsesse Ragnhild Fimbulheimen 50° Asuka (Japan) D r o nning M a u d Kyst Syowa Molodezhnaya (Japan) (Russian Land Th o g i cafjella K y st Kr o nKpFyresidtnersation) Dronning Ola v 75° r s B e l h a v Fabiolafjella n h e 2,588m Enderby Mount Elkins i ane Land 60° Dismal 2,300m Mountains 80° Kemp Mawson Land (Australia) 85° Mac. Robertson 70° 80° Land LaPmrbienrEtcM3PGe,l3olriaC5uzic5nniahemtrcbaMereseltIsenhnszigAeMrsmidoeuCrnyhrtIiacsteiennSsshenelZCfhMongashBcDakanave(yinCs (zhAiinueast)ralia) oast Land West Ice Shelf ARCT I C A East 85° 80° 75° 70° 65° South Amundsen-Scott (US) Antarctica Wilhelm II 90° Land n t Pole Mirny Davis (Russian ar Federation) Sea ORCA c t Vostok x Coast (Russian Federation) Shackleton Ice Shelf Queen M i c South Geomagnetic Pole M o uaudDMuofuekn85tCa°BioneGaassltradcmiK4eMo,ri5rroe2kup8nmattrick 100° n Kno Vincennes Bay Ross Ice tai n s Wilkes Shelf Land Casey Vi (Australia) FAST FACTS ShacCkoleatsotn 110° No one country owns Antarctica. The 80° rina Coast international Antarctic Treaty provides agreement for the care and use of c the continent. Mount Lister t AREA: 4,026m o Sab 14,000,000 sq km (5,405,430 sq miles) Scott Base (NZ) McMurdo Base (US) ria L Te r r e Coastkes B anzar 120° POPULATION: Ross Island Adélie e Coast Mount Erebus Scott Coast Porpoise No permanent residents Limit of summer pack ice 3,794m Bay HIGHEST POINT: Sea Vinson Massif, 4,897 m (16,066 ft) 75° LONGEST RIVER: a B o rCcohagsrte v i n k Onyx 40 km (25 miles) n George V Wil LARGEST KNOWN LAKE: d Lake Vostok, 15,690 sq km (6,100 sq miles) EAN Oates Land Land Adélie Coast i l l e Sea 130° Cape Adare 70° Mount Minto George V Coast Dum Dumont d’Urville 4,163m (France) Leningradskaya ont d'Urv (Russian Federation) Antarctic Circle 140° Balleny Islands 150° 195 160° 170° 180°

Flags ANCIENT SYMBOLS Every country in the world has a unique flag. Each nation picks its Flags have been displayed since own patterns and colours, which are usually of historical or political ancient times as symbols of loyalty significance. A flag is a powerful symbol. It fosters pride in a to a country or person. In battle, a country or cause and unites people in times of war and peace. flag rallied the troops. Early flags were made of wood or metal. TYPES OF FLAGS SALTIRE QUARTERED SCANDINAVIAN CANTON CROSS Cloth was first used by CROSS BICOLOUR BORDERED the Romans. Variations on common flag patterns such as stripes and TRICOLOUR TRIANGLE TRIBAR Decorative crosses turn up again and again shape for all over the world. Often, the only carrying difference between one flag and another is its colour. These are legion’s badge some of the common patterns. Symbol of legion Silver ornaments ROMAN FLAG This is a modern copy of a flag once carried by a Roman legion. NORTH AMERICA CANADA UNITED STATES MEXICO BELIZE COSTA RICA EL SALVADOR GUATEMALA HONDURAS NORTH EUROPE OF AMERICA AMERICA AFRICA NICARAGUA PANAMA ANTIGUA AND BAHAMAS BARBADOS CUBA DOMINICA DOMINICAN BARBUDA REPUBLIC THE STUDY SOUTH OF FLAGS AMERICA IS CALLED GRENADA HAITI JAMAICA ST KITTS SAINT LUCIA ST VINCENT & TRINIDAD & & NEVIS VEXILLOLOGY THE GRENADINES TOBAGO SOUTH AMERICA COLOMBIA GUYANA SURINAME VENEZUELA BOLIVIA ECUADOR PERU BRAZIL ARGENTINA URUGUAY CHILE AFRICA PARAGUAY ALGERIA LIBYA MOROCCO TUNISIA BURUNDI DJIBOUTI EGYPT ERITREA ETHIOPIA KENYA RWANDA SOMALIA SOUTH SUDAN SUDAN TANZANIA UGANDA BENIN BURKINA CAPE VERDE IVORY GAMBIA FASO COAST GHANA GUINEA GUINEA-BISSAU LIBERIA MALI MAURITANIA NIGER NIGERIA SENEGAL SIERRA LEONE TOGO CAMEROON CENTRAL AFRICAN CHAD CONGO DEMOCRATIC EQUATORIAL GABON SAO TOME & PRINCIPE ANGOLA BOTSWANA COMOROS REPUBLIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO GUINEA LESOTHO MADAGASCAR MALAWI MAURITIUS MOZAMBIQUE NAMIBIA SEYCHELLES SOUTH AFRICA SWAZILAND ZAMBIA ZIMBABWE 196

THE JOLLY ROGER FLAG SIGNALS ATOMHNEETRRHEICEAAMRNEOFSOLINAXGS THE MOON The pirate flag known as the “Jolly Roger” Before modern technology, ships at sea PLANTING In 1969 the first was used widely in the 18th century. “talked” to one another by signalling with FLAGS men on the Moon, With its ghoulish designs, it was meant to flags. They used semaphore, a code in astronauts Neil terrorize a victim into handing over his ship which flags are held in different patterns For centuries, flags Armstrong and without a fight. The flags belonging to four to represent letters and numbers. have been used by Buzz Aldrin, planted famous pirates are shown here. explorers to claim the US flag at their ownership of new landing site. land. The national flags SIGNAL “H” SIGNAL “E” SIGNAL “L” SIGNAL “P” planted at such places SOUTH POLE as the South Pole, the HENRY EVERY “BLACK SAM” summit of Mount Norwegian BELLAMY Everest, and even explorer Roald on the Moon all Amundsen “CALICO JACK” BLACKBEARD ANSWERING ERROR END OF NUMBERS proclaimed “We led the first MOUNT EVEREST RACKHAM SIGN SIGNAL SIGNAL WORD FOLLOW were here first”. expedition to SIGNAL SIGNAL reach the South In 1953 Edmund Hillary and Pole in 1911. He Tenzing Norgay, the first men left his country’s to stand on top of Mt Everest, planted the flags of the flag on the top United Kingdom, United of a tent. Nations, Nepal, and India. EUROPE ASIA ICELAND DENMARK FINLAND NORWAY SWEDEN BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG NETHERLANDS IRELAND UNITED KINGDOM FRANCE MONACO ANDORRA PORTUGAL SPAIN AUSTRIA GERMANY LIECHTENSTEIN OCEANIA SLOVENIA SWITZERLAND ITALY MALTA SAN MARINO VATICAN CITY CZECH REPUBLIC HUNGARY POLAND SLOVAKIA ALBANIA BOSNIA & CROATIA KOSOVO MACEDONIA MONTENEGRO SERBIA CYPRUS HERZEGOVINA BULGARIA GREECE BELARUS ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA MOLDOVA ROMANIA UKRAINE RUSSIAN FEDERATION ASIA OCEANIA K A Z AKHSTAN ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN GEORGIA TURKEY ISRAEL JORDAN LEBANON FIJI KIRIBATI MARSHALL ISLANDS SYRIA BAHRAIN IRAN IRAQ KUWAIT OMAN QATAR SAUDI ARABIA MICRONESIA NAURU PALAU UNITED ARAB YEMEN AFGHANISTAN KYRGYZSTAN TAJIKISTAN TURKMENISTAN UZBEKISTAN CHINA EMIRATES PAPUA NEW SAMOA SOLOMON GUINEA ISLANDS MONGOLIA NORTH KOREA SOUTH KOREA TAIWAN JAPAN INDIA SRI LANKA MALDIVES TONGA TUVALU VANUATU PAKISTAN BANGLADESH BHUTAN NEPAL CAMBODIA LAOS MYANMAR THAILAND AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND VIETNAM BRUNEI EAST TIMOR INDONESIA MALAYSIA PHILIPPINES SINGAPORE 197

Where food CANADA comes from Although Canada is the second largest country in the world by Long ago, people only ate what could be grown area, only 6.8 per cent is used locally. Today, with modern transportation, people for agriculture. in richer countries can find food from all around the world – such as coffee from Brazil, rice from NORTH AMERICA India, and olives from Italy – in supermarkets. Tropical places export crops such as mangoes SPAIN and bananas, while countries with huge farmlands supply the world with cereals. Spain is so dry that only 10 per cent of the land under cultivation is of high quality. COLOMBIA BASIC FOOD CROPS CEREALS USA MEXICO Crops like rapeseed and sugar cane are grown in vast Plants producing grains used as food Nearly $300 amounts because they can be used in many different are called cereals. Most grains are billion worth ways, not just as foods, but also for products such as ground into flour or turned into flakes, of crops and fuel. After they are harvested they are usually processed which are then used to make food such livestock are and sent to manufacturers to make other foods or goods. as muesli and porridge, or bread, cakes, produced each and biscuits. Many are ingredients of year in the USA. what we call breakfast cereals. SOUTH AMERICA BRAZIL In Brazil, approximately 275,373,000 hectares (680,500,000 acres) are used for agriculture. RICE WHEAT MAIZE (CORN) SUGAR CANE SUGAR BEET SOYA BEANS MILLET OATS TRITICALE DAIRY After sugar cane is The sugar syrup A great source of The most popular COW’S MILK MOZZARELLA harvested, it is extracted from sugar protein and vitamins, milk produced (FROM WATER beet is used in many around the world BUFFALO MILK) processed to extract products, including soya beans can be is cow’s milk. It is sucrose (ordinary used to make milk, used in drinks and sugar). It can be drinks, feed for textured vegetable in cooking and also eaten as it is but animals, and even protein, tofu, and to produce cheese, butter, ghee, and more often is used to fuels known flavourings such yogurt. Water buffalo sweeten other foods. as biofuels. as soy sauce. milk, used in Italy to make mozzarella cheese, is the CHEESE second most popular milk globally. SORGHUM BARLEY RYE VEGETABLES POTATOES CASSAVA SWEET POTATOES CABBAGES AND PEAS OTHER BRASSICAS Although many people RAPESEED PALM OIL SUNFLOWER SEEDS like to grow vegetables in their garden, most of us Fields of yellow rape Palm oil is semi- We can snack on buy them in greengrocer produce rapeseed, solid at room raw sunflower seeds shops and supermarkets. but most of the crop Potatoes are popular in which is usually temperature. It is many parts of the world turned into oil for used in everything is processed to because they can be used cooking or used in from ice-cream to produce oil for in many ways. Vegetables food products. It is pizza dough, as well cooking or to be like cassava and yams also used in animal as in products like turned into spreads are part of a traditional feed and biofuels. soap and cosmetics. like margarine. diet in Africa but are now exported to countries with multicultural populations. LETTUCE BEANS SPINACH GARLIC 198