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PI = 3.141592653 If you divide the circumference of a circle PI SYMBOL by its diameter, the answer is always 3 and b1 a bit, or pi (π). It is impossible to write pi precisely, because the numbers after the decimal point continue forever. FINDING AREA h h hh h The area of a two- r b b b b2 b dimensional shape is the area = πr² amount of space inside it. area = bh area = bh area = bh There are formulae that can be used to work out RECTANGLE PARALLELOGRAM RHOMBUS how much space there The area of a rectangle Find the area of a The area of a rhombus is inside any polygon. parallelogram by can be found by multiplying its base can be found by area = 1 bh multiplying its base by its vertical height. area = 1 h(b1+b2) multiplying its base 2 2 by its vertical height. by its height. CIRCLE TRIANGLE TRAPEZIUM The area of a circle is To find the area of a Find the area by adding pi (3.14) multiplied by triangle, multiply the the two parallel sides, base by the height, then multiplying the total by the the square of the halve your answer. height, then dividing by 2. circle’s radius. PYTHAGORAS’S “GGREEMEOAEMEKRAE:TNT“HGRINYAEGO”N”CDMMO“EMEMAAESENSUTIRRFNEIRAGO”M FINDING VOLUME AND SURFACE AREA THEOREM Volume is the amount of space enclosed within a three-dimensional (3-D) This theory is named after an Ancient Greek object. Surface area is the total area around the outside of a 3-D object. mathematician called Pythagoras. He observed Area of largest Slant Vertical that if you draw squares square is 5² length height from each side of a right- (or 5 × 5), of cone of cone angled triangle, the area which is 25 of the two smaller squares s h added together is equal to the area of the Area of larger 4 cm 4 cm 5 cm 25 cm2 r r h, height (or largest square. square is 4² length) of (or 4 × 4), 16 cm2 5 cm r Radius which is 16 of base Radius of cylinder cylinder of cone Radius of sphere surface area = πrs + πr² surface area = 4πr² surface area = 2πr (h+r) volume = πr²h USING THE THEOREM 3 cm volume = 1 πr²h volume = 4 πr² Pythagoras’s theorem can be 3 3 used to find the length of the 9 cm2 longest side of a right-angled 3 cm CONE SPHERE CYLINDER triangle (c), if you know the length Area of small square is 3² You can find the surface area of the two shorter sides (a and b). (or 3 × 3), which is 9 Find the surface area of a and volume of a sphere using The surface area and cone using the radius of its only its radius, because the volume of a cylinder can be a² + b² = c² base, its height, and its slant other part of the equation, pi, found from its radius and length. Find the volume using is a constant number (3.14). height (or length). the height and radius. Height of cuboid ROTATIONAL EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE Slant Vertical SYMMETRY An equilateral triangle has rotational symmetry of order 3 – length height when rotated, it fits its original outline in three different ways. If a shape can be moved s h around a centre point and still fit its original outline 1 2 3 h exactly, it is said to have Centre of 4 rotational symmetry. The w order of rotational symmetry rotation is the number of ways a Width of shape can fit into its original l cuboid l l outline when rotated. Length of side Length of cuboid Length of side of base of pyramid 1 surface area = 6l² surface area = 2(lh+lw+hw) surface area = 2ls+l² SQUARE volume = l3 volume = lwh When rotated around Direction of rotation volume = 1 l²h its centre, a square fits 23 3 its original outline in four different ways – its Centre of CUBE CUBOID SQUARE PYRAMID rotational symmetry rotation is order 4. The surface area and The surface area or volume Find the surface area of a volume of a cube can of a cuboid can be found if square pyramid by using the be found by using only the you know its length, width, lengths of its slant and the side length of its sides. No other of its base. Its volume can information is needed. and height. be found from its height and the side of its base. REFLECTIVE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE TANGRAMS SYMMETRY This is symmetrical across a central line: the sides and angles on either An equilateral triangle has Any shape that is made of straight sides can be split into triangles. a line of symmetry through If you were to cut up a piece of paper into triangles, for instance, A reflection shows a shape side of the line are equal, and the line the middle of each side – you could reassemble the pieces in different ways to create new cuts the base in half at right angles. shapes. The game of Tangrams is a puzzle that uses a square in its mirror image, like a not just the base. shape split into seven polygons, most of which are triangles. mountain reflection in a lake. When a flat shape can be divided in half so that each Line of half is the exact mirror image symmetry of the other, it is said to have reflective symmetry. The line that divides the shape to perform the reflection is called a line of symmetry. TANGRAM POSSIBLE SHAPES USING TANGRAM PIECES 49

Cars HOW A CAR WORKS The first cars were invented more than The power that turns a car’s wheels comes 130 years ago. Originally known as from the car’s internal combustion engine. “horseless carriages”, these early models Combustion is a kind of burning that takes were slow, open-topped vehicles, but place inside the engine when air is mixed today’s cars are fast, stylish, and can be with petrol or diesel, compressed, and powered by petrol, diesel, or electricity. ignited with a spark. 1. INSIDE THE ENGINE Air and petrol (or diesel) are sucked into cylinders inside the engine by pistons, which then compress the mixture. A spark plug ignites it, providing energy. 2. IN GEAR 3. TURNING WHEELS 4. MOVING FORWARD The gears turn rods called The wheels are much The pistons move very fast, but a car axles. Wheels are attached to bigger than the axles, so needs more force and less speed to these axles, so they turn too. as they turn they cover start moving. Gears control the force a lot of ground quickly, and speed the car receives. moving the car forward. BESTSELLING CARS TCHAEN(T6FH2REERRMAERPECAHHSR)EI1ICNL0AO0UNFKNEDMRDSR/EHARRI MASERATI GRANTURISMO In 1901 only 600 cars were sold around FERRARI MC STRADALE the world. By 2014 yearly car sales had LAFERRARI reached 71 million. Some models have 2011 sold in huge numbers, as shown below. 2013 1 TOYOTA COROLLA SUPERCARS The world’s bestselling car, over 40 million of Cars that are designed to this Japanese model have been sold since 1966. be faster, sleeker, and more powerful than normal cars are 2 FORD F-SERIES called supercars. They use cutting- edge materials and technology, and are Ford have sold more than very expensive. They are the cars that make onlookers say “Wow!”. 35 million of these chunky pick-up trucks since they were introduced in 1948. FORD F-SERIES 3 VOLKSWAGEN GOLF 1948 Introduced in 1974, the Golf has been consistently popular – 27.5 million have been sold. 4 VOLKSWAGEN BEETLE First produced in 1933, VOLKSWAGEN 23.5 million Beetles have BEETLE 1948 been sold worldwide. 5 FORD ESCORT These family cars were produced from 1968. Sales eventually topped 20 million. 6 HONDA CIVIC Honda was about to stop making cars before creating the Civic in 1972. 18.5 million have sold. 7 HONDA ACCORD The first Japanese car produced in the USA, Honda has sold 17.5 million Accords since 1976. 8 FORD MODEL T The original affordable car, Ford sold 16.5 million of these between 1908 and 1927. 9 VOLKSWAGEN PASSAT Seven generations of Passat have seen total sales of above 15.5 million since 1973. 10 CHEVROLET IMPALA Chevrolet have sold 14 million of these since the car was introduced in 1958. CHEVROLET IMPALA 1960 1886 1901 1908 1913 1928 Bentley 1954 The Ford Model Ford operates Bentley 4½ Litre Benz Lohner-Porsche T is the first first moving car wins Le Mercedes-Benz Motorwagen produces the first affordable car. assembly line. Mans race. 300 SL “Gull Wing” is the first hybrid cars, which is first production Benz petrol-fuelled can run on an car to exceed Motorwagen automobile. electric battery 241 km/h (150 mph). and petrol. 1886 CARS THROUGH TIME 1893 1903 1910 1934 1948 Mercedes Simplex Jaguar XK120 The first petrol-fuelled cars reached Duryea Motor 60HP can reach First four- Citroën Traction Avant reaches 200 km/h a top speed of 19 km/h (12 mph). Wagon is the 120 km/h (75 mph). wheel brake is first successful front- (124.6 mph). Since then, technology has given us first successful system is wheel-drive made affordable, faster, and safer cars with car powered patented by for the mass-market. speeds of up to 435 km/h (270 mph). by petrol. Argyll Motors, Scotland. Mercedes Simplex 60HP Argyll Landaulette Citroën Traction Avant 50

OFF-ROAD ADVENTURERS WILLYS MB JEEP LAND ROVER SERIES 1 THE FUTURE IS GREEN FORD ESCAPE HYBRID 1941 1949 2009 These cars are specially built to travel along Hybrid cars have two kinds of difficult terrain, such as muddy or energy sources: a petrol or diesel New York City, USA, is now using very uneven roads. They are also engine and an electric motor. When more and more hybrid taxicabs. known as “four-by-fours” because the car is using the petrol or diesel all four wheels are powered engine, it also charges up the by the engine. This gives each electric motor, which can then be wheel the ability to pull the used to drive. These cars use less vehicle out of a sticky position. energy and cause less pollution than other cars. MERCEDES-BENZ G300D RANGE ROVER HUMMER H3 TESLA ROADSTER BMW I8 1993 2002 2008 2007 2014 MCLAREN F1 GT BUGATTI VEYRON This car is purely electric. This hybrid sports car can reach speeds 1997 2005 of up to 250 km/h (155 mph). KOENIGSEGG RACING DEMONS RECORD BREAKERS AGERA RS 2015 Racing cars come in several shapes and Over the years, manufacturers have sizes. Each one is built to suit a particular tried to outdo each other with new kind of race, such as Formula 1, rallying, refinements. Here are some remarkable endurance, or stock car racing. record-breaking cars. FORMULA 1 RACING: 2008 MCLAREN-MERCEDES FIRST AFFORDABLE CAR Driven by 2008 World Champion Lewis Hamilton. In the early years of motoring, cars were driven only by wealthy people. Henry Ford changed this in 1908, when he produced the affordable Model T. TOURING CAR RACING: 2003 MERCEDES BENZ FORD This won nine of the ten races in Germany’s MODEL T Touring Car Masters (DTM). LAND SPEED RECORD Thrust SSC (SuperSonic Car) used two turbojets to drive faster than sound in 1997 in the Nevada Desert, USA, reaching 1,228 km/h (763 mph). LAMBORGHINI ENDURANCE RACING: 2009 PEUGEOT THRUST SSC HURACÁN Winner of Le Mans 24-hour race; 2014 driven by a team of three. SMALLEST ROADWORTHY CAR PORSCHE 918 STOCK CAR RACING: 2009 TOYOTA CAMRY Built by Austin Colson in the USA in 2012, SPYDER Brian Vickers won the Carfax 400 in this hybrid car. this car measures just 63.5 cm (25 in) high x 2015 65.41 cm (25.8 in) wide x 126.47 cm (50 in) long. RALLYING: 2000 SUBARU IMPREZA It is just big enough to be allowed on roads. Winner of the Safari Rally; driven by Richard Burns. MOST EXPENSIVE CAR In 2013 Lamborghini unveiled the world’s most expensive car: the Veneno Roadster. It costs £3.3 million (US$4.95 million) and has a top speed of 356 km/h (221 mph). Lamborghini said that only nine cars would ever be produced. FASTEST PRODUCTION CAR The fastest series production car is the Hennessey Venom GT. It reached a speed of 435.31 km/h (270.49 mph) in 2014, and is powered by a 7.0-litre, twin-turbo V8 engine. Mercedes-Benz 1959 Mini 1971 1982 2014 300 SL “Gull Wing” Hennessey The space-saving, Chrysler Imperial Bosch produces Venom does compact Mini introduces a reliable the first fully 435 km/h changes thinking electronic four-wheel digital electronic (270.49 mph). about economy cars. anti-lock braking system, fuel injection called Sure-Brake. system. 2015 Fuel injection system 2010 1958 1966 1973 1997 Bugatti Veyron Aston Martin DB4 Lamborghini Miura Catalytic converter Toyota Prius is the 16.4 Super Sport achieves 227 km/h reaches 275 km/h invented. first mass-produced does 434 km/h (141 mph). (171 mph). hybrid car. (269.86 mph). Aston Martin DB4 Lamborghini Miura Catalytic converter Toyota Prius 51

Tractors FIRST TRACTORS A tractor is a vehicle designed to Tractors were invented in the 1860s to pull things – especially large farm do the job of horses around the farm. machinery. Tractors have engines They had steam engines, large metal with a special gearbox that allows wheels, and a seat at the back. them to use all the engine’s power for strength, not speed. Once fuelled MOGUL 8-16 IVEL AGRICULTURAL MOTOR by coal, they now run on diesel. 1915 1903 MODERN MACHINE ANATOMY FARM TRACTORS MOLINE UNIVERSAL MODEL D 1918 Modern tractors are very large and powerful. They have four huge wheels Petrol tractors were with grooved tyres that allow them to travel over wet, muddy ground, and invented in the 1890s, JOHN DEERE B reinforced cabs to keep the driver safe even if the tractor tips over. Other with wheels designed to 1935 farm machinery can be attached using linkage and pick-up hitches, and give them great pulling powered via the tractor’s PTO (power take off) shaft. power. They were also faster, and quickly became indispensable ALLIS-CHALMERS MODEL U on farms. 1933 SOCKETS HYDRAULICS These allow the These can be tractor to raise and used to power lower heavy items. things like brake THIEMAN DAVID BROWN 850 1962 lights on 1941 machinery. THREE-POINT PICK-UP HITCH PTO SHAFT The driver can LINKAGE use this to hook This takes power Other machinery up equipment. from the tractor can be attached to the tractor here. to any farm machinery attached. YTO 180 MASSEY FERGUSON 2013 MF941 LOADER 2013 A YEAR ON THE FARM Farmers work with the seasons, as seeds and crops will grow only when conditions are right. Tractors are useful at every stage of the process, from preparing the land to harvesting the crops. 1 PLOUGHING AND CULTIVATING After the harvest, 2 PLANTING SEEDS FELDERMAN MINI 16 SOLIS 20 Seeds are sown on to 2014 2014 tractors are used to pull ploughs, the fields using a tractor preparing the seeder. Modern machines soil for seeding. make sure that lines of CRAWLERS seeds don’t overlap. From the 1920s farms also began to use the “crawler” or “caterpillar”. These have tracks rather than wheels and can travel safely over slippery ground and steep hills. GEORGES VIDAL VINEYARD INTERNATIONAL T20 TRAC-TRACTOR 1925 1933 4 HARVESTING Farmers attach special machinery, such as combines and forage harvesters, to tractors to harvest the crops (such as wheat) SPRAYING FERTILIZERS Fertilizer spreaders are from the fields. 3 attached to tractors to distribute growth-enhancing fertilizer CATERPILLAR D7 JOHN DEERE MC BREDA 50TCR 1948 1950 1952 across the fields. 52

1880 TRACTOR HISTORY Today’s powerful tractors are the result of the gradual development of the tractor since its invention in the late 19th century. MARSHALL COLONIAL INTERNATIONAL TITAN TYPE D TWIN CITY 40–65 CLAYTON & SHUTTLEWORTH 1892 CLASS A 1910 1913 DOROTHY John Froelich builds first petrol 1908 1914 engine that can move forwards and backwards. FOWLER BB1 1920 1896 Hornsby- Akroyd Tractor Roll-bars over A Hornsby-Akroyd the cab area engine is used to protect the power the first driver should the petrol tractor. tractor tip over TITAN 10-20 GLASGOW TRACTOR SCEMIA UNIVERSAL 1908 1919 1919 1919 Thick treads, or grooves, Australia’s provide grip tractor industry McDonald Imperial on muddy begins with the ground building of the first McDonald Imperial. MASSEY-HARRIS Pavesi America 101 JUNIOR 1913–17 1939 As Europe prepares for WWI, the Pavesi company realizes the The engine demand for military tractors to is hidden under replace horses for pulling heavy loads. The result is the US model the bonnet known as Pavesi America. 1918 The Fordson Model F becomes the first mass-produced and affordable tractor. Fordson Model F 1924 International Harvester launches the Farmall model, introducing the idea of a general-purpose row-crop tractor. 1931 The Caterpillar 60 Atlas is the first diesel tractor by the Caterpillar Tractor Company. MASSEY FERGUSON 7619 Caterpillar 60 2013 1940 Tractors capable of towing aircraft CASE MODEL L ROADLESS CATERPILLAR D2 are supplied to the RAF in the UK 1938 1942 during WWII. TRACK-MARSHALL MINNEAPOLIS-MOLINE MOTRAC INTERNATIONAL TD14 2015 1958 1958 1960 1944 Sir Edmund Hillary arrives at the South Pole on a tractor. Doe Triple-D 1964 Doe Triple-D is the first double tractor; built by British farmer George Pryor. 1990 JCB launches the Fastrac, which has a top speed of 64 km/h (40 mph). JCB Fastrac 2013 India becomes the world’s largest tractor producer. 53

Trucks and WHAT ARE THEY FOR? CATTLHRLEAEHDLIALOU“ENRRLGOSSEAEASDVTTETOTRRNRAAUCLICENKSS”,, diggers Trucks carry every kind of load. Oil and People are often fascinated by the vehicles other liquids are transported in tankers, they see on our roads and hard at work on while huge transporters carry other construction sites. These machines come in vehicles. Some trucks, such as road all shapes and sizes, and do very different jobs. gritters, refuse trucks, and ambulances, provide vital services. CONSTRUCTION EMERGENCY VEHICLES HAULAGE SPECIALIST Highly specialized Cement mixers, Specialized trucks, such Large trucks and machines, such as diggers, and as fire engines and tankers haul their tracked diggers, do police vans, respond heavy loads over bulldozers are vital to emergencies. specific jobs. for building work. long distances. PICK-UP TRUCK LIGHT TRUCKS MEDIUM TRUCKS WITH SMALL CRANE While some light trucks may only be car-sized, Local delivery vehicles and they are hardwearing, practical vehicles. These trucks providing public trucks are useful for carrying small loads and services, such as rubbish operating in small spaces. collection or breakdown recovery, are usually medium-sized. STREET-SWEEPER VEHICLE FORKLIFT THREE-WHEELER SMALL FLATBED PICK-UP TRUCK MINI DUMPER DELIVERY TRUCK REFUSE TRUCK MONSTER TRUCK HAULAGE TRUCK HEAVY TRUCKS These huge vehicles have very powerful engines and strong structures to support their heavy cargoes. They are often “articulated”, meaning a tractor unit pulls a trailer. The largest trucks are mining dump trucks, used to shift huge loads of earth and rocks. TIMBER TRUCK Cars are loaded on to CEMENT MIXER the transporter’s decks TRANSPORTER DUMP TRUCK BIG RIG TANKER 54

HYDRAULICS CRANES MIGHTY MACHINES Hydraulics means powering a machine Truck-mounted cranes Pulleys The world’s biggest dump trucks – or ultra class move very heavy items increase haulers – stand at around 8 m (26 ft) high. These using liquid-filled pipes. Liquids cannot around building sites. lifting force mechanical monsters are used in mines and can The engine of this crane of winch carry a staggering 500 tonnes of debris – the weight be squeezed into a smaller space, so powers a hydraulic of 38 elephants. At 10 m (33 ft) high, the largest pump that lifts the Crane boom hydraulic diggers weigh around 980 tonnes. They a pipe filled with oil Pushing the ram main crane boom can shovel nearly 1,000 tonnes of material an hour. can be used to exert generates force up and down. Hydraulic ram force. If the pipe is Turntable swings the wider at one end boom over a large area than the other, the Wider pipe force is increased. increases Hydraulic lifting force to stabilizers raise tractor stop the HOW A HYDRAULIC Narrow pipe crane from transmits force tipping over RAM WORKS Since the lift pipe is ULTRA CLASS HAULER HYDRAULIC EXCAVATOR wider than the ram pipe, the lifting force is multiplied. EMERGENCY AMBULANCE POLICE VAN SWAT TRUCK VEHICLES FIRE CHIEF’S CAR MOTOR HOME The most important trucks are those that save lives. Fire engines are equipped with ladders, water tanks, and other tools. Armoured SWAT trucks are used by the military and police, while ambulances ferry the sick and injured to hospital. AIRCRAFT TOW TRUCK BOMB DISPOSAL TRUCK FIRE ENGINE Cab where DIGGERS the driver sits Also known as excavators, these machines use a bucket on the BACKHOE LOADER FRONT LOADER end of a hinged arm (boom) to dig into the ground. Wheeled diggers are suitable for moving across hard surfaces, while tracked wheels are best for mud. Loaders are used to scoop up loose material, such as gravel, from the ground. TRACKED LOADER MINI DIGGER WHEELED EXCAVATOR TRACKED DIGGER SPBKEARI“CLFDKLOIEHGRDOGMOEERSPLTEODRUAAANDNTTECOSRIRNSCSGTAU”OLSLEED 55

Trains DIESEL TRAINS In 1804 British engineer Richard Trevithick tried attaching Steam engines polluted the air and were a steam engine to a wagon, a job that before then had been inefficient, so people began to look for better done by horses. It easily pulled enormous weights, and the ways of powering trains. In 1892 the German steam railway was born. Today’s trains use diesel, electricity, engineer Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel or magnetic levitation to run fast and cleanly. engine that ran on a liquid type of fuel. STEAM POWER 1 PISTON MOVES DOWN 2 PISTON MOVES UP BOXLEY WHITCOMB 30-DM-31 Steam moves from the boiler into cylinders. When the piston nears the bottom of the 1941 A steam engine runs on the heat energy that is produced The steam pressure pushes pistons, which move cylinder, the valve swaps the steam flow from ENGLISH ELECTRIC DELTIC by burning coal or other fuel. 1955 Inside the steam engine there rods to turn the wheels. The turning wheels the top to the bottom. The steam pushes the is a fire that heats a boiler PASCSOAEHNLNALEGEMEDEABRTURTHLRRYEGAEDFIRLNIYESWINEALGS filled with water. The steam move valves that control the flow of steam. piston up, pulling the connecting rod to turn that is produced goes into STEAM ENGINES cylinders and pushes pistons the wheel back to where it started. backwards and forwards. Steam engines were the first The pistons are connected Boiler form of locomotives. They were to the driving wheels, and used in the UK from the early push and pull them round. Piston pushed down Piston pushed up 1800s, spreading quickly to the Cylinder rest of the world. The early Valve trains were quite slow, but in 1934 a steam engine called Firebox Flying Scotsman reached 160 Valve control rod km/h (100 mph) on a test run between Leeds and London. Connecting rod Wheel Wheel rotates Lamp bracket on buffer beam ROCKET Wheels driven by pistons KING EDWARD II 1829 1930 MERDDIN EMRYS TALIESIN 1879 LB&SCR B1 CLASS 1876 1882 LYR WREN NER (CLASS XL NO.66) VGN (CLASS SA NO.4) GWR HALL CLASS 1887 1902 1910 1928 MALLARD HUNSLET AUSTERITY DR (CLASS 99.73-76) 1938 1944 1954 56

BUGATTI RAILCAR DR (CLASS Kö) GHE T1 MA&PA GM EMD TYPE NWZ FASTEST TRAINS 1932/33 1934 1934 1946 An early record-setting train was Stephenson’s Rocket, at 46 km/h (29 mph). In the 1960s, Japan opened the world’s first high-speed rail line, capable of carrying “bullet trains” that travelled at around 210 km/h (130 mph). Some trains today can travel even faster. BALDWIN S12 SWITCHER BR CLASS 08 BR (CLASS 05) NORFOLK AND WESTERN 41 MAGLEV: SHANGHAI METRO, CHINA 1950 1953 1954 1958 UP TO 430 KM/H (267 MPH) HARMONY CRH 380A: BEIJING TO SHANGHAI, CHINA UP TO 380 KM/H (236 MPH) N&W EMD GP9 CLASS DR V15 (CLASS 101) AGV ITALO: NAPLES TO MILAN, ITALY 1955 1959 360 KM/H (224 MPH) AVE S 103: BARCELONA TO MADRID, SPAIN 350 KM/H (217 MPH) TALGO 350: MADRID TO LLEIDA, SPAIN 350 KM/H (217 MPH) DR V60 (CLASS 105) CONRAIL NO.2233 BR D9500 (CLASS 14) PRESTON DOCKS SENTINEL MAGNETIC TRAINS 1961 1963 1964 1968 Maglev trains use magnetic levitation to ELECTRIC TRAINS ENGLISH ELECTRIC, 0-4-0 move trains along without having to touch 1930 the ground or any form of rail. Magnets Electric trains run on electricity allow them to rise and then travel extremely that is provided by an overhead fast above special rails. line or an electrified rail. They do not give off smoke and can READING MULTIPLE UNIT N0.800 travel very fast. 1931 DR EO4 PRR (CLASS GG1) MAGLEV TRAIN 1933 1934 BR (CLASS 92) HOW MAGLEV WORKS 1993 FRONT SIDE JAVELIN NO.395 017 VIEW VIEW 2009 DR (CLASS 243) 1982 Magnets Track Coils in in the Train the track produce a train and magnetic track field GATWICK ADTRANZ C-100 EUROTUNNEL LE SHUTTLE 1987 1994 1808 1829 1869 1914–18 1964 Japanese Trevithick runs a bullet train steam engine in Stephenson’s Rocket The transcontinental Large armies Japan Bloomsbury, becomes the fastest railway opens, making the are moved by introduces a 2000s London. train when it reaches USA a dominant economic train during 46 km/h (29 mph). power. Railways create big World War I. super-fast 2014 Trevithick’s business in America, driving “bullet” train. Japan’s “Puffing Billy” the Industrial Revolution. Maglev trains run 1800 faster than 480 km/h 1804 1812 1863 1913 1960s (300 mph). Trevithick’s Penydarren locomotive First successful commercial use Underground Sweden uses the USA phases out is tried in South Wales. of steam, in Yorkshire, England. railway opens steam engines. 57 in London, UK. first diesel- TRAIN HISTORY powered main East German London Battery shunter Trains have changed significantly over their Underground map line trains. 300-year history. The first trains were steady 1966 and steam-powered. Modern trains are usually 1890 electric and can reach very high speeds. First use of electric locomotives on London’s underground.

Motorbikes FASTEST BIKES SPORT BIKES A popular means of transport for nearly Some specially built motorcycles can These bikes are designed for 100 years, motorbikes can move faster travel at more than 560 km/h (350 mph). thrills. They have fast acceleration, than any other road vehicles. There are Such high speeds are not allowed powerful brakes, and can take specialized bikes for almost every purpose, on public roads. corners at high speed. Some from town riding to fun sports and racing. models are used for road riding TOP 1 ACK ATTACK – 605.697 KM/H (376.363 MPH) as well as racing. SUZUKI HAYABUSA – 399 KM/H (248 MPH) HONDA VFR700F INTERCEPTOR 1987 MTT TURBINE SUPERBIKE Y2K – 365.3 KM/H (227 MPH) YAMAHA YZF600R STUNTS THUNDERCAT 1998 Motorcycle stunt riding is a sport in which riders perform daring tricks, often making their bikes leave the ground. Lightweight sports bikes are most commonly used. STOPPIE ONE-HAND STAND-UP STOPPIE WHEELIE CLOTHING STANDARD BIKES CRUISERS Riders need protective clothes that will These bikes have little or no extra Modern cruisers are powerful help save them from injury if they fall bodywork. They let riders sit upright, luxury bikes, at their best on off their bikes. The most vital piece of allowing them to see well ahead. open roads. They are built to equipment is the helmet. This improves safety, especially look stylish, but many riders in busy towns. Standard bikes are find them less comfortable often the first choice for new riders. BMW R32 1923 than touring bikes. NORTON INTERNATIONAL 1948 Face Helmet Low, wide shield seat Shoulder padding COVENTRY EAGLE FLYING 8 1925 Elbow padding Gloves Protective TRIUMPH TROPHY ROYAL ENFIELD fabric TR6 1958 INTERCEPTOR 1965 Knee HONDA CB250 K4 1972 DUCATI M900 SIDECARS padding MONSTER 1994 IVY THREE 1924 A sidecar is a small, one-wheeled vehicle that Rigid SUNBEAM S7 attaches to the side of a bike. It usually provides boots DE LUXE 1949 a passenger seat and some luggage space. TOURERS Comfortable rather than ultra-fast, touring bikes provide an easy ride over long distances. They are also popular for everyday travel. ROYAL ENFIELD CONSTELLATION HARLEY-DAVIDSON SUZUKI T500 1975 ZUNDAPP KS750 AIRFLOW 1959 FLH DUO-GLIDE 1960 WEHRMACHT SIDECAR 1940 58

1850 HISTORY OF MOTORBIKES The motorbike had its beginnings in the late 19th century, when inventors discovered how to power bicycles with fuel-driven engines. NSU 18PS SPORT 1924 EXCELSIOR JAP SPEEDWAY 1949 WESLAKE HOBBIT DRAGSTER 1978 HONDA RC30 HONDA CBR900RR SUZUKI KAWASAKI ZX7R Daimler Reitwagen 1988 FIREBLADE 1992 GSX-R1100 1994 1995 1885 A gas-powered wooden bike is KAWASAKI NINJA ZX-12R TRIUMPH DAYTONA 675 DUCATI 1098S TWEHDADEAISCUTIOTCISMOALAPANOETLDCIUIOAEI1RAFN0SILTN9FO8HLTSFEAHGE designed and built by German inventors 2000 2006 2007 Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach. FRANCIS-BARNETT 1894 The Hildebrand CRUISER 1933 & Wolfmüller Motorrad is the first real motorcycle to come off a production line. Hildebrand & Wolfmüller Motorrad 1908 The first-ever motorcycle race is held at Brooklands, Surrey, in England, and won by a 944cc NLG Peugeot bike. HONDA VF500C HARLEY-DAVIDSON NLG Peugeot MAGNA 1983 XLH883 SPORTSTER 1987 1936 The first scooters Brake disc HONDA VT 750C2 SHADOW 1998 are made in the USA. MOTO GUZZI CALIFORNIA EV 2001 The Cushman Auto-Glide is produced in 1938 and later adapted for Auto-Glide Model 1 wartime use. 1969 Honda launches the first superbike – the Honda CB750. It is the first standard bike to offer features such as an overhead- camshaft four-cylinder engine and front disc brake. Honda CB750 SUZUKI M1800R WARTIME TRIUMPH AMERICA 2012 Mighty Mouse INTRUDER 2007 SPACE SAVER SCOOTER FOLDED INTO CANISTER 1977 Raced by builder Brian Chapman, KIRBY BSA RACING During World War II, “Mighty Mouse” is the first dragster SIDECAR 1968 the British Army used to cover 400 m (1,312 ft) in less a lightweight bike that than nine seconds. BMW R50 could be dropped by COMBO 1957 parachute. Named the Triumph Thunderbird 1600 Welbike, it weighed just 34 kg (75 lb) and fitted 2010 The world’s biggest parallel-twin into a small canister. engine appears when the Triumph Thunderbird 1600 comes off the WELBIKE SCOOTER 1942 2015 production line. 2011 The Triumph Rocket III Roadster features the biggest production motorcycle engine ever built. 59

FIGHTER PLANES FOKKER DVII FOCKE-WULF FW190 MESSERSCHMITT ME262 Small, fast, and agile, fighter planes are designed for attacking other aircraft. The first fighters appeared during World War I. Today’s planes have highly sophisticated tracking and weapons systems. SOPWITH PUP SOPWITH F.1 CAMEL BRISTOL BULLDOG P-38 LIGHTNING F-86 SABRE NIEUPORT 17 FOKKER SUPERMARINE P-51 MUSTANG DR.1 SPITFIRE YAKOVLEV YAK-9 F-4 PHANTOM II ROYAL AIRCRAFT SOPWITH DOLPHIN A6M ZERO HAWKER HUNTER FACTORY S.E.5A DE HAVILLAND BOMBERS AND STRIKE AIRCRAFT MOSQUITO The role of these aircraft is to strike ground and sea targets. Heavy bombers carry out long-range strategic missions. Low-flying strike aircraft can attack battlefield targets, such as tanks and troops, with great precision. ROYAL AIRCRAFT B-25 MITCHELL B-52 STRATOFORTRESS FACTORY B.E.2C A-4 SKYHAWK VICKERS VIMY AVRO LANCASTER JUNKERS JU 87B AVRO 698 VULCAN B-17 FLYING FORTRESS F-117A NIGHTHAWK VICKERS WELLINGTON X B-58A HUSTLER Aircraft HOW PLANES FLY All aeroplanes have wings and an engine. In order to fly, a plane must engage in a “tug-of-war” between the forces of lift versus weight, and thrust versus drag. Aviation has come a long way since the first Air flowing over the wings LIFT The engines powered aircraft flight took place in 1903. Today, provides upward lift Flow of air provide the thrust huge planes can carry hundreds of passengers to move forwards halfway around the world, while supersonic fighter jets can fly faster than the speed of sound. DRAG THRUST Drag (wind WEIGHT The weight of the plane resistance) works downwards due tries to slow to gravity the plane down 60

F-14 TOMCAT PASSENGER PLANES AV-8B HARRIER II The first commercial flight took place in 1914, with just one paying passenger. Today’s largest airliner, the Airbus A380, can carry up to 853 passengers. FOKKER F27 FRIENDSHIP BOEING 737-800 DOUGLAS DC3 CONCORDE LOCKHEED L-1049 G SUPER CONSTELLATION F-35 LIGHTNING II DE HAVILLAND DH106 COMET 4C AIRBUS A380 PRIVATE AIRCRAFT BOEING STEARMAN AUSTER J/1 MODEL 75 AUTOCRAT A range of light, propeller-driven aircraft are privately flown for both CESSNA F177RG pleasure and transport. Some CARDINAL business travellers use private, often luxurious jets as air taxis. GIPSY MOTH PITTS S1-S BOMBARDIER LEARJET 45 BELL JETRANGER B-2 SPIRIT HELICOPTERS The rotating blades of helicopters allow them to take off and land vertically, hover, and fly in all directions. These agile aircraft can land in small spaces and reach isolated locations. A-10 THUNDERBOLT II WESTLAND WS-61 SEA KING BELL UH-1D IROQUOIS IT“NTSHDVTHEEIEESNSAIWIIBLGGTLONHEHRETT”LDHODAAT’IRSRWOACFBKDRIERAAWSRFTAT, S SIKORSKY UH-60 BLACK HAWK BREAKING THE SOUND BARRIER WESTLAND WESSEX WESTLAND LYNX Supersonic jets flying faster than the speed of sound create a shock wave called a “sonic boom”. To slice through the HOW HELICOPTERS FLY Tilted blade in rear air at such incredible speed, these planes need a slim body, produces more lift thin wings, and a sharp nose. The rotor blades on a helicopter are like spinning plane wings. As each blade rotates, air is forced over its curved surface and pushed down. This produces the upward force called “lift”. Tilted blade produces Flatter blade produces Flatter blade in more lift for takeoff less lift while landing front produces less lift 1 SLOWER THAN SOUND 2 AT THE SPEED OF SOUND 3 FASTER THAN SOUND TAKEOFF LANDING STRAIGHT AHEAD Ordinary planes trail As a supersonic plane nears the Shock waves trail behind When the lift produced by The helicopter descends When the rotor is tilted behind their own sounds so speed of sound, sound waves bunch the plane, creating a loud the tilted blades is greater when the lift produced by forwards, the resulting than the aircraft’s weight, the flattened blades is less you can hear them coming. together to form a shock wave. sonic boom. than the aircraft’s weight. thrust propels the the helicopter rises. helicopter forwards. 61

The story c.200 bce c.1488 ce 1783 of flight The wings are FIRST MANNED From the first balloon and glider flights moved by the FLIGHT to the launch of a solar-powered aircraft, pilot’s legs people have always been fascinated and arms The first recorded manned by the idea of flying. The invention of flight – lasting about 25 aircraft that can carry people was one minutes – takes place in of the 20th century’s great triumphs, a hot-air balloon built by and helped to shape the modern world. the Montgolfier brothers. The balloon is made of linen lined with paper. KONGMING ORNITHOPTER MONTGOLFIER BROTHERS’ LANTERN HOT-AIR BALLOON LEONARDO The Chinese-invented DA VINCI sky lantern (a hot-air balloon made from An ornithopter – a wing-flapping paper) is named the aircraft – is designed by Leonardo Kongming lantern. It da Vinci. He also sketches flying is used for signalling machines such as helicopters and between military troops. parachutes (although he does not build them), and studies airflows and streamlined shapes. 1947 1944 1939 1932 FIRST HELICOPTER FIRST FIRST COMBAT JET FLIGHT AMELIA EARHART SUPERSONIC FLIGHT In July the British Gloster Meteor Mk1 Russian-born Igor Sikorsky The first woman to fly solo across becomes the world’s first operational makes the first flight in his the Atlantic, Amelia Earhart faces US Air Force captain Charles “Chuck” jet fighter. It is followed closely by Nazi VS-300 helicopter, establishing strong winds and mechanical Yeager becomes the first pilot to travel Germany’s Messerschmitt Me262s, the single main rotor and problems on her 15-hour faster than the speed of sound in the Bell which begin attacking American smaller tail rotor layout journey from X-1. This rocket-powered aircraft does not bombers in October the same year. that is now so familiar. Newfoundland take off from the ground but is launched to Ireland. The from the belly of a Boeing B-29 SRI-KWW4OHOERRRESELLKIDUYCSO’WSEPADLTAREITNRIIESR flight is made at an altitude of 7000 m (23,000 ft). in a bright red Lockheed Vega 5B. GLOSTER METEOR F MK8 AMELIA EARHART 1952 1967 1969 1976 DE HAVILLAND DH106 X-15 FIRST FASTEST JET COMET 4C SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT FASTEST AIRLINER FIRST JETLINER MANNED The Lockheed SR-71 AIRCRAFT Concorde, the world’s Blackbird sets the The de Havilland Comet 1, first supersonic official air speed the world’s first ever jetliner, An experimental rocket- airliner, makes its record for a manned jet enters service. There are 36 powered aircraft, the maiden flight. The aircraft with a speed of passengers on the maiden X-15, achieves 7273 km/h jet will enter service 3530 km/h (2193 mph). flight between London and (4520 mph) – nearly seven in 1976, with a typical Johannesburg, South Africa. times the speed of sound. London-to-New-York SR-71 BLACKBIRD The journey, including stops, This remains the record journey taking just takes 23 hours, 38 minutes, for a manned aircraft. under three and a and the return fare costs £315. half hours. However, Concorde’s huge operating costs will make the price of tickets very expensive. CONCORDE 62

1853 1896 1900 1903 1909 FIRST MANNED GLIDER OTTO LILIENTHAL 1928 ZEPPELIN FIRST POWERED FIRST CHANNEL FLIGHT CROSSING English engineer Sir George After making over 2,000 glides FIRST AIRSHIP Cayley is the first person to in weight-shift controlled The first controlled, powered Flying his Type XI monoplane, understand the forces acting gliders, German pioneer Otto LZ1, the first rigid airship aeroplane flight is achieved Frenchman Louis Blériot crosses upon an aircraft wing. In 1853 Lilienthal dies in hospital after (designed by Ferdinand, by American inventors the the English Channel for the first he transports his coachman his glider stalls and he crashes Graf von Zeppelin), Wright brothers. It lasts time in a heavier-than-air aircraft. across a small valley in what from a height of 15 m (50 ft). makes its initial flight just 12 seconds and covers He crash-lands in a field above the he calls a “governable His scientific data on flight from a floating hangar 36.5 m (120 ft). cliffs of Dover on the English coast. parachute” – the first would inspire many others. on Lake Constance man-carrying glider. near Friedrichshafen, 1910 Germany. Carrying FIRST TAKEOFF GAEHOTSOISFHROATGERFEREE“FNESFLCSAECIAUGATAYLHRHLTLCTELEHOR”EYD,FIS five people, it stays FROM A SHIP airborne for 17 minutes. 1930 In November American flight AMY JOHNSON OTTO LILIENTHAL’S WRIGHT FLYER pioneer Eugene Burton Ely HANG-GLIDER successfully takes off from the The first woman to fly solo 1919 1917 deck of a ship. Two months later, from England to Australia 1927 he makes the first successful makes the journey in a Gipsy FIRST EUGENE landing aboard a ship. Moth named “Jason”. With FIRST TRANSATLANTIC JACQUES only experience of flying TRANSATLANTIC FLIGHTS BULLARD PFFAOODORJEBAAFDLTIPRCYNCEBROKDYDAWOMECLATATOLLMEPERMLACHEEITTRFAERYAETILDIORCMSENEAOES,NTF from London to Hull in SOLO FLIGHT England, Amy Johnson In May an NC-4 commanded makes her epic 18,000 km American pilot Charles by Albert C Read crosses the (11,000 miles) trip in a small, Lindbergh takes 33.5 hours Atlantic in several stages from low-powered biplane more to complete the first solo, Long Island, USA, to Portugal. suited to club flying. nonstop, transatlantic flight, In June John Alcock and travelling from New York to Arthur Brown fly nonstop GIPSY MOTH Paris. Flying in a single- from Newfoundland engine aircraft, he encounters to Ireland. fog and icy conditions, though his biggest challenge is FIRST BLACK staying awake for the COMBAT PILOT entire journey. Georgia-born Eugene Jacques Bullard – who was denied entry into the US Army Air Corps because of his race – serves throughout World War I in the French Flying Corps. He is awarded the Legion of Honour. CURTISS NC-4 1988 1991 2005 2015 HEAVIEST AIRCRAFT F-117 NIGHTHAWK AIRBUS A380 Designed to transport the Soviet Union’s FIRST STEALTH LARGEST SOLAR 250-tonne Buran space shuttle, the six- FIGHTER MASS-PRODUCED IMPULSE 2 engined Antonov An-225 takes the record AIRCRAFT SETS OFF for the world’s biggest and heaviest aircraft. The American Lockheed F-117 It also has the largest wingspan of any Nighthawk sees its first active The double-deck, four-engine Using only energy aircraft in operational service. service during Operation Just Airbus A380 is launched. from the Sun, Solar Cause in Panama. This airliner can transport Impulse 2 leaves RETTCHHOEERADHNEF-AO2VR25IAEHSIRTOLLCIDFATSRITNGHOGE 853 passengers and can carry on an epic round- enough fuel to fly nonstop from the-world flight. Its Sydney, Australia, to Dallas, wingspan is larger USA, – a distance of 13,804 km than a Boeing 747’s, (8,577 miles). though the aircraft weighs no more than a small van. ANTONOV AN-225 63

Bicycles HOW A BIKE WORKS CHAIN FRONT DERAILLEUR PEDAL Transfers power from Shifts the chain Connects Millions of people around the world A bike converts 90 per cent of energy the pedals to the rear the rider to use bicycles as an efficient means from pedalling into forward motion. between different- the bicycle. of transport. Cheap to buy, they are Changing gear – moving the chain wheel, via the cogs. sized chainrings. easy to run and produce no pollution. from one cog to the other – makes Cyclists can select special types of pedalling more energy-efficient. bikes for different terrains or tracks. FREEWHEEL REAR DERAILLEUR CHAINRING Holds the cogs and allows the Derails the chain rear wheel to rotate when the Drives the from one gear and chain via the pedals are not being turned. moves it to another. cogs, thereby powering the rear wheel. OFF-ROADERS FAT CHANCE TREK 6000 TREK 8900 PRO DMR TRAILSTAR Handlebars These hardy bikes are built to withstand tough, off-road Gear cable conditions. They have a Suspension fork strong frame, knobbly tyres for extra grip on rough ground, and are usually equipped with a good range of gears. Saddle Seat post Stem Top tube MARIN PALISADES TRAIL STUMPJUMPER FSR PRO Seat post Cassette quick release ROCKY MOUNTAIN VERTEX TEAM Down tube Pedal KONA STAB PRIMO Chainring MARIN MOUNT VISION SPECIALIST BIKES Rear derailleur Like any great invention, the bicycle has been adapted over the years. Recumbent Pedals bikes enable the cyclist to lean back in assisted by a more efficient and comfortable riding an electric position. Tandem cycling is a good way for motor people of different abilities to ride together. SINCLAIR C5 WINDCHEETAH SL MARK VI VELOCAR KINGCYCLE BEAN KINGCYCLE DAWES GALAXY TWIN 64

EARLY BIKES BUVMECPLAYOLCTLOIEPDERD“IDBEOES,NWTEHESERHYEAWSKOEERRSE” Smaller front wheel than the The very first bicycles were wooden and had Iron-rimmed Penny Farthing no brakes. In 1863 the first successful pedal wheel bicycle, the velocipede, appeared. During the made it safer 1880s a chain, rubber tyres, and wheels of roughly the same size greatly improved bicycle design. SWIFT SAFETY BICYCLE 1887 DANDY HORSE MICHAUX VELOCIPEDE (BONESHAKER) PENNY FARTHING Huge front wheel FACILE DWARF SAFETY BICYCLE 1817 1869 1871 increased speed 1888 ROAD AND ROSSIN TIME TRIAL WINDCHEETAH CARBON CANTILEVER CERVELO P5 LOTUS TYPE 108 TRACK BIKES Saddle Handlebars Ideal for speedy cycling on hard, smooth surfaces, road bikes have lightweight frames and narrow tyres. Track bikes are built for speed. They usually have just one gear and no brakes – the rider slows down by pushing against the pedals. Stem Seat post Top tube Fork LITESPEED SIRIUS ISAAC FORCE COUGAR Down tube Chain DEDACCIAI STRADA PINARELLO ASSOLUTO PRINCE Pedal Bottom bracket Chainring CANNONDALE ST1000 TREK 1000 Aerodynamic Carbon-fibre disc wheel spokes CORIMA BOUEDRSWWUEWRIDETIRANHOERGN8,ATT-RDMAHAANAEIPLDNTSTEEECMRCDRAOTECCNWOYKDCSBSLEES BROMPTON FOLDING BICYCLE Made from more than 1,200 parts, this small-wheeled bike folds up into a compact, portable package. It is ideal for commuters travelling by train or bus, and for people who have limited storage space at home. UNICYCLE Drop handlebars 1 FOLDED 2 UNFOLDED The bike can be folded in less All models have a full-sized frame, made mainly than 20 seconds, and is carried from steel. The Brompton provides an upright riding by grasping the saddle or frame. position, and is designed to be light, agile, and speedy. SANTANA TRIPLET 65



Nature

Marsupials Whales (Includes mammals Dugongs and Bats with pouches) manatees Hedgehogs Even-toed hoofed animals Egg-laying Elephants mammals Rhinos and MAMMALS tapirs Turtles Squid and octopus Lizards Snakes Armadillos and Snails Carnivores anteaters (Meat-eaters) Sharks and rays Primates Rodents Clams and oysters Ray-finned (Apes – including Rabbits and fish humans – monkeys, relatives (For example perch) and others) Echinoderms Earthworms MOLLUSCS (For example starfish and (Animals with a soft sea urchins) unsegmented body and FISH sometimes a shell) SNSIMOEAPOBNLRSREEPAGSROIATVNNNOA,GSUNNE,SOISAMSDNAAYIDRGSLESTENT,SEOWHTMIEIVTEH REPTILES VERTEBRATES ARTHROPODS (Animals with (Animals with an Centipedes a backbone) outer skeleton) AMPHIBIANS Spiders and scorpions SPONGES Frogs and toads INVERTEBRATES Insects Crustaceans Newts and (Animals without a backbone) (Crabs and lobsters) salamanders Crocodiles ANIMALS Mushrooms Lichens (Organisms composed of a fungus and an alga)

Birds BRANCHING OUT For well over two centuries, scientists have been using FUNGI diagrams similar to this one to explain how life evolved. By following the “branches”, we can trace the relationships FLOWERING of the main groups of animals, plants, and fungi to the PLANTS earliest types of life. Only living species are shown here. Extinct animals, such as dinosaurs, are not included. Gingko trees Yeasts Conifers ESTIMATED NUMBER OF SPECIES PLANTS ARCHAEA 300,000 FUNGI Ferns 611,000 PROTISTS Mosses 64,000 PLANTS ANIMALS BACTERIA 7,770,000 PROTISTS (Single-celled organisms and algae) HOW MANY SPECIES THE SIX KINGDOMS There are far more species of animals than there are The tree of life is divided into six main branches, which scientists call of plants, fungi, and protists added together. No one kingdoms. Three kingdoms are mainly made up of tiny single-celled could possibly count up all the bacteria and archaea organisms. The others are fungi, plants, and animals. because there are simply too many millions of them. BEGINNING ARCHAEA PROTISTS PLANTS Tree of life OF LIFE: Early life, made Single cells From tiny mosses The first living things that appeared on SINGLE-CELLED of one cell. Can with a nucleus. to big trees, all Earth, billions of years ago, were tiny ORGANISMS live in extreme Some make their plants use sunlight organisms made of just one cell. This habitats, such as own food; others to make food and “tree” shows how such simple beginnings those that are must feed on release oxygen into led to the development of the wonderful very hot or salty. other organisms. the air. variety of life we know today. BACTERIA FUNGI ANIMALS Cells similar to Some are single- These eat other archaea but not celled, but the organisms. Most suited to their best known are use their senses for extreme habitats. mushrooms. finding food. Some Many are vital They break down have backbones. to life; others organic matter. cause diseases. CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE divided into classes, classes are split into orders, and so on. Shown below is how a tiger (scientific Starting with the kingdoms, all living things are arranged, name Panthera tigris) is classified. or classified, into further groups according to how they are related. This works in stages: the group called a phylum is KINGDOM PHYLUM CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS SPECIES 1 ANIMALS 2 CHORDATES 3 MAMMALS 4 CARNIVORES 5 CATS 6 BIG CATS (PANTHERA) 7 TIGER (TIGRIS) Multi-celled living Animals with a rod-like Warm-blooded Mostly mammals that Agile, specialized The largest and most The largest and things that feed on other structure in their bodies. vertebrates with hair hunt other animals for food hunters. Many have powerful members of the heaviest of the forest- organisms. Most are able Includes vertebrates, which whose females feed their and have special teeth for sheathed toes into which cat family, including lions, dwelling big cats, with to move around. have a backbone. young on milk. cutting through meat. their claws can disappear. tigers, and leopards. distinctively striped fur.

How life DIVISION OF TIME 4.6 BYA–541 MYA 541–485 MYA began Earth’s geological history can PRE-CAMBRIAN CAMBRIAN The very first life forms appeared be divided into blocks of time. on Earth around 3.5 billion years An era represents several This represents 80 per cent of Many types of marine life ago. Fossils preserved in rock help hundred million years and is total geological time. Volcanic us chart the story of life from split into smaller periods. Earth activity on the new Earth evolved in the so-called the first single-celled bacteria is currently in the Quaternary produced water. Simple to the modern humans who roam Period of the Cenozoic Era. lifeforms appeared, and “Cambrian explosion”. Earth today. some produced oxygen. PRE-CAMBRIAN They included 4.6 BYA–541 MYA molluscs, sponges, and animals with jointed legs (arthropods). TRILOBITE PALAEOZOIC ERA 541–252 MYA MESOZOIC ERA 252–65 MYA CENOZOIC ERA 65 MYA–PRESENT DAY BYA = Billion years ago VOLCANIC EARTH ECHMATOCRINUS MYA = Million years ago 252–201 MYA OLIGOCARPIA TUBICAULIS (FERN) (FERN) TRIASSIC The mass extinction of the late Permian meant that different types of life evolved. The first mammals, flying reptiles, and dinosaurs such as the long-necked Plateosaurus appeared. DICROIDIUM (PLANT) AMMONITE MORGANUCODON SCUTOSAURUS AMMONITE (MAMMAL) (REPTILE) PLATEOSAURUS PTEROSAUR (REPTILE) HEXAGONOCAULON (PLANT) CRINOID (MARINE ANIMAL) DIMETRODON (DINOSAUR) (REPTILE) PTERODACTYL (REPTILE) 201–145 MYA 145–65 MYA JURASSIC CRETACEOUS Reptiles began to dominate the The climate was mostly warm, land and sea, and some took to but cooled towards the end of the the air. Many different dinosaurs period. Flowering plants spread. roamed Earth, from giant plant- The period ended with the mass eaters to fierce predators. extinction of the big dinosaurs. CONFUCIUSORNIS ARCHAEANTHUS ARCHELON (BIRD) (PLANT) (TURTLE) EOMAIA (MAMMAL) EOCAECILIA (AMPHIBIAN) DAKOSAURUS VEGAVIS (BIRD) HOPLOPTERYX (FISH) (REPTILE) WILLIAMSONIA KENTROSAURUS PROTOSTEGA (TURTLE) SCAPHITES (AMMONITE) CARCHARODONTOSAURUS (PLANT) (DINOSAUR) (DINOSAUR) 70

SPONGE 485–443 MYA 443–419 MYA 419–358 MYA ORDOVICIAN SILURIAN DEVONIAN The first fish appeared, Plants, such as the leafless Cooksonia, Many new types of fish evolved, such as the scaly, jawless grew on land. In the seas, there were such as the Tiktaalik. This was Astraspis. Molluscs and more fish, and spiny animals called a lobe-finned fish belonging corals dominated the echinoderms thrived. Early scorpions to the group from which the oceans. The period ended may have left the oceans for land. amphibians eventually evolved. with mass extinctions. TRILOBITE TIKTAALIK (FISH) MARRELLA BRACHIOPOD (SHELL) FALSE MUSSEL COOKSONIA (PLANT) ECHINODERM SOLICLYMENIA (AMMONITE) DISCALIS (PLANT) HALLUCIGENIA SEA MAT ASTRASPIS (FISH) CORAL LOGANELLIA (FISH) STENACANTHUS (SHARK) ECHINODERM 298–252 MYA 358–298 MYA PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS The hot, dry conditions of this As lush swamp forests grew, period favoured reptiles, life on Earth flourished. such as Dimetrodon. At the end of this period a Reptiles such as Spinoaequalis and Ophiacodon evolved. catastrophic mass extinction wiped out 70 per cent of land ODONTOPTERIS (FERN) species and 90 per cent of marine life. SPINOAEQUALIS (REPTILE) CORAL CLUB MOSS EOTHYRIS OPHIACODON (REPTILE) AMPHIBAMUS (AMPHIBIAN) COCKROACH (REPTILE) CHAMA AND XENOPHORA (MOLLUSCS) 23–2 MYA 2 MYA–PRESENT DAY 65–23 MYA NEOGENE QUATERNARY PALEOGENE The first humans, or hominins, Ice ages with warmer phases With the dinosaurs extinct, evolved in this era. More in between have dominated the mammals and birds evolved modern types of mammals, last two million years. Modern rapidly. Most of the main such as kangaroos and humans (Homo sapiens) arose groups of mammals had their giraffes, appeared. in eastern Africa and spread beginnings in this period. across the world. AMMONITE ICARONYCTERIS (BAT) OSMUNDA (FERN) NEPTUNEA (SEA SNAIL) THYLACOSMILUS (MAMMAL) ROTULARIA (WORMS) UINTATHERIUM (MAMMAL) CARCHARODON HUMAN MAMMOTH (SHARK) ANCESTOR 71

Fossils HOW FOSSILS FORM Fossils are clues preserved in rocks, amber (tree resin), Fossils form when a tar, or ice. They show us what plant or animal is buried plants and animals looked like quickly and deeply after thousands or millions of years it dies. The sediment ago and can sometimes tell us that surrounds the where and how they lived. animal gradually turns its body into rock over thousands of years. This is called fossilization. 1 AFTER DEATH 2 BARE BONES 3 BONE TO 4 TIME PASSES The body of an The bones and MINERAL The minerals ancient land animal other hard parts Minerals from the crystallize and the falls into a lake or of the body become sediment replace sediment around is buried by soil and covered by sediment, the minerals in the them solidifies into begins to decompose. such as mud or sand. animal’s bones. rock, forming fossils. PLANTS INVERTEBRATES Fossil plants are usually fossils of Fossils of animals without parts of the plant, rather than the backbones have been found whole thing. They include leaves, in large numbers and from flowers, cones, bark, and wood. a wide range of animal types. CALCIFIED ALGAE STEM BRYOZOAN AMMONITE LEPIDODENDRON TREE TRUNK HORN CORAL CRETACEOUS CONE SPIDER TRAPPED IN AMBER ACTINOCYATHUS LITHOSTROTION SEA PEN CORAL CORAL LIQUIDAMBAR LEAF BRAIN CORAL TRILOBITE COCKROACH CLAM SHELL MONKEY SEA SNAIL HEART PUZZLE CONE SHELL URCHIN FRAGMENT PTERIDOSPERM SEEDS PECOPTERIS SEA LILY MILTONI FROND LACE TECTOCARYA CORAL SEEDS SEED FERN LEAFLETS PUTTING IT TOGETHER Narrow Triangular Ischium (part skull back plates of the pelvis) Dinosaur bones can be found scattered over a large area and scientists then work out how they are pieced Neck plates with together. Dinosaur skeletons are very like bird and rounded tops reptile skeletons, which helps to work out which bone goes where. Horny beak Carnivorous Tibia jaws Pedal Two pairs of phalanges spikes on tail (toe bones) Large back Clawed Ribcage legs for toes TUOJIANGOSAURUS bipedalism HERRERASAURUS 72

5 SURFACE EROSION 6 EXCAVATION FOSSIL KEY FOSSIL TYPES Fossilized remains Fossils are SITES Green river, USA Joggins, Canada Fossils may be formed of creatures begin to excavated by being Some parts of the Santana, Brazil Karoo, South Africa from the remains of world are especially Jurassic coast, UK Gobi desert, Mongolia plants or animals, or be revealed as the land carefully freed from rich in fossils. This Gogo formation, Australia from traces of their map shows some Kolyma river, Russia activities during life. is eroded slowly over the rock that has long areas where lots of fossils have TRACE FOSSIL thousands of years. surrounded them. been discovered. These are fossils showing VERTEBRATES PLIOSAUR animal activity, such as SKULL footprints, burrows, or nests. Fossils of vertebrate animals are some of MAMMAL-LIKE SHARK TOOTH IMPRESSIONS the most exciting fossils REPTILE SKULL ever found. They reveal These are fossils where PARADOXIDES species – such as the animal or plant body has dinosaurs and flying decayed completely but left an reptiles – that existed impression in the sediment. millions of years ago. DINOSAUR JAW OF FOOT SKELETON VERTEBRA THECODONTOSAURUS OF PLATEOSAURUS CONSTELLARIA UPPER CHEEK GALLIMIMUS SKULL TOOTH OF A MAMMOTH PRIMITIVE FROG REMAINS OF HOMOEOSAURAS PETRIFICATION DINOSAUR This type of fossil is formed VERTEBRA when minerals crystallize inside the body cells, preserving them in stone. PANTHERA LOWER JAW AMMONITE BONY RAY-FINNED FISH Cervical vertebrae OVIRAPTOR THUMB CLAW NATURAL CAST Manual phalanges PHILOCERATOPS EGG OF BARYONYX (finger bones) In cast fossils, sediment THEROPOD hardens in natural gaps inside Very long tail an animal, such as the inside of a shell. Mandible INDBCIENLEEOUVNSDEADRINYUISGRCCAOOFONVNSETTSRAINIERLDECSNTOHTINCA, AVE (jaw bone) Large, bony frill Ribcage Femur Scapula Ilium Tail vertebrae Ribcage Long, powerful Long, thin legs hand claws TYRANNOSAURUS STRUTHIOMIMUS TRICERATOPS REX 73

Plant-eating HERBIVORE ANATOMY dinosaurs Many herbivorous (plant-eating) dinosaurs were quadrupeds – they Plant-eating dinosaurs roamed Earth for walked on all fours. The largest herbivores had powerful muscles more than 140 million years. There were and strong bones to support their weight. Their digestive systems were many different kinds, and they included some adapted for eating plants, which are more difficult to digest than meat. of the largest land creatures the world Lungs Heart Small intestine is has ever seen. long to digest plants Long tail can help with defence Large intestine Powerful muscles EUOPLOCEPHALUS support heavy body ANCHISAURUS SAUROPODS AND PROSAUROPODS Palaeontologists – people who study fossils – divide dinosaurs into various types. Sauropods, such as Diplodocus, had long necks and tails and tiny heads, with small brains. Their ancestors, prosauropods, were often able to walk on two legs and included Plateosaurus. APATOSAURUS VULCANODON MAMENCHISAURUS ISANOSAURUS EFRAASIA CAMARASAURUS LUFENGOSAURUS GIRAFFATITAN About 15 elongated vertebrae support the long neck SALTASAURUS ARGENTINOSAURUS DIPLODOCUS SHUNOSAURUS STYRACOSAURUS STEGOSAURS Brightly coloured CERATOPSIANS dorsal plates AND RELATIVES Large and slow-moving, stegosaurs had spiky tails and strange bony plates running along their backs. These were embedded Many ceratopsians, such as into the dinosaur’s skin, not the bone. Stegosaurs appeared Triceratops, had distinctive bony during the Jurassic period (201–145 million years ago). frills on the top of their head and huge horns. They also had “beaks” and rows of grinding teeth for feeding on tough plants. Like many herbivores today, they probably travelled in herds. HUAYANGOSAURUS Tail spikes KENTROSAURUS STEGOSAURUS PENTACERATOPS TRICERATOPS 74

SELF-DEFENCE THEWHEORRENASNOAFMTARIZCIENRGATOPS HEAVYWEIGHTS 1 M (3 FT) IN LENGTH Even the largest plant-eating dinosaurs risked being hunted and Like humans, elephants, and other animals, dinosaurs killed by meat-eating dinosaurs. Over time herbivores developed were vertebrates: they had an internal skeleton with specialized body defences for survival. These included horns, spikes, a backbone to support their bodies. Many, though, spines, and heavy tails that could inflict terrible injuries. were much heavier. At 70 tonnes, Argentinosaurus was 15 times heavier than an elephant. BONY PLATES SPINY SKULL SHARP HORNS DIPLODOCUS Covering the head of A thick skull topped Huge plant-eater (23 TONNES) Euplocephalus, these with spines protected Triceratops had bony plates provided a Sauropelta’s extremely long, sharp protection against the vulnerable brain. horns, which it used jaws and teeth of meat- to fight off predators, eating dinosaurs. such as the giant meat- eating Tyrannosaurus. TAIL CLUB SPIKY TAIL WHIP-LIKE TAIL ARGENTINOSAURUS AFRICAN ELEPHANT Some plant-eaters, (70 TONNES) (4.6 TONNES) particularly ankylosaurs, The Stegosaurus had It is suggested that had heavy, club-like very sharp spikes on the the mighty Diplodocus HUMAN tails made of fused end of its tail that could used its long tail like (80 KG/176 LB) bone that could break inflict terrible injuries a whip to defend itself a predator’s leg. on an opponent. against attackers. TITANOSAURUS ORNITHOPODS Ornithopods, including Iguanodon, lived 145–66 million years ago. They could stand on two legs to reach into trees and could chew plants very efficiently. Corythosaurus, for instance, had hundreds of teeth for grinding plants. HYPSILOPHODON MUTTABURRASAURUS CORYTHOSAURUS LESOTHOSAURUS LEAELLYNASAURA HETERODONTOSAURUS DRYOSAURUS BARAPASAURUS IGUANODON PLATEOSAURUS PARASAUROLOPHUS DICRAEOSAURUS EDMONTOSAURUS TENONTOSAURUS MAIASAURA GASTONIA ANKYLOSAURS AND RELATIVES Looking rather like prehistoric armoured tanks or armadillos, ankylosaurs had bony plates over their head and shoulders to protect them from predators. They had short, thick legs to support their heavy bodies. GARGOYLEOSAURUS PSITTACOSAURUS PROTOCERATOPS MINMI EUOPLOCEPHALUS SAUROPELTA ANKYLOSAURUS EDMONTONIA 75

Meat-eating CARNIVORE ANATOMY Fearsome jaws dinosaurs for ripping flesh Meat-eaters evolved into highly efficient Dinosaurs appeared on Earth about 245 million predators, able to hunt and digest their Heart years ago. They spread to every continent and prey. Large dinosaurs could tackle large dominated Earth for millions of years before herbivorous dinosaurs, such as Triceratops. dying out. Many were powerful meat-eating Smaller dinosaurs hunted smaller prey, or predators, with bodies built for attack. hunted together in groups. Powerful Tyrannosaurus thigh muscles had tiny but strong forearms Short digestive tract relies on powerful stomach acids to break down meat TYRANNOSAURUS REX THEROPODS Carnivorous (meat-eating) dinosaurs belong to a group known as theropods. Meaning “beast-footed”, theropods stood on their hind legs. They ranged from huge carnivores such as Allosaurus to the smaller feathery Citipati and Alxasaurus. EORAPTOR CERATOSAURUS BARYONYX SINOSAUROPTERYX THERIZONOSAURUS GALLIMIMUS VELOCIRAPTOR CAUDIPTERYX COELOPHYSIS ALXASAURUS DEINONYCHUS SPINOSAURUS SUCHOMIMUS CITIPATI STRUTHIOMIMUS MONOLOPHOSAURUS GASOSAURUS AUCASAURUS LILIENSTERNUS CRYOLOPHOSAURUS IRRITATOR 76

DIET INSECTS FISH TEETH SHARP POINTS PACK HUNTING Insects evolved Oceans and Baryonyx and other fish-eating Theropods were more than 350 rivers teemed Scientists can learn theropods had pointed needle-like A pack of Deinonychus attacks a large the most powerful million years ago. about dinosaurs from plant-eating Tenontosaurus. Evidence predators on land. with fish. their fossilized skulls and teeth that pierced fish skin. from fossilized dinosaur footprints They fed on insects, teeth, which are often suggests that some dinosaurs hunted fish, other dinosaurs, the only remaining parts. in packs. Probably they did not herd small mammals, and Carnivorous dinosaurs prey but worked together to bring bird-like creatures. had lethal claws and down larger dinosaurs. sharp teeth. DINOSAURS EARLY MAMMALS EARLY BIRDS KNIFE-LIKE CRUSHING BONES Plant-eating Rodent-like Birds evolved from Theropods such as Allosaurus The large teeth of had sharp teeth that they used Tyrannosaurus rex crushed dinosaurs mammals existed earlier theropod to slice meat from the bone. straight through bone. provided food. with dinosaurs. dinosaurs. DUBREUILLOSAURUS CARCHARODONTOSAURUS Stiff, pointed tail counterbalances huge head and allows dinosaur to turn quickly ALBERTOSAURUS Powerful legs FRTORMHICAITENVRYDEFAREOTABEOSEPNSPENBSINLIOTBIFZSEOOEASNUDUENRSDUS with four clawed toes, only three of which are weight-bearing ALLOSAURUS TYRANNOSAURUS REX 77

Prehistoric TYPES OF INVERTEBRATES animals PREHISTORIC ANIMALS This squid-like The first signs of life appeared more than 3.5 billion We use the term “prehistoric” for creatures belemnite lived in the years ago when tiny single-celled organisms evolved that existed before recorded history. They prehistoric oceans some in the oceans. Over millions of years, other organisms were very diverse. The dinosaurs are probably 200 million years ago. evolved, moved on to land, and even took to the air. the best known and most familiar, but there were also fish, invertebrates (animals without backbones), reptiles, amphibians, and mammals. ECIATUSHOOCSEFRIEREPDENARRAETNUHIMSAPITSTSATSITSNOETSGRRHEIOVICXNIODTAKLINCSNTTAICHMRNTAIAIOKTOLEENSS IN THE AIR ON LAND Many prehistoric creatures took to the air. They Plant life developed on land included pterosaurs, such as Dimorphodon and about 472 million years ago. Eudimorphodon, which were flying reptiles. As time Creatures crawled out of passed, birds and flying mammals also appeared. the seas to become amphibians, reptiles, ANUROGNATHUS RHAMPHORYNCHUS and dinosaurs. OPHIACODON PETEINOSAURUS DIMORPHODON DIMETRODON ROBERTIA EUDIMORPHODON ORNITHOCHEIRUS EUPARKERIA LYSTROSAURUS PTERODAUSTRO SIMOSUCHUS DINOSAUR IBEROMESORNIS (HERRERASAURUS) STAGONOLEPIS ICARONYCTERIS ARGENTAVIS TERATORNIS ORNITHOSUCHUS PLACERIAS SHONISAURUS IN THE WATER LIOPLEURODON ICHTHYOSAURUS Prehistoric seas were full of life. Early organisms such as Wiwaxia, Opabinia, TEMNODONTOSAURUS and Anomalocaris seem very strange to us. However, later fossil fish such as Megalodon and Hybodus look a lot like the fish and sharks around today. WIWA XIA OPABINIAI ANOMALOCARIS GONIATITES ENCRINUS DITOMOPYGE HAIKOUICHTHYS ASTRASPIS PLACODUS MIXOSAURUS LARIOSAURUS NOTHOSAURUS GEOSAURUS 78

TRANSITION TO Short tapir- Unlike modern elephants, MODERN ANIMALS like trunk curved tusks point downwards About 65 million years ago a huge Tusks for digging catastrophe wiped out many up vegetation prehistoric creatures. Birds and some FISH AMPHIBIANS animals survived. Later, new animals emerged, including the ancestors of The very first Like frogs today, the mammals we know today. vertebrates (animals prehistoric amphibians with backbones) to could breathe air but evolve were fish. bred in fresh water. REPTILES MAMMALS MOERITHERIUM PHIOMIA DEINOTHERIUM ELEPHANT The earliest reptiles The first mammals This pig-sized relative of the Appeared around 35 million Standing 4.5 m (14.8 ft) high, The modern elephant, the largest evolved from amphibians appeared on Earth elephant family lived in African years ago. Like modern Deinotherium roamed Africa, living land animal, has features about 315 million years about 220 million swamps and woodlands more elephants, it had air-filled spaces Asia, and Europe around 24 in common with its prehistoric ago. They had scaly skin. than 35 million years ago. in its skull to reduce its weight. million years ago. ancestors, including its trunk. years ago. PROTOSUCHUS SPHENOSUCHUS PLIOHIPPUS NEMEGTBA ATAR UINTATHERIUM SMILODON DIRE WOLF WOOLLY MAMMOTH GLYPTODON WOOLLY RHINOCEROS HYBODUS ISCHYODUS PLIOPLATECARPUS LEEDSICHTHYS MOSASAURUS KRONOSAURUS ELASMOSAURUS MEGALODON 79

Plants NON-FLOWERING PLANTS There are around 400,000 species of plants on Earth. Plants make their food using sunlight, These evergreen plants water, and carbon dioxide, and they are an tend to like damp, shady important food source for all land animals. They places. They reproduce also produce oxygen, which is vital to all life. by releasing spores. Spores from coniferous plants are carried by the wind to special cones, where seeds develop. AUSTRIAN PINE HOW PLANTS GROW PHOTOSYNTHESIS In spring, seeds get warm, absorb Plants make their own food (glucose) through a water, and start to sprout (germinate). process called photosynthesis. They soak up water Roots begin to grow downwards to from the soil and take in carbon dioxide from the air. get water and nutrients from the They then use the Sun’s energy to produce glucose. soil, while shoots grow upwards, towards the light. Outer coat 1 GERMINATION GOLDEN Seed sprouts A small pore LARCH EUROPEAN YEW CALIFORNIA NUTMEG (the micropyle) FLOWERING PLANTS in the seed coat The colourful and often fragrant takes in water and flowers of these plants attract insects. The insects pick up pollen the seed swells. and transport it to other plants of the same type, helping it to reproduce. A green pigment in leaves called chlorophyll absorbs sunlight 2 NEW PLANT Oxygen is released The plant starts as a waste product to grow beneath the of photosynthesis BOTTLEBRUSH ground, shooting in Leaves also absorb two directions. carbon dioxide MAGNOLIA WINTER’S BARK Leaves are the plant’s food source TULIP TREE CAROLINA ALLSPICE ARROWHEAD PEARL OF THE POOL WATER LILY Roots ADAPTABLE PLANTS draw up Plants cannot protect themselves from animals or water harsh weather conditions by moving, so they have from other adaptations that help them survive. Plants in the soil hot deserts can live with very little water, for instance, while those near the sea are very salt-tolerant. 3 ABOVE GROUND The shoot straightens. Two green leaves start to photosynthesize, fuelling more growth. SEED DISPERSAL BY BURSTING BY WIND CACTI Plants need to spread their When the Some seeds Cacti live in very hot seeds as far away from seeds are ripe, have shapes places, so they have themselves as possible, they burst out, that make small spines instead so they do not end up away from the them fly easily of leaves, which do not overcrowded. There are parent plant. in the wind. allow so much water to different ways that seeds evaporate. Their stems can be dispersed. also store water. BY WATER BY ANIMALS BY HUMANS CONIFERS MANGROVES Some fruits Seeds can be Humans discard Coniferous plants stay These grow near the sea, (seeds) are eaten and seeds after green all year round. They but their leaves are able waterproof and excreted, or eating fruit or have long, thin needles that to get rid of (secrete) can float, such carried on carry them on need less water and can excess salt. If the salt as the coconut. animal coats. their clothes. withstand freezing weather. levels become too high, the leaves just fall off. 80

ALPINE SOHSOVCAMEIVEREEN3SBT5PEI0SEECTMNISIEOLTSLNHIOOIEFNNAKFRYETTREHHANARSFTSOR WOODFERN EASTERN CAPE SILVER LIP TONGALAND CYCAD BLUE CYCAD FERN MEXICAN SPHAGNUM HORNCONE MOORE’S MACROZAMIA CYCAD FLOATING FERN HORSETAIL ADDER’S GINKGO COMMON HORNWORT TONGUE FERN LIVERWORT PANSY DAFFODIL HIBISCUS DAHLIA BIRD-OF-PARADISE ROUND- GLADIOLUS DYER’S HEADED TILLANDSIA AMARYLLIS POPPY AFRICAN HOLLYHOCK TULIP LILY LEEK ENGLISH CARNIVOROUS BLUEBELL PLANTS BUTTERWORT PITCHER This plant’s leaves are POISONOUS Some plants grow in covered with an insect- PLANT PLANTS soil that does not have trapping sap. Small This tropical many nutrients, so they insects, such as plant has cups Some plants use poison as a protective get additional nutrients gnats, get stuck, (pitchers) that device, so that people and animals do from animal prey, such and their struggle hang from trees not eat them. These plants are among as insects. Many attract releases the plant’s and contain the deadliest to humans. their prey using colour water to attract and smell and then trap digestive juices. prey. Thirsty OLEANDER it. The plant’s digestive insects fall in – juices break down the prey COBRA LILY and become The whole oleander plant is poisonous. Even so it can be absorbed. The traps on this plant look like plant food. smoke from burning oleander is highly toxic. snake heads. It contains cells that CATCHING PREY give off light and attractive smells WATER HEMLOCK to tempt hungry insects. The Venus flytrap The most deadly plant in North America, catches its insect prey 1 PRIMED 2 TRIGGERED 3 SHUT a tiny dose of this plant can be lethal if eaten. very fast – it snaps shut The plant has A landing insect The plant lobes One species also occurs in Europe. in a tenth of a second. If an insect lands on sensory hairs on touches the hairs and snap together, trapping ROSARY PEA the plant and touches sensory hairs, the plant These bright red seeds contain the most snaps into action. deadly plant poison known to humankind. the inside ready sends electrical signals the insect. Digestive DEADLY NIGHTSHADE for its prey. to the plant cells. juices are released. All parts of this plant contain deadly toxins. The roots are the most dangerous part. CASTOR BEAN These contain ricin, one of the deadliest plant toxins. It is more toxic when inhaled than eaten. 81

Flowers STRUCTURE Petal Pollinating OF A FLOWER insect Flowers, often colourful and scented, Stigma play a vital role in a plant’s life cycle. The parts of a flower are Style (links They contain organs that produce pollen centred around the task Anther filled with stigma to and seeds. Pollen is taken from one of reproduction. Flower pollen grains ovary) flower to another in various ways. petals surround an ovary Sepals The flower receiving the pollen is that produces eggs, and Stem fertilized (pollinated) and then a stigma that is ready forms seeds to make new plants. to accept pollen. When LILY eggs and pollen meet, MONOCOTS they create seeds. This group of flowers has several Filament features in common: their petals Ovary are always in multiples of three; they have one main stem, which has very few leaves; and their stems contain veins that run in parallel lines. HUME’S ROSCOEA TORCH IRIS HYACINTH CHINESE YELLOW BANANA LIPPEROSE DARK-RED QUEEN’S BOG LILY MOTH ORCHID HELLEBORINE SPIDERWORT ASPHODEL CLUSTER GREEN FLOWERS FLOWERS Plants with green flowers use wind Some plants have a cluster pollination, as they are less attractive of flowers on each stem to insects. The flowers also tend to be called an inflorescence. small and not always easy to see. Their Such clusters are found in pollen-containing parts are positioned both monocots and eudicots. to catch the breeze. The flowers may branch out at intervals from the main stem or group together on the tip. BARBADOS BRITISH PRIDE BLUEBELL COMMON GLADIOLUS RED CLOVER WILD DAISY WHITE WILLOW STINKING HELLEBORE FAT HEN HOGWEED 82

POLLINATION ANIMAL WIND WATER SELF Flowers reproduce by Many flowers Some plants, A small number Some plants self- pollination – pollen contain nectar that such as grasses, of aquatic plants pollinate by either being taken from one attracts animals rely on wind for are pollinated by transferring pollen flower to another. Some such as bees. While pollination. They water. Pollen is from the anther to plants self-pollinate, drinking the nectar produce lots of released into the the stigma of the but animals, wind, and the animal gets pollen to increase water and carried same flower, or to water often play a part. coated with pollen, the chances of it to other plants by another flower on which it carries to landing in the water currents. the same plant. other flowers. right places. FRUITS 1 SEEDS AT BASE 2 OVARY SWELLS 3 SMALL FRUIT 4 RIPENING 5 MATURE FRUIT After pollination, The flower petals The skin Over the growing The melon is ripe. Fruits are the parts of a plant that contain seeds. Some fruits change colour and become juicy when ripe, which makes them attractive to animals. If a fruit is eaten, its seeds pass through the animal’s digestive tract and are dispersed in its droppings. Some types of fruit have wings or hooks and are carried on the wind or stuck in an animal’s fur. seeds form in this fall away and the hardens; the ovary season, the fruit gets If an animal eats it the melon flower’s ovary. ovary begins to swell. is now a small fruit. bigger and ripens. seeds will be dispersed. EUDICOTS These complex flowers have flower petals in multiples of four or five. They also have lots of branches coming off the main stem, and their leaves have branching veins. BUT TERFLY WEED BERMUDA BUTTERCUP BRAZILIAN SWEET SPIDER FLOWER PEA PELARGONIUM WOOD MATUCANA RED LUPIN SNAPDRAGON ROSE CAPE DAISY ANEMONE RITTERI LOBFTETLCSCOIPAMOAWLUEFUASESSNPEREOOTSTLFOSHALFTWEERHYHNEIETAAPAYHYRTMEOFGACADERERVUJEROEECTRRNEAIN THE GREAT RAFFLESIA PRETENDERS This is also known as the “corpse flower” because it smells like a rotten carcass. It has no roots or leaves, and lives off Some flowers have evolved in other plants, taking their nutrients and water. ways that would make them at home in fairy tales. Among them are flowers that look like insects. Others smell of bad meat or the foul scent sprayed by skunks. Such strange adaptations have a good reason – they are tricks to attract pollinators. GREEN BRISTLEGRASS GRASS FLOWERS SEA BEET NAVELWORT BEE ORCHID WESTERN SKUNK CABBAGE STINK LILY This flower has petals that look The tiny flowers are surrounded The long black spike (spadix) like a bee. Real bees are fooled by a vivid yellow structure called on this plant stinks of rotten into trying to mate with it, so they a “spathe”. Some insects love meat – which attracts flies pick up and disperse the pollen. the skunky smell of this plant. hoping for a meal. 83

Trees TREE SHAPES The shape of a tree is called its habit. Typical habits include widely spreading branches, narrow columns, and neat cones. Tree species can often be recognized by their habit, even if leafless in winter. The largest plants on Earth, trees have been CONICAL COLUMNAR SPREADING SHRUB here for millions of years. They are vital to FLAKY the planet’s survival. Their leaves absorb harmful substances from the atmosphere and produce oxygen. Trees keep the air moist, which helps to create rainfall, and provide homes and food for wildlife. WHAT IS A TREE? Leaves Crown TYPES OF BARK A tree is a tall plant with, Bark is the outer layer of a tree. It protects SMOOTH usually, a woody stem called the trunk and branches from damage and a trunk that divides into ever- keeps in water. The colour and texture of smaller, leaf-bearing branches. bark, and the way it flakes or peels, can A network of roots anchors the help with the identification of a tree. The tree to the ground and draws appearance of bark can change as a tree up water and nutrients gets older. from the soil. PEELING PEELING UNEVEN RIDGES AND HORIZONTALLY VERTICALLY CRACKS FURROWS Branches Roots LEAF SHAPES Trunk In cold, dry regions, leaves on native trees – such as firs and pines – tend to be needle-shaped or formed like tiny scales. Trees in warmer, wetter areas usually have broader leaves with a greater variety of shapes. LANCE-SHAPED NEEDLE-LIKE STRAIGHT- SCALE-LIKE OBLONG SIDED LANCE-SHAPED, OVAL HEART-SHAPED ROUNDED POINTED AT BASE STATUE OF TREE RINGS FOUR SEASONS 1 SPRING TALLEST LIBERTY Trees produce TREES Every year that a tree grows it adds a new Many types of trees have new leaves and 93 m (305 ft) layer of wood beneath its bark. If the tree is cut The evergreen trees down, these layers can be seen as dark and a cycle of growth that pollen-bearing known as Coastal light rings. By counting the dark rings, it is Redwoods grow possible to work out the age of the tree. follows seasonal flowers. taller than any other species of tree. They weather changes. grow naturally only along the Pacific They produce leaves 2 SUMMER coast of northern and flowers in spring, Green leaves California, USA. The then seeds through the very tallest redwood Rings in summer. As the hours use energy from is an amazing 116 m cut trunk (380 ft) high. Named Bark sunlight to make Hyperion, its exact location is secret. of daylight shorten in food for the tree. autumn, the trees stop Seeds develop. HYPERION REDWOOD growing and drop their 4 WINTER 116 m (380 ft) To save energy leaves. In winter, the and water, the tree trees have a period of rest. Leafless sheds its leaves. branches LEAF CHANGE Leaves 3 AUTUMN turn red With less sunlight, In autumn, leaves change appearance. The green vanishes, the leaves stop making and reds, yellows, and browns make woodlands glow with colour. food and change colour. 84

DECIDUOUS TREES Trees that lose all their leaves for part of the year – for example, oaks and beeches – are called deciduous. They have flat leaves of many shapes that are usually shed in cold or dry seasons. The tree remains bare until warmer weather returns, when new leaves grow. Deciduous trees are found in many regions of the world. COMMON ALDER SILVER BIRCH COMMON HORNBEAM SWEET CHESTNUT COMMON BEECH MANNA ASH TAMARACK SUGAR MAPLE QUAKING ASPEN CHERRY WHITE WILLOW ROWAN ENGLISH ELM WHITE MULBERRY ENGLISH OAK QUINCE JUDAS TREE COMMON FIG TURPENTINE TREE EVERGREEN TREES THPEINIAWSENDOACIARNIBYTLERCDEENIAAD’STSLRTATIMSLFTREOOOEC4RESL,O7NDTN8I9AE , These trees have leaves all year round. Although old leaves fall off, they are constantly replaced by new ones. Evergreens include firs, pines, cedars, and spruces. Many grow in northern regions, where they thrive in harsh, cold climates. SILVER FIR GIANT FIR MONKEY PUZZLE YLANG YLANG ITALIAN CYPRESS BLUE GUM MAGELLAN’S BEECH STRAWBERRY TREE LEMON TREE CEDAR OF LEBANON WELLINGTONIA NORWAY SPRUCE BLUE SPRUCE COCOA TREE CHINESE EVERGREEN COMMON MANGO COMMON JUNIPER SCOTS PINE COMMON YEW EASTERN HEMLOCK MAGNOLIA GINKGO ANCIENT TREES TREE FERNS BONSAI JAPANESE MAPLE DWARF CRAB APPLE The first tree-like plants that grew on Earth, The ancient oriental art of bonsai creates about 380 million years ago, were spore trees. tiny replicas of large trees. Techniques These reproduced not from seeds but from cells such as wiring roots and branches stop called spores on the underside of their leaves. the tree from reaching its full growth. The only spore trees living today are the tree Bonsai can be used on any type of tree ferns. Another ancient tree is the Ginkgo, a to produce a miniature version small survivor from before the age of dinosaurs. enough to keep in a pot. 85

Wart BAY CUP LEMON DISCO GREEN YELLOWING ELFCUP CUP Cap Gills (spore-carrying Cup carries Deeply LEMON PEEL FUNGUS tissues) spores cup-shaped CAP-AND-STEM fruiting body MUSHROOM COMMON TOOTHED EARTH-CUP CUP Stem or ORANGE PEEL FUNGUS ANEMONE JELLY EAR “stipe” CUP Base Ring (remains of BLISTERED Spore-producing tissue that covered CUP tissue Root-like baby mushroom) threads CUP-LIKE LARGE PURPLE DROP SCARLET ELFCUP BEECH JELLYDISC FRUITING BODY There are many varieties of The mushroom seen growing in mushrooms shaped like cups grass or woodland is called a “fruiting or discs. The inner surface body”. Another part of the fungus is of the cup carries the spores. hidden underground. The best-known These fungi grow from the mushrooms have a rounded cap with a ground or on damp wood. central stem. Under the cap are thin, flat tissues known as gills, where spores – Spores sit on the tiny reproductive cells – are produced. inner surface BALL-SHAPED Some fungi are round like balls. They range in size from tiny ones clustering on stems to giants as large as a football. The type called puffballs split open to release the spores stored inside. GREY PESTLE-SHAPED PUFFBALL PUFFBALL CRAMP BALLS COMMON EARTHBALL STUMP PUFFBALL SPINY PUFFBALL MEADOW PUFFBALL SUMMER TRUFFLE GIANT RED PUFFBALL CAGE CAP-AND-STEM MEADOW WA XCAP The most easily recognized fungi are the “umbrella” or cap-and-stem type. They come in all shapes and sizes. Some are small and spindly, others have fat stems and thick, fleshy caps. AMETHYST DECEIVER Bun-shaped cap FALSE SPLENDID WEBCAP SCARLET VIOLET SICKENER CONIFER TUFT FLY AGARIC PANTHERCAP LILAC MOREL WA XCAP WEBCAP FIELD BLEWIT BONNET 86

Mushrooms DANGEROUS MUSHROOMS Although they look like plants, mushrooms are quite different and belong to a separate scientific group – the fungi. They come in many Some poisonous mushrooms shapes and colours, and all of them feed on organic matter. Some look very like the ones used in mushrooms are edible but others are deadly poisonous. cooking. No one should pick a mushroom without being quite sure what type it is. DEATHCAP One of the deadliest fungi in the world, the deathcap can be fatal if eaten. LIFECYCLE OF A MUSHROOM WHERE FUNGI GROW BROWN ROLLRIM The real growth of a fungus takes place out of sight. Beneath the ground, a web Finding and identifying fungi means The poison in the rollrim can of fine threads develops from the mushroom’s spores (reproductive cells) and knowing the right places to look. For damage red blood cells and spreads to produce more mushrooms. example, some fungi grow by certain trees. lead to kidney and liver failure. Cap rolls inwards Short stem Spores FALLEN BRANCHES FIR CONES JEWELLED AMANITA carried away The common brown cup The earpick fungus by wind mushroom grows on oak bark. grows directly out of This cream-coloured or yellow decaying fir cones. mushroom can cause sickness and Spore stomach pains less than an hour after being eaten. 1 SPORES FALL OUT LEAVES The underside of the Redleg club fungi appear FUNERAL BELL on the ribs and stalks of ash, mushroom cap releases spores. maple, or alder leaves. Found on rotting wood, the yellowish- brown funeral bell contains a poison 5 STARTING AGAIN 2 THREADS DEVELOP that causes liver damage and, without Fully grown, the mushroom The spores form fast treatment, death. is ready to release its spores. a web of threads DEADLY WEBCAP underground. This is very dangerous because it looks like the edible chanterelle mushroom. If eaten, the webcap damages the liver and kidneys. 4 NEW CAP 3 MUSHROOM SPROUTS UNDER TREES ON OTHER MUSHROOMS EMERGES The threads stick The hazel bolete mushroom Silky piggyback mushrooms grows in leaf beds under hazel grow on the rotting bodies The young mushroom and hornbeam trees. of other fungi. appears above together, forming a small the ground. knot – a new mushroom. BRACKET-LIKE DWARF STAR-SHAPED EARTHSTAR These types of fungi are found In these fungi, the spores are on trees or dead wood. They grow DEVIL’S held in a round case. To release like shelves, sometimes forming FINGERS the spores, the outer layer row on top of row. Bracket fungi of the case splits open like can eventually kill living trees a many-pointed star. by attacking their tissues. BEE SWA X CHICKEN OF BRACKET THE WOODS OYSTER MUSHROOM OAK MAZEGILL TOOTHED JELLY JELLY ROT COLLARED EARTHSTAR Conical CLUB-SHAPED CORAL-LIKE cap With their upright shapes and no Often brightly coloured, the noticeable cap, club fungi can be clustered, branching stalks of hard to recognize as mushrooms. coral fungi look very similar to Some types grow in clumps. the corals found in tropical seas. SILKY ROSEGILL CAESAR’S YELLOW AMANITA CLUB Raised dome SCARLET BOG PIPE on cap CLUB CATERPILLAR CLUB BEACON CANDLESNUFF FUNGUS VIOLET DOMECAP SCALY EARTHTONGUE DEAD MAN’S FINGERS UPRIGHT ROSSO CORAL YELLOW STAGSHORN CORAL 87

SPIDERS DADDY LONG-LEGS NORTH AMERICAN GIANT HOUSE WATER SPIDER SPIDER TRAPDOOR SPIDER SPIDER There are about 4,200 species of spiders. They have eight legs, and six or eight eyes. Most spiders can live for up to one year, if they avoid disease and predators. Some big spiders, such as the tarantula, can live for up to 20 years. NURSERY WEB SPIDER CAVE SPIDER NORTHERN SPITTING AMERICAN GOLDEN CHACO SPIDER SILK ORB-WEAVER TARANTULA BROWN JUMPING SPIDER NORTHERN BLACK FUNNEL-WEB EUROPEAN WIDOW SPIDER SPIDER WOLF SPIDER Spiders and ANATOMY OF A SPIDER scorpions A spider’s body is divided into two parts. The first part includes the eyes, fangs, stomach, and legs, while the second part contains the silk glands, known as spinnerets. Spiders have four pairs of legs, and use the hairs on these to pick up smells, sounds, and vibrations. Digestive glands Heart Spiders and scorpions are part of the Intestine Eye arachnid family – invertebrate animals with eight legs. They are alike in many Ovary ways, but a scorpion has a venomous Silk gland, or stinger in its tail, while spiders have spinneret, for making webs venomous fangs. Book lung Fang with venom canal SCORPLINGS Young scorpions develop inside their mother’s body. After birth, they climb on to her back until their external skeleton moults for the first time. SCORPIONS Scorplings External skeleton will A scorpion’s body is encased be shed five in a tough shell-like covering. to seven Claws near the head are times before used to seize prey and fight adulthood predators, while its tail ends in a venomous stinger. YELLOW THICK- IMPERIAL CHILEAN TAIL SCORPION SCORPION BURROWING 88 SCORPION

CRAB-LIKE SPINY OTHER ARACHNIDS ORB-WEAVER The arachnid family includes other animals such as mites, ticks, and harvestmen. They are often mistaken for insects, but they are not, mainly because they all have eight legs, not six, and two body segments, instead of three. ORANGE BABOON TARANTULA WHIP SPIDER MEXICAN RED-KNEED COMMON TARANTULA HARVESTMAN RAFT BROAD-HEADED SPIDER PSEUDOSCORPION WEB TYPES BUILDING A WEB SPIDER SIZES Different species of spider produce different Orb spiders produce a strong silk “thread” The world’s smallest types of webs. Orb spiders produce the most from their abdomen, which they use for spider, the Patu Digua, widely recognized web. spinning webs. The finished web is sticky, has a body about the so that it can trap insects that pass by for size of a pin head. the spider to eat. The largest spider, the Goliath Birdeater 1 FRAMEWORK Tarantula, has a leg PATU DIGUA GOLIATH BIRDEATER The spider lets out a span of 28 cm (11 in). SPIDER TARANTULA thread, which catches on FEEDING a twig. It then attaches the Spiders use fangs to kill their prey. Many also “spit” digestive other end to another twig. fluids over the prey, to turn it DANGEROUS to liquid, and then suck it up. SPIDERS Next, it attaches a looser All spiders eat insects, but some big spiders also eat lizards, frogs, Only a small number of spiders are thread to the same spot and and even fish. a danger to humans. ORB WEB TRIANGULAR WEB then suspends itself from BRAZILIAN WANDERING SPIDER Spun by orb web This type is spun by a third thread in the middle. spiders, this type of non-venomous The world’s most poisonous spider web needs repairing cribellate orb wanders across jungle floors at night weaver spiders. in search of food. every day. SYDNEY FUNNEL-WEB 2 SPIRAL THREADS Once the third When prey comes into contact with its web, this spider rushes out and delivers lots of thread is attached, bites, very quickly. the spider spins spiral BROWN RECLUSE threads to complete the Also known as “violin spiders”, these bite with flesh-eating venom for which there is no cure. web. These threads are BLACK WIDOW SPIDER not sticky. This spider’s venom is very poisonous, COBWEB FUNNEL-WEB 3 STICKY THREADS but its bite is small. This tubular style Finally, the Also known as is built by funnel- a “tangled web”, this type is made by web spiders. house spiders. ISYATEH1A1ER0-O-OMLLDIDLELSFIOTOSNWS-IELB spider replaces the spiral threads with sticky threads, ready to catch its prey. It then eats the non-sticky threads. 89

Crustaceans CRABS WARTY BOX CRAB The animals called crustaceans are a varied group that All but a few crabs live in the sea. includes crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps. Most of Most of them have flat bodies and SPLENDID them live in water. Among the few found on land are a wide shell. The soft-bellied hermit ROUND CRAB tiny woodlice. Crustaceans have an outer skeleton that crabs protect themselves by living in the does not grow when their bodies do, so they shed it empty shells of other marine animals. regularly to allow a new, larger one to develop. Crabs move by walking sideways. EDIBLE CRAB THE BODY OF A CRUSTACEAN Eye Antenna Nerve cord Claw Lobsters and crabs have three body regions: the head, the thorax or mid-section, and the abdomen. They have five pairs of legs, which in some species form pincers. Heart Digestive gland Stomach Eye Antenna Gills Claw Swimmeret Walking leg Walking leg Heart Tail fan Swimming leg LOBSTER Nerve cluster CRAB LIFECYCLE OF A CRAB SURVIVAL TACTICS SPINY SPIDER CRAB Like most crustaceans, newly hatched crabs look very Crabs are a tasty meal for many other sea different from their parents. They develop into adults creatures. They often dodge predators by through several stages. A female crab lays millions hiding under rocks or in a tangle of seaweed. of eggs, of which only a handful survive. If cornered a long way from shelter, a crab uses different tactics to get out of trouble. 1 EGGS MOCK ATTACK After mating, the The crab rears up female crab produces and waves its pincers, trying to make itself her eggs, which she look as large as possible. carries attached to her abdomen. MASKED GHOST CRAB CRAB 4 ADULTHOOD CROUCH LOBSTERS AND With each change of shell OTHER FAMILIES Another trick the crab the junior crabs become more may try is to crouch Like most crabs, lobsters live in the sea. down low, so that it These large animals have a hard upper shell like the adults. They gradually is seen less easily and powerful tails. Smaller crustaceans by the waiting include numerous shrimps, both marine reach maturity. predator. and freshwater. Sea slaters and woodlice belong to a large family whose members are found on land as well as in water. VERNAL POOL 2 YOUNG HATCH ESCAPE The eggs TADPOLE With luck, the SHRIMP crab confuses the hatch into young attacker and has time to scuttle that look like tiny off to safety. shrimps. These 3 INFANTS DEVELOP float and feed in BROAD LOBSTER AESOP The young moult (shed SHRIMP ocean currents. their shells) several times, and settle on the seabed. DEADLY BUBBLE 1 CLAW OPENS 2 CLAW SHUTS 3 PREY STUNNED The shrimp The claw The sound of the The 5 cm (2 in) long pistol shrimp makes a big noise opens its hinged snaps shut, bubble bursting stuns for its size. Meeting prey, the shrimp opens the larger of its claw wide. creating a bubble. the prey. COMMON EUROPEAN claws and snaps it shut at LOBSTER lightning speed. The snap creates an air bubble, which bursts with a bang loud enough to stun the victim. 90

Eyestalk RED LAND FURROWED ANEMONE CRAB CRAB HERMIT CRAB Tiny hairs act COMMON HERMIT as sensors CRAB DUNGENESS CRAB Empty shell used as a portable home WHITE-SPOTTED HERMIT CRAB VELVET PANAMIC SWIMMING CRAB ARROW CRAB PORCELAIN RED REEF HERMIT CRAB ORANGE COMMON EUROPEAN ATLANTIC ANEMONE CRAB FIDDLER CRAB CRAB BLUE CRAB SCULPTURED SLIPPER LOBSTER PEACOCK MANTIS NORWAY SHRIMP LOBSTER COMMON MARBLE MORETON BAY SHRIMP BUG LOBSTER COMMON SHRIMP WHITE-CLAWED CRAYFISH HAIRY SQUAT SEA SLATER ANTARCTIC LOBSTER KRILL STRIPED-LEG PILL WOODLOUSE SPINY LOBSTER SPINY SQUAT LOBSTER TIGER PRAWN 91

RECOGNIZING Insects AN INSECT Out of all the animals Insects come in many forms. Most have on Earth, insects are the wings, and there are other features that biggest success story. There make them easier to recognize, too. are greater numbers, living in more places, than any other type of creature. More Abdomen contains than a million insect species some internal organs have been identified – and THREE BODY OFTEN HAVE WINGS there may be millions still JUNGLE SEGMENTS to discover. NYMPH OUTER SKELETON COMPOUND Thorax carries EYES legs and wings FEELERS SIX JOINTED LEGS THE BODY OF Head contains brain, AN INSECT eyes, and mouthparts F4IIN0R0SSEMTCIATLNSLIIWOMNEARYLESEATTHROSEFALYG,O Feelers Compound eye Insects have three main body are used (has many lenses) Mouthparts segments: the head; the thorax, or to taste specially midsection, to which the legs, and and smell designed maybe wings, are attached; and the for chewing abdomen or belly. All these parts are leaves protected by a hard outer skeleton. LONGHORN BEETLES CHAFER GOLD BEETLE BEETLE BEETLE About one in every three insects is a beetle. At least 370,000 species are known. They all have hard front wings that fold shut to form a protective case. RED GIRAFFE GREEN JUNE JEWELLED FROG BEETLE WEEVIL BEETLE SCARLET LILY BEETLE CLICK TWENTY-TWO HERCULES GOLIATH GREAT DIVING WALLACE’S JEWEL BEETLE BEETLE BEETLE LONGHORN BEETLE BEETLE BEETLE SPOT LADYBIRD WEEVIL STAG BEETLE TRUE BUGS Large head shaped PEANUT-HEADED like a peanut shell BUG Not all so-called bugs are true bugs. These are a group of insects with long beak-like mouthparts made for piercing and sucking juices from plants and animals. BED FIREBUG THORN BUG HAWTHORN WATER GIANT WART-HEADED BUG WHITE SPOTTED BUG SHIELD BUG SCORPION WATER BUG ASSASSIN BUG GRASSHOPPERS AND CRICKETS A grasshopper makes its loud chirp by rubbing its hindlegs against its wings. Crickets “sing” by rubbing their wings together. Both types of insect fly and jump. COMMON BLACK CRICKET OAK BUSH SPECKLED DESERT STRIPE-WINGED COMMON FIELD CRICKET BUSH CRICKET LOCUST GRASSHOPPER GRASSHOPPER 92

ANTS, BEES, FLIES AND WASPS There are thousands of These groups of insects include species of flies around many that sting. Ants and nearly the world. Although some all types of bees and wasps live types are disease-carrying in organized colonies. pests, many are useful as pollinators of plants. WOOD ANT ARMY ANT COMMON WASP ASIAN TAWNY BLUEBOTTLE TIMBER FLY HOUSE FLY GIANT BLUE CARPENTER BEE MINING BEE ROBBER FLY DRAGONFLIES AND BUTTERFLIES DAMSELFLIES AND MOTHS Slender bodies and large wings Often colourful, butterflies are make these the flying aces of the daytime flyers. Moths are usually insect world. They are skilful duller and most fly at night. Both predators, darting through the have tiny scales on their wings. air to catch other insects. PLAINS CLUBTAIL COMET DARNER MEDITERRANEAN FLAME TWIN-SPOTTED DAMSELFLY SKIMMER SPIKETAIL ORANGE OAKLEAF BUTTERFLY Transparent GRAY Appendages at PRINCE BROAD-BODIED MONARCH BUTTERFLY wings PETALTAIL end of abdomen BASKETTAIL CHASER GARDEN AZURE Compound eyes TIGER MOTH DAMSELFLY EMPEROR SOUTHERN HAWKER ILLINOIS RIVER BANDED GIANT HAWKER WHITE-LEGGED MADAGASCAN SUNSET MOTH DRAGONFLY DRAGONFLY CRUISER DEMOISELLE DAMSELFLY LIFECYCLE 1 EGGS 2 LARVA 3 SKIN CHANGES 4 PUPA 5 ADULT The female may lay Each egg hatches The larva eats and grows, When the larva is full Inside a tight wrapping, All insects start life as an egg. Once they hatch out, their bodies hundreds of eggs over the into a larva (young, shedding its skin multiple times size, its skin splits to reveal the pupa changes, and an go through changes as they grow into adults. The lifecycle of the ladybird, shown here, is how many beetles develop. spring and early summer. undeveloped insect). over several weeks. the pupa (non-feeding stage). adult ladybird emerges. ALL-ROUND Large VISION compound eyes are very Insects have compound sensitive to eyes. While a human eye movement has one lens, a compound TITAN LONGHORN BEETLE FAIRYFLY eye has hundreds or thousands of lenses. This 16.7 CM (6.5 IN) 0.139 MM (0.005 IN) allows insects to look in many directions at once. BIGGEST AND SMALLEST HORSEFLY One of the largest insects in the world is the South American Titan Longhorn Beetle, which can fill the palm of a hand. The tiniest insects are fairyflies, barely visible without a magnifying glass. 93

Butterflies WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? and moths Most butterflies fly by day and are brightly coloured. At rest, they usually With their delicate shape and often stunning fold their wings upright. Moths fly largely at night and most have duller colours, butterflies and moths are beautiful colouring. They have furry bodies and feathery antennae. When resting, insects. All have four wings covered in tiny moths either hold their wings apart or fold them close to the body. scales that create a mosaic of exquisite patterns. Most butterflies and moths feed on nectar from Noticeable Rounded tip Feathery Furry body flowers and are important for pollinating plants. veins in to antennae antennae and head wings Long, narrow Muted wings colours BUTTERFLY Scalloped MOTH edge to wings BUTTERFLIES WESTERN ADONIS PYGMY BLUE BLUE There are butterflies nearly everywhere in the world. The biggest wings and boldest patterns LARGE COPPER BROWN-VEINED are seen mostly in species from tropical WHITE regions. A butterfly’s colours not only attract mates but also provide protection. To a predator, bright wings are a warning that the prey could be poisonous to eat. ORANGE-BARRED IMPERIAL WHITE LEAFWING BLUE NIGHT GIANT SULPHUR BUTTERFLY REGENT SKIPPER MOORLAND CLOUDED YELLOW MECHANITIS QUEEN MIMIC ALE X ANDR A’S BIRDWING BRAZILIAN TIGER BLUE TRIANGLE PEACOCK APOLLO DYNASTOR SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY ORIZABA MOTHS ORNATE MOTH SILKMOTH There are many more moths INFANT MOTH than butterflies. Most are less eye-catching, but spectacular species do occur. The gigantic moon moths can have wingspans of up to 30 cm (12 in). PROVENCE BURNET MADAGASCAN GOLDEN SMOOTH SUNSET MOTH EMPEROR EMERALD 94

LIFECYCLE OF 2 CATERPILLAR LARGEST AND A BUTTERFLY A caterpillar hatches from SMALLEST Butterflies and moths change the egg. It eats and eats and sheds The female Queen Alexandra’s from caterpillars to adults in a Birdwing is the world’s biggest process called metamorphosis. its skin (moults) several times butterfly with a wingspan of up to Their life stages vary according 28 cm (11 in). The Western Pygmy to species. Some as its body gets bigger. Blue has a wingspan of less than caterpillars change 2 cm (0.5 in), making it one of the inside a silk cocoon world’s smallest. WESTERN QUEEN ALEXANDRA’S rather than the hard PYGMY BLUE BIRDWING case shown here. CATERPILLAR MOVEMENT 1 EGG 3 CHRYSALIS Two pairs of A butterfly begins The final moult Caterpillars have three pairs of legs at the front false legs and between two and five pairs of false legs, life as an egg the size reveals a hard case, or which provide grip, at the hind end. They move Three pairs with a wave-like motion. of walking legs of a pin head. Butterfly chrysalis, inside which eggs may be laid singly the caterpillar stays as or in clusters. its body changes. 4 ADULT BUTTERFLY 1 FRONT MOVES 2 REAR CATCHES UP 3 FRONT MOVES AGAIN A colourful butterfly The caterpillar moves It draws its hind end It then moves its emerges out of the chrysalis. its front part forwards, forwards while holding on front again, gripping with In turn, it will lay its own eggs. leaving the rear anchored. with the front legs. the false legs at the back. COMMON HEWITSON’S LARGE BLUE PURPLE CATERPILLARS CLUBTAIL BLUE HAIRSTREAK Different species of caterpillars vary HAIRSTREAK greatly in appearance, but all are big eaters. Most feed on plants, often of one type only. Less usual foods include wool and the horns of dead cattle. DEATH’S HEAD HAWK-MOTH OAK LEAFROLLER MARBLED WHITE PIRATE PUSS MOTH BUTTERFLY POSTMAN BUTTERFLY GUAVA SKIPPER BHUTAN GLORY SWALLOWTAIL JULIA GRIZZLED PAINTED LADY SKIPPER EUROPEAN MAP EIGHTY-EIGHT BUTTERFLY BUTTERFLY TIGER MOTH CHINESE OAK SILK MOTH MONARCH CATTLE HEART SWALLOWTAIL MALACHITE COMMON LIME EPICOMA MOTH HAWK-MOTH ELEPHANT HARTIG’S HAWK-MOTH BRAHMAEA AFRICAN MOON GREEN SILVER-LINES MOTH GIANT LEOPARD MOTH LARGE MAPLE BASKER MOTH SPANWORM MOTH 95

LAND SLUGS SEA SLUGS ELEGANT SEA SLUG With no shell to retreat into, slugs have to hide, emerging As wobbly as jelly and often as at night to feed. Some live underground. Although seen as brightly coloured, sea slugs creep pests for devouring garden plants and farm crops, slugs over seabeds and corals. Some play a useful part in breaking down rotting vegetation. can swim in a clumsy fashion. They carry gills, or breathing organs, such as feathers or spikes on their backs. COMMON GARDEN SLUG Gills VARICOSE SPANISH DANCER SEA SLUG KERRY SPOTTED SLUG BLACK SLUG ANNA’S SEA SLUG HEADSHIELD SLUG OPALESCENT SEA SLUG Smell or taste organs LAND SNAILS ARSOEOENHVMWUEENNOTTROYEMTPRHESSS,ETSROHLSFUANSGTANSPIA,LRAISELNYSD BROWN-LIPPED SNAIL ROMAN SNAIL Among the best-known animals on Earth, land snails range from species no bigger than a pinhead to the giant African land snail, which can reach 30 cm (15.5 in) long and weigh up to 900 g (2 lb). Their shells are more than portable homes. The colours and patterns provide camouflage by blending into the snail’s habitat. Eye at the end HAIRY SNAIL of the tentacle Sensory tentacles MANUS ISLAND SNAIL WHITE-LIPPED SNAIL COMMON GARDEN SNAIL ROSY WOLFSNAIL GIANT AFRICAN LAND SNAIL Slugs and snails WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE? Leaving pathways of shining slime made by their The bodies of slugs and snails look very alike, but a telltale own bodies, land slugs and snails are familiar in feature lies beneath a snail’s shell. This is a small hump damp places almost all over the world. Less often containing most of the snail’s internal organs. Some slugs seen, except sometimes as aquarium pets, are slugs have a tiny internal shell that serves as a calcium store. and snails that live in water. Many of these, especially species from warm oceans, are vividly coloured or Shell have fantastically shaped shells. Breathing pore 96 SNAIL SLUG

SURPRISING RELATIVES The octopus seems an unlikely relative of slugs and snails, but it is in the same major scientific group – the molluscs. Many other animals, perhaps just as unexpected, also belong to this group. Some of them are shown here. SPOTTED SEA HARE LETTUCE SEA SLUG BLACK-MARGINED SEA SLUG VARIABLE NEON SEA SLUG AQUATIC SNAILS SMALL GIANT CLAM APPLE SNAIL Some of these snails live in the DOG WHELK sea, others in fresh water. Sea snails are often highly colourful. Many have spectacular spiralling shells, like the huge Triton’s trumpet snail, a predator that injects poison into its prey. AUSTRALIAN GIANT GEODUCK CLAM CUTTLEFISH PACIFIC THORNY OYSTER GREAT POND SNAIL COMMON CUTTLEFISH Shell up to 50 cm (20 in) long MARBLED CHITON RAMSHORN SNAIL COMMON OCTOPUS COMMON WHELK TRITON’S TRUMPET BIGFIN REEF SQUID NAUTILUS BONELESS BODIES SHELL SHAPES HABITATS Slugs and snails have no bones. Their soft bodies consist Most snails have spiral shells, which come in many shapes and There are tens of thousands of different slugs of a head, a central part containing the organs, and an sizes. More unusual types of shells usually belong to sea snails. and snails living in a wide variety of habitats. underside, or “foot”, that they use for moving. The head Among the variations are elegantly twisted cones, irregular They are found on mountains and seabeds, carries one or two pairs of tentacles that contain eyes and shapes bristling with spikes, and flat shells like caps. and in rivers, forests, and gardens. other sense organs. Eyes at end Shell of tentacle Rasp-like Stomach SPINDLE SHAPE IRREGULAR SPIRAL SHAPE SEA FRESH WATER LAND tongue and other scrapes vital organs Many slugs and Ponds, lakes, Few snails can up food inside shell snails live on coral reefs and streams, and survive in a dry in warm seas. A few occur at rivers are habitat. Most, great depths. all common like slugs, habitats for thrive only in CLUB SHAPE PEAR SHAPE CAP SHAPE EGG SHAPE freshwater snails. damp places. 97

SALTWATER FISH HARLEQUIN CROWNED BUTTERFLY FOXFACE TUSKFISH SQUIRRELFISH BLENNY Fish that live in the sea are known as saltwater, or marine, fish. There are around 16,000 marine species. TURBOT BANDED COMMON BLUESTRIPE CLOWN TRIGGERFISH ARCHER FISH SNAPPER SEAHORSE BLUEFISH ATLANTIC RED MULLET MACKEREL EUROPEAN PLAICE SPOTTED BOXFISH ROCKLING JOHN DORY VARIEGATED LONG-SPINED LIZARDFISH SEA SCORPION MEDITERRANEAN WEEDY LONG-SPINE BLUE-SPOTTED PARROTFISH SEADRAGON PUFFERFISH SEA BREAM BROWN MEAGRE ROYAL GRAMMA COMMON SOLE EMPEROR FLYING ANGELFISH GURNARD HARLEQUIN SWEETLIPS RED BANDFISH STONEFISH TASSELLED SCORPIONFISH CLOWN ANEMONEFISH TIGER SHARK Fish ANATOMY Front KNOKWOTNIHCTAAONRLP2IV0H0EAYVFEOEARBREMSEONRE dorsal fin Most fish have streamlined bodies, Fish can be found in nearly every so they can move easily through the Skeleton Second type of watery environment, from water. They are covered in scales dorsal fin mountain streams to the deepest and breathe through gills – organs oceans. They range from 12 mm on each side of the head that (0.5 in) to 16 m (53 ft) in length, and collect oxygen from water. there are more than 30,000 species. Scales Brain Gills Heart Kidney Stomach Intestine Tail fin Swim bladder Pelvic fin Anal fin 98