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ATTACKING SKILLS DRIBBLING Running with the ball at the feet is known The attacking team is the one in as dribbling. It is a vital skill required to possession of the ball and which beat an opponent. moves towards the opponent’s goal. The players aim to pass the ball to each other and create a goal-scoring opportunity. They have to work together and try to avoid the opposing team. Here are some of the key ball skills attacking players need. SHOOTING CROSSING HEADING If a player is in a position to A pass from the edge of Heading the ball can be an score a goal, he or she will the pitch to the centre is attacking or defensive skill. shoot. He or she can use called a cross. A cross Heading the ball with the the inside or outside of the into the penalty area is middle of the forehead gives foot, but the top (instep) will hard to defend and can maximum power and control, produce the hardest shot. often lead to a goal. and avoids injury. OVERHEAD KICK 1 LIFT OFF 2 SCISSOR MOTION 3 STRIKE THE BALL Raise your non- As you start to fall When your back This is a really impressive way to score a goal. However, it is also a very difficult skill to master. A player has his or her back to the goal and must time the kick perfectly. It is best to practise this kick on soft ground to prevent injury. kicking leg in the air backwards, bring your is parallel to the and push off with kicking leg up. Your other ground, strike the the other foot. leg should fall back to back of the ball with the ground. the top of your foot. DEFENDING SKILLS TACKLING MARKING INTERCEPTION GOALKEEPING The team without the ball must A defender can use his or her feet to By staying close to his or her By marking a player closely or guessing The goalkeeper is the last line of defence. do everything it can to stop its take the ball away from the attacker. opponent, a defender might be able where an attacker is going to pass the He or she can use any part of the body to opponent from scoring a goal. Known as a tackle, timing is very to prevent the attacking team making ball, a defender may intercept it. He or prevent a goal. Goalkeepers need to be Here are some of the skills important. If the defender kicks the a pass or even intercept the ball. she can then start an attack for their strong, agile, and able to react quickly a team may use to regain player instead of the ball, it is a foul. This is known as marking. own team. when the ball is struck at them. possession of the ball or prevent the other team from scoring a goal. Once the defending team has won the ball, it becomes the attacking team. DEAD-BALL CORNER THROW-IN FREE KICK PENALTY SKILLS If a defender When the ball crosses the If a player commits a foul If a player from the defending Corners, throw-ins, free kicks the ball over touchline, whichever team outside the penalty area, the team commits a foul inside the kicks, and penalties are all the goal line, the kicked the ball last loses other team will be awarded a penalty area, the attacking team dead-ball situations known attacking team is possession. The other team free kick. The closer this kick is is awarded a penalty – a one-on- as “set-pieces”. Teams will awarded a corner. can then throw the ball and to the goal, the greater chance the one shot against the goalkeeper. spend a lot of time practising It is taken from the begin an attack. attacking team has of scoring. set-pieces as they are good nearest corner arc. goal-scoring opportunities. PENALTIES WHERE TO AIM YOUR PENALTY HOW TO STRIKE THE BALL Here are the best Goalkeeper is likely to Goalkeeper may be Goalkeeper is places to aim for save, unless he or she able to save if shot highly unlikely if you want to score dives too early. struck weakly. to save. a penalty, and the different ways you could PASS THE BALL CHIP THE BALL POWER SHOT strike the ball. Even if This type of penalty is best for Only a confident player should A powerfully struck the goalkeeper guesses accuracy. However, striking try this shot, which is aimed up penalty will always beat the where you will shoot, he the ball in this manner could and over the goalkeeper. This goalkeeper – if it is on target. or she is unlikely to be produce a weak shot that the shot also requires great skill However, increased power able to save it – unless goalkeeper could easily save. to get it on target. also means less accuracy. the shot is weak. 249

American football THE GAME Also known as gridiron in some countries, American Two teams of 11 players compete during four periods of play football is one of the most popular sports in the United (known as “quarters”). The aim is to score points by advancing States. Professional football (the NFL) and college football an oval ball into an opponent’s end zone (to score a touchdown) are the most popular forms of the game. or by kicking it through the goal posts (to score a field goal). 15 15 15 15 LASTS 4 QUARTERS OF HAS 2 TEAMS OF 60 MINUTES 15 MINUTES 11 PLAYERS Helmet EQUIPMENT SCORING POINTS Face American football is a full-contact sport. Every part of the body needs The objective in American football is to score more points mask to be protected against charging players. A helmet is the most vital than the opposition. Points can be scored in five ways. piece of kit, as head clashes in a game are common. Players also wear body armour worn over soft shock-pads, which absorb any hard TOUCHDOWN blows; this gives them a top-heavy appearance. A touchdown is scored if a team advances the ball into the opponent’s Shoulder Arm guard Neck guard end zone. The ball can either be run over the line or passed to a team- pad mate in the end zone. A touchdown is the game’s most valuable scoring play, worth six points. Chest pad POINT AFTER TOUCHDOWN Hip protector After a touchdown, a team can score an extra point by kicking the ball Thigh pad PADDING THE BALL through the goal posts. The ball is oval in shape. It Knee A range of pads can be worn to is 28 cm (11 in) long, has a TWO POINT CONVERSION protector protect specific parts of the body. circumference of 71 cm The sort of protection a player (28 in) at its widest point, Teams do not have to opt for a kick after scoring a touchdown. wears often depends on the and weighs 425 g (15 oz). Instead, they could opt to score a try. In this instance, the team has position in which he or she plays. a single play to score a touchdown. If successful, the team is awarded Defence an extra two points. 120 yd (109 m) FIELD GOAL A field goal is scored when the ball is kicked through the goal posts. It is worth three points. SAFETY A safety, worth two points, is awarded if an opponent is tackled or spills the ball in his own end zone and it goes out of play. THE FOOTBALL FIELD 53 yd (49 m) The football field is bounded by long sidelines and Official End line shorter end lines, forming a large rectangle. End zones are located at either end of the field. The 100 yd (91 m) area in between is divided by lines that cross the field every 5 yd (4.9 m). Most fields are covered in grass, but some have an artificial surface. THIOTESFC“LRGIINSRESIDS-CIGRRIOOVNSE”SSNPTAIHCTEKTFNEIRAENLMDE Gridiron Quarterback pattern 10 yd (9 m) Safety zone Sideline Goal line GOAL POSTS 5.6 m (18.5 ft) End zone The goal posts are positioned 13.4 m (44 ft) at the back of the end zone. 10.7 m (35 ft) 3 m (10 ft) Padding at The offence can kick a field goal base of post (three points) or a conversion after a touchdown (one point). Goalpost The base is padded to protect the players. An orange ribbon on the top of each post helps kickers gauge the direction and strength of the wind. Offence 250

10 YARDS AT A TIME PLAYS Territory and possession of the ball are the keys to success in American football. American football is punctuated by a series of plays, or downs. The team in possession of the ball is called the offence. It has four chances, called Offensive plays aim to advance the ball towards the opponents’ “downs”, to advance the ball 10 yd (9 m) towards the opponent’s end zone, either by end zone. Defensive plays aim to stop the offence moving forwards. running with the ball or by throwing it. If successful, the offensive team is awarded Some of the most well-known plays are described below. another four downs. If it fails to advance 10 yd (9 m), or if it loses possession of the ball during a play, possession of the ball passes to the defensive team. BASIC DEFENCE SS WR OT G C G OT TE WR WR OT G C G OT TE WR QB The aim of the defence is to stop the offence from LB LB LB QB gaining the 10 yd (9 m) they require to gain four new CB CB FB downs. Many teams use a formation called the 4-3 FB defence, in which four defensive linesmen line up in DE DT DT DE TB front of the three linebackers. Two safeties play TB behind to stop longer passes and runs, while two HAIL MARY cornerbacks are positioned to cover any passes TAILBACK OFF-TACKLE The Hail Mary is a passing play in which the made to the wide receivers. The tailback off-tackle is the most common quarterback throws a long ball towards one of running play in offence. The quarterback a number of receivers. The play is often used There are five positions in defence: hands the ball to the tailback, who runs as a last resort by a trailing team towards the DE Defensive end through a hole created by the offensive end of the game. DT Defensive tackle tackle and the tight end. LB Linebacker CB Cornerback S Safety BASIC OFFENCE TE OT G C G OT WR OT G C G OT TE WR CB LB CB WR QB WR The “Standard I Formation” is a common attacking QB DT DT LB play using five offensive linesmen. The “I” refers to FB the line formed by the quarterback, fullback, and TB FB DE LB DE tailback, or running back. A tight end lines up on one side, with a wide receiver at each end. TB SS There are eight positions in offence: SWEEP THE BLITZ WR Wide receiver The sweep is an organized offensive running TE Tight end play in which a tailback receives the ball The blitz is a defensive tactic used to combat OT Offensive tackle from the quarterback and then runs parallel passing plays. The aim is to put the opposition G Guard to the line of scrimmage. This gives the quarterback under pressure by swamping the C Centre fullback and offensive linesman time to offence with defenders. QB Quarterback create a gap for the tailback. FB Fullback TB Tailback, or running back SPOMGONWAORAMORTVEIRENLESTGDRPHAEL–AGCE6NATE8,AG,AT3TUNH3OE1EYRIISNNONFPTT2LEHH0RHE1ERA4 S REFEREE’S SIGNALS KEY SKILLS If a rule is broken during the course of a game, an official will bring play to a halt Different positions require different by waving a yellow flag. The referee then skills. For example, quarterbacks need conveys the decision by using a hand signal to be good at throwing; wide receivers and making an announcement. must have lightning acceleration and be able to catch the ball; and defenders Defender INTERFERENCE FIRST DOWN must be excellent tacklers and blockers. Wide receiver A penalty in which a The offence advances PASSING THE BALL player has interfered 10 yd (9 m) within four One of the most important duties of a quarterback is with another player downs, so a new series to pass the ball to a receiver. A strong, accurate pass during a play. of downs is called. is vital, as the quarterback may have to throw the ball over a long distance. Quarterback Centre 2 THE PASS CATCHING After collecting the All wide receivers must be able ball, the quarterback to catch the ball thrown by the quarterback. They sometimes grips the ball by the do this running at full speed, and often while having to fight laces and passes it off a defender. 1 THE SNAP point first. The ball is FALSE START OFFSIDE The centre snaps the ball spun as it is thrown, This is called when a A defensive player is on member of the offence the wrong side of the through his legs to the quarterback. making it fly straight. moves illegally before line of scrimmage at the the ball is snapped. start of play. Kicker Offensive player KICKING Holder DEFENCE Defensive player All American football teams have a The main task of a defender specialist kicker. His or her role is is to prevent the offensive HOLDING ILLEGAL BALL to kick for field goals or for the side from advancing with extra point following a touchdown. the ball. He or she can do A penalty in which TOUCH For a field goal attempt, the holder this by tackling the a player of either A penalty in which the stands 7 yd (6 m) behind the centre, offensive player who is side has illegally ball is illegally touched, who snaps the ball to him. The carrying the ball. held an opponent. kicked, or batted. holder catches the ball and sets it up for the kicker. The kicker steps forwards and swings his foot through the ball, aiming to send it between the goal posts. 251

Baseball THE GAME Baseball is played in more than 100 countries around Two teams take it in turns to bat and field. The batting team the world, including China, Japan, Venezuela, and Cuba. tries to score “runs” by hitting the ball and then running around However, the game is often mostly closely associated four bases. The fielding team tries to get the batting team “out” with the USA, where it is one of the most popular sports. (stop it scoring runs). Three “outs” ends the inning and the team with the most runs after nine innings wins. NO TIME 9 TURNS (INNINGS) EACH, 2 TEAMS OF RESTRICTION PLUS EXTRA IF SCORE IS TIED 9 PLAYERS EQUIPMENT BALL Red CATCHER’S MASK stitching The most essential equipment for a A baseball has a tough Face and head game of baseball is, of course, the rubber and cork core, protection is essential bat and the ball. As the ball can travel surrounded by red at speeds of up to 160 km/h (100 mph), cotton wool and for catchers. Batters some safety gear is also required. covered with two also wear helmets to strips of leather. protect their heads. The barrel – where the 7.5 cm (3 in) Tapered handle batter strikes the ball Up to 101.5 cm (42 in) BAT GLOVES Professional bats Fielders wear a large, padded are made from leather glove to make it easier wood and usually and safer to catch the ball. The weigh up to catcher also has a special mitt. 1 kg (2.2 lb). Backstop THE FIELD SIFOAFBABRAARCUSTATNETLHSELAAERIRTNDOHHOAUITENNHSOEDOTRGMAHOSLEEH,LIBRETTAUCHILNSAELN HOME PLATE net Players’ The playing area is divided into the infield and dugout To hit the ball, the batter the outfield. The infield is also known as the stands in a batter’s box “diamond” and is where the batter, pitcher, Second next to the home plate, and catcher all stand. It also contains the base which also serves as four bases and some fielders. The rest of the fourth base. the fielders stand in the outfield area. Coach’s box Pitcher’s Foul pole First base mound Foul line Warning track 27.5 m (90 ft) 27.5 m (90 ft) 18.5 m (60.5 ft) Infield/outfield PITCHER’S MOUND Third boundary base The pitcher stands WHO’S WHO? on a raised mound, up to 25.5 cm (10 in) BATTER higher than the Each team has home plate. a line-up of nine batters. CATCHER If the batter does not hit the ball, the catcher is there to catch it. INFIELDERS There are four infielders: shortstop, plus first, second, and third basemen. OUTFIELDERS The three outfielders take up positions in the left, right, and centre of the outfield. PITCHER The pitcher’s job is to throw (pitch) the ball to the batter. Each team has several specialist pitchers. UMPIRES Four umpires are in charge of the game, one on each base. 252

PITCHING 2 STRIDE 3 PITCH WORLD SERIES He then Finally, the A pitcher’s job is to get the Every year the winners of the American batter out. He or she needs plants his front pitcher throws League and the winners of the to make it difficult for the National League compete in a set of batter to hit the ball – known games, known as the World Series. These as a strike – or place the ball teams have won the most World Series, so that the batter will hit it including some, such as the Giants, who where it will be caught easily. have played in more than one city. foot firmly on his arm forwards, 1 NEW YORK YANKEES 27 the ground and releasing the ball 2 ST LOUIS CARDINALS 11 1 WIND UP swings his pitching when the arm is 3 PHILADELPHIA/OAKLAND/ The pitcher starts with his arm back. fully extended. KANSAS CITY ATHLETICS 9 back foot on the pitching rubber 4 BOSTON RED SOX AND and then raises his front leg to OTATORHC“TECAHABTEACLPTLHI”TTEAERCRHPW’SIETIRLSC,LTHBASASNUSTCGEYEGDLEEOSNT NEW YORK/SAN FRANCISCO GIANTS 8 waist height. 5 BROOKLYN/LOS ANGELES PITCH STYLES DODGERS 6 The way that the pitcher grips or releases the ball can affect the speed, force, and angle of the pitch. Here are some common pitches. 6 CINCINNATI REDS AND FASTBALL CURVEBALL SLIDER KNUCKLEBALL PITTSBURGH PIRATES 5 This is a popular pitch. Two fingers over the top of the ball allow it to be A twist of the wrist gives this Gripped slightly off-centre, the The most difficult to learn, the 7 DETROIT TIGERS 4 released at great speed. pitch topspin, which causes it slider is not quite as fast as knuckleball is gripped with two to curve downwards at the a fastball, or as curved as a fingers on the top of the ball and last moment. curved ball. pitched straight. STRAIGHT PITCH TAKING A TURN SPIN SLOW PITCH INTERNATIONAL A fastball usually The best curveballs A slider pitch swerves BASEBALL goes straight towards cause the batter to at the last moment, A knuckleball moves the home plate. swing at the wrong spot. confusing the batter. so unpredictably that it Baseball was dropped as an Olympic sport is hard for the batter to in 2008 and the last Baseball World Cup was time his or her swing. held in 2011, so the most prestigious national competition is the World Baseball Classic. Launched in 2006, Japan won the first two competitions, but the Dominican Republic were victorious in 2013. STRIKE! Bat completes BASE RUNNING a full swing The pitcher must pitch the ball into the area As soon as the batter hits the ball, they need known as the “strike zone”. If the batter to start running to first base. However, they does not swing at all, misses the ball, or must reach the base before a fielder can throw hits it into foul territory, the umpire at the the ball to a team-mate standing on the base. home plate will call “strike”. If a batter has three strikes, he Head up to or she is out, and it is the next check where the batter’s turn. ball has gone STRIKE ZONE The strike zone is the area above the home plate between the batter’s knees and the mid-point of his or her torso. Home plate BATTING Hips rotate TAG OUT to generate The fielder touches the batter with the ball Batting requires strength, skill, timing, and the ability to out- power before he or she reaches a base. Out! think the pitcher. Most professional players are considered to be good hitters if they can safely hit three out of ten pitches. 1 STANCE 2 SWING The batter stands As the ball is SLIDE side-on. The legs pitched, the batter The batter slides and touches the base before are wide apart, the takes a big step the base fielder can receive the ball. Safe! elbows bent, and forwards and NIIBNCLOKCOMNLNUBAG,DMBOEAER:SLDGLFIO,NOMPGRHOEAEROR,NHTBOASAMTHLEEOLRTR,,UN the bat is raised swings the bat 253 above the head. towards the ball. 3 FOLLOW-THROUGH The batter completes the swing and then prepares to run to first base, if he has hit the ball.

Basketball THE GAME Two teams of five players each try to score points by shooting a ball through a hoop, which is 3.05 m (10 ft) above the ground. The winning team is the one that has scored most points by the end of the game. Basketball is a fast-paced ball sport, invented in 12 12 Massachusetts, USA, in 1891 as an indoor game to keep 12 12 students fit during the winter. It was originally played by shooting the ball into fruit-pickers’ baskets, which LASTS 4 QUARTERS OF HAS 2 TEAMS OF is how the sport got its name. 48 MINUTES 12 MINUTES (NBA) 5 PLAYERS EQUIPMENT KEEPING SCORE LAWS OF THE COURT One of the attractions of basketball is that you need very Spectators keep track of the score on a scoreboard. The NBA (National Basketball Association) governs the little equipment to play – just a ball and two baskets. A basket made inside the three-point line scores professional game in the USA. The NBA sets out only 12 Players do not even need special clothing, just suitable two points. Baskets made from beyond the three- basic rules, although each rule is divided into many clauses shoes for running on court. point arc score three points. When shooting and subsections. Differing governing bodies worldwide have a free throw, each basket made scores one point. slightly different rules. BALL BASKET AND BACKBOARD Time and score Big screen PERSONAL AND TECHNICAL FOULS Team and player stats A modern ball is made The basket is a 45 cm (18 in) Space for If a team commits a foul, the opposing team is given possession of the of rubber or a synthetic hoop with netting hanging advertising ball. If a team is fouled while shooting, they are awarded one or more composite covered in leather. from it, mounted on a shots at the basket. Fouls can be either personal – for example for It is 75–78 cm (30–32 in) in vertical backboard. pushing, blocking, or holding an opponent – or technical – for offences circumference and weighs such as deliberate time-wasting or arguing with the referee. In the 600–650 g (21–23 oz). NBA, once a player has recorded six fouls, they may take no further part in the game. VIOLATIONS When a player breaks the rules, they commit a foul. For instance, players must dribble (bounce the ball in front of them) as they run. If they do not, they commit a foul known as “travelling”. TIME LIMITS Basketball is designed to be a fast-moving, attacking sport. In the NBA, once in possession of the ball, a team must attempt a shot within 24 seconds; if it does not, possession passes to the other team. THE COURT Baseline A standard basketball court is a rectangle 15.2 m Basket (50 ft) wide by 28.7 m (94 ft) long. Most, but not all, Backboard have a surface of polished wood. The various markings on the court help to regulate play. Officials’ desk 28.7 m (94 ft) 15.2 m (50 ft) TWO-POINT ZONE Two points awarded for any goal scored from this area. FREE THROW LINE WHO PLAYS WHERE? Players stand here POINT GUARD to take free shots The point guard organizes the offence (attack) at the basket. by calling out a pre-planned play (tactic). Mid-court line SHOOTING GUARD A shooting guard’s main duty is to shoot the KEY THREE-POINT LINE OUT OF BOUNDS ball and score as many points as possible. Any goal scored from If a team takes the ball outside Attacking player the court lines, the other team SMALL FORWARD can stay in this outside this arc is gets possession of the ball. A varied role that includes shooting, defending, area for up to worth three points. and play-making. three seconds. POWER FORWARD Fights for rebounds when the other team shoots, and also shoots from long-range. CENTRE The centre is usually the tallest player and is the team’s main shot-blocker. 254

SKILLS AND TECHNIQUES DRIBBLING All basketball players need good ball-handling skills. To be Dribbling is the name given to bouncing the ball successful, a team needs to be able to pass to each other, continuously. A player must dribble while moving dribble, shield the ball from opponents, and, most importantly, with the ball, or else they are penalized for travelling. shoot baskets. Wrist is angled to Ball is thrown direct the ball hard and low downwards Ball passes under the defender’s arm Player holds 1 Using the hand furthest 2 Running forwards, 3 Keep your hand directly ball in one or from your opponent, control the ball with over the ball – if you both hands bounce the ball hard towards the fingertips as it rises touch the underside of the the ground. back up towards you. ball, you will be penalized. BOUNCE PASS MOVING Instead of throwing the ball straight from his chest, a player can bounce the ball to a team-mate. This makes Once a player has stopped dribbling, he or she is not allowed to it harder for an opponent to block or intercept the ball. dribble for a second time. Instead, the player must keep one foot on the ground and pivot (swivel) on it before shooting or passing. Player pushes upwards from standing foot Pivot foot SLAM DUNK 1 The player stops 2 The player swivels 3 If a player drags his dribbling or catches round on his pivot foot, pivot foot or lifts it The player runs up, jumps very high, and, with one or two hands, aims the ball downwards the ball. One of his feet looking for opportunities to off the ground, he will be into the basket. The slam dunk is a popular shot because, as long as the player can jump must become the pivot foot. shoot or pass the ball. penalized for travelling. high enough, its success rate is high. The backboard PLAYING THE GAME OFFICIALS’ SIGNALS is made of a shatterproof Basketball players require great athleticism, excellent hand- A team of officials oversees a game. The eye coordination, and, because it is such a fast-paced game, timekeeper starts the clock when the ball is material called superb stamina. They also need to be tall. Players are rarely in play and pauses it whenever play is stopped. Plexiglas under 1.8 m (6 ft) and are often as tall as 2.1 m (7 ft). The shot-clock operator makes sure that the team in possession shoots within a certain time. The hoop must be Large hands enable a TIP-OFF There are two referees, who make gestures and strong enough to player to grip the ball signals to indicate aspects of play and breaches withstand players one-handed This is the name given to of the rules. hanging from it the jump ball that starts or Number resumes the game. The identifies referee throws the ball up, player and two players jump and try to tip it to a team-mate. ASVEEHARPCISAGEIHSORNGHEANEEAGTMDSASHTTBOOM5EE0SNT1ER.IA,49NL–WL6APGT1EIOILH–NLVEI6TEN-E2TRS Players wear loose CHARGING JUMP BALL vests and shorts, and air-cushioned trainers One arm out to the Both arms up mean that side indicates that an two players have a grip of attacking player has the ball, so the referee is run into a defender. calling a jump ball. TRAVELLING BLOCKING Arms rotating indicate Clenched fists against that a player has moved the waist signal that one with the ball without player has blocked the dribbling it. way of another. BASKETS AND REBOUNDS Strong leg TWO-POINT SCORE THREE-POINT SCORE muscles are Both arms up, with three If a team scores a basket, the Left arm raised with two fingers up on each hand, game restarts with the other essential fingers showing indicates signals a basket worth team in possession of the ball for jumps a two-point basket to three points. behind the baseline under the scorekeeper. their own basket. If the shot 255 is unsuccessful, the players compete for a “rebound”. If the attacking team wins the ball, they can shoot again, but if the defending team wins it, they will try to move the ball to the other end of the court.

Racket sports EQUIPMENT There are many different racket sports, but they all need similar Most rackets have a metal or wooden frame skills: good hand-eye coordination, quick reactions, speed, fitness, containing a network of strings. The tightness and agility. Most racket sports can be played by two people (1 vs 1, and density of the strings affects the way in known as singles) or four people (2 vs 2, known as doubles). which the racket controls the ball. What a ball is made of, its size, and weight can also affect the speed and style of the game. TENNIS Receiving player Net Umpire Baseline Players take it in turns to serve and can score points whenever their opponent 6.4 m (21 ft) 5.5 fails to return a ball over the net or hits the ball out of play. Tennis (also known m (18 as lawn tennis) matches are made up of games and sets, with players needing to 27.3 m (78 ft) (m27(3ft6) Sfti)nDgoleusbles ft) win six games to win a set. Matches can 1.4(4m.5 ft) last for hours as a player must always win the final set by two games. Doubles TENNIS RACKET sideline 8.2 m 11 BEST OF THREE OR SINGLES Net court judge Serving player TENNIS BALL FIVE SETS OR DOUBLES Singles sideline Tennis balls are made of rubber, Net is 15.25 cm covered in felt and weigh 56–59 g TABLE TENNIS Players need 1.5 m (5 ft) (6 in) high (1.9–2 oz). During a match, balls may be good balance 2.7 m (9 ft) hit so hard that they lose their bounce A player wins a point if his or her opponent cannot return the ball or Edge of and need to be replaced. if the return does not land on the the table table. The first player to score 11 (ball is in) TABLE TENNIS points wins the game. However, if BAT both players score 10 points, the first player to gain a two-point TABLE TENNIS BALL advantage wins the game. Table tennis is also known as ping pong. Made of celluloid and filled with gas, a table tennis ball weighs a mere 2.7 g (0.1 oz). BEST OF FIVE OR SINGLES Players must not 4.57 m (15 ft)Players must SEVEN GAMES OR DOUBLES touch the table react quickly 76 cm (2.5 ft) SQUASH Service line 2.7 m (9 ft) Ceiling (out of bounds) Out line Squash is played on a four-walled 5.4 m (17.6 ft) court and players take it in turns to Half court line serve. They can win points if their opponent fails to hit the ball after it 5.4 m (17.6 ft) SQUASH RACKET has bounced once, or if they hit the ball out of bounds. A player needs 1.6 m 6.4 m (21 ft) 11 points to win the game, but if (5.2 ft) the score is tied at 10-10, a player needs to win by two points. Tin area 1.(65.m2 ft) SQUASH BALL (out of bounds) (5.12.6ft)m Service box Squash balls are made of Referees hollow rubber. A coloured THE BEST OF 3 OR SINGLES (DOUBLES dot shows how fast or 5 GAMES CAN BE PLAYED ON bouncy the ball is – orange A BIGGER COURT) 256 is the slowest and blue the fastest.

BADMINTON BEST OF THREE SINGLES GAMES OR DOUBLES A player wins a point if his or her opponent fails to hit the shuttlecock or hits it out of play. Doubles sideline The first player to win 21 points wins the game. However, if the score is tied at 20-20, a player must gain a two-point lead to win the game. Line judge (there are ten) BADMINTON Net RACKET Service SHUTTLECOCK judge The rounded base is made of cork covered 6.1 m (250.1f8t)mDo(1u7bflte)sSingles Singles side line in leather. The top has 16 feathers, which are PRECISION AND POWER often plastic. Badminton shots can be softer than other racket REAL TENNIS sports due to the shape RACKET and weight of the shuttle. However, powerful smash REAL TENNIS BALL shots are also effective. Heavier and less bouncy than a tennis ball, a real Short 13.4 m 1.98 m (6.5 tennis ball is made of cork service line (44 ft) wrapped in felt. They are ft) Umpire usually handmade. 0.76 m (2.5 ft) Doubles RACQUETBALL service line RACKET Singles RACQUETBALL service line Balls are made of rubber to If a player serves the 50CTORHUEEARWTTL SHOTEERARNLREDNEAIAISDRNEECDNOOTNUNIROCLTYATSLWINO make them bounce. ball into one of these They weigh about 40 g (1½ oz). windows, it’s a point A server who REAL TENNIS gets the ball in this grille The scoring in real tennis (also known as Court Tennis) wins a point is similar to the modern game. However, the court is very different. It is enclosed on all four sides, and three of the sides have sloping roof areas. Courts also have several unusual features such as grilles and windows. The Serving end receiving 29.3 m (96 ft) (32 ft) end 9.8 m Net THE BEST OF THREE SINGLES OR FIVE SETS OR DOUBLES 6 m (20 ft) Ceiling – the ball RACQUETBALL may hit here and 12 m (40 ft) still be in play Played on a similar court to squash, the objective of racquetball is to hit the ball so that Front an opponent cannot keep it in play. Points can wall only be scored by the server, but if the server fails to keep the ball in play, the serve passes to the other player. The first player to reach 15 points wins the game. Back wall Referee 4.5 m (15 ft) 45(1c.5mft) Judge THE BEST OF SINGLES, Service FIVE GAMES DOUBLES, OR box TPRHRAAECWTVQEEPUNALETARTYEBGEYAORELGSLIGNUILSJSEUUSSRAOTIEL“OFISLRAYONSMTAN” (2 VS 1) (51f.5t)m (51f.5t) 90(c3mft) 6 m (20 ft) m (15 4.5 m ft) Judge 257

Tennis THE MATCH Playing tennis is fun and helps you to gain some sporting A tennis match is played in games and sets between two or skills. To play the game well, you have to be fast on your four people. A game is a series of points won or lost, and a set feet, quick-thinking, and sharp-eyed. World-class players is a series of games. The player who wins the best out of three make tennis exciting to watch, too. or five sets is the match winner. Matches have no time limit. NO TIME LIMIT A MATCH CAN BE SINGLES: 2 PLAYERS 3 OR 5 SETS DOUBLES: 4 PLAYERS THE COURT Net Baseline 6.(421mft) Centre line All tennis courts have the same measurements. They are marked by white lines that show the 5.(518mft) Court surround area in which the ball must land. Most courts are marked for both singles play (two players) and (134.5.1fmt) doubles (four players). A net divides the court into two equal ends. Around the playing area, various (4.15.4ftm) officials watch the match closely. Umpire’s chair Singles sideline Doubles sideline 11 m 8.2 m (36 ft) D(2o7ubftl)eSsingles 23.77 m (78 ft) COURTS Tennis courts are made of various materials to suit both indoor and outdoor play. The type of surface affects how high and fast the ball bounces. UMPIRE HARD COURT (REBOUND ACE) HARD COURT (DECOTURF) Watches from a raised chair Concrete or asphalt base Similar to Rebound Ace court, to ensure the rules are obeyed. cushioned with synthetic rubber. Balls bounce high. but with a less cushioned NET COURT JUDGE surface. Balls bounce high. Signals if the ball touches the top of the net during a serve. Service line LINE JUDGE CLAY COURT GRASS COURT Judge whether a ball lands Balls bounce high on this Balls move fast with a in or out of court. surface but move at a lower bounce. This BALL BOYS/GIRLS relatively slow speed. surface can be slippery. Pick up out-of-play balls and return them to the server. FOOT-FAULT JUDGE Checks that a server does not step across the baseline before hitting the ball. SCORING “LTW’OEHNETUINCHFIHE”S,“IMFSLRAOZEYVENERCC”OHOS-MSFCHOEOARRFPER“EEOIDGNMG” – EQUIPMENT BALLS Frame Both players start with a score of zero, or “love”. The first Modern tennis equipment is made of point you win scores 15. If you win a second point, the score is lightweight materials that are strong 30. A third point scores 40. One more point can win the game, and long-lasting. Rackets come in provided you are already two points ahead of your opponent. varying sizes. It is important to choose one that is the right weight for you and Score for game feels comfortable to hold. Set markers Sets won in progress Handle with cushioned grip TIE-BREAK If the score is six games all, a tie-break is played. This game has special rules. A tie- break, and the set, is won when a player wins seven points and is at least two points ahead. There is no tie-break in the final set. RACKET Completed Two sets were decided Players’ Score for set Strings sets by tie-breaks names in progress 258

THE SERVE POSITION PREPARE TOSS THROW MAJOR WINNERS Stand behind the Turning sideways, Toss the ball up Throw the racket over Also called the The four biggest annual tennis service, this stroke is tournaments, known as “Grand Slams”, the most important are: Wimbledon, the US Open, the one to learn. Every Australian Open, and the French Open. point in a game Below are the top five singles Grand starts with the Slam winners. serve. It is a tricky technique to master. 1 STEFFI GRAF Germany – 22 wins Even professionals do not hit the ball 2 SERENA WILLIAMS USA – 21 wins over the net every time – but a server is 3 CHRIS EVERT USA – 18 wins allowed to have two attempts per point. 3 MARTINA NAVRATILOVA 1 2 3 4 Czechoslovakia/USA – 18 wins baseline, just to hold the racket and and bend your racket your head and hit the ball. 4 ROGER FEDERER Switzerland – 17 wins the right of centre. ball in front of you. arm back, ready to hit. Follow through the stroke. FOREHAND DRIVE FOREHAND VOLLEY THE SMASH Reach up with your Using the forehand is the skill that tennis players Volley shots are played close to the net. Players must The smash shot uses opposite learn first. With practice, it can become a very powerful hit the ball before it bounces. The action is short, an action similar to arm stroke. The ball must bounce once before you hit it. fast, and punchy, and does not use a big swing. that of the serve. It hits the ball as it comes down from high in the air, and requires fast thinking. You may have to spring up to reach the ball. Fully stretch your racket arm and reach up with the other arm. Drop the racket head behind your back and then accelerate it forwards to hit the ball. Turn your body sideways and position yourself under the ball 1 RACKET BACK 2 MEET THE BALL 1 REACH 2 SHORT FOLLOW-THROUGH Take the racket back Swing the racket forwards to Stretch out your racket After making contact with the and up, turn your shoulders meet the ball in front of your body. arm and step forwards. ball, finish the stroke with a short to the side, and step forwards. Hit the ball and follow through the Watch the ball all the time. follow-through. stroke with the racket. BACKHAND BACKHAND SLICE DRIVE Once you have mastered the basic backhand, you can try the You play this stroke when more challenging backhand slice. A ball hit with this stroke spins your opponent hits the ball and lands low, so it can take your opponent by surprise. towards the side opposite your racket arm. Turn your shoulders 1 SWING BACK to the side as As the ball comes, turn you take the racket back your shoulders to the side and swing your racket back. 2 STEP With a firm grip on the racket, step forwards to meet the ball. Stretch out your racket arm to hit the ball in front of your body. DOUBLE-HANDED 1 BACK 2 SLICE 3 FOLLOW-THROUGH Take the racket Step into the shot Keep your arm straight BACKHAND Two hands can give extra strength and power a backhand drive. 3 FOLLOW THROUGH back as you would and slip the head of and follow through with a Keeping the swing going, follow through the for the backhand the racket under the short chopping movement. shot with your racket. Do drive, with the ball. Hit the ball when This part of the stroke is not take your eyes off the head angled it is just in front of important, as it drives the ball until it is safely over slightly up. your body. ball forwards. the net. 259

Athletics SET UP The athletics arena is home to three main different sports Athletics events are also known as “track and field events”. styles: running, jumping, and throwing. Competitors need Running races take place on the track, and jumping and speed, stamina, agility, or strength, depending on their throwing events are held in an area known as the field. chosen event. All-round athletes have all these skills. There are also two walking events on the track. RUNNING THROWING JUMPING ATHLETICS TRACK High-jump area Javelin Long jump throwing area The athletics area is marked out by a running track 400 m (328 yd) in Shot put area circumference, with the field area for throwing and jumping events inside it. Shorter races use just one section of the track. In long-distance races, athletes circuit the track many times. Safety cages around hammer and discus throwing areas Staggered starting positions so all runners cover the same distance Finish line Landing areas WORLD RECORDS for throwing events All athletes want to break records – to run faster, jump higher, or throw Water jump, for Several different further than anyone ever has before. steeplechase start lines on event the track WOMEN’S 100 M, SET IN 1988 SPECIAL TRACK Florence Griffith-Joyner, USA – 10.49 seconds. The running track is made of non-slip rubberized material that MEN’S HIGH JUMP, SET IN 1993 helps prevent injuries. Javier Sotomayor, Cuba – 2.45 m (8 ft). TRIPLE JUMP WOMEN’S DISCUS, SET IN 1988 This jump is also known as the “hop, step, and jump”, Gabriele Reinsch, Germany – 76.8 m (84 yd). because that is exactly what the athletes do. They run MEN’S MARATHON, SET IN 2014 down a track, hop forwards, land on the same foot, step Dennis Kipruto Kimetto, Kenya – 2.02 hours onto the other foot, and then 57 seconds. jump as far as they can. HOP, STEP, JUMP LONG JUMP CAREFUL JUMP POLE VAULT HOLDING ON HIGH JUMP Power and rhythm Athletes must take The athlete uses the Athletes competing in off before the line. In this event, competitors pole to vault higher. This is a competition to see are needed. this event try to leap the use a bendy pole to clear who can jump the highest. furthest through the air a bar that is set higher Athletes run up to a from a running jump. and higher. The vaulter horizontal bar and try to They concentrate on five runs down the track with clear it without it falling, stages: their run-up, last the pole, pushes the end often using a special two steps, takeoff, travel into a box, and uses the technique called the through the air, and pole as a lever to swing Fosbury Flop (shown here). their landing. up and over the bar. They land on a cushioned area to prevent injury. 1 TAKEOFF 2 MOVING UP 3 ARCHING BACK 4 HIGH POINT 5 LANDING The jumper She starts to twist Her body arches She kicks her legs She positions her 260 pushes into the air her body so that her backwards. up to clear the bar. arms in preparation from one leg. back faces the bar. for landing.

JAVELIN SHOT PUT Women’s shot HAMMER Hammer 4 kg (8 lb 12 oz) Athletes compete The “shot” is a The “hammer” in athletics to see who can throw heavy metal ball that Men’s shot is nothing like a normal the javelin (which is a bit competitors try to throw 7.2 kg (16 lb) hammer – it is a heavy metal like a spear) the furthest (“put”) as far as they can. ball attached by a wire to a down the field. Men At the beginning of each handle. The thrower whirls throw a slightly longer put, the shot is held close the hammer around his javelin than women. against the neck, and the or her head several times shot putter spins around before releasing it. Men Javelin in a circle before hurling throw a heavier hammer the shot forwards. than women. DISCUS MULTI-PART EVENTS A discus is a fairly flat, heavy disc that spins through the air when it is In these track and field events, thrown hard. The women’s discus weighs 1 kg (2.2 lb) while the men’s competitors need to be all-round weighs 2 kg (4.4 lb). The winner is the person who throws it furthest. athletes with a combination of skills. 1 PRELIMINARY SWING 2 TURNING CIRCLE 3 RELEASE 4 FOLLOW-THROUGH HEPTATHLON Holding the discus in one The athlete spins At the front of the After releasing the This two-day competition for women includes seven events: 200 m, 100 m hurdles, high jump, shot put, long jump, javelin, and 800 m. DECATHLON Men compete in ten events in this two-day competition: 100 m, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400 m, 100 m hurdles, discus, pole vault, javelin, and 1,500 m. hand, the athlete starts to around one and a half circle, the athlete sends the discus, the athlete is careful swing it back and forwards. times, gaining momentum. discus flying into the air. to stay within the circle. MIDDLE- LONG-DISTANCE DISTANCE EVENTS DISTANCE RUNNING RUNNING There are eight Olympic middle- and long- Races that are more than distance events on the track. The 3,000 m These races are run over 3,000 m (3,280 yd) long are steeplechase includes 35 jumps, seven of 800–3,000 m, and some, called “long-distance” races which are water jumps. like the steeplechase, and demand great stamina. include hurdles and water The events may take place 800 m 10,000 m jumps. The runners start in a stadium or along roads off in lanes but do not and paths. Many cities hold 1,500 m Marathon (42.4 km) usually have to stay in their annual marathons, which are lane throughout the race. 42.2 km (26.2 miles) long. 3,000 m 20 km walk Steeplechase 50 km walk (men only) 5,000 m SPRINT EVENTS SPRINTING HURDLES Competitors have In the Olympics, there are eight sprint events. These fast races are to jump hurdles run over distances while running. Some include hurdles. from 100–400 m. Sprinters push off 100 m 110 m hurdles from the blocks and 200 m (men only) hit top speed almost 400 m hurdles immediately. 400 m 4 x 100 m relay 100 m hurdles 4 x 400 m relay (women only) H1EW102C0H.O2MEVMNEWUR(4OES0DRAFLIATNDN) BRPAOEECSRLTOTSORBEDNRCOIOISNKNHED2IN0T0GH9E, RUNNING ALONE RUNNING A RELAY Most races involve Teams of four run one SPRINT START individual runners. leg of the race each, passing on a baton. In short sprints, getting off to a clean, fast start can make the difference between winning and losing the race. 1 READY 2 GET SET 3 GO! The sprinter gets The athlete’s body On the starter’s ready by crouching and raises into a bridge, gun, the sprinter setting both feet firmly with the hips raised explodes out of the against the blocks. above the shoulders. starting blocks. 261

Winter sports EQUIPMENT GOGGLES Sports have taken place on snow and ice for centuries. The standard equipment for alpine Today, most winter sports are variations of skiing, skiing includes skis (which have sledding, or ice skating. These sports have their own different shapes for different multi-sport tournament, the Winter Olympic Games, disciplines), poles, a helmet, which takes place every four years. goggles, boots, and bindings, which attach the boot to the ski. SKI BOOT POLES HELMET ALPINE SKIING Helmet gives SKIS BINDING protection Alpine skiing is an exhilarating sport of speed Skin-tight DIFFERENT COURSES and skill. There are five types of alpine ski Goggles reduce suit cuts down competition. Two of the disciplines – downhill glare from the Sun resistance Every alpine-ski discipline tests different skills, and Super-G – focus on speed. Slalom and so the courses for each are set out differently. giant slalom are technical events, in which a A downhill course has the fewest gates (poles), competitor’s skill will win the day. The fifth event, whereas a slalom has many poles through called combined (a mix of downhill and slalom), which the skier must pass. tests both speed and technique. TOP ALPINE SKIERS Gloves keep DOWNHILL SUPER-G hands warm KJETIL ANDRE AAMODT (NORWAY) Number on bib The only alpine skier to win eight Olympic identifies skier medals, four of them gold – in Super-G (1992, 2002, 2006) and combined (2002). Shin pads GIANT SLALOM SLALOM Ski pole JANICA KOSTELIC (CROATIA) Edge of ski THFREOWMOTRHDE“SNLOARLWOMEG”IACONMES cuts into snow WORD“G“ESNLATLLEAMSL”O, PMEE”ANING The only woman in history to win four Winter Olympic golds – three in 2002 and one in 2006. ALBERTO TOMBA (ITALY) The dominant technical skier of the late 1980s and early 1990s. High boots protect ankles Ski binding ALTERNATIVE SNOWBOARDING Helmet SKIING METHODS Developed in the USA in the 1960s, snowboarding 1 GRAB 2 BODY 3 RELEASE Freestyle skiing made its modern has enjoyed an explosion in popularity in recent BEND Winter Olympic debut in 1992. Disciplines years. Inspired by skateboarding, skiing, Entrance include aerials, ski cross, half-pipe, and and surfing, snowboarders descend a HALF-PIPE slopestyle. Cross-country skiers use slope while standing on a ski-like alpine skiing and jumping techniques board attached to their feet. Half-pipe events take place in a to complete courses up to 50 km (31.1 miles) in length. Sweat shirt Wrist guard specially constructed U-shaped CROSS-COUNTRY SKIING FREESTYLE arena. Competitors perform Cross-country skiers use a SKIING tricks, such as the alley- variety of techniques to race In 1992 moguls over challenging terrain. These became the first oop (above), as include the diagonal stride and freestyle skiing double poling (below). event to feature at they descend. the Winter Games. EQUIPMENT Glove Snowboarders Exit Snowboarder need a board, boots, HALF-PIPE some bindings to Boot attach the boots to the board, a pair SLOPESTYLE of goggles, and a helmet. Slopestyle sees participants navigate a downhill course BOOT BINDING SNOWBOARDER littered with obstacles, such as jumps and rails (right). Scores 1 POLES IN 2 PUSH 3 GLIDE SNOWBOARD Professional snowboarders are awarded for staying upright GROUND compete in various disciplines for the duration of the course that test both speed (downhill) and for the tricks performed. and acrobatic skills (half-pipe and quarter-pipe). 262

Head and body NORDIC COMBINED BIATHLON are positioned The Nordic combined is a one-day winter The Biathlon is a sport that over skis sport that combines ski jumping with combines cross-country skiing cross-country skiing. Athletes take part Skis in in individual, sprint, and team events. with rifle shooting. It has a V-shape to military origin in 18th-century gain extra lift Take-off Scandinavia, when accurate Ski jumper Flight shooting and fast skiing accelerates were vital for soldiers down slope JUMPING HILL patrolling the long There are two types of borders between SKI JUMPING jumping hill: the K90, which Norway and Sweden. measures 90 m (98 yd) in This is a spectacular sport length, and the K120, which Long ski poles that involves skiing down a is 120 m (131 yd) long. help skier to steep slope, taking off, jumping push forward as far as possible, and then landing Landing smoothly without falling over. Ski Cross-country jumpers are judged not only for the skis have furthest distance jumped, but also for the style of their take-off, flight, and landing. curved tips SLIDING SPORTS BOBSLEIGH Sliding sports are among the fastest Bobsleigh was winter sports. They include bobsleigh, invented in luge, and skeleton. Competitors in Switzerland in the each of these sports propel themselves 19th century. The down a specially constructed track modern sport sees and try to reach the bottom in the teams of two or four fastest time possible. racing down ice- covered tracks in steerable sleds. THE TRACK Start house 1 ROCK AND SLIDE 2 FINAL PUSH 3 FULL STEAM AHEAD After taking up their positions, All members of the team The driver sits at the front All sliding sports take place Steep on a specially constructed banking team members rock the sled and must jump into the sled within and steers the speeding sled. ice-covered track. The tracks feature then push off down the launch pad. 50 m (55 yd) of the start line. left and right turns, S-curves, 180- LUGE Helmet and visor degree bends (called “Omega”), Stainless Luge athletes contest the and hairpins. steel runners fastest sport on ice. Lying feet first on their back on Straight Finish Omega a fibreglass sled, they SKATING twist and turn down a track at breathtaking Ice skating originated in Finland more than speeds of more than 3000 years ago. Originally, 135 km/h (85 mph). skates were made from animal bone strapped Helmet to the bottom of the foot. Today, competitive ice SKELETON Fibreglass Sharp skating on steel blades base-plate blades on has three disciplines: Skeleton is the oldest bottom of speed skating, ice dancing, sliding sport. It requires runners and figure skating. enormous courage. Athletes travel headfirst down the track Athlete steers Skate on a 120 cm (48 in) long sled with feet called a “skeleton”. Bodysuit Dance skates Costumes TOP FIGURE have shorter can be SKATERS SPEED SKATING blades and decorated Speed skating sees higher heels GILLIS GRAFSTROM (SWEDEN) athletes race on skates around an oval ice The female Won three consecutive men’s singles track. Events range dancer must gold medals at the 1920, 1924, and from 500 m to 5,000 m. wear a skirt 1928 Winter Olympic Games. ICE DANCING FIGURE SKATING SONJA HENIE (NORWAY) Ice dancing Single skaters or Dominated the women’s singles event, competitions take couples compete in two winning Winter Olympic gold in 1928, place on an ice rink. programmes: one to test 1932, and 1936. It is a couples’ event their technical ability; the and judges give other to demonstrate JAYNE TORVILL AND marks for each artistic expression. CHRISTOPHER DEAN (UK) performance. The British ice-dancing pair received the only perfect score in the event’s history following their routine at the 1984 Winter Olympic Games. 263

Cycling RIDER PROFILE Helmet with BMX BMX riders mouth guard Cycling is a global sport, enjoyed by people of need to be BMX (bicycle motocross) began all ages. Most ride for fun, but many compete flexible and fit. as an offshoot of motocross in disciplines such as track or road racing, Freestylers (off-road motorcycle racing). or in BMX or mountain bike events. have style and Riders use specially designed creative flair. bikes to perform freestyle tricks and stunts, or to race over a dirt Gloves stop track or obstacle course. hands from FLATLAND RIDING slipping A form of freestyle, flatland involves riders performing on Full-length flat surfaces with no ramps, trousers with jumps, or grindrails. It is padded knees probably the most technically demanding BMX discipline. Lightweight MOUNTAIN BIKING EVENTS The rider helmet uses his Mountain biking (MTB) is one of the There are two types of competitive foot to keep Breathable newest cycling sports, started by BMX riding – racing on dirt tracks and the bike clothing cyclists riding off-road trails in freestyle tricks. moving as California, USA, in the late 1970s. he does a ROUGH TERRAIN Cross-country mountain biking RACING balancing Lifting the bike’s wheels to get over an became an Olympic event in 1996. trick obstruction on the trail is known as bunny- Eight riders race in heats over a short circuit hopping. The rider approaches the obstacle Gloves cushion with different turns and jumps. The fastest Stunt peg quickly, then lifts the handlebar and tucks his the hands riders then compete in the final feet up under his body at the same time. race. BMX racing became an Jumps are small, RIDER PROFILE Olympic sport in 2008. but closely packed As well as stamina together and strong pedalling FREESTYLE power, mountain bikers need balance Divided into four main styles: and excellent base tricks (the basic moves); technical skills to grind and lip tricks, performed on negotiate difficult railings or the edge of a half-pipe off-road terrain. structure; and aerial tricks, which are acrobatic turns and jumps in the air. EVENTS DIRT TRACK Banked turns or MTB is still quite a new sport and corners are different types of competitions have In a BMX race, riders been developed in recent years. complete a single lap called berms of the course, which is CROSS-COUNTRY laid out with various challenging features. Riders race each other for a fixed number of laps of a circuit. The first to cross the finish line Starting gate is the winner. Riders DOWNHILL finish the course in Competitors ride individually against the clock, 30–45 down a hillside course. The fastest time wins. seconds TRIALS Finish line Riders compete in various tests of poise, nerve, and artistry on their bikes, and are awarded points by judges. ENDURO Originating in France, a long-distance race in which only the downhill sections are timed and count towards the rider’s finishing time. MOUNTAIN BIKE Low frame height Up to 30 BMX BIKE Solid handlebar grips makes it easier to gears Racing bikes are single- A mountain bike must climb at low speed speed and designed for Small wheels allow be sturdy, to cope with quick acceleration. fast acceleration bumpy trails, but still Freestyle bikes are Sturdy light enough to be similar but often have frame manoeuvrable. stunt pegs attached, for riders to stand on when performing tricks. Single gear Fat, knobbly tyres for good grip over rough ground 264

TRACK CYCLING Shorts and top Lightweight ROAD RACING in team colours helmet Track cycling takes place on a track called Road racing is one of the most a velodrome. Riders compete in different physically demanding of all events, from short sprints to endurance sports. Multi-stage races can cover thousands of kilometres races over many laps. in a few weeks and include all-day mountain climbs and Aero handlebars allow 80 km/h (50 mph) sprints. rider to get into a streamlined position RIDER PROFILE Road racers have an enormous RIDER PROFILE capacity for physical and Track cyclists need high mental endurance. They must muscle power and low eat a balanced diet with a lot of body-fat levels to be as carbohydrates – riders eat up efficient as possible in to 6,000 calories on race days the saddle. to maintain energy levels. TOUR DE FRANCE RACE FORMATS The Tour is the world’s most famous road Road race formats range from one-day race. Riders cover about 3,500 km (2,175 races to multi-stage endurance events. miles) in 21 stages, finishing in Paris. There are two Olympic events, the classic road race and the individual time trial. EVENTS POLKA DOT JERSEY WHITE JERSEY STAGE RACE Awarded to the King Worn by the There are ten Olympic track cycling of the Mountains, the A race over several stages in which the winner events, with men and women competing highest-placed is the rider whose combined time is the quickest. in each of the five events listed. best climber. young rider. May include sprint stages, mountain finishes, and individual or team time-trials. INDIVIDUAL SPRINT CLASSIC Two riders race over three laps of the track. One-day races of up to 270 km (168 miles), often TEAM SPRINT ridden over difficult terrain, such as cobbled roads. Two teams of three riders race over three laps. INDIVIDUAL TIME TRIAL TEAM PURSUIT GREEN JERSEY YELLOW JERSEY Competitors race individually against the clock. Awarded to the Worn by the Two teams of four riders race over 4 km (2.5 best sprinter. CRITERIUM miles). Teams start on opposite sides of the track. overall leader. A high-speed race, on a city-centre circuit of less KEIRIN ON THE ROAD than 5 km (3 miles), over a set time (usually one hour) or a fixed number of laps. Cyclists ride several laps behind a motorcycle Riders race in teams. Team pacemaker before sprinting to the finish. members work together during PELOTON the race to help their leader to The name given OMNIUM MADISON win, even if it means sacrificing Team car to the main group their own chances of success. of riders in a race. Twenty-four riders contest six different events: The Madison is a relay event for three sprints and three endurance races. The teams of two. When the riders Race director strongest overall rider wins. change over, one uses his hand to propel the other into the race. BRE AK AWAY A few riders work together to THE VELODROME Pursuit Motorcycle pull away from the main group. start line marshal The velodrome track is oval and sloped, or “banked”, Wood, concrete, or so riders can achieve synthetic track maximum speed. Finish line Pursuit BANKING ANGLES start line On an Olympic 250 m 200 m (656 ft) line (820 ft) track, the (only used in sprints) banks can be as steep as 45 degrees. STANDARD TRACK BIKE Light, carbon- Drop ROAD BIKE Integrated fibre frame handlebars Road bikes have to be strong, brake and The standard bike is used light, and comfortable enough gear levers for short races, while Single fixed to be ridden for long periods. pursuit bikes with low- gear Carbon-fibre profile handlebars are forks absorb used for endurance events. minor bumps Aerodynamic Tubular tyres disc wheel 265

Water sports DIVING 10 m (32.8 ft) platform Water provides the perfect environment to Competitive divers show off sporting skills, from impressive tricks dive from a variety 7.5 m (24.6 ft) on a board to acrobatic dives into the water. of heights. They must platform Water sports are exciting and require great acrobatically twist and balance, strength, and endurance to keep flip in the air before 5 m (16.4 ft) control in the water. they hit the water. This platform requires great muscle strength, as divers must 3 m (9.8 ft) move their bodies springboard like gymnasts. 1 m (3.3 ft) Judges score springboard divers from 0 to 10 Water jets break SWIMMING The false start The starter Timekeepers keep the surface recall rope drops begins track of how long of the pool Many swimmers take part in each swimmer races in swimming pools, but into the water the race takes to finish DIVING TECHNIQUES some will even cross seas or when a competitor endure cold-water races in Some swimmers To achieve the highest scores, divers the peak of winter. Swimming dives in too soon wear full swimsuits must complete a dive that is technically requires agility and strength and others may challenging. They are scored on their to move through the water Stroke judges wear shorts approach, flight, and entry into the water. as quickly as possible. ensure the swimming TUCK The referee strokes are The diver’s makes sure the legal knees are tightly tucked race is fair up and held with the Starting block toes pointed. The finish All competition PIKE judge informs pools should have The body is bent the referee a mark 15 m (49.2 ft) at the hips over who won from each end straight legs the race with pointed toes. Turn judges ensure Backstroke the turns are legal flags are set 5 m (16.4 ft) from the end of the pool THE ENTRY STRAIGHT The body must be Divers must be totally flat and rigid completely straight as with pointed toes. they enter the water, with minimal splash. SOLO SWIMMING SYNCHRONIZED SWIMMING BALL SPORTS To glide through the water at great speed, swimmers Synchronized swimmers must perform a graceful must perfect their arm strokes and leg kicking so each routine in perfect unison. Music is played both above A number of team ball movement propels them forwards. and below the water to help them keep time. sports take place in water, such as water SWIMMING STROKES polo and underwater hockey. In water polo, There are swimming competitions for all four types of swimming strokes. The fastest players must tread stroke is the front crawl. In the individual medley, swimmers must swim all four strokes. water for long periods of time. In underwater FRONT CRAWL BREASTSTROKE BUTTERFLY BACKSTROKE hockey, they need to be UNDERWATER HOCKEY able to dive underwater. Teams use snorkels and a stick to get the puck into the goal. WATER POLO Teams score goals by throwing a ball into a net. 266

BOARD SPORTS Board sports are popular on lakes and along coasts, where people can use the power of the wind, waves, or boats to race along at high speeds or perform amazing tricks. They usually require excellent balance and strength to control the board and avoid falling off. SURFING KITESURFING WATER-SKIING WAKEBOARDING WINDSURFING Surfers need good balance to Kitesurfers use the power Water-skiers are pulled along Wakeboarders are pulled along Windsurfers use a large sail control a surfboard with their feet. of the wind to speed across behind a boat on one or two skis, on a board by a boat and use to power them across the water The strength of the breaking waves the water and jump high or even barefoot. They compete in the boat’s wake to perform in speed races or to perform pushes the board forwards. into the air. slalom, jumping, or trick events. flips and jumps. impressive tricks. FLOATER The floater is a popular trick to help surfers gain speed when surfing a wave, or to clear a section of the wave. It is also a great way to set up for another trick. 1 When you have some speed, 2 Ride up to the lip of the wave 3 Switch your weight from your 4 Enter back into the wave point the board towards the at a 30-degree angle. back foot to your front foot to by pushing your board flat wave when it is starting to break. turn on the lip of the wave. on the face of the wave. ROWING SCULLING There can be up In sculling, rowers have to eight people Rowers face backwards one oar in each hand. in a rowing team and pull oars through the water to propel their boat ROWING as fast as possible. Typically, In sweep-oar rowing, each rowing is done in rivers rower is responsible for one oar. or lakes, but some rowers even cross oceans. A sprayskirt keeps the water WHITE WATER RAFTING out of the boat. SPORTS Groups can share the thrill of paddling an inflatable raft down the rapids. CANOEING White water is made when Canoeists use a paddle with one blade and are rivers pass through rocky either in a sitting or kneeling position in their boat. areas and create rapids. Adrenaline-seekers try to manoeuvre crafts such as kayaks, canoes, and rafts as they travel down the turbulent rivers in races, slaloms (winding races), or just for fun. ESKIMO ROLL Kayakers use an eskimo roll when they have capsized to turn the kayak the right way up. 1 LEAN FORWARD 2 SWEEP 3 STABILIZE Lean against the Sweep the paddle Use the paddle to kayak and hold the through the water and make sure you are paddle out of the water. rotate your hips to pull stable, then lift the kayak up. your head and body up. INUIT PEOPLE CREATED K AYAKING KAYAKS MORE THAN 4,000 Kayakers use a paddle WHAYLEEABROSNAEGOORFWROOMOD with a blade at each end to move quickly through the water. AND ANIMAL SKINS 267

Sailing Main sail ANATOMY OF A BOAT Sailing has been a mode of transport for Knowing the names for different parts of thousands of years. Today, it is also an exciting a boat is important when sailing, especially sport and hobby, which requires quick thinking, if you are part of a team. It helps you to confidence, and strength. Sailors take part in a communicate more clearly with each other number of competitive races around the world, so that you can travel faster and stay safe. although many sail the seas simply for fun. Mast SAILING CLOTHING Special clothing helps sailors keep warm and dry when on the water, especially in bad weather. A buoyancy aid or life jacket is worn to keep sailors safe if they fall into the water. LIFE JACKET BUOYANCY AID DUNGAREES JACKET SAILING GLOVES WETSUIT DINGHY SHOES FULL GLOVES YACHTING BOOTS NAVIGATING Tides, currents, and shallow waters can make the ocean a dangerous place. Many sailors use GPS (Global Positioning System) to plan their course, but in case this fails, knowing how to navigate is a vital skill. WIND DISPLAY DEPTH DISPLAY COMPASS Shows the Helps sailors avoid Helps sailors keep direction of track of the boat’s the wind. water that is too shallow. direction. Boom Mainsheet Stern Dividers measure distance on chart COURSE PLOTTER NAUTICAL CHARTS The plotter shows which compass points Charts are detailed maps of a sailing area, with hazards and reference points shown. to follow when it is placed over a map. 268

TYPES OF BOATS Spinnaker USING THE WIND WIND DIRECTION Boats are organized by class, which is determined by their Sailors can adjust their sails to make the most of Close haul length. Small boats are ideal for short-distance racing, as they the wind. The sails can be angled to capture the wind, move quickly. Large boats are better for long-distance sailing as so the boat is pushed forwards in the direction it faces. they can endure more treacherous seas than a small dinghy. A sailing boat can travel in any direction except straight Here are some popular classes of boat. into the wind (the no-sail zone). No-sail zone KEY Close reach Beam reach No-sail zone LASER CLASS 470 CLASS 49ER CLASS In this area the boat would be sailing A popular 4.2 m (14 ft) A 4.7 m (15.4 ft) dinghy A 4.9 m (16 ft) dinghy with into the wind. The sails would not work dinghy for solo sailing. CCA spinnaker for speed. and the boat would not move. for a crew of two. Close haul The closest a boat can sail to the wind without entering the no-sail zone. Both sails are pulled in tight to the centreline. Close reach Similar to a close-hauled course, but the boat is turned away a little more from the wind and the sails are loosened further. Beam reach Broad reach Sails are eased halfway and the wind is coming directly across the side of the boat. Broad reach Run Sails are nearly full and the boat is on a course away from the wind (downwind). TORNADO CLASS OCEAN RACER AMERICA’S CUP CLASS Run A 6.1 m (20 ft) catamaran A 24 m (79 ft) yacht used with two body sections that (VOLVO 70) CLASS in the America’s Cup race Sails are full and the wind is directly increase the boat’s speed. A 21.3 m (70 ft) yacht with between 1992 and 2007. behind the boat. a 31.5 m (103 ft) mast. STIAHNIAOLTINRHNINWETGRTNAFAHOERNTEFRASH1SPRE6POER0O,RL0RBATsTEAN,GTRDAIASONTNHER TACKING AND GYBING RECORD BREAKERS There are two ways of turning a boat: tacking and Since sailing began as a sport several gybing. Tacking is a safer, slower way of turning hundred years ago, many sailors have as it allows more control of the sails. Gybing is set impressive around-the-world faster and is especially good for racing. sailing records. Spinnaker JOSHUA SLOCUM (CANADA), 1895–98 Foresail The first person to sail solo around the world, with just three stops. ROBIN KNOX-JOHNSTON (UK), 1969 The first person to sail solo around the world without stopping. KAY COTTEE (AUSTRALIA), 1988 The first woman to sail solo around the world without stopping. ELLEN MACARTHUR (UK), 2005 Became the fastest person to sail solo around the world without stopping, in 71 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes, and 33 seconds. FRANCIS JOYON (FRANCE), 2008 Broke Ellen MacArthur’s record to become the fastest person to sail solo around the world without stopping, in 57 days, 13 hours, 34 minutes, and 6 seconds. TACKING GYBING Turn the boat to face upwind. Turn the boat to face downwind. OCEAN RACING Ocean races can be extremely challenging and dangerous. They require both physical and mental strength, as sailors can be at sea for many weeks at a time. ROUTE DU RHUM Singlehanded racers must work with fast winds in this high-speed journey across the Atlantic Ocean. VOLVO OCEAN RACE In this extreme race, nine- person crews sail around the world day and night. Port side Bow Starboard side KEY VELUX 5 OCEANS SOUTH ATLANTIC RACE Route du Rhum Volvo Ocean Race This ambitious solo round-the-world Teams in this race must face the strong winds Velux 5 Oceans South Atlantic Race race takes more than 100 days to finish. and huge waves of the southern Atlantic Ocean. 269

Fishing WHERE TO FISH STILL WATER RUNNING WATER SALT WATER Rain or shine, anglers spend hours waiting for a There are three main Ponds and Streams and Most saltwater fish to take their bait. Some eat their catch, but types of fishing: freshwater lakes are home rivers are the fishing is from many throw the fish back. So what is the big fishing (sometimes called place to catch boats close to attraction? Anglers enjoy the peace and quiet, coarse fishing), saltwater to carp, pike, salmon, trout, shore or out at pitting their wits against the fish, and having fishing, and fly-fishing. In and other bream, and sea. Anglers also their skill rewarded. freshwater and saltwater freshwater perch. Anglers sit on sea walls, fishing, anglers use baits fish from the and lures to attract fish. In species. Anglers bank or wade in. or wade in fly-fishing, they use imitation fish from the the shallows. flies instead. Freshwater bank or a boat. environments include ponds, lakes, streams, and rivers. Fly-fishing can happen in fresh or salt water. RODS, REELS, AND LINES MULTIPLIER REEL FIXED-SPOOL REEL FLY REEL FISHING LINES A simple stick or length of bamboo can work as a rod, with a line and hook tied on – but most anglers have high-tech rods made of fibreglass or carbon fibre. They come apart for easy carrying and are used with a reel to wind in and stow the line. Multiplier reels allow faster winding than fixed spools, as each turn of the handle spins the drum several times. Super-fast fly reels are used for fly-fishing. FLOAT ROD (IN FOUR PIECES) FISHING TACKLE Artificial fly See-through BAIT lid with handle Lead shot A tackle box with a handle is essential for Even everyday scraps of bread will transporting equipment and keeping it all attract fish, but there are better baits organized. The best designs open out so to use. Live types include worms and that the compartments are tiered. maggots. Sweetcorn, seeds, grains, and dog biscuits work well, too. “Boilies” are processed bait balls, high in protein, that RED YELLOW come in many colours and flavours. BOILIES BOILIES Float DOG BISCUITS SWEETCORN WORMS WAX WORMS LEAD WEIGHTS Whistle to WEIGHTS attract Weights help bring the end of the line close to the fish. attention in an Anglers use them to anchor the bait on the bottom or keep emergency it at a particular depth. Most weights are made of a soft metal called lead. Different shapes do different jobs. The Lure smallest – split shot – slots, or crimps, on to the line under a float to position it in the flow of water. The combination of Float rig the line, hook, bait, and weight is called a rig. with hook Float Catapult for launching bait into the water Weight Bait Hook Hook Weight SPLIT SHOT WIRE Fishing line in Sharp scissors and HAIR RIG FOR CARP CATFISH RIG different weights other tools for tying flies Carp are wary fish. The bait is Catfish can be huge. Live bait is attached to the hook on a fine, fixed to the hook. The baited rig weighted line. The fish sucks up is tied to a float that is secured the bait without feeling the hook. by a weight on the riverbed. 270

CASTING Rod bends BIGGEST CATCH WEIGHING backwards Few people get the hang of casting straight Big-game fishing happens out in the open All anglers want to know how much their away, but practice makes perfect. Sending Rod catapults ocean. Tuna, marlin, and swordfish are catch weighs – so they can compete with the fly, lure, or bait to where the fish are takes forwards popular targets, and the aim is to catch the each other, and with their own personal good hand-eye co-ordination and strength. biggest fish possible. The record for the heaviest bests. For catch-and-release fishing, it is Atlantic bluefin tuna was set in 1932 by English especially important to use scales that do fisherman Edward Peel, using a rod and line. not cause any extra distress. RECORD ATLANTIC BLUEFIN TUNA, 1932 362 kg (798 lb) Finger holds the OVERHEAD CAST Finger releases TRADITIONAL SCALES PORTABLE SCALES reel as rod bends One of the simplest casts is the the reel as rod overhead cast, used by all beginners. catapults forwards backwards WILD EYE SHAD LURES FLOATS UNUSUAL FISHING METHODS Made of plastic, metal, or wood, lures Like weights, floats help suspend bait or a lure are shaped and coloured to look like at a particular depth in the water. Some come People have caught fish throughout irresistible little fish. Like a puppeteer, the ready-weighted, but others are used with lead history, gathering food from rivers and angler works the line so the lures come to weights or shot. Lighter floats are ideal for still the sea just as they hunted animals on life. Any predatory fish that falls for one water. Fast-moving water needs heavier floats. land. Over the centuries, people came finds itself caught on the angler’s hook. up with many weird and wonderful ways to catch fish. ZANDER ON STILTS ZALT ZAM Stilt fishermen in Sri Lanka drive their poles into the sand just offshore, then perch at the top and cast their lines. This technique means they disturb the fish as little as possible. USING SUCKER FISH STILTS PROFESSOR SPOON SAMMY Remoras are suckerfish that hitch a ride on larger fish. In ERNIE FIRETAIL JELLYWORM Africa, some fishermen use them on their fishing lines. When they feel the remora has attached its sucker to a big fish, they haul it in. LURES ARE SOMETIMES WITH DOGS PORTUGUESE DELIBERATELY DESIGNED TO WATER DOG Fishermen along the coast of LOOK DISTRESSED OR Portugal traditionally used water INJURED – LIKE EASY PREY dogs to herd fish into their nets. DEPTHS CHUG BUG POPPER USING CORMORANTS Lures can be PIKE LURE Chinese and Japanese fishermen weighted to Pike will go use trained cormorants. A throat “swim” at for a lure at snare stops the birds swallowing any depth. bigger fish, but is loose enough different depths, The lure has to let them eat smaller ones. so that they to be on a wire line as COLOURFUL FLOATS WITH DOLPHINS appeal to specific a pike has a predators. fierce bite. Bright colours attract fish A pod of dolphins in Laguna, and also help the angler Brazil, helps the local fishermen CORMORANTS keep track of where the by driving shoals of mullet towards the shore. The dolphins float is in the water. even leap out of the water to tell the people the right moment to cast their nets. FLY-FISHING ADULT MAYFLY DAMSEL NYMPH CARP FLY ATTRACTORS PIWI POPPER (freshwater) (freshwater) (freshwater) (saltwater) Fly-fishing began as a way of catching river Mimics dog-biscuit bait. Attractors are often brightly coloured. salmon and trout. Today, it is popular for a The fly-angler usually moves them Rubber legs huge range of fresh- and saltwater species. around a lot to tempt fish to attack. create movement The angler uses fake flies to tempt the fish. Some are cast on to the surface of the water Legs make ripples Big, buoyant eyes (dry flies), and some into the water (wet flies). on the surface Flies can be lifelike (deceivers) or come in crazy colours (attractors). SUPER BUZZER F-FLY DEPTH CHARGE CHERNOBYL ANT DEER HOPPER CACTUS BOOBY (freshwater) (freshwater) (freshwater) SUPREME (freshwater) CZECH MATES (freshwater) Resembles a just-hatched (freshwater) Looks like a midge pupa. insect stranded on Mimics a caddis the surface. fly larva. WRIST ACTION SQUID WHITE SURF CANDY FLY WILLS SKITTAL TAN CREASE FLY (saltwater) (saltwater) (saltwater) (saltwater) In streams or rivers, the fly-angler aims to cast the Looks like a squid. Imitates any baitfish. Imitates a shrimp. fly upstream. Then it will gently drift downstream in a natural-looking way. 271

Combat KUNG FU: TAOLU sports Taolu is a form of kung fu in which competitors show off Many sports, both ancient and modern, routines on a padded mat. Their moves include punches, have their roots in traditional fighting balances, jumps, sweeps, and throws. Some moves are techniques. These combat sports teach performed bare-handed, and some with weapons. strength and discipline, and help students learn how to defend themselves. Some TAOLU WEAPONS are better known as martial arts. In taolu, competitors handle various traditional Chinese weapons. Working alone or in pairs, they aim to be as graceful as possible. GUN (TYPE OF STAFF), 210 cm (7 ft) JIAN (SWORD), 103 cm (3.4 ft) DAO (CURVED SWORD), 98 cm (3.25 ft) TYPES OF COMBAT SPORTS NANDAO Swishing tassels (BROADSWORD), emphasize the moves Some combat sports have developed from very old ways of 97 cm (3.25 ft) fighting, while others have been around for just a few decades. Chinese tunic Most focus on one of three types of attack: punches, kicks, and Taijijian sword worn over other strikes; throwing, holding, and pinning; or using weapons. is 110 cm loose trousers PUNCHES, KICKS, AND OTHER STRIKES (3.6 ft) long KUNG FU: TAOLU THAI BOXING Kung fu takes many forms. Unlike Western boxers, Thai The most popular is taolu, boxers attack with feet, elbows, a form of wushu. and knees as well as fists. KUNG FU: SANSHOU CAPOEIRA SEATED STANCE CROUCH STANCE HORSE STANCE Sanshou is a Chinese martial African slaves in Brazil developed art similar to kickboxing. It is capoeira. It looks like a dance, but In this stance, called xie bu, the This move, known as pu bu, This powerful position is never practised with weapons. it is really a form of self-defence. competitor wraps one thigh is a very low squat. One arm known as ma bu in Chinese. over the other. The front foot The tops of the thighs must stays flat on the floor. arches over the head to counterbalance the crouching. stay parallel to the floor. KUNG FU: T’AI CHI TAEKWONDO BOXING FIGHTING GEAR Based on slow, flowing The name of this 20th-century movements, this is a gentle, Korean martial art means “the In boxing, two opponents try to punch each other, while avoiding Groin guards are meditative form of kung fu. way of the foot and fist”. punches themselves. They score points for different punches to optional, but gloves their opponent’s head and upper body. The winner is the boxer and mouth guards BOXING K AR ATE who scores most points or who knocks out his or her opponent. must be worn. Head The Ancient Greeks boxed, but Originating from Japan, karate is a guards are mandatory modern boxing follows rules form of self-defence. Practitioners Padded for women’s contests. set 150 years ago in England. do not use any weapons or props. glove KARATE THROWING, HOLDING, AND PINNING Head bobs GROIN and weaves GUARD JUJITSU WRESTLING GLOVES This Japanese martial art drew As popular today as it was in on ancient Indian and Chinese Ancient Greece and Rome, wrestling MOUTH fighting techniques. involves one-to-one grappling. GUARD JUDO SOMBO Shorts Based on jujitsu, judo developed Very like wrestling, this Russian in the 1800s. It involves throwing, combat sport also involves grappling, and striking. punches and kicks. SUMO WRESTLING WRESTLING HEAD This sport is most associated GUARD with Japan, but it originated in China in the 3rd century BCE. USING WEAPONS Boxing shoe K AL ARIPAYIT ESKRIMA JAB HOOK UPPERCUT One of the world’s oldest Meaning “skirmish”, martial arts, kalaripayit eskrima was developed A stiff jab is the basic punch Hooks are delivered to the This powerful punch is developed in Ancient India. in the Philippines in used by all boxers. For a side of the head or body. delivered on to the opponent’s the 16th century. perfect jab, the boxer has The best hooks are those an FENCING to fully extend his arm. opponent does not see coming. chin from below. It often This sport developed from KENDO results in a knockout. sword fighting in the 1500s. Full of ritual, this Japanese Many of its terms are French. sport is based on kenjutsu, an 11th-century form of KYUDO sword-fighting. Samurai warriors practised an early form of kyudo, which KENDO is similar to archery. 272

JUDO SUMO In the Japanese art of judo, two In sumo wrestling, opponents (called judoka) try to throw the aim is to stay in the each other to the ground, pin each ring with only the feet other down, or force touching the ground. a submission. There The two opponents try are no weapons, and to push each other off kicks and punches balance or out of the are not allowed. ring. The heaviest sumo star, Konishiki Yasokichi, Heavy cotton weighed 287 kg (633 lb) jacket, known and was known as the “Dump Truck”. as an uwagi Legwear Colour of belt shows TSURIYANE CANOPY Thick mawashi (belt) called zubon the judoka’s rank has silk tassels The canopy over the fighting arena O1L9Y6JFUM4IDRGPOSIACTMISSSEPEASOENIRNNTOA.TFITOFTITKCWHYIAAEOLS looks like the roof of a Shinto shrine. Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion. YORIKIRI UWATENAGE HATAKIKOMI As one wrestler charges, the This move involves seizing In this attack, the wrestler the opponent’s mawashi grips his opponent’s mawashi other steps to the side and and trying to march then slaps the opponent’s back him out of the ring. and pulls him down, while turning his own upper body. or arm so he falls over. FENCING Face mask Two opponents face each other with special swords in Protective this traditional sport. Matches take place on a narrow, jacket raised platform, and the fencers score points by White’s Blue’s touching target areas on their opponent’s torso. score score Scorer Timer Stop-clock SCOREBOARD Flexible blade Hand guard Corner judge Corner The scoreboard shows FIGHTING GEAR Referee judge each judoka’s points, Three swords are used in fencing. Beginners which are called ippon, start with the foil. Master fencers usually and their penalties. specialize in either the épée or the sabre. FOIL, 110 cm (43 in) White Knee-length EPEE, 110 cm (43 in) breeches socks SABRE, 105 cm (41 in) JUDO ARENA Flat-soled Contest trainers area In a competition, the first judoka called to fight wears a blue judo suit, and his or her opponent wears white. Judges, referees, timers, and scorers work together to award scores. Judoka O-GOSHI KESA GATAME OKURI-ERI-JIME ATTACK PARRY RIPOSTE After a parry, the follow-up In the o-goshi, or hip throw, Many throws end with a Submissions are dangerous The fencer extends his or The parry is a defensive move counterattack is known as a the judoka uses his or her pin. Kesa gatame involves moves. In okuri-eri-jime, the her sword arm towards the that blocks the opponent’s riposte. The name comes from hip as a pivot point to throw wrapping an arm around opponent. A lunge forward attack and may expose him the French word for “reply”. the opponent to the floor. judoka grips his or her or her to a counterattack. the opponent’s neck. opponent in a stranglehold. adds force to the attack. 273

Knots Bight: the rope SHAPING THE ROPE is doubled Knowing how to tie knots is a fun skill that is Bending the rope into different shapes useful in many situations. For activities such Loop: the helps to create different knots. The three as climbing or sailing, ropes tied with the right rope forms a most commonly used rope shapes are knots are vital for safety. More everyday uses circle without “bight”, “loop”, and “crossing turn”. for knots range from putting up a tent to crossing itself making decorations or even tying shoelaces. Crossing turn: the rope crosses itself to form a circle FIGURE 1 2 3 4 5 OF EIGHT Under Over Under Pull Easy to tie and untie, the figure of eight is a Cross over Pull Tighten to finish simple stopper knot that can be used to stop rope from slipping through a hole. It is an important knot for sailors and rock climbers. REEF KNOT 1 Under 2 3 4 5 This binding knot is Over Bring together Under Under Pull Pull quick to do. It is used for securing rope or string around an object, so is perfect for tying up parcels. Reef knots are also known as square knots. Tighten to finish CLOVE HITCH 1 In front 2 Behind 3 In front Under 4 Pull 5 The clove hitch is a binding Behind In front knot that is used when only one end of a rope is available Over to work with. It is tied to secure the end of a rope to a post or similar, and is often used by climbers. Pull Tighten to finish ROUND TURN 1 2 3 Under 4 Under 5 AND TWO HALF HITCHES Behind In front In front Over Tighten to finish Under This is a weight-bearing knot that could be used for Behind Over Under attaching a rope to a fixed object. For example, you could tie a swing to the branch of a tree using this knot. BOWLINE 1 Under 2 3 4 5 The bowline is a handy loop Under Pull knot with many uses, from mooring a boat to hanging Over up a hammock. It is quick to tie and untie. Over Cross over Under Pull Tighten to finish 274

STOPPER KNOTS These prevent a rope slipping through a hole or unravelling at the end. Stopper knots can also be used for decoration. Some are tricky to undo. WALL KNOT DIAMOND STOPPER SINK STOPPER MANROPE STEVEDORE MONKEY’S FIST MATTHEW WALKER FIGURE OF EIGHT TIMBER HITCH BINDING KNOTS Handy for many purposes, binding knots are particularly useful for tying things together in bundles. Some types are ideal for making bows on gift packages or tying shoelaces. BOA CLOVE HITCH TURK’S HEAD THIEF PACKER’S SAILOR’S CROSS TRUE LOVER’S REEF SLIPPED REEF SURGEON’S GRANNY TURQUOISE TURTLE SLIPPED REEF DOUBLE BEND KNOTS These knots are designed to join two pieces of rope together. They are used by mountaineers on safety lines and other pieces of climbing equipment. Some bend knots secure fastenings between ropes of different thicknesses. SHEET BEND CARRICK BLOOD TUCKED HUNTER’S LANYARD WATER DOUBLE FISHERMAN’S BEND SHEET BEND BEND SHEET BEND HITCH KNOTS COW HITCH ITALIAN HITCH A hitch ties a rope to ROLLING SQUARE something else, such HITCH LASHING as a pole or a ring. Fishermen often use hitches to fasten hooks on to fishing lines. ICICLE HITCH SHEER KLEMHEIST BUNTLINE COW HITCH LASHING HITCH WITH TOGGLE SHEEPSHANK THREADED LOOP KNOTS FIGURE OF Loop knots are used to EIGHT attach ropes to other objects. For this reason they are SPANISH popular with climbers, BOWLINE sailors, and fishermen. PORTUGUESE ANGLER’S BOWLINE BASIC NET JURY BOWLINE LOOP MAST BLOOD DROPPER ALPINE BUTTERFLY 275

Games CARD GAMES EUROPEAN CARDS Long before the Internet, computer games, and TV, people Easy to carry and used all invented games. Board and card games have been around over the world, packs of for hundreds or even thousands of years and are as cards are the starting point challenging and fun to play today as they ever were. for thousands of different games. Digital versions of TABLE-TOP GAMES many traditional games can also be played online. These competitive games have flat boards, small pieces, and can take CARDS FROM AROUND THE WORLD hours of concentration before European packs have 52 cards someone wins. Over the years, in four suits — hearts, clubs, games like these became a focus diamonds, and spades. Other for social get-togethers. They are cards have pictures or shapes. still a great way to gather people round a table to have fun. CHINESE CHEQUERS BACKGAMMON The aim of this game is to race your coloured pegs across the board to the opposite point of the star. You can move along one This game for two players is one of the hole at a time or hop over pegs in your path. oldest in the world. It involves a mixture of strategy and luck as players roll dice and then decide how to move their counters. The winner is the first player to clear their pieces off the board. SNAKES AND LADDERS GO GAME Players throw a die to Go starts with an move up the board and, empty board. Players hopefully, land on a ladder to skip rows. But place their stones watch out for the snakes! where the lines cross to build territories. Or they surround and capture enemy stones. DRAUGHTS The aim of this game is to grab all your opponent’s pieces by jumping over them diagonally as you cross the board. PLAYING PIECES MANCALA There are hundreds of The earliest games were played different versions of mancala. with anything that came to hand — Players move seeds or stones pebbles, shells, sticks, and bones. along pits on the board and try to collect the largest store. Nowadays, many games have written rules, boards, tiles, DOMINOES counters, marbles, A domino set has 28 tiles, each with two sets of spots representing numbers from zero to six. The players draw or pegs. seven tiles and take turns to match the spots on tiles at the ends of a line. The winner is the first to get rid of their tiles. MAHJONG PICK-UP STICKS SOLITAIRE In this ancient Chinese game, The sticks are dropped in a heap and The aim of this game for one four players take each player in turn tries to pull a stick person is to clear the board by turns to pick up from the pile without disturbing the rest. jumping marbles over each other and discard tiles. The player with the most sticks wins. to remove them. The game is The aim is to complete when just one marble collect sets of is left in the centre hole. different types. 276

POPULAR CARD GAMES GAMES THROUGH THE AGES In most games, winning is a mix of memory, Archaeologists have found ancient game pieces skill, and luck in how the cards fall. that are more than 5,000 years old. Prehistoric people played games even earlier, with bones NAME TYPE PLAYERS OBJECTIVE that were used like dice. Rummy draw-and-discard 2 or more combine cards into sets 3100 BCE Bridge trick-taking 4 players highest score The oldest 3100 bce known board Poker trick-taking 2 or more hand rankings game, Senet is a Backgammon favourite pastime Patience building sets 1 player complete all 4 sets in Ancient Egypt. 3000 BCE A board game similar to backgammon is played. JAPANESE HANFUDA OR FLOWER CARDS Canasta draw-and-discard 4 players highest score A GAME OF CHESS Black queen CHESS CLOCKS Senet in 500 BCE sits on black tomb painting In a chess game, each player has a black or These clocks control the Pachisi, India’s national white army and takes turns to move pieces to square time spent on each move. game, is mentioned attack the other player’s king. The aim is to put The player stops his own in the epic poem the king into checkmate — a position where he The Mahabharata. cannot move to safety. Along the way, players timer after a move and capture enemy pieces and try to keep their starts his opponent’s. 200 CE own pieces safe. A pottery Go board from 600s this era has been found in Shaanxi Province, China. An ancestor of the game of chess, 700s Chaturanga is referred to in Fragments Indian writings. of early mancala Light square in 900s games have back corner is Playing cards been found always on player’s appear in China’s in Eritrea, right-hand side Tang dynasty. Africa. Front row Hnefatafl Mancala has eight 1230 pawns 1200s The Scandinavian The first mention of the strategy game game of dominoes appears Hnefatafl is in a Chinese text. mentioned in the Norse Saga. 1492 Draughts Cribbage board A knight and lady 1600s are shown playing A card game called draughts in a cribbage, played with a scorekeeping medieval book. CHESS BOARD SET-UP White queen King Bishop Knight Rook board, is invented. c.1850 The 16 pieces sit on black and white squares in two sits on white The Chinese game rows with the eight pawns in the front row. In the back square 1886 mahjong is created row, two bishops, two knights, and two rooks sit on The first World from earlier versions. either side of the queen and the king. Chess Tournament FULL SET OF BLACK PIECES 1874 Pachisi CHESS PIECES is held. Parcheesi, a There are 32 pieces in a set – 1890s version of the 16 black and 16 white. Each Snakes and ancient Indian player has one king, one queen, Ladders, based on game pachisi, two rooks, two knights, two an ancient Indian is introduced bishops, and eight pawns. game, becomes to the USA. popular in Victorian KING 1938 The most valuable piece England. Criss Cross Words (later on the board, the king can Scrabble) is invented by move one square in any 1970 a US architect. direction. It cannot move A code-breaking into a square occupied by QUEEN BISHOP 1978 a piece of the same colour The queen is the most The bishop is topped by game for two Space Invaders or into “check” — a position powerful piece on the a mitre (bishop’s head- players called becomes a blockbuster where it is under threat by board. She can move in dress). It can move any Mastermind is arcade video game. an opposing player. any direction and for any distance diagonally as long number of squares as long as its path is clear. The invented. 1980 Rubik’s KNIGHT as her path is clear of her bishop starts on a light cube The knight is useful own pieces. If she captures or dark square and must 1980 Rubik’s Cube because it can jump an opponent’s piece her stay on the same colour Arcade game is launched over pieces in its path. It move is over. throughout the game. and becomes moves two squares in any Pac-Man is the world’s direction and then sideways ROOK OR CASTLE PAWN released in Japan. best-selling one square to the left or Sitting in the corner of Pawns are the smallest puzzle game. right. In effect, it sits in the the board at the beginning and least valuable pieces. 1984 corner of a rectangle three of the game, the rook (or Throughout the game, a The Trivial Pursuit 2000 squares by two and jumps castle) can move backwards, pawn can move just one general knowledge to the opposite corner. forwards, left, and right as square at a time forwards Computer gamers can set far as it needs to. Its path from its starting position. game is a up home and choose how has to be clear of pieces of But for its very first huge success. to live in The Sims, a the same colour. The rooks move, the pawn has the follow-on from SimCity. are often used to protect option of moving two 2004 each other. squares forward. World of Warcraft 2015 2011 The multi-award-winning is created – a computer game Minecraft MMORPG is released. (massively multiplayer online role-playing game). 277

Magic PIECE OF ROPE Magicians perform tricks and illusions to amaze an audience by making the impossible seem BOW TIE possible and the unbelievable believable. With practice and a little skill, anyone can learn a few magic tricks to impress friends and family. The golden rule of magic is never to reveal how your trick works. MAGIC TOOLS WAND All magicians have a few SCARVES BAG OF pieces of essential equipment COINS in their tool box, as aids for tricks and for showmanship. A pack of playing cards and a set of cups and balls are probably the most important. Wands are also popular. PACK OF CUPS AND BALLS TOP HAT AND CARDS RABBIT DISAPPEARING 1 DRAW A CIRCLE 2 GLUE THE CIRCLE 3 PLACE THE OBJECTS COIN TRICK Place the plastic cup Glue the paper circle to Place the cup upside In this vanishing trick, you will convince your audience that a coin has disappeared, when in reality it is hidden. You will need scissors, two sheets of paper or card, glue, a pencil, a handkerchief, a coin, and a clear plastic cup. upside down on one of the the rim of the cup. You can down on the second piece pieces of paper or card and discard the remains of the of paper or card. Put the draw around it with your piece of paper or card. handkerchief and coin pencil. Cut out the circle. there too. 4 BEGIN THE 5 HIDE THE COIN 6 SLOWLY REVEAL 7 NO COIN! PERFORMANCE Completely cover the cup Gently remove the If you are careful, your Now you are ready to begin the with the handkerchief and handkerchief from the cup, audience won’t guess that the trick. Gather the audience, place it over the coin. You taking care not to move the coin is actually underneath then put the handkerchief over might want to wave your wand cup itself. the paper circle. TOPOMLLAAASCNKAEYERBSMEEUFARROEGEARICAEDLTYSLRTAYIACNORKDUTIRINNG the cup. or say some magic words now. WATER TO ICE 1 ADD THE SPONGE 2 PLACE THE ICE 3 POUR THE WATER 4 VOILA! Cut a piece of sponge Put a few ice cubes on top Ask your audience to Say some magic words or This is a simple transformation trick. You will need a paper cup, ice, sponge, to fit snugly inside your of the sponge in the base of watch you pouring water wave your wand, then tip the cup scissors, and a small jug of water. Practise first so you know how much water your paper cup. This will absorb the cup. Gather your audience from the jug into your cup, upside down and the ice cubes piece of sponge will absorb. the water you pour in. now, before the ice melts. making sure they can’t see will tumble out. 278 into the cup.

MAGIC EFFECTS MAGIC SKILLS MAGICIANS There are thousands of Entertaining the audience is a magician’s The first stars of stage magic invented different magic tricks and first task. Once the audience is under his their own amazing tricks. Today’s top magicians are always thinking or her spell, the magician uses sleight of magicians continue this tradition, up new ones. All magicians hand – distraction and deception – to make devising different illusions to delight perform their magic using it appear that real magic is being performed. and enthral audiences. effects. The simplest tricks rely on just one effect, but PRODUCTION VANISHING THE GREAT LAFAYETTE more complicated tricks use Making something – or The opposite of production – (1871–1911) several effects at once. someone – appear out making a thing or Lafayette was probably the most successful of nowhere. person disappear. magician of his time. His speciality was dramatic illusions, often performed with his dog Beauty, a gift from Harry Houdini. LEVITATION OR PREDICTION TRANSFORMATION SHOWMANSHIP HARRY HOUDINI HOUDINI Seeming to know what is Changing one thing into A good magician amuses and entertains the audience. (1874–1926) SUSPENSION about to happen, such as something else, such as Making something or someone which card will be picked. a person into an animal. Props such as scarves come in useful, and so does The greatest escapologist appear to fly or float in midair. “patter” – telling jokes or asking questions. the world has ever known, Houdini could free himself from anything – handcuffs, leg irons, cages, straitjackets, prison cells, and even a sealed milk can. DANTE THE GREAT (1883–1955) Dante’s amazing shows of tricks and illusions included a huge cast of musicians, jugglers, acrobats, birds, and animals. CRISS ANGEL (1967–) “Magician of the Century” Criss Angel’s stunts include walking on water, floating between two buildings, making an elephant disappear, and being run over by a steamroller while lying on a bed of glass. RESTORATION ESCAPOLOGY TELEPORTATION SLEIGHT OF HAND DAVID BLAINE (1973–) “Magically” repairing Escaping from restraints Moving something from one The magician takes advantage of “blind spots” a torn or broken object. in the audience’s vision and uses fast, fluid hand Blaine performs amazing feats of endurance such as handcuffs, or place to another without such as being encased in ice, buried alive, or traps such as cages. seeming to handle it. movements to hide or disguise an action. surrounded by deadly electric currents. RAISING 1 PREPARE 2 FOUR PILES 3 TOP THREE CARDS 4 DEAL ONE CARD 5 REVEAL THE ACES ACES THE DECK Ask your volunteer to Ask the volunteer to Have your volunteer deal Ask your volunteer to turn This teleportation trick makes it look as though you can conjure up the aces from a pack of cards. Carry out the first step in secret, then ask for a volunteer. Remove all four aces divide the pack into four choose one of the three piles one card from their pile on to over the top card of each pile and place them on roughly equal piles. Keep that don’t contain the aces. each of the other three piles. to reveal the four aces. the top of the pack track of which pile contains Get him or her to take the top Then repeat this for the other face down. the aces. three cards and move them piles without aces, and finally to the bottom of the pile. for the pile with aces. HEAT IS ON 1 GATHER THE AUDIENCE 2 MIX THEM UP 3 MISLEAD THE AUDIENCE 4 SHOW THE COIN Ask an audience member Ask your volunteer to Pick up each coin and The coin that is warm to the This coin trick uses the effect of prediction to make your audience believe you to pick a coin from the bag, put the coin back in the bag, look at it, pretending to touch is the one your volunteer have hidden mind- reading powers. hold it tightly and think hard then tip out all the coins. concentrate hard. picked up, of course! You will need a bag of cool coins – put the coins in the fridge for a few minutes before you start. about its appearance. THE MAGIC STRING This trick uses the effect of restoration to appear to make a cut piece of string whole again. You will need a short length and a longer length of string and scissors. 1 SHORT STRING 2 LONG STRING 3 CUT THE STRING 4 HIDE IT 5 RESTORE THE STRING Take the short Place the longer length Ask a volunteer to Secretly tuck the cut Show your audience the long length of string and in your left hand below the cut through the loop that’s pieces into the palm of string while keeping the shorter hide it in the palm shorter, so the shorter loop sticking out. your hand and pull out length hidden in your hand. of your left hand. sticks out. the long string. 279

Horse riding RIDING GEAR SHOW JACKET LONG BOOTS There are many ways to enjoy riding a horse, A safety hat or helmet is from playing team games and jumping over the most important part obstacles to going for a quiet canter in the of a rider’s clothing. Boots countryside. Learning how to look after and should have a low heel to handle a horse safely and correctly is part stop the feet from slipping of becoming a good rider. through the stirrups. Chaps (leggings) worn over riding trousers or jodhpurs protect the lower legs. PROTECTIVE HAT GLOVES HALF CHAPS JODHPUR BOOTS TACK RUBBER SNAFFLE BIT The equipment worn by a horse is known as tack. The bridle, Numnah absorbs Curb PELHAM BIT which has a mouthpiece called sweat and helps to chain a bit, allows the rider to control protect horse’s back the horse’s head. The saddle spreads the rider’s weight evenly Reins across the horse’s back. There are many different styles of tack JOINTED Tongue for different purposes. SNAFFLE BIT groove Saddle RUBBER PELHAM BIT Bit passes JOINTED EGGBUTT KIMBLEWICK BIT through SNAFFLE BIT horse’s mouth WESTERN BRIDLE BRIDLE Stirrup Girth holds saddle in position RACING DRESSAGE ENGLISH WESTERN SADDLE SADDLE SADDLE SADDLE PUTTING ON A SADDLE It is important to know how to put on a saddle correctly. A badly positioned saddle can hurt a horse’s back and be unsafe for the rider. Both before and after mounting, the rider should check that the girth (the strap that goes under the horse’s belly) is tight enough. 1 POSITION THE SADDLE 2 PICK UP GIRTH 3 FASTEN BUCKLES Place the saddle pad or numnah and Bring down the girth on the far Buckle the girth to the straps saddle further forwards than the final side and pick up the end from the on the saddle. Pull it tight but without position. Move both backwards together. near side. Make sure it is not twisted. wrinkling the horse’s skin. GROOMING TOOLS HOOF OIL HOOF PICK FEEDING A HORSE HOOF OIL BRUSH There are various specially designed tools The natural food of horses is grass, but a hard-working for grooming horses. They include a stiff horse needs more. Extra foodstuffs include hay for fibre, “dandy” brush and a rubber curry comb grains such as oats, and nutritious pellets and mixes. for cleaning off mud, softer brushes for removing dust and scurf, and a pick for dislodging dirt from hoofs. SWEAT SCRAPER HAY ALFALFA BODY BRUSH DANDY BRUSH SPONGE RUBBER CURRY COMB PELLETS COARSE MIX 280

MOUNTING DISMOUNTING For a new rider, the first challenge is getting into the saddle. Getting off a horse feels easier than getting on. However, for Learning how to mount a horse quickly and safely takes lots safety and the horse’s comfort, the correct technique must be of practice. The rider should always begin from the left-hand used. The rider dismounts on the near side and should never or “near” side of the horse. attempt to jump off while the horse is moving. 1 LIFT FOOT 2 HOP 3 SPRING 1 FEET OUT 2 SWING 3 SLIDE Face the horse’s rear. Hold the front of the saddle Spring up and swing the Holding the front of the Lift the right leg and Slide or drop down the Hold the stirrup in the right and hop round to face forwards. right leg over the horse’s back. saddle, take both feet out of swing it carefully over the horse’s side and land lightly, hand and put the left foot in it. Use the right arm for support. Land gently in the saddle. the stirrups and lean forwards. horse’s back. facing forwards. THE HIGH-JUMP FOUR PACES RECORD FOR 2.47 M Horses have four main natural paces, or ways of moving A HORSE IS IN) at different speeds. These are walk, trot, canter, and (8 FT 1¼ gallop. At each pace, the horse’s feet touch the ground in a repeated sequence of steps. WALK: AVERAGE SPEED 5–6.5 KM/H (3–4 MPH) TROT: AVERAGE SPEED 13–16 KM/H (8–10 MPH) CANTER: AVERAGE SPEED 16–27 KM/H (10–17 MPH) GALLOP: AVERAGE SPEED 40–48 KM/H (25–30 MPH) JUMPING HORSE SPORTS POLO STEEPLECHASE DRESSAGE Team game in which riders Learning to jump on horseback Games and sports with horses strike a ball with mallets. is one of the biggest thrills for any are popular worldwide. They rider. Most horses find it fun, too. include racing, team games, and competitions between individual riders, such as jumping and cross-country events. Race over obstacles such Competition to show how as fences and ditches. well a horse moves. EVENTING HARNESS RACE HORSEBALL RODEO Sport combining dressage, cross- Racing with two-wheeled country riding, and showjumping. Team game in which riders Contest based on carts called sulkies. shoot a ball into a net. traditional cowboy skills. 281



History

The first humans EARLY TOOLS Millions of years ago, a group of apes began to walk upright. They Early humans learned how to make tools were our ancestors, the first human-like animals on the planet. by striking a stone with another one to Over time, their bodies adapted to walking upright and their brains make a cutting edge. Humans began to grew larger, until finally they evolved into our species, Homo sapiens. make different tools for different tasks, such as digging, sawing, or opening nuts. LATE ARRIVALS 00:01 10:27 17:37 41:45 51:12 ON TWO FEET Our planet was formed just Earth’s Oldest rocks First First First Humans walk on two legs, unlike other primates over 4.5 billion years ago. crust on Earth’s bacteria seaweed jellyfish (apes), who are either climbers or walk using all If the whole of Earth’s forms surface four feet. As a result of walking upright, humans’ history were squeezed into bodies have developed very differently from an hour, most life forms 53:25 those of their ape relatives. would not develop until the last ten minutes. Humans First GORILLA HUMAN would not appear until the fish very last fraction of the last 54:59 57:07 59:58.8 59:59.9 second of the hour. First First First First modern SMALL HANDAXE insect mammal human human ancestor appears OUT OF AFRICA NECK ANTLER The human neck sits directly under the skull so the HAMMER Homo sapiens, our species, first evolved in Africa around 150,000 years ago. head balances at the top of the spine. A gorilla’s neck About 100,000 years later, they began to move away to make new settlements, until humans were living on all the world’s continents, except Antarctica. meets the head from the side. 15,000 YEARS AGO NORTH 40,000 25,000 AMERICA YA YA 12,000 EUROPE Pacific YA Ocean 40,000 ASIA YA 50,000 YA 13,500 150,000 60,000 SPINE FLINT BLADE SAW YA YA YA The human spine has developed extra curves at the neck and lower back, so it can absorb the impact better Indian when the person walks or runs. AFRICA Ocean HOW TO MAKE A HANDAXE SOUTH Atlantic HOMO SAPIENS It took skill and experience to select a AMERICA Ocean suitable stone, then chip it to make Evolved in East a sharp, usable tool. 120,000 Africa around YA 200,000 years ago. AUSTRALIA ANTARCTICA KEY FEET 1 Selected stone 2 Large flakes A gorilla’s big toe is on the side of the foot, to help it is struck with are removed Migration of climb trees. Human feet have aligning toes and longer Homo sapiens a stone “hammer”. next to the first. around the world heels, to support weight evenly while we walk. YA = Years ago 7 MYA (million years ago) 4.1 MYA 2.2 MYA 600,000 YA 150,000 YA Sahelanthropus tchadensis Australopithecus Homo habilis Homo Homo sapiens Thought to be last common afarensis Called habilis (Latin Evolved in Africa, then ancestor of both chimps Thought to be the for “handyman”) heidelbergensis spread worldwide, and humans. ancestor of the because they may Higher, broader becoming the only genus Homo, to have been the first surviving species of 6.1 MYA which modern species to use tools. skull to protect a the Homo genus. Orrorin tugenensis humans belong. larger brain than Possibly the first ape to walk on two legs. earlier species. Australopithecus Homo sapiens afarensis 8 MYA PRESENT HUMAN ANCESTORS 3.3 MYA 1 MYA 350,000 YA Australopithecus Homo erectus Homo About 7 million years ago, the ape africanus As tall as modern neanderthalensis family split into two branches – one Ape-like, with a humans, with a Excellent hunters would lead to chimpanzees, and the small brain but similar build. and tool-makers other was the line of human-like apes human-like teeth. who thrived in the (hominins) that would eventually evolve Homo erectus colder climate into modern humans. of Europe. Homo neanderthalensis 284

Point for HUNTER-GATHERERS ANCIENT MONUMENTS digging Early humans had to find food either by hunting animals, or by gathering Many prehistoric sites still exist around wild plants. They developed tools to help them, from diggers for rooting the world. It is difficult to know exactly out edible plants from the soil to harpoons for spearing fish. what some sites were used for, as they were built long before humans started Sharp edge keeping written records. for cutting STONEHENGE, ENGLAND A ring of gigantic stones, built about 5,000 years ago, as part of an ancient burial ground, or as a place of worship. CARNAC, FRANCE A small area of three fields, containing more than 3,000 granite megaliths (standing stones), arranged in rows. GGANTIJA TEMPLES, MALTA Two remarkably well preserved structures, built from limestone during the Neolithic Age (c.3600–3200 BCE). GOBEKLI TEPE, TURKEY The world’s oldest known temple, built about 11,000 years ago near the ancient city of Şanlıurfa. NEWGRANGE, IRELAND A Neolithic burial site featuring a huge, circular mound containing a tomb and surrounded by 97 highly decorated stones. BARBED SPEAR TIP HARPOON ADZE (WOOD FLINT REINDEER DIGGING STONE CIRCLE AT STONEHENGE CUTTER) ARROWHEADS TYPICAL BREAD ANTLER SPEAR TOOL HANDAXE FIRST FARMERS PART OF A STONE SICKLE A general-purpose BREAD OVEN For cutting crops. tool, the first to be Gradually, humans learned made by humans. that instead of moving around, constantly looking for food, they could stay in one place and become farmers, growing crops and raising animals to eat. Farming changed forever the way humans lived. IRON SICKLE BRONZE SICKLE 3 Each side is 4 Smaller flakes worked in turn removed to make until tool takes shape. edges and tip sharper. STONE AXE REPLICA OF STONE QUERN Used to clear trees before planting crops. For grinding wheat to make bread. ART HORSE HEAD CARVING CARVED BONE SHOWING BISON HUNT Early humans created the world’s first art. They used paint made from coloured minerals in rocks to draw animals on the walls of their caves. They also carved animals or human figures out of rocks and bones. CAVE PAINTING, FRANCE MAMMOTH CARVING PAINTED POT, ROMANIA CARVED FEMALE FIGURES, OFTEN MARBLE CALLED “VENUS FIGURINES” FIGURE, GREECE 285

BETWEEN TWO RIVERS Early civilizations The region of Mesopotamia lay in the fertile The world’s earliest civilization emerged more than 6,000 years flood plain between the rivers Tigris and ago in an area of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) called Sumer. Euphrates. The name Mesopotamia means For the first time, people lived and worked together in cities, “between two rivers” in Greek. governed by a king who made laws that everyone had to follow. MESOPOTAMIA Nineveh Nimrud River River Tigris Euphrates Akkad FROM HUNTING Babylon Kish TO FARMING KEY Nippur When roaming hunter- Sumer region Uruk Lagash gatherers started planting crops, they began to settle in Eridu Ur one place and made farming tools instead of hunting weapons. Villages, towns, PLOUGH and eventually cities SUMER were established. ADZE HEADS Sumer was not a single country but a collection of city-states that competed ADZE (TOOL FOR SHAPING WOOD) with each other for control of the region. GREAT CITIES BABYLON’S WONDERS ISHTAR GATE ETEMENANKI ZIGGURAT HANGING GARDENS Gigantic main entrance As the Sumerian settlements grew, they In 580 BCE King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon to the city, designed to Temple of Marduk, patron Majestic terraced formed cities, some of which became built a number of huge buildings in his capital, inspire awe in visitors. god of Babylon. Rebuilt garden, one of the large and powerful city-states. Each turning Babylon into the most magnificent after it was destroyed in Seven Wonders of city-state had its own leader, who ruled city in the ancient world. about 689 BCE. the Ancient World. on behalf of the city’s god. URUK Uruk was one of the first major cities in the world. Its most famous king was Gilgamesh, who was also the hero of one of the world’s first known poems, The Epic of Gilgamesh. AKKAD This city was the centre of the world’s first empire. In 2330 BCE, the Akkadians conquered many of their neighbouring city-states and took control of Mesopotamia. BABYLON The capital of the Babylonian Empire. At its peak around 550 BCE, the city’s population was about 200,000. NIMRUD For a time, the capital of the Assyrian Empire. The magnificent palace of King Shalmaneser III covered over 50,000 sq m (538,196 sq ft) and had more than 200 rooms. UR Site of a huge ziggurat (pyramid-shaped temple) and the Royal Tombs, which contained some of the finest Mesopotamian art TeFvHIeRrEdTSisHScTToUEveHCMrYeAEdEE.LMAREIRNOAODINNANSTR’SOCBRM1YE2OAD,VTBIEVEAMDISDEETINDNHTGEOSN 3300 BCE 3000 BCE 2334 BCE C.2100 BCE Ziggurat 539 BCE The great at Ur Mesopotamia 7000 BCE 5300 BCE Sumerians Egypt: the King Sargon of ziggurat becomes part People start to Large villages invent a form pharaohs Akkad conquers Figure of (temple) of Persia. grow crops on and small of writing. unite Egypt Sumer, creating Sumerian built at Ur. into a single the world’s priest 500 bce a large scale towns appear state. first empire. 753 BCE in Mesopotamia. in Sumer. Brick with inscription City of Rome founded. 7000 bce CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION 4000 BCE 3200 BCE 2800 BCE 2600 BCE 2200 BCE C. 2500–2000 BCE 1300–1200 BCE China: first Huge cemetery Assyrians The plain between the two great rivers of The Sumerians Greece: Peru: Northwest kingdom complex built at Ur. conquer much Mesopotamia was very fertile, with rich soil, build several earliest earliest India: Indus established. of Mesopotamia. a warm climate, reliable rainfall, and a wide cities in civilizations civilization civilization range of plants and animals. It was the southern appear. in the reaches perfect place for early humans to put away Mesopotamia. Americas. its peak. their hunting spears and settle down in farming communities instead. Ornament from Sedu Royal Graves, Ur (Assyrian god) 286

CODE OF LAW DAILY LIFE King Hammurabi of Babylon laid down a set of strict rules Cups, bowls, and vases for everyday use were made of clay, but richer homes used vessels made of stone or that is one of the oldest recorded codes of law in the world. metal. Silver was imported from nearby Anatolia to make luxury tableware. NO RUNAWAYS HANDS OFF! TEMPLE OF DOOM If you helped a If a son hit his If you stole from slave to run away, father, his hands a temple, you you would be put would be would be to death. chopped off. sentenced to death. BRONZE BULL’S HEAD SILVER BOWL STONE POT ALABASTER VASE INVENTION OF THE WHEEL Nobody knows exactly when the wheel was invented, but they were in use in Sumer by 3500 BCE. Sumerians used the wheel vertically on their chariots, and horizontally to make clay pots. RECONSTRUCTION OF SOAPSTONE TUMBLER SCORPION DESIGN CUP CYLINDER SEAL (LEFT) WITH IMPRESSION (RIGHT) OF GODS FIGHTING LIONS AN EARLY WHEEL GODS AND EARLY WRITING WEALTH AND POWER RELIGION The first known form of writing Much of the Mesopotamian art and crafts that survives The Sumerians worshipped comes from Sumer. The first today was found in a royal cemetery in the city of Ur. many gods, but the most symbols were recognizable These treasures tell us about the skill and artistry of important were the pictures of objects the craftsmen who made them, as well as the wealth guardians of each city-state. (pictograms), but these of the people buried with their valuable possessions. Gods were worshipped in developed into a system huge temples called of simpler wedge shapes, Hair comb ziggurats, which dominated called cuneiform. the flat landscape for miles. Gold willow leaves PICTOGRAPH CUNEIFORM SILVER HAIR COMB C.3100 BCE C.700 BCE FLY MOTIF NECKLACE WATER UTU HAND God of the Sun and of justice. Crescent-shaped earrings BARLEY BREAD ENLIL DAY God of wind and storms. WAR AND WARRIORS Beaded cape The different city-states of Mesopotamia competed with one another for land and vital resources, such as water, and this QUEEN PUABI’S FINERY Belt “RAM IN A THICKET” often led to fighting and BEAD BELT Gold, silver, shell, and lapis war. Warring cities began to organize ram and shrub. trained groups of men to fight – the world’s first armies. Soldiers wore bronze or leather helmets, and carried large shields and bronze spears or bows and arrows. ARCHERS ON A CHARIOT 287

FAMOUS KHUFU KHAFRA TUTANKHAMUN PHARAOHS Reigned c.2589–2566 BCE Reigned c.2558–2532 BCE Reigned c.1336–1327 BCE Khufu’s son. His face may The famous boy-king came The kings and queens of Builder of the Great be the model for the Sphinx. to the throne when he Ancient Egypt did not call Pyramid at Giza. was just nine years themselves pharaohs, but that old. His fabulous is the name we use today. They gold mask was wielded an enormous amount found in his tomb. of power. They made every law, held the title of highest priest in HATSHEPSUT the land, and were worshipped Reigned c.1473–1458 BCE as though they were gods. One of only a few female pharaohs. TUTHMOSIS III AMENHOTEP III AKHENATEN RAMESES II CLEOPATRA VII Reigned c.1479–1425 BCE Reigned c.1390–1353 BCE Great military leader who Reigned c.1353–1336 BCE Reigned c.1279–1213 BCE Reigned 51–30 BCE Helped to make never lost a battle. Egypt prosperous. Rejected traditional Ordered many huge Last pharaoh. Killed herself Egyptian gods. building projects. after defeat by Rome. Ancient Egypt More than 5,000 years ago, two regions of the Nile river valley – Upper and Lower Egypt – were united under a common ruler. This was the birth of the empire of pharaohs and pyramids, one of the greatest powers of the ancient world. PAYNRDCAMIIMESONCIRDOTESVETEHGHRAYAEVPDNTEI9BA0ENEN PYRAMIDS Gallery Airshaft THE RIVER NILE ROWING BOAT Wooden boats were When an Egyptian ruler died the King’s Living along both banks of the Nile, the used for transport body was buried inside a massive chamber Egyptians occupied a rare fertile strip pyramid. Taking up to 30 years of land amid vast areas of desert. Their and fishing. to build, pyramids went through lives depended on the river. Regular various changes of design over the flooding left deposits of rich soil that Furled sail centuries. People who were not was excellent for farming grain crops. royal were buried in simpler tombs. Rudder for steering MASTABA STEPPED PYRAMID Underground ”BENT” PYRAMID Box-like brick or An early model, built chamber Midway between stepped and smooth. stone grave. in layers. SMOOTH-SIDED PYRAMID The classic structure, cased Priest wears Jackal god mask with blocks of limestone. MUMMY-MAKING Linen wrapping The Ancient Egyptians believed that a dead person’s soul needed its body in the afterlife. Mummifying – which only the rich could afford – was an elaborate way of preserving a body to stop it crumbling away. 1 PRESERVING 2 WASHING 3 PROTECTING 4 WRAPPING 5 BURIAL After removal, the organs Once dry, the body was Protective amulets, like Strips of fine linen were The mummy was put in an inner, body- were preserved in canopic jars – washed in wine and rubbed this symbolic pillar, were wrapped around the entire body shaped case and then an outer coffin, both pots topped with a god’s head. with scents and oils. placed with the body. and coated with resin. decorated with pictures and symbols. 288

GODS AND ATUM EVAHENARCDYIEITTNOSTWOENWGYINNPT 3000 bce HISTORY OF GODDESSES Lord of Heaven LOCAL GOD ANCIENT EGYPT There were many gods and SHU TEFNUT EARLY DYNASTIC The Ancient Egyptian civilization goddesses for an Ancient God of Air and Winds Goddess of Rain PERIOD lasted for more than 3,000 years, Egyptian to worship. This with hundreds of different rulers, “family tree” shows how some NUT GEB c.3000–2686 BCE both good and bad. Historians have of the major gods descended Goddess of the Sky God of the Earth Organized divided up this very long timespan from Atum, who the Egyptians into major dynasties (ruling believed created everything. ISIS SET NEPHTHYS government under families), kingdoms, and periods. Mother God of Deserts Protector of the rule of the OSIRIS goddess The Sphinx at Giza Supreme god and Trouble the Dead pharaohs begins. People start to Slab for mixing ointment, made around 2000 BCE use hieroglyphs. Bead collar OLD KINGDOM 2686–2125 BCE Arrowheads The great pyramids Statuette and the Sphinx are of slave girl built at Giza. Bronze statue, which may have held a cat mummy 1ST INTERMEDIATE Coin showing PERIOD the head of 2160–2055 BCE Cleopatra Many power struggles between dynasties. HORUS ANUBIS God of the Sky God of the Dead HIEROGLYPHS a a b kh h tj MIDDLE KINGDOM 2055–1650 BCE Ancient Egyptian writing used pictures or signs Life is more settled. called hieroglyphs. Each Improved irrigation one could mean a sound, produces better crops. a word, or an action. The “alphabet” seen here d a/i shows some hieroglyphs and how they might be g h kh j k m n w/u 2ND INTERMEDIATE pronounced today. Instead fs PERIOD of writing on paper, the p k r sh s t Egyptians used flattened BEAD NECKLACE 1650–1550 BCE sheets of a type of reed More unrest, with called papyrus. wars and invasions. Mediterranean Sea JEWELLERY NEW KINGDOM Nile Delta 1550–1069 BCE The Ancient Egyptians prized LOWER Giza jewellery. Rings, necklaces, and Egypt conquers many EGYPT amulets in the form of sacred lands. Famous symbols were popular. Jewellery RIVER NILE worn by rich people was often pharaohs include made of gold and valuable stones. Tutankhamun. 30 bceWINGED Abydos SCARAB AMULET 3RD INTERMEDIATE Red Sea PERIOD UPPER Elephantine EGYPT 1069–664 BCE Assyrians SAHARA NUBIAN DESERT conquer Egypt. Egyptian Empire LATE PERIOD 1549–1069 BCE 664–332 BCE Time of much temple building and animal mummifying. PTOLEMAIC DYNASTY 332–30 BCE Cleopatra VII, the last pharaoh, dies. Rome conquers Egypt. GOLD AMULET EARRING FINGER RINGS Painted mummy case, Scenes from the Spread wings were a Traditional sacred symbols portraying the dead person Underworld common decoration of cross and pillar 289

TIMELINE 1450 BCE 1350 BCE Greek soldiers hid Mycenaeans invade At the peak of the in a wooden horse to The Ancient Greek civilization existed Crete and occupy Mycenaean period, for 2,500 years. The Greeks built huge the Minoan palaces. the city of Mycenae defeat the Trojans city-states, formed new colonies, and They also build has a population of fought many battles before they were their own palace around 30,000. 1184 BCE finally conquered by the Romans. settlements in the According to Homer, Greece Peloponnese region. defeats Troy in a war that has lasted more than ten years. 2200–1450 BCE Model of a Fortified palace of Mycenae Height of Minoan Minoan house palace culture in Crete. 2500 bce MINOAN PERIOD MYCENAEAN PERIOD DARK AGES 2500–1600 BCE 1600–1200 BCE 1200–800 BCE Minoan civilization flourishes in Crete. The Minoans are The Mycenaeans build fortified palaces. Armed with bronze The Mycenaean culture collapses around 1200 BCE, and Greece enters a dark age. Settlements clever traders and build large palace complexes, but weapons, they expand into Crete, but their cities fall become smaller and there are no written records. these are destroyed by invaders. to new invaders from the north. Ancient CITY-STATES Greece TROY For most of its history, Ancient Greece was divided into city- The Greeks were one of the most advanced DELPHI states. Each city ruled the civilizations in the ancient world, inventing villages and farmlands around politics, philosophy, theatre, athletics, and it with their own system of the study of history. Their stories and plays government and chose one still exist today, along with the remains of god as a special protector. beautiful temples and buildings. OLYMPIA CORINTH THEBES ATHENS WARRING STATES The city-states of Athens and Sparta MYCENAE were bitter rivals and fought several SPARTA wars against each other. THE CITY-STATE OF ATHENS WAS 20 TIMES LARGER KNOSSOS THAN THE SMALLEST GREEK COMMUNITIES DAILY LIFE SILVER COIN FROM GOLD THE PARTHENON ATHENIAN COIN Farmers and fishermen provided food, while This marble temple dedicated to the goddess in the city, traders sold leather goods, pots, Athena is one of the world’s finest weapons, and jewellery. Well-born women monuments. Built between 447 ran the household, helped by slaves. and 432 BCE, it has 85 Doric columns and a coloured KNOSSOS ALEXANDRIAN COIN frieze showing a procession. GOLD Statue of Athena EARRING covered in gold and ivory REPLICA OF A GREEK PENDANT FISH PLATE OLYMPIC GAMES DAY 1 The Olympic Games were held in On the first day of the honour of the god Zeus. They took games, competitors and place every fourth year from judges swore an oath to 776 BCE at a site called Olympia. compete fairly, and boys took part in running and boxing contests. SMALL POT FOR WINE JUG OIL OR PERFUME MODELS DRESSED AS ANCIENT GREEKS DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 4 DAY 5 The second day was On the third day, 100 oxen Wrestling and boxing On the final day, the filled the fourth day. winning athletes for chariot and horse were sacrificed to Zeus. Pankration was a kind of wrestling in which went to the Temple races and the Running races included kicking and strangling of Zeus to be crowned with pentathlon – long the 200-metre “stade” were allowed. olive wreaths. jump, discus, javelin, race – the oldest contest SANDAL-SHAPED POWDER BOX EARTHENWARE CLASSICAL running, and wrestling. in the games. PERFUME BOTTLE COOKING STOVE OIL POT 290

800–775 BCE 750–700 BCE 620–510 BCE 490 BCE 371 BCE Alexander The Greeks create new The first great works Many Greek The Persian King Darius I General Epaminondas defeats the Great colonies in the eastern of Greek literature are invades Greece, but is the Spartans at Leuctra. on his horse composed by Homer – city-states defeated by the Athenians Thebes becomes Greece’s Bucephalus Mediterranean and The Iliad and The Odyssey. are ruled by at the Battle of Marathon. most powerful city-state. southern Italy. tyrants who hold absolute power. 431–404 BCE 338 BCE Sparta and Athens fight Philip, King of Macedon, Greek trireme Oil lamp decorated with the Peloponnesian War, 334–323 BCE 31 BCE images from The Odyssey defeats Athens and Philip’s son Alexander Rome captures with great loss of life Thebes at Chaeronea, and the Great invades all the Greek on both sides. conquers most of Greece. and conquers the colonies, Persian Empire. ending with Egypt in 31 BCE. 31 bce ARCHAIC PERIOD CLASSICAL PERIOD HELLENISTIC PERIOD 800–500 BCE 500–323 BCE 323–31 BCE By around 800 BCE, Greece begins to recover. City-states hold During the classical period, literature, art, Alexander the Great begins the Hellenistic politics, athletics, and theatre flourish, especially Age in 323 BCE, and Greek culture spreads political power, backed by armies of citizen-soldiers. The Greeks begin to found colonies abroad. around the main centre, Athens. throughout the Middle East. GODS WAR AND ARMOUR WEAPON CALLED The Greeks had many gods, ruled over The main fighting force of the Greek city-states “KOPIS” IN by Zeus and his wife Hera. Festivals were hoplites, heavily armoured foot-soldiers SHEATH and sacrifices were important in the who carried a large round shield, or hoplon. daily religious life of the city-states. They fought in phalanxes (shield walls), Women rarely had any role in public several rows deep, to protect the soldiers. life, but a few were priestesses who played an important part in rituals and celebrations. ZEUS GREEK ALPHABET The Ancient Greeks had an alphabet of 24 letters – the first to have vowels as well as consonants. The word “alphabet” comes from the first two letters, alpha and beta. ALPHA BETA GAMMA DELTA EPSILON ZETA ETA THETA IOTA KAPPA LAMBDA MU NU XI OMICRON PI RHO SIGMA XIPHOS, ANCIENT GREEK SWORD HOPLITE ARMOUR TAU UPSILON PHI CHI PSI OMEGA GREAT THINKERS Around 600 BCE, Greek thinkers began to use logic instead of religion to think about the world and how it works. Their ideas were the beginning of philosophy. PYTHAGORAS (c.530 bce) A theorem for working out the length of the sides of a right-angled triangle still bears the name of Pythagoras. He also believed that numbers had mystical powers. SOCRATES (469–399 bce) This Athenian philosopher taught his students to question the power of Athens’ ruling classes. He was put to death for his views. PLATO (427–347 bce) Socrates’ pupil Plato believed people should live their lives trying to reach absolute moral goodness. His ideas are still studied today. ARISTOTLE (384–322 bce) WARRIOR SHIELD (HOPLON) SOLDIER’S AXE AND SANDAL This pupil of Plato founded a school called the Lyceum. He wrote many important works about biology, zoology, physics, logic, and politics. ARCHIMEDES (c.287–212 bce) PLATO This engineer and mathematician invented a screw pump that drew up water, and wrote a theorem to calculate the area of a circle. ANCIENT GREEK ARMY HELMET 291

Greek myths THE GREEK GODS Some of the oldest and best-known stories in the world are In Greek mythology, the gods were powerful the myths of Ancient Greece. They are tales of gods and heroes, supernatural beings who could make great loves, wars, daring adventures, and fabulous beasts. anything and everything happen. There Some of them are told here. To the Greeks of long ago, the were 12 major gods and goddesses, myths and the gods who appeared in them were very real. of whom Zeus was king. The gods lived in their palaces on the top of snow- capped Mount Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. MOUNT OLYMPUS HOW THE GODS BEGAN GAIA URANUS Goddess of God of the Sky The Ancient Greeks believed the creators of the world were the Earth Uranus, the Sky god, and Gaia, the Earth goddess. Uranus and Gaia had many children, including giants, monsters, and the Titans, first rulers of Earth. The Titans’ children became gods and goddesses. TITANS MONSTERS GIANTS CRONUS RHEA COEUS PHOEBE OCEANUS TETHYS King of the Queen of Titan Titaness Titan and Titaness and the Titans sea god sea goddess Titans POSEIDON HESTIA DEMETER ZEUS HERA ZEUS ZEUS LETO ASTERIA God of Goddess of Goddess of Queen of the King of the Titaness Titaness the Sea the Hearth Grain Gods Gods CLYMENE IAPETUS Sea nymph Titan HADES PERSEPHONE APOLLO ARTEMIS PROMETHEUS EPIMETHEUS God King of the Goddess God of the Goddess Titan Titan Sun and of Hunting Underworld Queen of the the Arts Underworld FOUTGHHETGAODLOS NG ZEUS METIS PLEONE ATLAS BEWFTTTOHAHHREREEEMWATBIGAFOTARNAROIINLNSMDSHSTING Sea nymph Sea nymph Titan ZEUS DIONE MAIA ZEUS Titaness Nymph HEPHAESTUS ARES HEBE God of Fire and God of War Goddess of Metalwork Youth ATHENA Goddess of APHRODITE HERMES Wisdom Goddess of Love Messenger god THE UNDERWORLD PUNISHMENTS MYTHICAL BEINGS FROM THE GODS In the myths of Ancient Greece, the realm of the dead was Ancient Greek tales were full known as the Underworld, a shadowy kingdom ruled by the Many people were condemned to perpetual of weird creatures. There god Hades. There were demons and monsters there. One of punishment in the Underworld because they were beings called satyrs the most frightening was the three-headed dog Cerberus, had offended the gods. For example, Sisyphus, that had the upper body of a who stood guard at the gates. The souls of those who had who had tried to become immortal, man but a lower half like died were ferried to the Underworld in a boat across an ink- was made to push a huge rock a hairy goat, with hooves black river called the Styx. uphill for ever. Tantalus, who instead of feet. More noble insulted the gods, felt hungry were the wise centaurs, and thirsty all the time, with who were half man, half food and drink just out horse. A fire-breathing of his reach. monster called the Chimaera was part lion and part goat, and had a serpent for a tail. CERBERUS TANTALUS SATYRS 292

KING MIDAS BELLEROPHON MEDUSA THE 12 LABOURS AND PEGASUS OF HERACLES In return for helping one of the The Gorgon Medusa, gods, King Midas was granted The young hero Bellerophon a monster with When the hero Heracles went mad and a wish. Greedily, he asked that rode a magical winged snakes for hair, killed his wife, he was punished by being everything he touched be horse called Pegasus. could turn people to given 12 seemingly impossible tasks. turned to gold. When his food, Too bold and proud, he stone with one look. drink, and even his daughter tried to fly up to the Perseus, a son of 1 THE NEMEAN LION turned to gold, Midas begged home of the gods. Zeus, killed her. for the gift to be taken away. This so angered Zeus, He avoided her gaze The lion had such tough skin he made Pegasus rear up by aiming at her that no spear could pierce it. and throw Bellerophon, who reflection in a shiny Heracles managed to strangle was injured. Lame and blind, shield lent to him by the beast. he became a beggar. the goddess Athena. 2 SLAYING THE HYDRA THE TROJAN PROMETHEUS HORSE The Hydra was a many-headed The Titan Prometheus stole monster. Every time Heracles The Greeks defeated their fire from the gods to give to cut off one of its heads, two Trojan enemies by trickery. humans. Furious, Zeus had new ones appeared. By sealing Outside the city of Troy each wound he stopped more they left a huge wooden him chained to a rock, heads from growing. horse, which the Trojans where an eagle seized. At night, men constantly pecked 3 THE KERYNEIAN HIND hidden inside the horse crept out to open the city at his liver. After a long and gruelling gates for the Greek army. Prometheus chase, Heracles caught a was supposed golden-horned deer THESEUS AND to stay chained belonging to the goddess THE MINOTAUR for ever, but the Artemis. hero Heracles The flesh-eating Minotaur, half rescued him. 4 THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR man and half bull, was kept by King Minos of JASON AND THE Heracles defeated this ferocious boar Crete in a winding GOLDEN FLEECE by trapping it in a snowdrift. labyrinth, or maze. Every year, Minos took 14 young Jason was heir to a kingdom 5 THE AUGEAN STABLES people from Athens to feed to that had been taken from him his monster. Vowing to stop the in childhood. To earn his The filthy stables of King Augeas had never slaughter, the Athenian hero throne he had to steal been cleaned. Heracles changed the courses Theseus found a way through the the fleece of a magical of two rivers to wash all the dirt away. maze. As he went, he unrolled golden ram. Jason a thread to mark his path. He found the fleece, but 6 THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS fought and killed the Minotaur, it was guarded by a and then followed the thread to To get rid of some find his way out of the maze. terrible serpent. He asked monstrous birds, the hero Orpheus to charm Heracles frightened DEMETER AND the serpent to sleep with them into the air by PERSEPHONE music. Jason seized the playing castanets, and fleece and was allowed then shot them. Demeter, goddess of grain, had to claim his throne. her daughter Persephone stolen 7 THE BULL OF by Hades, king of the Underworld. PANDORA’S JAR While she grieved, the crops all died. KING MINOS Hades agreed to send Persephone Zeus made a beautiful woman back every spring and summer, so out of clay. He brought her to life Heracles captured a that the corn and flowers could and called her Pandora. When huge and dangerous flourish. In winter, when she went she married, he gave her the gift bull belonging to the of a sealed jar, telling her not to king of Crete. back to Hades, nothing grew. open it. Pandora’s curiosity got the better of her and she opened 8 THE MAN-EATING MARES the lid. All the evil things in the world, such as hatred, disease, Heracles tamed a herd of dangerous meat- and war, flew out. Then one last eating horses by feeding their owner to them. tiny thing came out of the jar – hope for the future. 9 THE BELT OF HIPPOLYTA Hippolyta was queen of the Amazon women and terrifying in battle. Heracles dared to steal her valuable belt. 10 THE CATTLE OF GERYON Sent to the edge of the world, Heracles stole the cattle belonging to a giant herdsman. 11 GOLDEN APPLES OF HESPERIDES In yet another theft, Heracles took the precious apples belonging to the daughters of Atlas, the giant who carried the world on his shoulders. 12 VISITING THE UNDERWORLD In his final task, Heracles went to the Underworld and captured the three-headed dog, Cerberus, that guarded the gates. The hero was finally forgiven for his crime. DEMETER PERSEPHONE THE ODYSSEY Odysseus’s Poseidon, the Circe, an Odysseus sails The sailors kill Now the only ships visit the sea god, sends enchantress, past the Sirens, cattle on an island survivor, Odysseus Among the most often-told lotus-eaters. terrible storms turns Odysseus’s who try to lure belonging to Helios washes up on myths are the adventures These lazy to send the men into pigs ships into the Sun god. Zeus the island of the of the hero Odysseus. After people offer the ships off and then back dangerous waters strikes their ship goddess Calypso, fighting in the Greek war sailors fruit that course. to men again. with their song. with a thunderbolt, where he stays for against the Trojans, will make them killing everyone but seven years. Odysseus spent many years forget the past. Odysseus. on a dangerous sea voyage trying to get back home. The THE VOYAGE HOME The giant Laestrygonians Odysseus visits The ship sails the narrow Odysseus finally journey of Odysseus and his eat one of the sailors, and the Underworld channel between Scylla, returns home. He sailors is described in the One-eyed giants throw rocks at the ships, to find out his a monster, and Charybdis, finds many men story known as The Odyssey. called the Cyclopes sinking all future. He has a whirlpool. hoping to marry keep the men but one. a vision of his his wife, Penelope, captive and eat homeland being and take his lands. some of them. invaded by Odysseus kills all Odysseus blinds enemies. the suitors and one of the giants and keeps his wife. the crew escapes. 293

Ancient Rome HELMET Roman helmets The Roman Empire was one of the greatest empires the world has had a metal bowl ever known. At its peak, Rome’s armies were almost unchallenged, to protect the head, and its emperors ruled a huge area – from Spain to the borders often with cheek of Persia, and from North Africa to Scotland. pieces, and a horse-hair crest EXPANSION KEY across the top. Roman ARMOUR Empire Body armour was usually formed of rectangular metal or leather strips. Rome began as a humble hill-top settlement in central Italy, but before long, it had conquered Italy. It then took over the northern Mediterranean before expanding into 1 240 BCE 2 120 BCE 3 14 CE much of northern Europe, After conquering Italy, Rome Forty years later, Rome took By the end of the reign of North Africa, and seized the island of Sicily, by parts of Spain and North Africa in Emperor Augustus, Roman the Middle East. defeating the city of Carthage the Second Punic War. Victories armies had advanced into Egypt, in the First Punic War. against Macedonia gave it Greece. Syria, and much of Europe. ARMY The Roman army was the ancient world’s most effective fighting force. Professionally trained and armed, it had around 30 legions of 5,000 citizen-soldiers, each of whom served for 25 years. BACKPACK Roman soldiers carried cooking implements and tools to build a camp each night. PUGIO GLADIUS SHIELD KNEE GUARDS The Roman legionary dagger, or pugio, The legionary shield protected the The Roman whole body. Its edge could also be used Greaves was around 20 cm (8 in) long. It was legionary sword, or protected worn on the left hip. gladius, was about to strike opponents. their knees 50 cm (20 in) long. from sword blows. TACTICS AND FORMATIONS The Romans were very effective foot (infantry) soldiers. Normally the legion would send a volley of arrows and javelins, before charging and fighting at close quarters. Very few enemies could defend themselves TESTUDO SKIRMISH ORB CAVALRY DEFENCE SANDALS against them. Raised shields in the testudo, A skirmish formation was The circular orb formation The front line held their used for rapid advances or was used by small groups javelins out at a 45-degree Soldiers wore or “tortoise”, defended against crossing difficult terrain. angle to defeat cavalry. leather sandals with when surrounded. missiles dropped from above. nails hammered into the soles. 294

SOCIAL EMPEROR DAILY LIFE 750 bce TIMELINE STRUCTURE The emperor (or emperors) was the ultimate authority. The family played a central role in As their empire grew, the The emperor Roman life. Each household was Romans’ political system ruled the empire. SENATORS ruled by the eldest adult male. changed to meet the He held enormous Leading aristocrats served Women carried out domestic challenge of governing power but depended in the Senate. chores and performed rituals this vast area. They also on the support of rich to household gods. fought many wars. aristocratic families. EQUESTRIANS Below them were Below senators were the GLASS BOTTLE 753 BCE ordinary Roman less wealthy equestrians. citizens. However, COLANDER ROMAN KINGDOM According to legend, women and TRADERS AND WORKERS 750–510 BCE the city of Rome is “foreigners” from Urban workers and founded by Romulus Statue of places the Romans merchants had little power. Romulus kills his and Remus, the twin Romulus had conquered did twin to become the sons of Mars, the and Remus not have citizenship FOREIGNERS first king of Rome. god of war. and could not vote. Outside Italy, most men did not have Roman citizenship. RING Later, the city is 509 BCE ruled by six kings. Roman Republic is established after SLAVES STONE GRINDER OIL FLASK Under them, the city the overthrow of King Tarquinius. Slaves had very few grows slowly. The legal rights. COLOSSEUM last king, Tarquinius In this huge arena people came ENTERTAINMENT to see acrobats, wild beast Superbus, is 261–241 BCE fights, executions, and battles overthrown. Rome wins the first Punic War Public entertainment was very important in Roman cities. Romans between gladiators. against the North African city took part in religious festivals, or went to the theatre, public baths, ROMAN REPUBLIC of Carthage. and horse races. However, the most popular form of entertainment 507–27 BCE was gladiatorial contests in arenas such as the Colosseum in Rome. Rome’s kings are replaced by elected Soldiers in Carthage look at boats burning in distance leaders. The republic lasts 218–201 BCE for nearly five centuries, until Carthaginian general civil wars lead to its collapse. Hannibal almost conquers Italy, but is defeated in the Head of Second Punic War. Hannibal GLADIATORS on a coin 44 BCE Julius Caesar, Roman general and dictator, is assassinated after his victory in the civil war against his rival Pompey. 27 BCE Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavian defeats his last rivals in a new civil war. He UNDERGROUND LIFT becomes the first Roman emperor and takes the name Augustus. Bust of Julius Caesar Central sand-covered area Underground passageways ROMAN EMPIRE 80 BCE where fights between for holding gladiators 27 BCE–395 CE gladiators took place and wild beasts One of the great examples The final victor in of Roman engineering, EMPEROR’S BOX Entrance to tiers of Rome’s civil wars the Colosseum is finished. seats for spectators takes power as The largest amphitheatre Emperor Augustus. in the empire, it seats 50,000 spectators. For the next four WHAT THE ROMANS DID FOR US CALENDAR centuries Rome Colosseum 395 CE The Romans were brilliant engineers, builders, and scholars. In their early calendars, the superstitious Romans is ruled by a The Empire is permanently split Many essential things in our lives today were first avoided having months with even numbers of days succession into eastern and western halves, introduced by the Romans. because it was considered bad luck. Julius Caesar of emperors. each ruled by a separate emperor. introduced a 12-month year with 365 days, which is PUBLIC BATHS close to the calendar we use today. EASTERN AND Goths attacking Rome WESTERN EMPIRE 410 CE The Romans built large complexes for LATIN The Goths led by Alaric sack Rome. public bathing. These baths were the 395–476 CE It is the first time in 800 years the forerunners of the hammams used Many European languages, such as French, Italian As the Roman city has fallen to a foreign invader. today in Islamic countries. and Spanish, are descended from Latin, the language Empire faces new of the Romans. threats, a single 476 CE ROADS emperor cannot Romulus Augustulus, the last ROMAN NUMBERS defend it. The rule Roman emperor in the West, is The Romans created a network of paved THE GREAT is split between overthrown. The eastern Roman roads that linked towns and cities. The Romans had a numerical system that used letters two emperors – Empire survives until 1453 CE. We still use many of these roads today. to form numbers. We still use Roman numerals today one based in Rome on clocks and for important dates. and the other in 295 AQUEDUCTS BATH, ENGLAND Constantinople. 12 345 Roman engineers built channels, or aqueducts, to carry water from rivers to the cities. They erected great arched structures 6 7 8 9 10 to keep the channels straight through dips and valleys. ROMAN 50 100 500 900 1,000 476 ce AQUEDUCT

The Vikings CLOTHING No one living between the 8th and 11th centuries Tunics and trousers for welcomed a visit from the Vikings. These wild men and long dresses seafarers from Scandinavia caused widespread terror for women were usual with lightning raids and looting. But as bold explorers, Viking wear. Most they travelled far and opened up a wider world. clothes were made of wool or linen and animal skins. Only the MOTHER MERCHANT rich could afford silks and fancy accessories. The women wove and sewed everything. CHILD RAIDING RECORD TREASURE The 300-year Viking history is Every self-respecting Viking family had their marked out by raids, voyaging, special treasures. Rich folk prized finely and the colonizing of new lands. crafted gold and silver jewellery. A typical adventurer, whether raider or trader, picked 794 750 1050 793 up ornaments and trophies in other lands. HUNTING HORN “EASTER” EGG BURIAL CHEST Vikings First Made from the horn Christian symbol of Decorated oak chest attack dated Viking rebirth from Russia. made for a ship burial. Scotland raid, on of an ox. Lindisfarne, 795 northeast Vikings England attack Ireland 799 Vikings attack France 874 860 JEWELS GOLDSMITH’S ART GAMING PIECE ARMBAND BUCKLED UP MINI CUP Iceland Vikings begin Rock crystal beads Intricate brooch of Amber figure used Solid silver arm ring Patterned Tiny silver cup with colonized settling in twisted gold wires. in a board game. with moulded beading. engraved pattern. Russia and set in silver. buckle plate. 911 Ukraine Vikings led NORSE MYTHS 876 by Rollo Vikings settle The ancient Norse myths settle in permanently explain how the world and Normandy in England the first people were created. The stories are full 982 of dragons, magic, warring Vikings gods, and giants as wild as discover the Vikings themselves. Greenland According to Norse myth, there is a great battle still 1001 1000 LOKI ASK ODIN THOR HEL to come, which will end this Vikings in Shapeshifter and god First man, created Norse god of Hammer-wielding Goddess of the world and start a new one. Explorer Leif Greenland from an ash tree. wisdom and war. Eriksson and Iceland of mischief. god of thunder. Underworld. reaches convert to American Christianity coast 1048 Vikings F U TH A R K H N I A S T B M L R Rigging found Oslo in Norway Rowers work in pairs VIKING SOCIETY RUNES RUNE ALPHABET Square sail At the top of the Viking social The Vikings used an alphabet JELLING scale were the nobility, the of letters known as runes. STONES uppermost being the jarls. These runes can be seen today A copy showing Then came the freemen, such carved into memorial stones, pictures and as warriors, craftsmen, and such as the famous Jelling Stones farmers. Lowest on the scale in Denmark, or as messages runes. were slaves, or thralls, many on pieces of wood and bone. of them prisoners of war. NORTH FAR AND WIDE AMERICA The Vikings were skilled GREENLAND navigators. Sailing from what are now Denmark, JARLS (UPPER NOBILITY) Norway, and Sweden, they crossed open oceans NOBLES ICELAND in their small wooden boats. Their sea and land KEY expeditions took them Viking homeland west to North America Viking settlements and east to Central Asia. Viking voyages FULL SAIL FREEMEN EUROPE A Viking ship used sails as well as manpower. ATLANTIC OCEAN THRALLS (SLAVES) 296

HOME LIFE CAULDRON COMB PIPE No one had any privacy in a Viking DRILL home, known as a longhouse, which Welded had one room or hall with a central iron plates fireplace. Here, everyone lived, ate, and slept. Wealthy households sometimes had extra rooms for cooking and weaving. Outside, there were animal barns, grain stores, and workshops. SPINNER WARRIORS HUNTER ARCHER HOLY CASKET ARMS AND Container for ARMOUR Christian relics. An axe, a sword, and sometimes bow and arrows were Viking battle gear. An iron helmet and a wooden shield warded off enemy blows. FANTASTIC BEAST SILVER WARRIOR Gilded bronze fitting Figure of a horseman from a horse’s bridle. bearing a sword. ADVENTURERS HELMETS There are some famous heroes among the DAGGERS Vikings. Although their adventures took place SHIELDS more than 1,000 years ago, the legends of these chieftains live on. AXES RAGNAR A hero of his day, he invaded Paris in 845. Stories say that he was later imprisoned in northern England, and left in a snakepit to die. BJORN JARNSMIDA One of the earliest known Viking explorers, he led raiding parties far and wide, attacking lands in Spain, France, Italy, and even North Africa. IVAR THE BONELESS NORWEGIAN HELMET Chain mail to protect neck Despite the unexplained name, Ivar was a vicious and powerful warrior. He invaded East Anglia in England in 869. ROLLO VIKING KNIFE In the 9th century, this Norse chief founded a settlement in what is now Rouen in northern France. ERIK THE RED Originally Norwegian, he moved to Iceland from where he was banished for killings in 982. He founded the Norse colonies in Greenland. LEIF THE LUCKY Son of Erik the Red, Leif Eriksson made it all the way to North America in about 1001. He landed in present-day Newfoundland. LEIF THE LUCKY IT IS A MYTH ARROWS SWORDS Unbleached TWHOARTEVHIKOIRNNGESD LONGBOW linen HELMETS UNDERTUNIC AND LEGGINGS 297

THREE MAJOR Ancient Americas CIVILIZATIONS Three great civilizations of the Americas flourished in different The Aztec civilization was based in what parts of the continent: the Maya and Aztecs in central America is now central Mexico. The Maya occupied (Mesoamerica) and the Inca in the south, centred in modern-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Peru. These cultures, although different in many ways, all left Honduras, and El Salvador. The Inca behind beautiful art and the remains of spectacular cities. empire stretched 4,000 km (2,486 miles) along the west coast of South America. Tenochtitlan Chichen itza Tikal THE Machu Picchu ANDES Cuzco KEY MAYA AZTEC INCA DIVERSE CULTURES MACHU PICCHU As well as the Maya, Aztec, and A remote outpost of the Inca Inca civilizations, a rich mosaic empire, up to half of its 143 of other peoples and cultures buildings may have been used flourished in the region. for religious ceremonies. MAYA (c.2000 bce–1697 ce) GREAT CITIES TIKAL CHICHEN ITZA CUZCO TEOTIHUACAN Major Maya city, inhabited Maya city that was an The religious and political City state that was destroyed Excelled at astronomy, and devised Cities were built in from 600 BCE to around 900 CE. important trading centre. mysteriously around 700 CE. a way of writing using pictures. There a variety of places. capital of the Incas. are still millions of Maya in Central The surrounding America today. landscape and the building materials OLMEC (1200–400 bce) available had an effect on the look of the One of the earliest civilizations of buildings. Cities were Mesoamerica, their culture was based often dominated by mainly on farming and trade. huge temples and other religious buildings. ZAPOTEC (500 bce–900 ce) WRITING SKY PERSON MOUNTAIN SUN JAGUAR FIRE Based in southern Mexico. Ruled over BONE WATER 1,000 settlements in the region from Many of the different WOMAN SPIRIT BOOK SNAKE LORD CLOUD its main city, Monte Albán. Mesoamerican cultures used picture-writing to TEOTIHUACAN (1–750 ce) keep records and write about their history. The Inca and Built Teotihuacan, the largest their neighbours did not and most impressive city in use writing, but recorded the ancient Americas. information on a quipu, an arrangement of NAZCA (100–800 ce) knotted strings. Best known for the massive pictures TO GRAB QUETZAL HOLY TO SCATTER and shapes (geoglyphs) they etched on the ground in southern Peru. AZTEC SUN STONE MAYA WRITING Describes the Aztecs’ beliefs Made up of a system of MOCHE (100–800 ce) symbols, called glyphs. about time and religion. Built huge, mysterious pyramids, from mud bricks, that still dominate the countryside in northern Peru. TOLTEC (750–1170) Expert Mesoamerican architects and craftsmen. Built giant pyramids and palaces in their capital, Tula. CHIMU (1000–1470) Occupying a large area in the west of South America, they were skilled goldsmiths and architects. Eventually conquered by the Incas. INCA (1150–1532) Became the most powerful people in the Andes mountain region when they conquered the city of Cuzco in 1438. They went on to take over many other states for their empire. AZTEC (1300s–1521) Originally a wandering tribe, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan in 1325, which become the centre of their mighty empire. YEAR BLUE SHIELD FLINT HOUSE TWENTY 298