Picturepedia An Encyclopedia on Every Page

an encyclopedia on every page



an encyclopedia on every page

DK LONDON CONTENTS Project editor Lizzie Davey Science and Senior art editor Mabel Chan technology Editors 10 The Universe Ann Baggaley, Vanessa Daubney, Sarah Macleod, 12 The planets Catherine Saunders, Rona Skene, Sarah Tomley 14 The Moon 16 Space exploration Designers 18 Stargazing Laura Brim, Alison Gardner, Mik Gates, Tessa Jordens, 20 Northern skies 22 Southern skies Steve Woosnam-Savage 24 Physics 26 Electricity Managing editor Paula Regan 28 Chemistry Managing art editor Owen Peyton Jones 30 The elements Jacket design development manager Sophia MTT 32 Biology Producer, pre-production Nikoleta Parasaki 34 The human body 36 Skeleton Producer Mary Slater 38 Muscles Publisher Andrew Macintyre 40 The brain Associate publishing director Liz Wheeler 42 Computers 44 Inventions Art director Karen Self 46 Numbers Publishing director Jonathan Metcalf 48 Geometry 50 Cars Consultants 52 Tractors Alexandra Black, Kim Bryan, Giles Chapman, Sheila Dickle, 54 Trucks and diggers Robert Dinwiddie, Richard Gilbert, Sawako Irie, Philip Parker, 56 Trains Penny Preston, Carole Stott, Tony Streeter, Marcus Weeks, 58 Motorbikes 60 Aircraft Philip Whiteman, Chris Woodford, John Woodward 62 The story of flight 64 Bicycles DK DELHI Project editor Rupa Rao Project art editor Mahipal Singh Editors Deeksha Saikia, Sonam Mathur, Agnibesh Das Art editors Amit Varma, Vikas Chauhan, Ranjita Bhattacharji Senior DTP designers Shanker Prasad, Harish Aggarwal DTP designers Nityanand Kumar, Rajesh Singh Adhikari Picture researcher Nishwan Rasool Jacket designers Suhita Dharamjit, Dhirendra Singh Managing jackets editor Saloni Talwar Managing editor Kingshuk Ghoshal Managing art editor Govind Mittal Pre-production manager Balwant Singh Production manager Pankaj Sharma First published in Great Britain in 2015 by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL Copyright © 2015 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London A Penguin Random House Company 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001 – 197156 – Oct/15 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 978-0-2411-8698-5 Printed and bound in Hong Kong by Hung Hing Printing Group Discover more at

Nature 118 Birds of prey 120 Feathers 68 Tree of life 122 Animal journeys 70 How life began 124 Rodents 72 Fossils 126 Monkeys and apes 74 Plant-eating dinosaurs 128 Wild cats 76 Meat-eating dinosaurs 130 Whales and dolphins 78 Prehistoric animals 132 Animal skeletons 80 Plants 134 Dogs 82 Flowers 136 Cats 84 Trees 138 Horses 86 Mushrooms 140 Farm animals 88 Spiders and scorpions 142 Forest 90 Crustaceans 144 Rainforest 92 Insects 146 Savanna 94 Butterflies and moths 148 Deserts 96 Slugs and snails 150 Polar habitats 98 Fish 152 Ocean 100 Sharks 154 Coral reef 102 Seashells 104 Amphibians 106 Turtles and tortoises 108 Lizards 110 Snakes 112 Crocodiles and alligators 114 Eggs 116 Birds

Geography Culture 158 Earth 202 World religions 160 Volcanoes 204 World celebrations 162 Earthquakes 206 World languages 164 Shaping the land 208 The story of art 166 Rocks and minerals 210 Musical instruments 168 Gems 212 How music works 170 Water on Earth 214 Dance 172 Climate and weather 216 Ballet 174 Extreme weather 218 Great buildings 176 Environment in danger 220 Great books 178 Our physical world 222 Great thinkers 180 Our political world 224 Food around the world 182 Asia 226 Fruit 184 North America 228 Vegetables 186 South America 230 Cheese 188 Europe 232 Bread 190 Africa 234 Pasta 192 Oceania 236 Fish for food 194 Antarctica 238 Meat 196 Flags 240 Men’s fashion 198 Where food comes from 242 Women’s fashion

Sports and History hobbies 284 The first humans 246 Ball sports 286 Early civilizations 248 Football 288 Ancient Egypt 250 American football 290 Ancient Greece 252 Baseball 292 Greek myths 254 Basketball 294 Ancient Rome 256 Racket sports 296 The Vikings 258 Tennis 298 Ancient Americas 260 Athletics 300 The Ottoman Empire 262 Winter sports 302 The Mughal Empire 264 Cycling 304 Imperial Japan 266 Water sports 306 Imperial China 268 Sailing 308 Medieval Europe 270 Fishing 310 Castles 272 Combat sports 312 The Renaissance 274 Knots 314 Exploration 276 Games 316 Revolutions 278 Magic 318 US Presidents 280 Horse riding 320 US Civil War 322 European empires 324 British monarchs 326 The Industrial Revolution 328 World War I 330 World War II 332 The Cold War 334 Spies 336 Index



Science and technology

The Universe THE BIG BANG The Universe begins, 13.8 The Universe is everything that exists – all of space, matter, Before the Big Bang, the entire energy, and time. It is a huge wide-open space with billions Universe was inside a bubble that billion years ago of galaxies, each containing billions of stars, and yet it is at was smaller than a piece of dust. least 99.99 per cent empty space. It has been expanding It was extremely hot and dense, constantly since its beginning 13.8 billion years ago, when and it suddenly exploded. In less it exploded into life with the “Big Bang”. than a second, the Universe became bigger than a galaxy. It carried on growing and cooling, and pure energy became matter. During the billions of years that followed, stars, planets, and galaxies formed to create the Universe as we know it. Energy turns into matter UNIVERSE SUPERCLUSTER LOCAL GROUP The Universe is ever-expanding. It is full of dark energy, dark Superclusters are one of the largest known structures The Local Group is a cluster of about 50 galaxies inside matter, and other matter such as superclusters of galaxies. in the Universe, made up of galaxy clusters. the Virgo Supercluster that includes the Milky Way. GALAXIES NEBULAE STARS Galaxies are huge groups of stars, and they can be seen Nebulae are the “nurseries” of the Universe – they Stars are classified into different types depending on their in the night sky using a telescope. They come in lots of are huge clouds of gas and dust in which stars temperature and brightness. Scientists use the Hertzsprung- different shapes, and most of them are thought to have form. They may be trillions of kilometres wide and Russell graph (shown below) to compare the size, temperature, a massive black hole at their centre. many have amazing shapes and colours. and brightness of individual stars. Blue supergiant Yellow giant BRIGHTER White giant SPIRAL BARRED SPIRAL Red giant Red supergiant TARANTULA NEBULA ROSETTE NEBULA Red dwarf MAIN SEQUENCE STARS ELLIPTICAL IRREGULAR DIMMER WOAGUYAR L–GAAIOSXLRYAAPWXBAYARITRT–HRTAEHFRDIEMVSMESPFIIRLUKALYLL HOTTER COOLER EAGLE NEBULA N90 STAR TYPES Most of the stars, including our Sun, are found along a part of the graph called the Main Sequence. As they age, these become giants or supergiants, and then dwarfs or supernovas. 10

Atoms Stars form WHAT MAKES UP 23% form THE UNIVERSE? DARK MATTER This invisible matter The Universe contains matter and energy. Matter is generally has a strong physical “stuff” that can be gravitational pull seen, like the planets, but galaxies also contain invisible 5% matter called “dark matter”. MATTER This does not give off light or heat and so can be detected 72% only by the effects of its gravity DARK ENERGY on visible objects. Between and An unknowable energy beyond both types of matter is force that accounts for “dark energy”, a mysterious most of the Universe thing that scientists know almost nothing about. First galaxies Rate of expansion THE SCALE OF THE UNIVERSE increases The Universe is so vast that it is hard to appreciate its size. This series of pictures “zooms in” on the Universe, to show how our Solar System and planet relate to the rest of the Universe. Space is so huge that astronomers use the speed of light to measure distances. One light year is the distance light travels in a year, which is nearly 10 trillion km (6 trillion miles). MILKY WAY GALAXY STELLAR NEIGHBOURHOOD SOLAR SYSTEM EARTH AND MOON The Milky Way has a spiral shape and holds around Our Solar System is on one of the Milky Way’s spiral The Sun sits at the centre of our Solar System, Earth is one of the planets orbiting the 200 billion stars within its gravitational pull. arms, 27,000 light years from the galaxy’s centre. and eight major planets orbit it. Sun, and the Moon orbits Earth. BLACK HOLES DWARF COMETS PLANETS A black hole is a region of Comets are small, space where matter has Large planets have enough icy worlds that orbit collapsed in on itself. This self-gravity to make them the Sun. They are means there is nothing to form into a round shape as made of frozen be seen, but astronomers they move through space. gases, rock, and know black holes exist Smaller planets that dust. As they orbit because they have such cannot do this, but do orbit the Sun, jets of gas a strong gravitational pull the Sun, are called “dwarf and dust vaporize that nothing can escape planets”. Pluto is one of behind them to them – not even light. the largest dwarf planets create long “tails” in our solar system. visible in space. ARTIST’S IDEA OF A BLACK HOLE PLUTO COMET PLANETS MOONS ASTEROIDS Planets are large, A moon is a rocky body Asteroids are small rocky bodies that orbit the spherical objects that that orbits a planet. Sun. There are millions of them in space, and orbit a star. In our Solar Some planets have they are mainly made of materials that were System, there are eight many moons but left over from the formation of planets. planets: Mercury, Earth has only Venus, Earth, Mars, one. Moons are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, also known as and Neptune. Planets natural satellites. that occur outside our Solar System are known as exoplanets. EARTH EARTH’S MOON EROS, A NAMED ASTEROID 11

THE SUN The planets The Sun is the hottest and largest Around 4.6 billion years ago, a great cloud of dust object in our Solar System. Its fiery and gas formed into the Sun. The parts that were surface bathes the planets around not used began to form into clumps, which grew it in light, and its gravity shapes their into planets orbiting the Sun. The four planets orbits. The Sun is now about halfway closest to the Sun formed from rock and metal. through its life. In about 5 billion years it will The four bigger outer planets formed from gases. turn into a red giant, before puffing its outer layers into space, leaving behind only a ghostly cloud called a planetary nebula. THE SUN IS SO HUGE THAT EARTH COULD FIT INSIDE IT ONE MILLION TIMES MERCURY VENUS Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is and the smallest in the Solar System – it about the same size as Earth and made from is about as wide as the Atlantic Ocean. similar materials, but its atmosphere is made Mercury is a rocky world that has no of carbon dioxide – the gas that we breathe out. atmosphere or water. BRAHMS CRATER MAAT MONS Mercury is covered in Venus has more than 1,600 craters made by debris crashing into its surface. volcanoes, the highest of which is Maat Mons. MERCURY VENUS ROCKY PLANET ROCKY PLANET DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: 108.9 million km DISTANCE FROM THE (67.6 million miles) SUN: 69.8 million km DIAMETER: 12,104 km (43.3 million miles) (7,520 miles) TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT DIAMETER: 4,879 km THE SUN: 224.7 Earth days (3,030 miles) NUMBER OF MOONS: 0 TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT RINGS OF SATURN THE SUN: 87.97 Earth days Saturn’s rings are made up of ice crystals NUMBER OF MOONS: 0 and rock. JUPITER SATURN Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System – The second-largest planet in the Solar System, Saturn it could hold around 1,300 Earths. It is a giant is not dense – it would float in a planetary-sized ball of gas ringed by colourful bands of chemical bathtub. It is surrounded by a system of rings that gases that race around it as fierce winds. extend thousands of kilometres from the planet but are only 9 m (30 ft) thick. GREAT RED SPOT This is a giant storm several times bigger than Earth, which has been raging for 300 years. JUPITER SATURN GAS GIANT GAS GIANT DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: DISTANCE FROM 816 million km (507 million miles) THE SUN: 1.5 billion km (932 million miles) DIAMETER: 142,984 km (88,845 miles) DIAMETER: 120,536 km (74,900 miles) TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN: 11.86 Earth years TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN: 29.46 Earth years NUMBER OF MOONS: 67+ NUMBER OF MOONS: 62+ DISTANCE FROM THE SUN The distances between the planets are huge, becoming bigger as we move out through the Solar System. If the Sun were the size of a grapefruit, Neptune would be 14.5 km (9 miles) away. MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS SATURN SUN 500 million km (311 million miles) JUPITER 1,000 million km (621 million miles) 2,000 million km (1,243 million miles) 12

ORBITS PLANET SIZES All of the planets orbit the Sun anticlockwise, in an elliptical, or oval The four rocky planets nearest to the Sun are much smaller pattern. This means they are closer to the Sun at some points in their than the gas giants. The Sun dwarfs them all, but is itself orbits than others. They are trapped by the Sun’s gravity and will much smaller than other stars in the Universe. stay in the same plane of orbit for ever. Venus Mars Sun Mercury Earth Jupiter Saturn THE SUN PLANETS AROUND THE SUN Uranus MERCURY MARS VENUS EARTH NEPTUNE URANUS SATURN JUPITER Neptune EARTH MARS Earth moves around the Sun at 30 km per second (18.6 miles per second) and takes 365 The planet Mars is red, because its surface is days to orbit it completely. It is the only planet covered in iron-rich dust and rock. It is about half the known to have life on it. size of Earth and has both the highest mountain and the deepest valley of any planet in the Solar System. HIMALAYAS OLYMPUS MONS This mountain range was This mountain on Mars is about formed on Earth around three times as tall as Earth’s Mount 70 million years ago. Everest. It is also volcanic. EARTH MARS ROCKY PLANET ROCKY PLANET DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: 152.6 816 million km (507 million miles) million km (94.5 million miles) DIAMETER: 6,780 km DIAMETER: 12,756 km (7,926 miles) (4,213 miles) TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN: 365.26 Earth days THE SUN: 687 Earth days NUMBER OF MOONS: 1 NUMBER OF MOONS: 2 URANUS NEPTUNE GREAT DARK SPOT This storm, which has now Methane in Uranus’s atmosphere gives Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun, dispersed, was large enough it a rich blue colour. This planet is often so it gets little sunlight to warm its atmosphere. to contain Earth, and moved called the ”ice giant“ because 80 per cent Its vivid blue colour is due to methane and an at 1,200 km/h (750 mph). unknown compound. Neptune of it is made up of frozen methane, has the fastest winds in NEPTUNE water, and ammonia. the Solar System. GAS GIANT DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: RINGS 4.5 billion km (2.8 billion miles) Uranus has very faint DIAMETER: 49,528 km (30,775 miles) rings compared to the TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN: 168.4 Earth years other gas giants. NUMBER OF MOONS: 14 URANUS GAS GIANT DISTANCE FROM THE SUN: 3 billion km (1.86 billion miles) DIAMETER: 51,118 km (31,760 miles) TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE SUN: 84.3 Earth years NUMBER OF MOONS: 27 URANUS NEPTUNE 3,000 million km (1,864 million miles) 4,500 million km (2,796 million miles) 13

The Moon HOW THE MOON FORMED Always in orbit around Earth, the Moon is There are many theories about how the Moon came into existence. Scientists known as Earth’s satellite. It provides Earth with think the most likely explanation is that something collided with Earth, sending light during the night, though it has no light of debris into space that eventually formed the Moon. its own – it merely reflects the Sun’s light, like a mirror. It is the closest object to Earth in space, 1 IMPACT 2 MOON FORMATION and we can see its cratered surface even with A giant astronomical object hit the Earth’s gravity pulled the debris the naked eye. primitive molten Earth. The object was into orbit, and the fragments collided absorbed, but debris shot into space. and clumped together, forming the Moon. INTERNAL Outer mantle Solid ORBITING EARTH STRUCTURE inner core The Moon takes 27.3 days to orbit Earth, and The Moon is made up of Crust the same amount of time to spin on its axis. We several layers: it has a crust, see some, all, or none of the Moon, depending mantle, and a solid inner core on how much of its sunlit side faces Earth. surrounded by a hot and fluid outer core. There are regular Moon’s axis Earth’s axis “moonquakes”, which last up to ten minutes. Earth’s equator Heat from radioactive elements has partially Moon orbits Earth melted the inner mantle in 27.3 Earth days Inner mantle Fluid outer core CRATERS FAR SIDE AND NEAR SIDE The Moon is rocky and pockmarked with craters formed by asteroids crashing The near side of the Moon is the side that Lacus always faces Earth, because it Luxuriae into its surface billions of years ago. The biggest craters are called “maria”, or takes the same amount of time to rotate on its NEAR SIDE seas. They are very flat because they were filled with volcanic lava that welled axis as it does The near side is divided to orbit Earth. into two areas: the Lunar up from inside the Moon and then solidified. In this Moon map, the near side is Mare Highlands and maria. on the left and the far side is on the right. Moscoviense Mare Mare Mare Ingenii Humboldtianum Moscoviense (Sea of Humboldt) (Sea of FAR SIDE Moscow) This side of the Moon Mendeleev has a thicker crust, Crater more highlands, and Mare fewer maria (seas). Serenitatis (Sea of Serenity) Mare Crisium (Sea of Crises) Mare HOW CRATERS FORM Nectaris When the Moon was young it was bombarded by asteroids – rocky pieces left over (Sea of from the planet-making process. They blasted away the Moon’s surface, forming Nectar) craters, circular hollows about 10–15 times the size of the impacting asteroid. Crater Gagarin +8 km Crater –8 km Elevation relative Mare Tsiolkovsky 1 INCOMING 2 INITIAL IMPACT 3 SHOCK WAVE 4 CRATER to “sea level” Fecunditatis Crater SPACE ROCK The object On impact, the Some of the 14 (Sea of Fertility) Mare Smithyii (Sea of Smyth) Schrödinger There is no strikes the ground object melts and rock vapour (ejecta Crater atmosphere to faster than the vaporizes, spewing flow) settles in and protect the Moon speed of sound, hot rock vapour around the large hole from flying objects. breaking the crust. over a huge area. that is the crater.

PHASES OF THE MOON KNWOOWEF ANTLHAWESAMTYOHSOESN“ENEFERTAOHRMESSEIADAMER”TEOHFFA–TCIHTE EISMOON The Moon seems to get larger and smaller in the sky, but this illusion is caused by the fact that we can only see the face of the Moon that faces Earth. One half of the Moon is always bathed in sunlight, but most of the time only part of the sunlit area is visible from Earth. WAXING CRESCENT FIRST QUARTER WAXING GIBBOUS FULL MOON WANING GIBBOUS LAST QUARTER WANING CRESCENT NEW MOON Only a thin sliver The sunlit portion The sunlit part A full side of the Moon Turning away from Rising only around This marks the The lit half of the of the sunlit part of increases to show increases – now more is now visible. This is Earth again, the lit-up midnight, this half-lit near completion of Moon is completely the Moon is seen half of the Moon’s than half of the Moon halfway through the section of the Moon hidden from Earth hemisphere lit up. Moon is brightest the Moon’s orbit from Earth. is visible in the sky. lunar month. begins to decrease. at dawn. around Earth. at this point. Darker areas JOURNEY TO THE MOON 7. Third crew member continues are “maria” – to orbit the Moon in CSM smooth, low- On 16 July 1969, three astronauts began a journey into space lying areas to land on the Moon. Their spacecraft was Apollo 11, which 8. Ascent stage of Lunar (like seas was launched into space by the three-stage Saturn V rocket. Module takes astronauts without water) It delivered the astronauts on to the Moon in a Lunar Module. back to CSM, after which it is discarded 12. Command Module 5. Apollo craft makes a parachute adjusts its course landing in the sea to go into lunar orbit 11. Command Module enters Earth’s atmosphere 10. Service Module is jettisoned 4. CSM turns and 9. CSM adjusts its docks with Lunar course and heads Module. Third rocket back to Earth stage is now discarded 1. Saturn V rocket 6. Lunar Module carrying Apollo craft transports two blasts off and positions astronauts to craft in Earth’s orbit lunar surface 2. The rocket’s third stage and 3. Combined Command Apollo craft leave Earth’s orbit and Service Module and head towards the Moon (CSM) separates from the rocket The Lunar MEN ON THE MOON Highlands are hilly regions In 1972 the crew of Apollo 17 landed with lots on the Moon and stayed there for three of craters days. They completed three successful excursions to examine craters and the Taurus Mountains. ASTRONAUT EUGENE CERNAN ON THE LUNAR ROVING VEHICLE, 1972 TRUE OR FALSE? ALIENS INHABIT THE MOON MOON MISSIONS AGENCY SUCCESSFUL MISSIONS Samples of the Moon taken by NASA (USA) 27 People have had theories about astronauts show no trace of In the second half of the 20th century, the Moon since they first looked other life, past or present. there was a “Space Race” between the RFSA (USSR/RUSSIA) 20 up at the skies in ancient times. USA and the Soviet Union (USSR) to Modern science has helped us YOU WEIGH LESS ON THE MOON launch crafts, satellites, and people into CNSA (CHINA) 3 work out which Moon myths are “Weight” depends on the pull space. In 1959 the USSR landed a space JAXA (JAPAN) 2 true and which are false. between two gravitational forces. probe on the Moon, and in 1969 the USA The Moon’s gravity is less than landed people on the Moon. Since then, ESA (EUROPE) 1 FULL MOON CAUSES LUNACY Earth’s, so you would weigh less. other countries have sent spacecraft to Research by scientists has proved find out more about the Moon. ISRO (INDIA) 1 there is no link between madness THE MOON IS DRIFTING and the full moon. AWAY FROM EARTH MMTAHONEOLNLAAWNSTDAESTDIIMNOEN1A9T7H2 E The Moon is moving away from MOON AFFECTS THE us by 3.8 cm (1.5 in) per year. OCEAN TIDES The Moon’s gravity does affect THE MOON HAS A DARK SIDE the tides of waters on Earth. The Moon spins on its axis, so every part of it is exposed to the Sun at some point during rotation. 15

Space MISSIONS TO SPACE MISSIONS TO THE MOON exploration NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 100+ Space missions have landed people on the Moon and KEY MISSIONS: At the start of the 20th century, rockets rovers on Mars. They have sampled the atmosphere • APOLLO 15: Launched in 1971, this were invented that were powerful enough of Jupiter and explored Saturn, Mercury, and to blast away from Earth. By the century’s even the Asteroid Belt. These missions help us was the first of the longer missions, end, thousands of spacecraft and hundreds understand the Solar System and our own planet. where astronauts stayed for three of people had entered space. The spacecraft days on the Moon. of the 21st century are beginning to explore MISSIONS TO JUPITER • LUNAR RECONNAISSANCE the furthest reaches of our Solar System. ORBITER: Launched in 2009, this NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 9 spacecraft is gradually mapping APOLLO MISSION BADGES the entire surface of the Moon. KEY MISSIONS: The US space programme is run by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space URANUS Administration), and it creates a mission patch, or badge, for every space mission. • PIONEER 10: The first craft to go The badges include elements that represent different parts of the mission: its through the Asteroid Belt and purpose, the name of the space vehicle, and its official number. obtain close shots of Jupiter. • JUNO: Launched on 5 August 2011, Juno is flying towards Jupiter with the aim of orbiting it for one year. PIONEER 10 JUNO MISSIONS TO ASTEROID BELT NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 10 KEY MISSIONS: • DAWN: This spacecraft was launched in 2007 to study two bodies in the Asteroid Belt: Vesta and Ceres. It spent a year orbiting Vesta before moving on to Ceres. • ROSETTA: A mission to a comet that photographed asteroids Steins and Lutetia on the way through. APOLLO 1 APOLLO 7 APOLLO 8 APOLLO 9 ROSETTA APOLLO 10 APOLLO 11 APOLLO 12 APOLLO 13 MISSIONS TO MERCURY NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 2 KEY MISSIONS: • MARINER 10: The first craft sent to study Mercury, this was launched in 1973 and did three Mercury flybys. • MESSENGER: The first craft to orbit Mercury, this was launched in 2004 and is still in operation today. MARINER 10 MESSENGER SOHO APOLLO 14 APOLLO 15 APOLLO 16 APOLLO 17 THE SPACE AGE 1959 1965 1973 1981 Soviet cosmonaut In 1957 the Soviet Union (USSR) The USSR launches Alexei Leonov NASA’s Pioneer NASA launches launched a polished aluminium Luna 2, which crashes becomes the first 10 becomes the Columbia, the ball containing a temperature on the Moon, becoming person to perform first spacecraft first “space control system, batteries, and a spacewalk. to travel beyond shuttle”, or radio transmitter outside the first man-made the Asteroid reusable Earth’s atmosphere. This was object to reach the 1969 Belt and fly spacecraft. the beginning of the Space Age. The USA’s Neil past Jupiter. lunar surface. Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the Yuri Gagarin first humans to walk Neil Armstrong 1961 on the Moon. Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space. 1950 1957 1958 1965 1971 1973 1977 NASA launches its first The Soviet Union The USA NASA’s Mariner 4 The Soviet Union space station, Skylab. NASA launches marks the start of launches becomes the first launches Salyut 1, Voyager 1 and 2. Explorer 1, its spacecraft to fly by Mars. the first space station. the Space Age first satellite. Over the next when it launches few years they send images Sputnik 1, and scientific the first data from man-made Jupiter satellite. and Saturn. Sputnik 1 Rocket Mariner 4 Salyut series Skylab Voyager 1 carrying space station 16 Explorer 1

APOLLO 15 MISSIONS TO MARS MARINER 9 LUNOKHOD 1 ROVER LUNAR NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 40+ RECONNAISSANCE KEY MISSIONS: ORBITER • MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR: Launched LUNAR in 1996, aiming to map the whole MARS GLOBAL CURIOSITY PROSPECTOR surface of Mars. SURVEYOR ROVER • CURIOSITY: An active mission, this landed on Mars in 2012 and has already discovered organic material. GRAIL KUIPER MISSIONS TO KUIPER BELT BELT NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 1 EARTH MOON MARS NEW HORIZONS SUN VENUS KEY MISSIONS: MERCURY ASTEROID BELT • NEW HORIZONS: Launched in 2006 to take close-up pictures of the icy worlds in the Kuiper Belt, such as Pluto and its moons. By 2015 it had travelled 5 billion km (3 billion miles). JUPITER SATURN MISSIONS TO SATURN NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 4 KEY MISSIONS: • PIONEER 11: The first mission to explore Saturn was launched in 1973. • CASSINI: Sent to explore the Saturnian system from orbit in 1997. It is still flying. NEPTUNE PIONEER 11 CASSINI MISSIONS TO THE SUN MISSIONS TO VENUS MAGELLAN MISSIONS TO NEPTUNE NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 15 VENUS EXPRESS KEY MISSIONS: NUMBER OF MISSIONS NUMBER OF MISSIONS SENT: 1 • SOHO: Launched in 1995, this has SENT: 40+ gathered information about the KEY MISSIONS: Sun’s structure and dynamics. KEY MISSIONS: • GENESIS: Collected • VOYAGER 2: This achieved solar wind material for • MAGELLAN: Sent on a the first flyby of Neptune and investigation in 2004. radar mapping mission from Uranus. In 2007 it entered the 1989 to 1994. heliosheath, the outer shell of GENESIS particles around our Sun. • VENUS EXPRESS: Sent to study Venus’s atmosphere, it reached VOYAGER 2 Venus in 2006. The mission ended in 2014. 1995 2011 2012 2014 Tiangong-1, The European NASA’s Galileo International Dragon, Philae probe spacecraft Space Station China’s the first is the first first space commercial man-made becomes the station, is craft, carries object to land launched. cargo to and on a comet. first to orbit from the ISS. 2007 2015 Jupiter. It Japanese aerospace agency JAXA launches Selene, the 2015 1986 studies the 1998 largest lunar explorer since NASA’s Dawn composition of the Apollo programme. mission orbits Mir, the first The assembly of dwarf planet modular the planet’s the International space station, atmosphere. Space Station (ISS) Ceres to is launched take images. by the USSR. begins with the launch Dawn Mir of its first module. 1990 2003 2005 2010 NASA launches The European Space Agency NASA launches the Virgin Galactic, a the Hubble Space (ESA) launches Mars Express – Mars Reconnaissance private company, Telescope into its first visit to another planet in Orbiter (MRO) with flies the first Earth’s orbit using scientific instruments suborbital plane. a space shuttle. the Solar System. on board. Virgin Galactic 2005 2008 The European Huygens The Indian Space probe of the Cassini– Research Organisation (ISRO) sends its first mission – Huygens mission lands Chandrayaan-1 – to the Moon. on Saturn’s moon, Titan. Hubble Space The Chandrayaan-1 Telescope It is the first landing on spacecraft another planet’s moon. 17

Stargazing PICTURING SPACE Astronomy is the branch of science that is Astronomers learn about space using telescopes. These telescopes are designed to dedicated to studying stars, planets, and all each pick up one particular type of electromagnetic radiation from space, and use the celestial bodies that surround Earth. It that radiation to create an image. The pictures on the right here show the Crab seeks to explain where we came from and Nebula viewed through different types of telescopes. the beginning of the Universe itself. INFRARED TELESCOPE These detect heat given off by objects. They are often used in space, where they are kept cold and far from Earth (so that they do not pick up confusing heat data from objects on Earth). LOOKING AT THE SKY JUPSIETMEENERR,WCAUINTRDHY,STVAHETENUNURASN,KMCEADANRESYB,EE OPTICAL TELESCOPE Binoculars are a great way to start These use lenses and looking at the night sky, because they mirrors to capture reveal up to ten times as much detail light from distant as the naked eye and are easy to use. objects. Reflecting Telescopes provide even greater detail. and refracting telescopes are forms of optical telescopes. NAKED-EYE VIEW OF BINOCULAR VIEW OF TELESCOPE VIEW OF ULTRAVIOLET THE ORION NEBULA THE ORION NEBULA THE ORION NEBULA TELESCOPE Hot and active objects HOW OPTICAL Light from star in the cosmos give TELESCOPES WORK enters telescope off large amounts of ultraviolet energy, so Galileo Galilei made the first refracting they are revealed in telescope in 1609, and in the 1680s most detail with this Isaac Newton invented the reflecting kind of telescope. telescope, which uses mirrors to collect light and form it into an image. X-RAY TELESCOPE These telescopes Eyepiece Light from star capture high-energy enters telescope rays from extremely hot REFRACTING TELESCOPE objects. X-rays from celestial objects are Light enters the telescope Focal point partly blocked by the Light rays Earth’s atmosphere, and is focused on to the Lens converge Smaller mirror so these telescopes are sent into space. They focal point by a lens. Main REFLECTING TELESCOPE gather information from mirror In this telescope, a curved space objects as they An eyepiece then mirror captures the light and orbit around Earth. reflects it back up the tube. A magnifies the small, flat mirror directs it to a focus, and the image is viewed focused light through a magnifying eyepiece. into an image the right size for your eye. Focal point Eye Eyepiece TIMELINE c.330 BCE 240 BCE c.150 BCE 1543 CE Earth 1633 The Polish The Catholic Church puts Since ancient times, people Greek philosophers Eratosthenes, Claudius Ptolemy says astronomer Copernicus’s Italian astronomer Galileo have recorded astronomical begin to believe a Greek that Earth sits Nicolaus Solar System Galilei on trial observations. As science that Earth is at the centre of the Copernicus for teaching advances, we are still a sphere. astronomer, cosmos. Belief in the publishes his Copernicus’s trying to discover the great estimates Earth’s Ptolemaic system revolutionary heliocentric mysteries of the Universe. continues for the model of the Solar (Sun-centred) circumference next 1,400 years. System, putting theory. with accuracy. the stationary Sun at the centre. Galileo Galilei Aristotle Ptolemy 2500 bce 2500 BCE 700 BCE 240 BCE 1054 CE Elliptical 1687 Building of Stonehenge. Babylonians The first certain Chinese astronomers The stones here mark predict regular appearance of Halley’s observe a supernova orbit English scientist the rising and setting patterns of Sun Comet is described that is visible in the Isaac Newton points of the Sun at and Moon eclipses. in the Chinese Records daytime. The matter 1609 discovers that the solstices. of the Grand Historian. blasted outwards by it German mathematician gravity keeps Aristarchus’s remains observable the Moon in Stonehenge calculations Halley’s Comet as the Crab Nebula. Johannes Kepler orbit around calculates that the planets Earth, and the 280 BCE Ancient Greek astronomer follow noncircular, planets in orbit Aristarchus calculates the size elliptical orbits. around the Sun. of the Sun and Moon and their Isaac Newton distances from Earth. 18

VIEW FROM SUN MOON MARS POLARIS METEOR VENUS SATURN EARTH It is impossible to tell how large a star or planet is by looking at it from Earth, because some are huge but very far away. The Sun’s diameter is 400 times that of the Moon, but it is also about 400 times further away. LIGHTS IN THE SKY THE CELESTIAL SPHERE CONSTELLATIONS Sometimes we can see the interaction of light The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere around Earth. Stargazers in ancient times named groups and magnetism in the skies through colourful Any sky object can be mapped on to this sphere. Because of stars after mythical beings and animals. light displays such as the northern lights. Earth rotates, the celestial sphere appears to rotate. These star patterns are called constellations Like Earth, it has north and south poles and is divided and we still use them today to find the stars. into hemispheres by an equator. There are 88 constellations in total, and each one is only visible at certain times The celestial and from certain places. sphere The Plough (marked in red) NORTHERN LIGHTS SOUTHERN LIGHTS Also known as the aurora borealis, Also known as the aurora australis, this light display is caused by this is similar to the northern lights particles from the Sun hitting Earth’s but takes place above Earth’s magnetic field. southern hemisphere. MOONDOG SUNDOG URSA MAJOR A moondog appears as a halo around Patches of sunlight appear at either This constellation is also known the Moon. It is caused by the side of the Sun. They are caused by as the Great Bear. It contains refraction of moonlight on ice sunlight refracting off ice crystals an asterism (smaller group of crystals in clouds. stars) known as the Plough, in clouds. or the Big Dipper. Rotational path of the celestial sphere LIFE OUT THERE Earth’s axis of spin The SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence) project LINE OF SIGHT Portion of the Alkaid was set up in 1960 to search for signs of life beyond Earth. celestial sphere Its powerful radio telescopes scan the skies but have not Wherever you stand on The stars in the Mizar picked up an artificial (non-natural) radio signal so far. Earth, you can see a portion Plough as seen Alioth of the celestial sphere. For example, the Plough seems from Earth Megrez Dubhe to be a fixed shape, but it is actually formed by stars Earth Phad moving far out in space, Merak all at different distances from the Earth. SETI TELESCOPES DISTANCE FROM EARTH 1781 1933 1992 2006 Astronomers The International German-born American physicist Karl discover the first Astronomical Union astronomer, Jansky records the first extra-solar planets defines the properties William Herschel radio-wave signals from (exoplanets). of a “planet” and in discovers Uranus, space, which he concludes doing so demotes a planet beyond are from the Milky Way. Infrared Pluto from a planet Saturn, doubling the Astronomical to a dwarf planet. size of the known Solar System. Satellite Uranus 1801 1843 1922 2018 Italian astronomer German amateur American astronomer 2018 Giuseppe Piazzi astronomer Samuel Edwin Hubble works The James Webb Space comes across a rocky Heinrich Schwabe out that there are more Telescope (JWST) is body orbiting between observes that galaxies in the Universe a space observatory than the Milky Way, and scheduled to launch in Mars and Jupiter. sunspots (areas of October 2018. It is a Named Ceres, this is lower temperature) that they are moving successor to the Hubble the largest object in follow regular cycles. apart – the Universe Space Telescope and will offer the clearest the asteroid belt, is expanding. images ever seen of and is classified as objects in space. a dwarf planet. 19 Ceres Sunspots James Webb Space Telescope

Northern skies OFITNTHHTCEEHONECMAONEMNOFESRRSTTOEFHMLOELRRTANHMTEISOOKSNITESS ANCIENT GREEKS If you live north of the equator, you live in the northern hemisphere. On a dark and cloudless night, KEY Yellow star Magnitude Magnitude you can see a mass of glittering stars. If you know Red star brighter than 0.0 brighter than 3.0 what to look for, you can pick out individual stars, This map shows stars Orange star constellations, and other wonders of the night sky. that are visible to the White star Magnitude Magnitude naked eye. Magnitude Blue star brighter than 1.0 brighter than 4.0 marks how bright a star is – the lower the Magnitude Magnitude number, the brighter brighter than 2.0 brighter than 5.0 the star. THINGS TO LOOK FOR Individual stars, star clusters, and whole galaxies can be seen with binoculars or a small telescope. Here are some key sights to look out for in the northern skies. Altair DUMBBELL NEBULA STAR CLUSTER M13 HYADES STAR CLUSTER AQUILA This is a planetary nebula, which means it is This is the finest globular (globe-shaped) This star cluster makes up the face of the bull in made up of clouds of material shed by a star. cluster in the northern skies. It lies in the the constellation Taurus. The brightest star here is the SERPENS giant star Aldebaran, which marks the eye of Taurus. CAUDA It is in the constellation of Vulpecula. Hercules constellation. OPHIUCHUS PLEIADES STAR CLUSTER PERSEUS CONSTELLATION This cluster in Taurus is also known as This constellation is best known for its yearly Perseid the Seven Sisters, because seven of its meteor shower, which takes place in mid-August. It lies just blue stars are visible to the naked eye. below the “W” shape of the constellation of Cassiopeia. SERPENS CAPUT LEO CONSTELLATION ORION NEBULA M71 STAR CLUSTER REFLECTION NEBULA The constellation Leo contains three This nebula marks the position of This loosely packed star cluster is This ghostly blue nebula is in the spiral galaxies: M65, M66, and NGC 3628. the “sword” below the “belt” of Orion on the edge of our galaxy. It sits in constellation of Cepheus. At its They are known as the Leo Triplet. in the Orion constellation. the Sagitta constellation. heart is a cluster of stars. LYRA CONSTELLATION CRAB NEBULA M15 STAR CLUSTER BEEHIVE CLUSTER The small constellation Lyra has one This is the remains of a supernova This globular cluster is in Pegasus, This swarm of stars in the brilliant star, Vega. It is the fifth-brightest (an exploding star). It is found in Taurus, constellation of Cancer is about three northwest of Epsilon Pegasi, the times the diameter of the Moon. of all the stars. near the southerly “bull horn”. constellation’s brightest star. 20

PISCES THE NORTH SKY The centre of this map marks the spot that would be directly overhead if you were standing at the North Pole. This point is marked by the star Polaris, also known as the North Star. PEGASUS EQUULEUS ARIES DELPHINUS ANDROMEDA VULPECULA TRIANGULUM SAGITTA CYGNUS LACERTA CASSIOPEIA TAURUS Aldebaran PERSEUS CEPHEUS ORION Capella LYRA Vega AURIGA Betelgeuse CAMELOPARDALIS Polaris HERCULES DRACO URSA MINOR CORONA BOREALIS LYNX GEMINI CANIS URSA MINOR MAJOR Procyon CANCER BOÖTES CANES LEO MINOR Arcturus VENATICI LEO VIRGO COMA BERENICES LOCATOR 21

Southern skies THE LOAMRIENGGEOASUTCRSETGNAATRALAUCXRLUYI ,ISSTER CONTAINING AROUND If you live south of the equator, you live in TEN MILLION STARS the southern hemisphere. On a clear night, the southern skies give a fantastic view of the Milky KEY Yellow star Magnitude Magnitude Way, bright star clusters, constellations, colourful Red star brighter than 0.0 brighter than 3.0 nebulae – and even whole galaxies. This map shows stars Orange star that are visible to the White star Magnitude Magnitude THINGS TO LOOK FOR naked eye. Magnitude Blue star brighter than 1.0 brighter than 4.0 marks how bright a The southern skies contain many star is – the lower the Magnitude Magnitude night-sky objects that are not visible number, the brighter brighter than 2.0 brighter than 5.0 from the northern hemisphere, including the star. the Magellanic clouds and the bright star cluster known as the Jewel Box. ERIDANUS THE JEWEL BOX CLUSTER LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD Shown at the bottom left here, this cluster includes a red This small galaxy orbits our own galaxy, the supergiant and smaller blue stars. It is in the constellation Milky Way. It sits in the constellation Dorado, Crux. The bright star in the upper right here is called Mimosa. though part of it is in the constellation Mensa. Rigel NGC 3603 NEBULA SiriusLEPUS This giant nebula in the constellation Carina is CANIS MAJOR composed of huge glowing clouds of gas. In its centre are thousands of hot, young stars. MONOCEROS OMEGA CENTAURI CLUSTER ROSETTE NEBULA This is the largest and brightest globular cluster visible This flower-shaped nebula is a star nursery – stars are being created from Earth – it appears as a fuzzy star to the naked eye. within it – and there is a cluster of new stars at its centre. It can be seen It is in the centre of the Centaurus constellation. with a small telescope in the constellation Monoceros. M4 GLOBULAR CLUSTER 47 TUCANAE GLOBULAR CLUSTER CORVUS CONSTELLATION This cluster is around 12.2 billion years This huge star cluster is around 16,700 light years from Earth, Corvus, the crow, is made up of four bright stars, shown in the constellation of Tucana. It contains several million stars old. It is found near the bright star in the lower-right half of this image. It sits close to the Antares, in the constellation Scorpius. but looks like a single hazy star to the naked eye. very bright double star known as Spica (top left). 22

CETUS AQUARIUS THE SOUTH SKY Fomalhaut The centre of this map marks the spot that would be directly overhead SCULPTOR PISCIS if you were standing at the South AUSTRINUS Pole. No stars mark this centre point but the bright constellation GRUS of Crux is used as a main point of reference in the southern skies. CAPRICORNUS AQUILA FORNAX PHOENIX MICROSCOPIUM INDUS CAELUM HOROLOGIUM Achernar SAGITTARIUS SCUTUM RETICULUM TUCANA CORONA SERPENS Small TELESCOPIUM AUSTRALIS CAUDA Magellanic Cloud HYDRUS DORADO PAVO Large MENSA OCTANS Magellanic COLUMBA APUS ARA Cloud Canopus PICTOR TRIANGULUM AUSTRALE CARINA CHAMAELEON VELA PUPPIS MUSCA PYXIS CIRCINUS VOLANS Rigel NORMA Kentaurus Acrux SCORPIUS OPHIUCHUS LUPUS Antares CRUX LIBRA CENTAURUS ANTLIA HYDRA VIRGO SEXTANS Spica CRATER CORVUS LOCATOR 23

Physics FORCE LAWS OF MOTION How do forces, such as gravity and A force is something that pushes or pulls magnetism, affect matter – the stuff all objects – whenever something moves, it has All motion is caused around us? And how does energy make been moved by a force. Forces can change by forces pushing and that possible? The answers to these the speed of an object, alter its direction, pulling. The scientist questions are found in physics. Physicists or change its shape. Isaac Newton described try to unravel the rules of the Universe to three laws of motion. explain why the world works as it does. CHANGING SPEED The first says that all The force of the golf club hitting things will stay still or the ball makes the ball move. move at a steady speed The ball gains energy and takes unless a force acts on off down the golf course. them. The second says that when a force acts The harder the on something it makes ball is hit, it accelerate. The third says that when a force the more force operates on something is used, and the (action), there is always further it travels an opposing and equal force (reaction). GRAVITY Earth pulls Force of gravity CHANGING DIRECTION apple down makes apple fall When a force is FIRST LAW Gravity is the force that applied to a moving Before take-off, keeps us held fast on the Apple pulls Earth and object like a tennis ball, planet, even while Earth Earth up a apple pull it can move it in a the only force spins at up to 1,670 km/h tiny amount together different direction. acting on a rocket (1,037 mph). Gravity pulls together all matter, FALLING APPLE Ball moves in one is gravity. but larger things with direction towards more mass have more SECOND LAW gravitational force. the racket The main engines OAGRNRBDAIINTVTITIHNTHEGYEOAKSTREOHOELEPUARSNRPEDSLAYATRSHNTTEEHETSMSUN Hitting the ball with and booster the racket applies force, rockets create a changing the ball’s direction huge downward CHANGING SHAPE force that A force may cause something accelerates the to change shape if the force rocket upwards. is strong enough and the atoms inside the object cannot resist it. Bending a bar rearranges the atoms inside it, altering its shape MASS AND Man of 75 kg MAGNETISM WEIGHT (165 lb) mass, weighs 12.5 kg Magnetism is a powerful invisible force that is created The mass of (27.5 lb) on by electric currents. Magnetic objects have the power something is the the Moon to attract other magnetic objects or push them away, amount of matter it depending on how their ends (poles) are lined up. contains, and mass always stays the MOON Opposite poles South pole same, wherever the attract. A magnetic object is. But weight field pulls together Force is changes depending greatest on where an object two magnets at where lines is, because weight is their unlike poles are closest determined by gravity. together Man of 75 kg (165 lb) mass, Invisible lines of weighs 75 kg force go from north (165 lb) on Earth pole to south pole North Like poles repel. THIRD LAW pole Magnetic fields will push apart The exhaust gas firing Lines of force always magnets from down (the action) makes start and end at a pole their like poles the rocket shoot up (the reaction). The rocket does EARTH not push against the air: FRICTION it moves up because of the force of the This force occurs when one object is dragged over the surface of another exhaust blasting down. object. The rougher a surface is, the more friction it produces. Even Surface A Surface A smooth surfaces have tiny bumps that will produce some friction. Surface B Surface B 24 FRICTION LUBRICATION As two rough objects Putting a slippery material slide over one another, their surfaces catch, such as oil between two slowing the sliding down. surfaces lets them move past one another more easily.

TYPES OF ENERGY SOUND ENERGY KINETIC ENERGY ELECTRICAL ENERGY HEAT AMNSODHOVEHCAEOOT–TLIIDSTTHTUTIHRSNAUIGNVASGELSGLLYSEGTAEOTCBNOOHTULOHDTTE, Energy we can The energy objects The energy carried by There are many different kinds of hear, made when electricity as it flows Heat is a form of energy, so energy, and most of them can be things vibrate. have because when you heat something, converted into other forms. For they are moving. down a wire. you are increasing its stored example, when you burn coal it energy. Objects store heat by changes the chemical energy jostling molecules or atoms stored in the coal into heat energy. inside them. Even large, cold objects can have heat energy. LIGHT ENERGY CHEMICAL ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY HEAT ENERGY ICEBERGS Energy carried in Released by a Generated by atoms Energy that is Energy stored or Icebergs are freezing electromagnetic moved by molecules cold but they still have reaction between splitting apart or stored and yet to jiggling around. some heat energy. waves. different chemicals. joining together. be released. GAMMA RAYS ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM MICROWAVES INFRARED RAYS These are made Microwaves can be when atoms split The Sun’s heat and light is carried to Earth by used to cook food. Infrared radiation apart in nuclear electromagnetic waves. These are just part of a is a kind of “hot spectrum that includes radio waves, microwaves, INFRARED light”. It shows up explosions. and X-rays. All waves travel at the speed of light RAYS on thermal (heat- but they vary in wavelength, frequency, and energy. sensitive) cameras. RADIO WAVES MICROWAVES VISIBLE ULTRA- X-RAYS GAMMA RAYS VIOLET 1 km 100 m 10 m 780 nm 380 nm 10 nm 0.01 nm 0.000001 nm WAVELENGTH RADIO WAVES ULTRAVIOLET X-RAYS Radio waves carry These have enough TV and radio signals Sunlight contains energy to pass between giant antennas ultraviolet waves. through soft body such as this one. They tan your skin, tissue (like skin) but can also cause but not bone. wrinkles and cancer. LIGHT AND COLOURS SOUND Spiky sound wave Complex, even sound wave The light from the Sun looks white, but it is actually Sound is another form of energy made up of lots of different colours. If you shine that travels in waves. Louder VIOLIN FLUTE light through a prism, the whole spectrum of sounds make bigger waves, colours appears. while high-pitched sounds When you play a A flute produces make waves that vibrate faster. violin, the strings vibrate, sound when you Glass prism Beam splits into The various noises we hear are blow into it, making many colours produced by sound waves of setting the air moving waves inside the pipe. Light bends different shapes and sizes. inside the hollow wooden The sound waves are as it passes case. A violin’s sound wave similar to a sine wave. from air to Smooth, even is a sharp and spiky wave. glass as sound wave it enters A bigger cymbal vibrates prism a greater volume of air so it sounds louder Light bends as it passes TUNING FORK CYMBAL from glass to air A tuning fork makes one simple, Percussion instruments make sounds regular, up-and-down sound wave when you hit them. Their sound waves pattern called a “sine” wave. Each are more like a short burst of random fork produces only one note. noise (white noise) than a precise wave. TINY SCIENCE GREAT PHYSICISTS Our whole planet and all its people are People have tried to explain our world and the Universe made of atoms. The nucleus of an atom since ancient times. In the last 400 years, physicists have consists of protons and neutrons, and invented theories that underpin much of what we know. these are made of even smaller things called quarks. It is unclear what those are ISAAC NEWTON (1643–1727) made of, but some scientists think that they may be vibrations of matter or energy, Newton discovered that sunlight contains all the colours of the which scientists refer to as ”strings”. This rainbow. He also devised the laws of gravity and motion. science is known as quantum physics. ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1871–1937) Rutherford proved that the atom was not solid but contained electrically charged electrons orbiting a nucleus. ALBERT EINSTEIN (1879–1955) Einstein discovered many things, but he is most famous for his theory of relativity. Quark RICHARD FEYNMAN (1918–88) Proton Feynman is best known for introducing the world to quantum physics. ALBERT EINSTEIN ATOM 25

Electricity ELECTRICITY IN NATURE We use electricity to power all sorts of things, Electricity is not only generated in power stations – it is also found from factories and trains to the many small in nature, from high-energy lightning strikes to inside our own appliances in our homes. The energy it bodies. Our brains use electric signals to tell our muscles to move. contains comes from charged electrons that whizz around inside every atom. LIGHTNING AURORA NERVOUS SYSTEMS ELECTRIC EEL A bolt releases as much These lights in the sky are Human nerves This eel discharges energy as a power station communicate by electricity in water streams of electrically electric signals. to kill fish for food. makes in one second. charged particles. ELECTRIC CURRENT CIRCUITS When electrons flow down wires, they carry energy from place The path that to place. So in a torch, electrons march around the wire from the electrons travel along battery to the lamp, where their power lights up the bulb. is called a “circuit”. A circuit carries power Electrons flow Atoms stay fixed Electrons flow Atoms stay fixed from a power source past atoms in the same place around randomly in the same place (such as a wall socket) to something CURRENT FLOWING NO CURRENT FLOWING that needs electricity SERIES CONNECTION PARALLEL CONNECTION When the power is switched on, the electrons move When the power is switched off, there’s nothing to move to run (such as a All the power moves The power splits into two along in a line, forming an electric current. the electrons in a line, so they just jig about randomly. lamp). There are two through each part of the as it reaches two lamps types of circuit. circuit, in a line. wired like this. SWITCHES BATTERIES LAIGRSETHATLTANIRICNGSGEH-BSOOCCLAKTLSSE If you attach a wire to both ends of a battery, and connect Batteries make their own electricity by using Strands of a lightbulb to the wire at some point, the electricity would chemicals. When you connect a battery, chemical plasma continually flow and always light the bulb. A switch is used reactions take place that generate electrons. to break the circuit, so the bulb can be switched on and off. Positive terminal If the A switch can Electrons circuit is not be used to flowing through broken, the make a break lamp make in the circuit bulb light up electricity flows back Chemical reactions take into the place inside battery the battery Electrons The Negative Electrons flow from the lightbulb terminal flow from the negative end forms part negative to of the battery of the circuit the positive end of the battery ELECTROMAGNETISM STATIC ELECTRICITY When an electric current flows through a wire, it creates a Static electricity is sometimes created when magnetic field around it. The strength of the magnetic field two things are rubbed together. The rubbing can be increased by coiling the wire in loops, because that creates an electrical charge, which is allows more current to flow through a smaller distance. released when it comes into contact with something else that conducts electricity. South pole of Loops of wire magnetic field GETTING A SHOCK Magnetic field Static shocks occur because your body builds up static when you rub against things. The static stays until you touch something metal, when it moves from you through the metal to Earth, giving you a shock. North pole of 1 CHARGED UP magnetic field The electrical charge you pick up from rubbing against things is negative. It will stay in your body as you move around, until you touch a positively charged object such as a metal handle. 2 JUMPING ELECTRONS When you touch a Current conductor, such as a metal handle, the static charge jumps from you, to the handle, Electric to Earth. As the negatively current flows through wire charged electrons jump 26 across, you feel a static shock.

CONDUCTORS INSULATORS SEMICONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS VOLTAGE AND INSULATORS RUBBER COPPER Voltage is a kind of force that makes electricity Electricity is a flow of electrons, move through a wire. The bigger the voltage, the so materials that do not allow more current will shoot through the wire. Bigger the flow cannot pass along voltages and currents deliver more electrical electricity. These are called power, but they are also more dangerous. “insulators”. Materials that do allow the flow of electricity are PYLONS called “conductors”. These hold up overhead lines that carry electricity across WOOD SILICON WATER long distances. The largest ones use 400,000-volt cables. POWER TO THE HOME PROTOONDVEESIMDAMETAISNINSUEDFNTYSOETFUOOHGFREHSWAUEYONNERELALRIGDRGH’YST Cables on wooden poles use 400–11,000 volts. Electricity is produced for homes in several ways, such as burning coal Buildings can be fitted with ELECTRIC TRAIN CABLES or using nuclear power. The electricity is then fed though sub-stations solar panels to Trains take power from cables produce power above them. One train needs to individual houses. Some houses also produce their own power less than 1,000 volts, but the cables are about 25,000 volts. through solar panels. This means many trains can use the line at once. Fossil fuel Water from a dam runs power station through a turbine to produce ELECTRICITY AT HOME hydroelectric power Voltage in the home differs from country to country, but generally Nuclear Large solar lies at 110–250 volts. Factories power station panel “farm” need higher voltages because they have bigger machines. Geothermal power station BATTERY CHARGERS (using ground A laptop or phone charger needs 10–20 volts to charge its battery. heat) Laptops need higher voltages than phones because they have bigger Wind Skyscrapers screens and circuits that use turbine need much more energy. more power farm than houses Factories require Electric trains TORCH BULBS lots of power use power lines Bulbs for torches and lamps are ELECTRICITY AT HOME rated by the voltage and current needed to operate them. The We use electricity at home from the moment we get up (perhaps standard AA, C, and D batteries switching on a light or using an electric toothbrush), to when we go to all deliver 1.5 volts each. bed. Homes need energy for heat, light, cooking, and washing machines, as well as lots of personal items, such as hairdryers and mobile phones. PIONEERS Heat escapes Electricity has been around forever, through windows because it exists naturally in the world. However, some people were important Heat escapes Computer Solar panel in finding out how to harness its power. through the creates chimney energy from BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706–90) sunlight Loft insulation Franklin discovered that lightning is electricity, traps heat, helping Radiator and that there are positive and negative charges. save energy ALESSANDRO VOLTA (1745–1827) Ceiling Electric A professor of experimental physics, Volta light shower invented the first battery, called the Voltaic Pile. Hairdryer Microwave GEORG SIMON OHM (1789–1854) Music Boiler for Ohm discovered electrical resistance. The unit player water and of resistance – ohm – is named after him. heating PLASMA SPHERE TV and Coffee- MICHAEL FARADAY (1791–1867) DVD maker The streams of plasma here Faraday discovered that if you move a magnet near are created by the release of Wood fire Washing wire, the wire becomes electrified. This is known static electricity, which flows as creates machine as electromagnetic induction. a current from the centre to the heat Power THOMAS ALVA EDISON (1847–1931) edge of the glass sphere. supply Edison built the first electric power stations and invented the lightbulb, sound recorder (phonograph), and movie camera. NIKOLA TESLA (1856–1943) Tesla discovered alternating currents, hydroelectric power, radio waves, and radar. He invented transformers, a long- distance power system, electric motors, and X-ray machines. ENERGY BALANCE Oven NIKOLA TESLA There are lots of things that need energy in the home, but also many ways to save energy. 27

Chemistry CHEMISTRY IN ACTION HOUSEHOLD CHEMICALS Chemists dig deep. They begin with In ancient times, people used the natural We use lots of chemicals in the elements that make up all matter, materials around them, such as wood and our homes, from the paint and break them down into tiny atoms. stone, to make objects. Since then, scientists on our walls to the shampoo They analyse what the atoms are, have discovered thousands of chemicals, some for our hair. how they change state, and how of which can be used to make new materials. they react when they mix. BIOCHEMISTRY ORGANIC CHEMISTRY MATERIALS SCIENCE ENGINEERING This looks at chemical This branch of chemistry This science uses physics Engineers use their processes inside living focuses on carbon-based and chemistry to create knowledge of materials things or affecting them. compounds and their uses. new materials. to design things. INSIDE AN ATOM Neutron STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM MOLECULES Even though an atom is tiny, Some particles in the atom are electrically Atoms of the same sort or different atoms it has even smaller things charged. The protons in the nucleus are can clump together to make molecules. inside it – protons, positively charged and the orbiting electrons A molecule can be as simple as just two neutrons, and electrons. are negatively charged. There are always atoms, as in hydrogen, or lines of thousands Protons and neutrons equal numbers of protons and electrons. of atoms, as in some plastics. combine to form the atom’s nucleus. Electrons Electrons fill the space around Protons the nucleus. O H Oxygen Hydrogen atom atom Electron H Neutrons Proton CARBON ATOM WATER MOLECULE The number of protons inside an atom determines A molecule of water is made up of two different what kind of atom it is. For example, a carbon atom kinds of atoms: two hydrogen (H) atoms and has six electrons and six protons. one oxygen (O) atom. STATES OF MATTER MIXTURES All matter can change state. Water, for instance, can be A mixture is a liquid, gas (steam), or solid (ice). Its state depends upon the made when two way its atoms move around. As a solid, its atoms lock tightly substances are together. As a liquid, they move further apart, and as a gas combined, but no they move freely and independently. chemical reaction takes place. The Atom ingredients are said to combine, rather than to bond. Deposition Condensing (gas to solid) SOLUTION SUSPENSION COARSE MIXTURE ALLOY An unevenly distributed A mixture of a metal with Fruit concentrate (solute) A mixture between a liquid mixture of different types other elements that creates dissolves in water (the and particles of a solid, of larger particles. a stronger material. solvent) to make a drink. such as water and soil. GAS SEPARATING MIXTURES Sublimation Boiling The substances in a mixture are not bonded (solid to gas) together, so they can be separated. However, the more similar the properties of each substance are to one another, the harder it is to separate them. Melting SOLID LIQUID 28 Freezing FLOATING MAGNETIZING CHROMATOGRAPHY FILTERING Shaken together these Magnetic substances Using a substance that attracts Solid particles will collect substances mix. Left for a will be drawn to stick time, they separate back out. some particles more than on the filter during the to the magnet. others separates the two. filtration process.

ACIDS AND BASES 0 12 345678 9 10 11 12 13 14 WEAK BASE All liquids and solutions fall somewhere STRONG ACID WEAK ACID NEUTRAL e.g. baking soda STRONG BASE on the acids and bases scale, which is e.g. gastric acid e.g. tomato juice e.g. water e.g. bleach measured as a pH level. Those at each end PRODUCT of the scale are very reactive and dangerous. THE pH SCALE SWIRLS AND FUMES WOOD The product of a chemical WHAT IS A CHEMICAL REACTANT 1 REACTANT 2 REACTION Hard, strong, REACTION? and rigid, reaction can be very burns readily, different from the original In the natural world, atoms and and is a good reactants. This mix reacts molecules are constantly joining insulator. quickly, swirling and giving together or breaking down to form new things. This can also be done off fumes. in a laboratory. When scientists add one ingredient (called a reactant) to another, they create a chemical reaction. The molecules of the reactants split apart, rearrange themselves, and then form a new bond – the product of the reaction. TYPES OF CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS REACTION REACTION Two or more reactants join together to make a new compound. Although the product of a chemical reaction is very different from the reactants, none of DECOMPOSITION REACTION the atoms are destroyed – there are the same One reactant breaks apart into two number before as after the reaction. There products to make two compounds. are three types of chemical reaction. THCHROAGUNRGGAHEPDHHIIETNAETTCOAADNNIDABMPEROENSDSURE REPLACEMENT REACTION Atoms of one type swap places with those of another to make a new compound. COMBUSTION MATERIALS Car engines and power stations are powered by The materials we use for making everyday a chemical reaction called combustion (burning). objects need to have the right properties The reactants are fuel, such as petrol or coal, for the object’s function. For example, and oxygen from the air. Adding heat (setting wood is robust and good for building fire to the fuel) starts the reaction. a chair but would be a poor choice for a frying pan, because it would catch fire. OXYGEN HEAT FUEL METAL PLASTIC CERAMIC Good conductor of heat Strong, waterproof, and can Fragile if knocked and electricity. It is strong but can withstand be made into any shape. high temperatures. and inflexible. Good insulator. GREAT CHEMISTS The discoveries of great chemists have contributed to human progress in everything from medicine to space travel. ROBERT BOYLE (1627–91) GLASS SYNTHETIC FIBRE Transparent and can be Plastic-based fibres The author of The Sceptical Chymist was the first to develop rigorous scientific techniques for his made into any shape. are strong and experiments in the field of chemistry. Breaks easily if thin. waterproof. ANTOINE LAVOISIER (1743–94) KEVLAR® The first chemist to demonstrate that water is made High-strength of oxygen and hydrogen, and to show that oxygen is material that needed for combustion. withstands high impact and MARIE CURIE (1867–1934) LINUS extremes of PAULING temperatures. Twice winner of the Nobel prize, Curie discovered radium. LINUS PAULING (1901–94) American scientist who worked out how molecules bond together. DOROTHY HODGKIN (1910–94) A pioneer in X-ray techniques who discovered the atomic structure of penicillin. 29

1 The elements WHAT IS THE PERIODIC TABLE? 1 1.0079 The building blocks of every single thing on Earth are pure chemical substances called Elements are listed in a chart called 1H elements. Put a few elements together by joining the periodic table. Each entry shows the their atoms and you can get anything from element’s name, short chemical symbol, Jupiter 2 a flea to a space rocket. Carbon-based elements atomic number, and atomic mass. HYDROGEN are found in all living things, while water has 4 9.0122 just two elements – hydrogen and oxygen. ATOMIC NUMBER An element’s atomic number refers to Be THE PERIODIC TABLE the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element. Titanium has 22. Elements with a similar atomic structure sit together in the grid, 3 6.941 Aquamarine which predicts how they will behave. Most of the 118 elements 22 47.867 ATOMIC MASS BERYLLIUM occur in rocks or in the atmosphere, but scientists have also This is the number 2 Li built new ones by smashing smaller atoms together. Ti of protons and 12 24.305 neutrons inside Watermelon TITANIUM an atom. tourmaline Mg CHEMICAL LITHIUM SYMBOL This scientific 11 22.990 symbol is a short version of the Na element’s name. 3 Peridot NAME MAGNESIUM This is the element’s name. Titanium Salt is a strong, light metal that is found SODIUM 20 40.078 in abundance in Earth’s crust. Ca 3456789 19 39.098 21 44.956 22 47.867 23 50.942 24 51.996 25 54.938 26 55.845 27 58.933 K Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co 4 SCANDIUM Benitoite Vanadinite Chrome Spessartine Iron Blue gemstone VANADIUM tap MANGANESE horseshoe glass Banana Cheese POTASSIUM CALCIUM TITANIUM CHROMIUM IRON COBALT 37 85.468 38 87.62 39 88.906 40 91.224 41 92.906 42 95.94 43 (96) 44 101.07 45 102.91 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Rocket Mo Tc Ru Rh engine Fireworks Strontium YTTRIUM Zircon Steel TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM Rhodium- RUBIDIUM STRONTIUM stone NIOBIUM girder plated buckle 56 137.33 ZIRCONIUM MOLYBDENUM RHODIUM 55 132.91 Ba 57-71 72 178.49 73 180.95 74 183.84 75 186.21 76 190.23 77 192.22 6 Cs La-Lu Hf Ta W Re Tip of fountain pen Ir Nuclear Caesium Crystals LANTHANIDE reactor Capacitor Filament Jet turbine Os Surgical atomic clock BARIUM control rod TANTALUM in light bulb blades needle OSMIUM IRIDIUM CAESIUM 88 (226) HAFNIUM TUNGSTEN RHENIUM 87 (223) 89-103 104 (261) 105 (262) 106 (266) 107 (264) 108 (277) 109 (268) 7 Fr Ra Ac-Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt FRANCIUM RADIUM ACTINIDE RUTHERFORDIUM DUBNIUM SEABORGIUM BOHRIUM HASSIUM MEITNERIUM 57 138.91 58 140.12 59 140.91 60 144.24 61 (145) 62 150.36 MAN-MADE ELEMENTS La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Elements with a higher number than Monazite Cerium Permanent Earphones PROMETHIUM Samarskite uranium (92) rarely occur naturally. LANTHANUM oxide magnet NEODYMIUM SAMARIUM These transuranic elements are created CERIUM 93 (237) 89 (227) PRASEODYMIUM 92 238.03 94 (244) in particle accelerators or nuclear 90 232.04 Np reactors. They include plutonium, which Ac 91 231.04 U Pu Th NEPTUNIUM was used to make the atomic bomb. ACTINIUM Pa Nuclear Atomic bomb THORIUM power plant PLUTONIUM BEO9LD6HEYMYPEIDESRNRMOCTEGASN:EDONTEX,OUAYFPNGTOEDHNFNE,JUICHTASURTROMBFGAOOENNUN,R PROTACTINIUM URANIUM 30

READING THE TABLE PERIODIC TABLE KEY Rare earth metals Metalloids Halogens 18 Toxic, radioactive metals Share properties with These exist in solid, The table has horizontal rows called periods and vertical Alkali metals often man-made. metals and non-metals. liquid, and gas forms. 2 4.0026 columns called groups. Atoms get bigger and heavier Soft reactive metals, Non-metals Unknown towards the bottom of each group because they have more usually in compounds. Noble gases Poor solid conductors, Newly discovered He 1 protons and more electrons in the shells (rings) around Stable gases that do not brittle, with no metallic synthetic element. them. As you move along the rows from left to right, atoms Alkaline earth metals react naturally. lustre, and gases. Helium gain protons and electrons, and become more tightly packed. Very reactive metals not 17 balloon found as pure elements. Other metals 16 Malleable, ductile, solid, 9 18.998 Transition metals dense metals. Malleable, ductile metals F that are good conductors. Fluorite GROUP 2 13 14 15 FLUORINE HELIUM 4 In the vertical 5 10.811 6 12.011 7 14.007 8 15.999 10 20.180 groups, a shell is PERIOD added with each B C NO Ne 2 The elements in a period have different chemical step down. The Soap Diamond Coffee beans Oxygen Helium-neon laser and physical properties elements are BORON CARBON NITROGEN cylinder NEON but all have the same number of shells. similar because OXYGEN they all have the same number of electrons in their outer shell. THE RUSSIAN SCIENTIST 13 26.982 14 28.086 15 30.974 16 32.065 17 35.453 18 39.948 DMITRI MENDELEEV INVENTED THE Al Si P S Cl Ar 3 PERIODIC TABLE IN 1869 Silicon Matchbox Sulphur Light Foil chip Carnallite bulb 10 11 12 ALUMINIUM SILICON PHOSPHORUS SULPHUR CHLORINE ARGON 28 58.693 29 63.546 30 65.39 31 69.723 32 72.64 33 74.922 34 78.96 35 79.904 36 83.80 Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4 Spoon Wire Sphalerite Solar thermal Camera lens Arsenic SELENIUM Bromine Fluorescent NICKEL COPPER ZINC panel GERMANIUM ARSENIC BROMINE lamp GALLIUM KRYPTON 46 106.42 47 107.87 48 113 49 114.82 50 118.71 51 121.76 52 127.60 53 126.90 54 131.29 Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Arc 5 Light lamp Catalytic Silver emitting Tin-plated Bullet Compact disc (CD) Liquid converter pendant Yellow diode (LED) can ANTIMONY TELLURIUM iodine XENON paint PALLADIUM SILVER INDIUM TIN IODINE 86 (222) CADMIUM Rn 6 78 195.08 79 196.97 80 201 81 204.38 82 207.2 83 208.96 84 (209) 85 (210) RADON PtRing Necklace Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At 118 294 PLATINUM Au Thermometer Rat poison Lead Crystal POLONIUM ASTATINE MERCURY THALLIUM battery BISMUTH GOLD LEAD 110 (281) 111 (272) 112 285 113 284 114 289 115 288 116 293 117 294 Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo 7 DARMSTADTIUM ROENTGENIUM COPERNICUM UNUNTRIUM UNUNQUADIUM UNUNPENTIUM UNUNHEXIUM UNUNSEPTIUM UNUNOCTIUM 63 151.96 64 157.25 65 158.93 66 162.50 67 164.93 68 167.26 69 168.93 70 173.04 71 174.97 Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Atomic clock Lu Green Xenotime GADOLINIUM fluorescent Fergusonite Gadolinite Fibre optic cable THULIUM Yb LUTETIUM EUROPIUM crystals HOLMIUM ERBIUM 96 (247) lamp YTTERBIUM 95 (243) TERBIUM DYSPROSIUM 99 (252) 100 (257) 101 (258) 102 (259) 103 (262) 97 231.04 98 (251) Smoke detector Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Am CURIUM BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM FERMIUM MENDELEVIUM NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM AMERICIUM 31

Biology NEEDED FOR LIFE NEEADLETLSHOSEERSNGATAMINAEILSSBMAISNSIC ORDER TO LIVE Biology is the science of all life, from All life forms need the same essentials microscopic bacteria that cannot be seen to survive. Few forms of life can exist with the naked eye to enormous animals without most of these basic necessities. such as elephants and whales. It includes their form and function, origin and WATER ENERGY SOURCE OXYGEN ESSENTIAL THE RIGHT growth, and evolution and distribution. All living things Life forms need Oxygen in air CHEMICALS TEMPERATURE are made of energy to grow and or water is The chemicals Few living things cells, which necessary for hydrogen, nitrogen, need water to move around. and carbon are can exist Plants use sunlight all life. essential for life. Plants in extremely exist – most life get them from soil, hot or cold forms are mainly to make energy. while animals absorb temperatures. made up of water. Animals get energy them from food. by eating plants or each other. WHAT IS A CELL? Vacuoles Ribosomes CHROMOSOMES store nutrients are the protein Cells are the building blocks of life. or waste builders of the cell Within the nucleus of each The cells of all living things except cell there are chromosomes archaea and bacteria contain a nucleus, that carry DNA. DNA Each chromosome mitochondria, and other organelles. contains genes that is made up of Cells can be specialized to perform determine how an tightly coiled DNA different functions – for example, we organism looks have nerve, muscle, and bone cells. and functions. The human body has around 75 trillion Humans have cells, whereas less complex organisms 46 chromosomes may have only one. (23 pairs). Inner membrane Each gene is where chemical a section of the reactions occur DNA molecule Outer DNA is a membrane long molecule arranged in a MITOCHONDRION double-helix shape This is the part of the cell that releases energy from food GENES molecules within the body. Our genes are inherited from our parents – half ANIMAL CELL from mum and half from dad – and they dictate things like eye colour. Each person has two An animal cell contains lots versions of each gene, called alleles, which of “machines” called organelles together make up their genotype. One allele is that perform special jobs (such often dominant over another, which means that that feature is the one seen in the person. as the mitochondrion). KEY Nucleus b The recessive allele. A child must have two b alleles to have blue eyes. B The dominant allele – a child with one or two B alleles will have brown eyes. Chloroplasts Large vacuole A jelly-like fluid called Each parent convert sunlight filled with cell sap cytoplasm fills the space carries a different into energy PLANT CELL between the organelles combination These have much in common of genes for Rigid cell wall with animal cells, but they The nucleus is the cell’s eye colour also have rigid cell walls control centre. It sends and chloroplasts. chemical instructions to Parents’ other parts of the cell genes CELL DIVISION Cell splits into two BLUE-EYED BROWN-EYED Possible gene daughter cells, FATHER MOTHER combinations Organisms develop from a single cell, which divides of children again and again. Over the organism’s lifetime, its cells each with a full set bb Bb are continually replaced in a process called mitosis. of chromosomes bB bb Bb b b Doubled Chromosomes Chromosomes chromosomes Children’s duplicate are pulled possible apart eye colours 1 FIRST STAGE 2 CHROMOSOMES 3 SEPARATION 4 “DAUGHTER” GENETICS IN ACTION The cell contains ALIGN AND COPY The doubled CELLS FORM The mother here has one recessive and one chromosomes that can The wall of the nucleus breaks chromosome is pulled in half, Cell splits into two dominant allele. The father has two recessive alleles. This means it is equally likely that they be copied to make new down and chromosomes line so one chromosome moves identical cells and the have a brown- or blue-eyed child. identical chromosomes. up in the middle of the cell. to each end of the cell. nuclear wall reforms. 32

CLASSIFICATION OF LIFE LIFE ASOONBNIIDLLEL1CIT2OOE0NNA,0TSB0APA0IOCNFOTUSNENOROGNIAIFE GREAT BIOLOGISTS All living things shared a common ancestor All living things are Biologists study living things and their in the distant past. Over time, many organisms composed of cells. relationship to each other and the world. have evolved and become extinct. Today, there Their discoveries and inventions have are six kingdoms of life – bacteria, archaea, Eukaryota – mainly ARCHAEA changed the way we live. and four eukaryotic groups – animals, fungi, multicellular organisms with protists, and plants. Single-celled life forms ARISTOTLE (384–322 bce) cells that have nuclei. without nuclei that can exist BACTERIA This Ancient Greek philosopher was the in extreme environments. first to classify the kingdom of life. Single-celled life forms that do not have a nucleus CHARLES DARWIN (1809–82) and can evolve fast. This British naturalist suggested the theory of evolution in his book On the Origin of Species. ANIMALS FUNGI PROTISTS PLANTS GREGOR MENDEL (1822–84) Get their food by eating Obtain their food Most are single-celled. Some get Turn light into organisms, such as from other energy from light, others eat energy for fuel. An Austrian scientist and monk, Mendel showed organisms. other organisms. how traits are inherited. plants and other animals. LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–95) Pasteur proved that bacteria can spoil food and then went on to invent pasteurization – a method of killing bacteria in food such as milk and cheese. LOUIS LEAKEY (1903–72) A Kenyan scientist who found evidence of early humans in Olduvai Gorge, Kenya, and suggested humans first evolved in Africa. FOOD WEB POLAR BEAR ARCTIC TERN This bear hunts Plants use sunlight to create on the surface of These migrate energy. Animals eat plants to the frozen sea. between the North get energy. Many animals are eaten in turn by other animals. and South Poles When an animal or plant each year. dies, its remains are eaten by other animals RINGED SEAL or fungi. Its nutrients are returned to the ORCA Each arrow shows the ARCTIC COD soil where they are This is the top direction of energy in used by plants. predator in the HARBOUR SEAL water; it can even the food web ARCTIC OCEAN prey on sharks. The Arctic has a HARP SEAL ZOOPLANKTON ARCTIC CHAR Tiny animals rich food web. that are eaten Phytoplankton, by many fish. including algae, produce the energy, PHYTOPLANKTON and orcas are the Microscopic algae that top predators. create energy from light. CAPELIN EVOLUTION FISH ON LAND EXTINCTION Over time, lobe-finned fish evolved in Individuals that are best a way that allowed them to move out The dying out of a species suited to the environment is known as “extinction”. in which they live are of the water and live on the land. Scientists believe that we are the ones most likely to now undergoing the biggest survive and reproduce. wave of extinctions since the CLIMATE CHANGE They then pass on the dinosaurs disappeared. genes that favour their Only animals that suit their existence to their WATER ONTO LAND LAND environments survive. Smilodon offspring. Over time, LOBE FIN became extinct when the climate this leads to change. LEG-LIKE FORELIMB WITH This process is known FIN HAND changed 11,000 years ago. as evolution by natural selection. ADAPTATION Probing bill for GEOLOGICAL EVENTS HUNTED TO DEATH eating leaves Animals adapt to suit their Meteor strikes and volcanic eruptions Overhunting by humans can cause environment, and birds’ can cause extinctions. Dinosaurs are animals to become extinct. This beaks, or bills, are a thought to have been wiped out by a happened to the easily caught and perfect example of this. very tasty dodo of Mauritius. The birds pictured here meteor or volcanic activity. have all evolved from the same ancestor, but Pointed bill Hooked bill their bills have become is used to slices into soft perfectly adapted to help peck insects fruits and buds them catch and eat food from leaves in different habitats. Ancestor cracked HABITAT DESTRUCTION POACHING seeds with thick bill Overbite is useful Habitat destruction and fragmentation The tiger is threatened due to use for digging up grubs has led to species such as the panda Grasping bill lets bird of its body parts in traditional use stick to dig prey being in danger of extinction. Chinese medicine. out from under bark 33

HUMAN ANATOMY The brain does all the thinking. The human It sends electrical messages body The “anatomy” of something shows through the nervous system its structure, so a diagram of human to other parts of the body anatomy shows the internal structure of a person. This diagram shows Blood vessels carry blood The human body is a complex machine, how the different systems in the containing oxygen and made up of tissues and organs. These work body fit together. nutrients around the body together through joined-up systems that communicate with each other through The heart pumps blood Bones such as the electrical messages, which travel to and around the body humerus in the upper from the brain. arm provide a strong The lungs fill with oxygen framework inside the body when we breathe in and release carbon dioxide when we breathe out WHAT IS THE BUILDING A BODY BODY MADE OF? Microscopes show that everything in the More than half of the body’s weight human body is made up of tiny cells, which is water. The rest is made up of are different depending on where they are different kinds of tissue, from the and what they do. They grow in the right way soft tissue that lines our intestines for their tasks because they all contain DNA, to the hard tissue that forms which is like an internal instruction manual. our bones. Water and tissues themselves are made up of around six elements, as shown in the diagram below. Carbon (18%) Hydrogen DNA CELL (10%) Cells contain spirals of There are more than DNA, which tell them Nitrogen 37 trillion cells in (3%) how to grow. a human body. Oxygen (65%) Calcium (2%) Others (2%); mainly phosphorus EVERY ELEMENT IN TISSUE ORGANS THE BODY COMES Cells form into Tissue forms into tissue, such as organs, such as the FROM STARDUST muscle tissue. heart (shown here). THE SKIN Skin hairs rise The outer layer, the epidermis, to keep the is tough and protective The skin is a protective layer body warm that goes all around the body. It is tough but flexible and it is very sensitive, sending messages back to the brain. It also helps the body stay at a constant temperature. The dermis has touch sensors The third layer of skin is made up of fat Blood vessels widen to help heat escape, or narrow to keep heat in the body

Each finger BODY has three bones SYSTEMS (phalanges) and each thumb has Inside the body, two bones complex systems of tissues and organs Bones connect work together to help to one another the body perform. through special Each system has a kinds of joints. particular task, such The knee is the as digesting food or body’s largest joint fighting off disease. There are 11 different The skin forms systems in the body. a protective The legs have several layer around the muscles that enable them outside of the body to move in many directions Each foot has SKELETAL MUSCULAR NERVOUS 26 bones to The bones and joints The muscles allow the give the body its basic bones and organs of This is a messaging give it strength system between the and flexibility framework. the body to move. brain and other parts of the body. RESPIRATORY CARDIOVASCULAR LYMPHATIC AND DIGESTIVE This is the system Blood runs through Food is broken down that allows us to this system, all around IMMUNE breathe in and out. This helps us fight off into vital nutrients the body. disease and infection. by this system. The shinbone, or tibia, is the lower leg’s main bone COHCTNTOUHHTNME1RET0MAOBER0NLUUV,A0STSEBC0CHRIOT0ELYEDSTAEYTEDISRMYAOI–TNEEYUHTSSTHNAAHTEDRYEE FEMALE MALE URINARY REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINE This system allows This is the system that allows This produces the body to filter people to produce children chemicals called out the waste and together. It is different in hormones, which can men and women. affect other systems. water it doesn’t need.

The skull is made up MBOOMRTNBEAHAAETDSESBHEIAFTEAUUHDSNSPEUAEYL3ORTT0FGEO0SR2,BGKO0BOEE6WURTLBTNHEOTTEWNORHENIETSIHRI.S The neck’s pivot Parietal bone of 22 different bones, joint enables its Occipital bone The jawbone, or mandible, bones to rotate Temporal bone most of them fused is connected to the skull together. It houses the by a hinge joint. It contains The shoulder blade, or brain, eyes, and ears. the lower teeth scapula, connects the upper arm and collar bone The upper teeth are found in the upper jaw This triangular bone, the sacrum, is made The spine stretches up of five vertebrae from the base of the fused together skull to the coccyx. It is formed of 33 round bones, called vertebrae, which are stacked together The collarbone, or clavicle, helps support the shoulder and arm. It is the body’s only horizontal bone The breastbone, or sternum, helps to protect the heart and lungs Humerus (upper arm) The ribs are joined to the middle of the chest by bars of stretchy cartilage that allow the chest to expand Twelve pairs of ribs form a cage around the heart and lungs Ulna (outer lower arm) Radius (inner lower arm) Each finger is made of three bones called phalanges. The hands contain about 54 bones The pelvis protects some The coccyx, or of the body’s internal organs. tailbone, is the It is made up of six bones final segment of that form a bowl shape the spinal column

The thigh bone, or femur, is the longest and strongest bone in the body. It typically makes up around a quarter of a person’s height The kneecap or The knee joint is the patella, covers and largest joint in protects the knee the body. It works joint like a shield like a hinge but can also twist slightly The lower leg has two Tibia bones: a large tibia and a smaller fibula Fibula The fibula is more slender than the tibia and runs next to it The ankle Five bones called is made up of metatarsals connect the three joints and toes to the rest of the foot. seven bones Each foot contains 26 bones called tarsals The toes are made SKELETAL SYSTEM The heel, up of bones called or calcaneus, phalanges. The big The skeletal system is made up of all the bones is the largest and joints in the body. There are 206 bones and bone in the foot toes have two six different types of joints. Our bones are made phalanges each, all the others have three of living tissue, blood vessels, and nerves. FRONT BACK Skeleton WHAT IS A JOINT? SYNOVIAL JOINTS The skeleton is the body’s scaffolding – it gives us shape Where bones meet, they are held together Synovial joints are the most common type of joints. and support. It has other important functions, too. by joints, tissues that allow them to There are six types of synovial joints, each allowing Along with muscles, it enables us to move around. It also move. Without joints we wouldn’t be able a different range of movement, depending on how protects our inner organs and produces red blood cells. to move our bodies. The movement a joint the bones fit together. allows depends on the shape of the bones. Bone marrow Spongy bone Tough PIVOT SADDLE GLIDING ligaments JOINT JOINT JOINT INSIDE A BONE Spongy bone Compact bone hold the Stretchy Bone marrow bones tissue Inside the solid outer bone Fibrous outer called is lighter, honeycomb-like covering together cartilage spongy bone. In big bones coats the the centre is filled with Fluid ends of jelly-like marrow, which keeps the bones makes red blood cells. the joint flexible INSIDE ELLIPSOIDAL HINGE BALL AND A JOINT JOINT JOINT SOCKET JOINT

ANTERIOR (FRONT) POSTERIOR (BACK) There are 43 muscles in OWMNHILUILNEMIADOACINVHNIHDOBAUOFIADTRLYSHEMOHFNAUISSVTCEHITLEES the face. They allow us to open and close our mouth and eyes and to make facial expressions The platysma tenses the Rhomboid Trapezius Latissimus neck, helping to create dorsi facial expressions Short scapular Trapezius muscles Pectoralis major Deltoid Pectoralis minor The deltoid muscle Erector spinae in the shoulder Serratus anterior raises the arm Extensor compartment of the arm, containing the triceps, which straightens the elbow Flexor compartment of the arm, containing biceps, or brachii, which bend the elbow Intercostal muscles help lift the ribs upwards and outwards Rectus abdominus muscles, or “abs” Flexor compartment of the forearm – these muscles flex the fingers and thumb Iliopsoas Piriformis Gluteus maximus Sartorius, the Thigh adductor compartment Adductor body’s longest contains muscles that compartment bring the thighs together muscle of the thigh

Patella, or kneecap Flexor compartment of the thigh contains muscles Tough bands of fibrous tissue called tendons that bend or flex the knee. anchor muscles to the These muscles are also bones beneath them known as the hamstrings Quadriceps – Extensor compartment Flexor compartment Flexor compartment a group of four of the leg includes of the leg includes of the leg, contains large muscles muscles that move the gastrocnemius that control the the foot at the ankle muscles that let the muscle, which and the toes body stand on tiptoe lifts the heel and movement of bends the knee the knee joint Fibularis brevis Calf muscles turns the foot outwards MUSCULAR SYSTEM Calcaneus tendon, also known as the The human body has 640 different skeletal Achilles tendon muscles, which fit around the skeleton in layers. The bottom layer is known as deep muscle and the upper layers are called superficial muscle. Skeletal muscles work together in groups called compartments. Flexor compartments bend joints, while extensor compartments straighten them. SUPERFICIAL (TOP) MUSCLES DEEP MUSCLES DEEP MUSCLES SUPERFICIAL (TOP) MUSCLES Muscles Biceps contracts to Every movement we make, from blinking an eye to running bend the arm a race, is powered by muscles. Even the movements we are not aware of, such as the beating of our heart or the WHAT IS Triceps contracts digestion of food, are actually controlled by muscles. A MUSCLE? to straighten the arm A muscle is a band or bundle of living, stretchy fibres, which are MUSCLE POWER designed to shorten or contract. Thousands, or even tens of thousands, of fibres make up each muscle. MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE MUSCLE MULTIPENNATE UNIPENNATE TRIANGULAR STRAP CIRCULAR TYPES Also called striped or This muscle is found Makes the heart SHAPES (SHOULDER) (INNER THIGH) (MOUTH) striated muscle, this is beat by contracting Skeletal muscles move connected to the bones. in the intestines There are many the body’s bones in and other organs. rhythmically. different shapes of response to conscious skeletal muscle in messages from the our bodies. They vary (FINGER) (CHEST) brain. Cardiac and in size and structure smooth muscles depending on their work without specific function. conscious thought. FUSIFORM (BICEPS)

The brain PLANNING The brain is the most complex organ in the body. Safely encased THINKING inside the skull, it controls our actions and all the body functions that keep us alive. It also monitors the world around us, stores our memories, and enables us to plan for the future. NERVOUS SYSTEM JUDGING FEELING The brain is linked to the rest of the body through a network of nerves, known as the nervous system. This network acts as a kind of information highway, carrying messages between the brain and the body. Part of the system, known as the autonomic nervous system (ANS), makes sure all our “automatic” body actions, such as breathing, keep functioning correctly. FIGHT OR FLIGHT REST AND DIGEST SPEECH The sympathetic half of the The parasympathetic part ANS reacts to prepare the body reacts to prepare the body for stressful situations such as for restful situations, such as taking a nap. running away from danger. Dilates pupils so Constricts pupils so you can see more less light comes in Dilates the airways to Constricts the airways TASTE give you more oxygen as breathing slows SMELL Speeds up Promotes Slows BRAIN JOBS heartbeat storage of heartbeat glucose The brain allows you Stimulates to sense, think, learn, production of glucose Stimulates remember, and much more. digestion Different areas of the brain to increase energy have different jobs. Reduces production of digestive chemicals Prompts secretion Stimulates pancreas to SENSES LANGUAGE of adrenaline release digestive enzymes There are five main One part of the brain known Slows the kidneys’ Speeds up sense areas in the as Broca’s area controls your urine output transit of brain. They process speech. Two other parts, known food through the signals from the as Geschwind’s territory and intestines sense organs – eyes, Wernicke’s area, help you to ears, skin, tongue, learn and understand language. and nose. Relaxes Contracts MEMORIES MOVEMENT the bladder the bladder The hippocampus This part of the brain is called Slows down is where your brain the motor cortex and it sends food moving makes and stores signals to your muscles to tell through memories. them to move your body. intestines Narrows blood Spinal cord (runs up THOUGHTS vessels to move the inside of the spine) blood faster around The large area known as the prefrontal cortex processes your thoughts. It turns them into the system plans, judgements, and ideas, and also helps you to understand other people’s feelings. HOW NERVES SEND MESSAGES Signal passes Axon of neuron BRAIN AREAS from one neuron sending signal The nervous system is made up of billions of cells called to another The human brain has many different parts, but it neurons. These odd-looking cells have branches called axons Electrical impulse can be divided into three main areas. The large that carry electric messages, or impulses, down to lots of (the message) cerebrum deals with thoughts, language, and behaviour. The limbic system processes emotions, smaller branches. These pass the message on The message takes and the cerebellum coordinates movement. to another neuron. chemical form Cerebellum Cerebrum Signal travels Chemicals move onwards towards across to the Limbic other neuron system another neuron Receiving Axon neuron HUMAN BRAIN TRANSMITTING MESSAGES The human brain has lots of wrinkles, There is a gap between neurons called which hold all its information. If the the synapse. The electrical impulses surface of your brain was unfolded, it would be more than twice as big. convert to a chemical form to travel across the gap. NEURON Dendrites 40

MOVEMENT LOOKING AT THE BRAIN The brain is inside the skull, so it can only be seen using special scanning machines. These can be used to show the physical make-up of the brain, or to highlight the parts of the brain that are working at any moment. TOUCH SPATIAL AWARENESS THEWBDORURARKINIINNIGGS,SAELLVEWEEPNAYS MRI SCAN An MRI scan uses magnetism to produce images of different sections of the brain. UNDERSTANDING MAKING MEMORIES AND LEARNING The brain absorbs information from the senses, processes all of it LANGUAGE into an image or thought, and then stores that image or thought as a memory. Memories can be short-term, such as a phone number SOUND you use once, which is held for just as long as you need it, or long- VISUAL term, such as your first day at school, which you may remember PROCESSING for many years. REHEARSAL RETRIEVAL TRANSFER EMOTION RECOGNITION SENSORY SENSORY SHORT-TERM LONG-TERM INPUT MEMORY MEMORY MEMORY MEMORY TRUE OR SOME UNUSUAL FALSE? BRAINS VISION The brain is so complex When parts of the brain do not PERCEPTION CO-ORDINATION that we are only beginning function or function differently, Usually your to understand how it works. it can affect the way that brain will send CO-ORDINATION There are many popular beliefs individuals make sense of signals from more The cerebellum at the base of your brain helps to about the brain – some are true the world. than one sense organ coordinate your muscles, so that they work together. and some are false. at the same time. For AMNESIA example, when you watch WE ONLY USE 10 PER a movie you are seeing and CENT OF OUR BRAINS This is a loss of memory due to hearing it. This huge area at The truth is that we use all a physical or emotional trauma. the back of your brain helps of our brains to complete you to make sense of the signals. normal daily tasks. SYNAESTHESIA This is known as perception. 30,000 NEURONS WOULD People with this disorder experience EMOTIONS FIT ON THE HEAD OF A PIN mixed-up senses. For example, The amygdala is where the brain turns This is true, and the brain some people see colours when they the information it receives into emotions. contains around 100 billion read or hear numbers. neurons in total. EMOTIONS Smooth Raised inner Brows DEMENTIA brow brows lowered THE BRAIN DOES NOT The brain processes our FEEL PAIN This is a set of problems, including Teeth The brain does not have difficulties with thinking, memory, showing pain receptors, so it cannot problem-solving, and language. feel pain. It usually affects older adults. EINSTEIN’S BRAIN WAS OBSESSIVE–COMPULSIVE BIGGER THAN AVERAGE DISORDER (OCD) Einstein’s brain was a bit smaller than average. This is a disorder where people Size does not affect worry about things all the time and intelligence. repeat actions over and over again. feelings. As it does so, signals move through Raised Lowered the body so that those mouth mouth feelings become visible corners to other people. There TRICKS OF THE MIND are six primary emotions, Sometimes you cannot believe your eyes – or more accurately, you cannot and they all show on the HAPPINESS SADNESS ANGER believe what your brain thinks it is seeing. The brain can be fooled. face in a particular way. Arched Mouth Arched These facial expressions brows curled brows are the same in everyone – a smile means the same Jaw Nose thing whether you live dropped wrinkled in the Sahara desert or New York City. WHICH LINE IS LONGER? WHICH IS BIGGER? Do you see one of these lines as The red dot on the right looks bigger, SURPRISE DISGUST FEAR longer? This is a visual illusion – the lines are both the same length. but it is not. Your brain judges it in relation to the blue dots around it. 41

Computers c.2000 BCE 1666 The Chinese Samuel Morland Computers are electronic machines that we can invent the invents a machine use to do many different things, just by changing abacus, the the programs they are running. Today, computers world’s first that can add have become indispensable because they are used counting and subtract. to run our world – from global air traffic control to machine. Morland’s personal mobile phones. calculating Abacus machine 2000 bce Pascaline COMPUTER HISTORY 1642 The first calculating machines Blaise Pascal were invented to add numbers, invents the which was important for buying Pascaline, a and selling goods. They were mechanical continually improved, until we and automatic arrived at the modern computer. calculator. HOW COMPUTERS WORK PROCESSOR CHIP SOFTWARE Computers work by processing information: they take A computer’s processor Software is the name for ready-made programs in information (data), store it (memory), process it in is like the brain of the we use to make one computer do many things. whichever way they have been programmed to do, computer. It uses a chip Software allows us to write, edit photos, use the then display the result (output). – a piece of silicon that internet, and so on, without having to program a can hold billions of computer ourselves. KEYBOARD components – to perform The keyboard and mouse are both its computing tasks. input units – they are ways of getting 1 BINARY CODE information into the computer. Computers only understand binary code, which is made up of 0s and 1s. MOUSE MEMORY SCREEN 2 PROGRAMMING Computers use two different kinds of Computers have LCD screens to LANGUAGE INPUT memory: ROM (read-only memory), and display the result of the processing Programming SHRINKING RAM (memory you can change). that has taken place. SIZES languages are used STORAGE AND PROCESSING OUTPUT The 1949 EDSAC computer to lay out sets of took up a whole room and was arranged over 12 racks. instructions for Today’s personal computers (PCs) perform calculations computers to follow. millions of times faster, but they can sit easily on CTOHMMEPIWLULTOIMERRLEDTIS’RSJEUSCSMUTABOLELNDEEST 3 SOFTWARE someone’s desk or lap. Programming languages are used to write computer programs (software). EARLY COMPUTER DESKTOP LAPTOP TABLET 1949 COMPUTER COMPUTER 1993 1980 1983 NETWORKS SUPERCOMPUTERS A network is a number of things connected in some way. Some scientific problems are so vast that they need huge amounts of There are three main forms of computer networks, which processing power, delivered by “supercomputers”. Some of these have can connect computers and peripherals, such as printers. tens of thousands of processors all working on one thing at the same time. Network server 3. Each processor gets 4. Each small problem to work on one of is processed separately BUS NETWORK the smaller problems 5. The supercomputer This simple network uses puts all the one cable to connect all 2. The computer breaks results together the devices in a line. One the problem into lots of computer acts as the server. smaller problems 6. The final result appears in one place STAR NETWORK Here, each computer is connected to a central hub, using an individual cable for each computer. If one device fails, the others are not affected. RING NETWORK 1. The supercomputer HOW SUPERCOMPUTERS WORK is given a huge Here, the computers are connected in problem to solve Most supercomputers work by a circular pattern, and the information breaking down a big problem travels in one direction. Each computer into smaller parts, and solving is connected to the next one. these with separate processors. 42

1801 1906 1943 1946 1962 1995 Joseph Jacquard’s The vacuum loom uses a tube, an essential British engineer ENIAC is created – Computer Microchip A USB is used for the program (run by part of modern Thomas Flowers the world’s first company IBM first time to connect punched cards) computers, builds Colossus: general-purpose sets up SABRE, to weave fabric. is invented. the first electronic, electronic computer. a system that other devices digital computer. It weighs 100 tonnes connects up 1822 Vacuum tube and contains 18,000 1,500 computer 1971 to a computer. Charles Babbage’s electronic switches. terminals. engine has an Intel 404, the input, a memory, and a number- first single-chip cruncher (processor). microprocessor, Babbage is invented. USB Engine 1886 1941 1947 1976 1981 1991 2015 Herman Hollerith The transistor is The world’s first builds the first German Konrad invented. It would supercomputer, IBM launches The World 2014 punched-card Zuse designs the allow electronic CRAY–1, is built. a PC that Wide Web The first tabulating Z3, the world’s devices to become uses MS- is made 8-terabyte and sorting first working, much smaller. DOS as an publicly hard drive machine. programmable, operating available. is released. fully automatic Transistor system. Herman digital computer. Hollerith THE INTERNET 3. Separate packets travel across 4. Pieces are different routes over the Internet reassembled The Internet is a computer network that stretches 2. Each packet is at the end around the world, linking labelled with the IP most computers on the destination address 5. Receiver sees planet. Every computer the final picture has its own Internet or exactly as sent IP address, so that digital things (such as email) can be sent to or from it. 1. Sender’s SENDING A PHOTO computer breaks When you send something photo into many like a photo by email, the tiny digital pieces, Internet breaks it into small pieces then reassembles it. or “packets” WHAT WE EMAIL GAMES SHOPPING SOCIAL NETWORKING DO ONLINE? Emails are an instant way to send We can play games We can buy things Groups of people We now use the a digital letter. Internet for all sorts with distant friends online from anywhere can communicate of activities where we want to connect with someone else – either for fun or for business. via the Internet. in the world. easily online. COMPUTERS EVERYWHERE Computers are used in all sorts of devices, from personal music players and phones to microwave ovens and surveillance cameras. PORTABLE GPS PORTABLE MEDIA SMARTPHONE PLAYER DIGITAL DIGITAL RADIO SURVEILLANCE TELESCOPE CAMERA MICROWAVE OVEN CYCLE COMPUTER NAO ROBOT DIGITAL CLOCK 43

Inventions 1,760,000 bce 35,000 bce 17,500 bce SPEAR The work of inventors is all around you. FLINT HAND AXE ANCIENT Not just your phone and games console – The problem with hand-held EGYPTIAN the chair you are sitting on, the car HAND AXE weapons was that hunters had JAR outside, even the light bulb above your to stand very close to their prey, head was invented by somebody. Some Flint is a special kind of which was dangerous. The POTTERY early inventions, like the wheel, will be rock because it breaks invention of the spear solved this used for ever. Others, such as the spear, into sharp pieces. Stone- problem. The hunter could stand Chinese inventors realized have been replaced by newer, more Age people discovered back some distance, take aim, they could dig clay from effective models. that its hard, sharp and throw the weapon. Early the ground, shape it into edges made it very spears had flint heads. Later pots, and harden them in useful as a tool. Shaped ones used metal heads, shaped hot ashes. The pots were into an axe, it could be into long, thin blades. watertight so they could used for cutting meat, be used to carry or heat scraping skins (to make SHORT SPEARS up water and food. clothes), chopping wood, and as a weapon. 1876 1862 1834 1759 1712 PLASTIC ROTARY PHONE REFRIGERATOR OPTICAL British inventor Alexander SEXTANT TELEPHONE Parkes was trying to create Until 1834 people kept food cool in a synthetic material that insulated boxes filled with ice, which Early in the 19th century people could be easily shaped when was delivered to their door. Then found they could send signals hot, but would be hard when Jacob Perkins of Philadelphia, USA, through wires, but it was not until cold. In 1862 he exhibited invented a water-freezing machine the invention of the telephone by Parkesine, the world’s first that led to the first domestic fridge. type of plastic. Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 1950S REFRIGERATOR SEXTANT 1923 that voices could be sent along MODERN PLASTIC BOTTLES 1895 As explorers continued their TV SET FROM THE 1950S wires at long distance. This 1886 long journeys across oceans, invention revolutionized CAR CABINET there was a need for accurate TELEVISION the ways in which we WIRELESS instruments for navigation. communicate. Karl Benz of Germany built RADIO, 1932 In 1759 British instrument John Logie Baird, from the first stationary petrol maker John Bird perfected Scotland, was the first 1878 engine in 1879, and decided to RADIO the sextant, which is still kept person to transmit a TV work out how to use this in a COMMUNICATION on ships today as a back-up picture in 1923. In 1927 EDISON’S LAMP “horseless carriage”. By 1885 device in case GPS (satnav) American Philip he had invented a two-seater In 1895 Italian inventor Guglielmo navigation fails. Farnsworth created LIGHT BULB vehicle with a compact, Marconi managed to send Morse the first form of single-cylinder engine. The code signals using radio waves 1903 electronic television. Scientists across the world patent for this car, filed in instead of wires. The instrument he experimented with lamps 1886, is seen as the “birth used became known as the radio. AEROPLANE and light in the 19th century, certificate” of the motor car. but it was Thomas Edison Orville Wright from the in the USA, who created a 1900 BENZ IDEAL USA first took to the skies light bulb that could last with an aeroplane powered for more than 1,200 hours. by a small petrol engine in Light bulbs have since North Carolina in 1903. He been redesigned to use flew for 12 seconds over a less energy. distance of 37 m (120 ft). He 44 and his brother Wilbur had spent five years in their workshop in Ohio designing machines that were strong, light, and had enough balance and control to fly. MODEL OF THE WRIGHTS’ 1903 FLYER

8000 bce 6000 bce 3500 bce 900 ce WHEEL BOAT MODEL OF FIJIAN BATTLE CANOE WOODEN PLOUGH GUNPOWDER The first wheels were solid BURNING Early people needed some form of floating raft to take them PLOUGH wooden discs with a hole through the centre. People GUNPOWDER fishing and from one island to another. The earliest boats People hunted for food until needed sharp metal tools around 8500 BCE when they to chisel the round shape, Chinese alchemists (early chemists) were wooden logs or bamboo trunks tied together, but by began to farm the land to which explains why this had been experimenting with grow grains, such as wheat. major invention took a while chemicals for centuries when a group around 3000 BCE, people had developed metal tools to cut Wooden ploughs were to arrive. The wheels were discovered that a mix of saltpetre, invented to make use of connected by a rod called sulphur, and charcoal exploded into tree trunks into wooden planks to build the first ships. animal power. Ploughs an axle. flame. The mix was used in fireworks could be joined to oxen and to scare away evil spirits and later used to dig up much bigger WOODEN WHEEL in weapons. The recipe was kept areas of land. from the rest of the world until the 13th century. STEAM ENGINE 1590 1300 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE The first steam machine was designed EYE by Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz Zacharias Janssen, the son of a spectacles GLASSES in 1606 to push water out of mines. maker in Holland, invented the microscope using a long tube and EYE GLASSES Other machines followed, but it a mix of curved lenses. In 1665 was not until Scotsman James the Englishman Robert Hooke Early peoples such as the Vikings Watt added a condenser (for improved the design and used rock crystals to act as lenses cooling the steam back added an oil lamp to light up and increase their viewing power. to water) and gears (for the specimens. Microscopes Wearable lenses in the form of eye making the engine have been used by glasses were invented in the 14th faster) that the steam scientists ever since. century – probably in Italy, where engine became glassblowing techniques were a useful form of REPLICA OF advanced. These early spectacles power for factories, ROBERT HOOKE’S were made of two magnifying mines, farming, MICROSCOPE lenses set into bone, metal, or and transport. leather mountings, and were balanced on the nose. REPLICA OF JAMES WATT’S STEAM ENGINE 1928 1946 1957 1973 1989 2010 COMPUTER SPACE ANTIBIOTIC PILLS SATELLITE 1990S MOBILE PHONE WORLD 3-D BODY Developed for the US WIDE WEB PARTS ANTIBIOTIC government, the world’s The Soviet Union put the MOBILE PHONE first electronic general- first satellite into space In the 1970s Vinton Cerf Invented in the USA, 3-D Alexander Fleming’s purpose computer was on 4 October 1957. Called Martin Cooper, working developed a system that printing has been used discovery that a mould called ENIAC: Electronic Sputnik 1, it was the size at Motorola in the USA, allowed mini-networks of since the 1980s to build juice (now known as Numerical Integrator of a beach ball, and took developed and demonstrated computers all over the up three-dimensional penicillin) could kill a and Computer. This 98 minutes to orbit Earth. the first mobile phone. It world to send files to each objects in layers from wide range of bacteria huge computer led the This marked the beginning was the size of a brick and other. Then in 1991 Tim digital information. More changed the course of way for smaller and of the Space Age. would not be sold to the Berners-Lee introduced recently, scientists have modern medicine. more powerful general public for another a World Wide Web of been developing 3-D Today, there are many computers in the SPUTNIK 1 ten years, but it marked the information that anyone printers to make human types of antibiotics, decades to come. start of mobile personal with an online computer organs and body tissue. targeting bacteria, communication systems. could access, and helped fungi, and parasites. COMMODORE (PERSONAL) to create the Internet we COMPUTER FROM 1977 know and use today. 2.4 BILLION OF THE 7 BILLION PEOPLE ON EARTH USE THE INTERNET 45

Numbers NUMBER SYMBOLS Numbers are symbols that are used to Many ancient civilizations used some form of number system. The modern Hindu- represent a quantity of something. They have Arabic system is the simplest and most useful for mathematical calculations. been used for thousands of years to answer the question “how many?”. At first people only Modern 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 used whole numbers (integers), but then came Hindu-Arabic the idea of fractions and negative numbers. Mayan Ancient Chinese Ancient Rome Ancient Egypt Babylonian ADDITION Sign for 3 Equals sign 4 SUBTRACTION 4 Sign for Equals addition leads to subtraction sign leads Numbers can be NUMBER answer TOTAL, RESULT, Subtraction is a FIRST to answer added together to find + TO ADD OR SUM mathematical way of NUMBER – the total of two or more = working out how many = quantities. Additions are + are left if you take some –3 written as equations by = of an original quantity NUMBER TO =1 placing “+” between the away. It uses the “–” sign. SUBTRACT TOTAL, RESULT, 1numbers being added. FIRST OR SUM NUMBER MULTIPLICATION 9 × 13 10 ÷ 3 5 Multiplication is useful for repeated Sign for Division sign 4 addition. To find the total people multiplication 3 10 in 9 rows, for instance, where DIVIDEND 9 each row has 13 people, This is the number that 2 7 you could add 9 to 1 8÷ itself 13 times, is being divided by (or or calculate shared out among) 6 9 x 13. another number. 3 = 3 1remainder ÷ 10 9 rows 1 12 13 DIVISION Sign for 3 of people 2 11 division 3 3 10 Division is used to divide up a total 3 4 9 number of things into several equal DIVISOR 5 bundles, or amounts. This example The number that is 1 6 8 shows how to divide ten sweets among used to divide the first 7 three people. It is not possible to do this number (the dividend). 8 7 evenly, so after giving the three people 9 three sweets each, there is still one left QUOTIENT 13 people 6 over (known as the “remainder”). The result of in each row the division. 5 The total, or 4 product, of 9 3 times 13 is 117 2 1 9×13 =13+13+13+13+13+13+13+13+13 =117 POWERS One example NUMBER SEQUENCES Each number in of 52 would be this sequence is A “power” is the number of times a number is multiplied by 5 rows with A sequence of numbers is a series of numbers that follow 2 higher than the 5 units in one another according to a pattern, such as each number number before it itself. So “5 x 5 x 5 x 5” is said to be “five to the power of each row being two higher than the previous term. four” which is written mathematically as 54. 53 This is the power, which shows A BASIC +2 +2 +2 +2 how many times to multiply the number (53 means 5 × 5 × 5) SEQUENCE The rule for this This is the number 5 1 sequence is Fifth that the power 4 2 that each number relates to 3 3 number equals is 10 2 4 the previous 1 5 number plus 2. 2 , 4 , 6 , 8 , 10 , . . . 1 SQUARED NUMBER First number is Dots show 2 2, so the next sequence 3 5 × 5 = 52 will be 2+2 continues 4 5 =25 5² is called FIBONACCI 1+1 Each number in this sequence is the “5 squared” sum of the two numbers before it 5 rows of 5 units, SEQUENCE stacked 5 high This is a very 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8 famous number 46 5 block units sequence that appears in 5 1 CUBED NUMBER lots of natural 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,... 4 2 formations 3 3 5 × 5 × 5 = 53 such as flower 2 4 1 5 =125 1 ,petals and spiral galaxies. 5³ is called Sequence Sequence continues in same way indefinitely “5 cubed” starts with 1

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS DECIMALS Positive numbers count up from zero; negative numbers count down from zero. Decimals are a way of expressing parts of things or This means they are less than zero. If you had £5 in your bank account and withdrew £10 from a cash machine, your bank balance would show as –£5. numbers as tenths or hundredths of a whole number. –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1234 5 The number to the left The decimal The numbers to the right of the decimal point is point of the decimal point are NEGATIVE NUMBERS POSITIVE NUMBERS a whole number (here parts of a number; here 5 tenths and 6 hundredths it is 1,234) 1,234 . 56 FRACTIONS ONE QUARTER (¼) PERCENTAGES 100% In a class of 100 ¼ (one quarter) is 1 part out of 4 children, 100% Fractions are a way of expressing parts of an object or equal parts that make up a whole. Percentages are another way = 100 children number. If you cut a cake, for instance, into 2 equal of talking about parts of an parts, each piece is now 1 of 2 parts; this is written as 1 object or number. Here, the 1 over 2, like this: “½“. 4 whole (such as the whole of a school class) is said to be EIGHTH (1⁄8) 1 1 100 per cent, or 100%. Half the 1⁄8 (one eighth) is 1 8 2 class is therefore half that: part out of 8 equal 50%. The whole can be broken into very fine parts that make parts up to 100%. up a whole. 1 1 SIXTEENTH (1⁄16) 16 1⁄16 (one sixteenth) is 1 part out of 16 equal 32 1 1 64 64 parts that make up a whole. ONE SIXTY-FOURTH (1⁄64) ONE HALF (½) 50% 1% 1⁄64 (one sixty-fourth) is In a class of 100 children, In a class of 100 ONE THIRTY- If you divide a cake into 2 equal parts, SECOND (1⁄32) 1 part out of 64 equal parts each piece is 1 of 2 parts. This is 50% = 50 children children, 1% = 1 child 1⁄32 (one thirty- that make up a whole. written mathematically as ½. second) is 1 part out SAYDPIINFFERFGREACTRCDEHENTENEICTOTSAIMNAWGSAMEA,SLEAYSANST, RHDOEIFNG of 32 equal parts that make up a whole. DECIMALS, 0.75 100% 1 1 FRACTIONS, AND DECIMAL 3 PERCENTAGES A decimal shows a number as tenths and 75% 0.75 4 These are all ways of talking hundredths of a whole. about parts of a number, or something that is less than COMMON NUMBERS a whole (such as half a cake, 75% PERCENTAGE The table below shows some commonly 50% of a class, or 0.5 of a DECIMAL metre). We can “translate” FRACTION used fractions, decimals, and percentages. fractions, decimals, or percentages into each other. Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % For instance, ¾ is the same PERCENTAGE FRACTION 0.1 ¹/10 10% 0.625 5/8 62.5% as 75% or 0.75. A percentage shows A fraction shows 0.125 ¹/8 12.5% 0.666 66.7% 0.25 ¼ 25% ²/3 70% a number as a 3a number as part 0.333 33.3% 0.7 75% proportion of 100. of an equally 0.4 ¹/3 40% 0.75 7/10 80% divided whole. 0.5 ²/5 50% 0.8 100% ½ ¾ 4 1 4/5 1 PRIME NUMBERS ALGEBRA VARIABLE =8 An unknown number or 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10These are special numbers that When mathematicians quantity represented by a letter 2 23 2 3 25 are trying to work out a is known as the “variable”. missing number in an cannot be divided by any other equation, they use a 2+ symbol to represent the 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20number except themselves and missing number. In this 1. For example, 13 cannot be 23 27 35 2 23 25 example, we know that 2 plus something (here divided by any number other 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 called “b”) equals 8. than 13 or 1. Numbers that can 37 2 23 5 2 3 27 235 The answer is: be divided by others are known as “composite numbers”. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 EXPRESSION b=6 An expression is a statement written in KEY TO TABLE 2 3 2 57 23 2 3 25 algebraic form, such as 2 + b = 8. 17 42 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 AVERAGES 23 7 237 2 35 2 23 7 25 Shortest person There are 5 people Tallest person An average is the is 130 cm (51 in) tall in the group is 160 cm (63 in) tall 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 middle value of a set 160 32 23 5 27 3 2 235 of data. The most For this group of people, the mean height is: 130 common type of (130 + 140 + 150 + 160 + 160) ÷ 5 = 148 cm PRIME COMPOSITE 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 average is the mean, 0 NUMBER NUMBER which is found by adding up a set of A green box A blue box indicates 2 37 2 5 23 2 3 237 numbers then HEIGHT (CM) dividing the total on the table that a number is a by the amount of numbers in the set. 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80indicates that composite number. the number is a The numbers it is 23 2 35 2 7 23 25 prime number. divisible by are given as smaller 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90numbers below it 32 237 232 235 (2, 3, 7 in the example above). 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 7 2 3 2 5 23 27 3 25 47

Geometry COMMON ANGLES 0/360° Geometry is the part of maths that If you draw a line out from a centre 45º looks at lines, angles, shapes, and point and move it around 360°, it will space. It is used to work out distances, return to the starting point. So the 270º 90º Angle less areas, and volumes in a wide range angles surrounding a point make up than 90° of tasks from building houses a whole turn, and they add up to 360°. to astronomy. The angles on a straight line make ACUTE ANGLE up a half turn and add up to 180°. Angle greater than 180° but 180º less than 360° WHOLE TURN REFLEX ANGLE Angle greater than 90° but less than 180° 90° RIGHT ANGLE OBTUSE ANGLE TRIANGLES Equal sides are Equal angles The hypotenuse Angle shown by a dash are shown by is the longest side greater Shapes made of straight lines are or double-dash an arc or of a right-angled than 90º called polygons. Triangles are the on the line double arc triangle simplest polygons, because they are made from three straight lines EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE ISOSCELES TRIANGLE RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE OBTUSE TRIANGLE SCALENE TRIANGLE joined at three corners. All three This triangle has three This triangle has two equal This triangle has one angle This triangle has one angle This triangle has sides of angles inside a triangle always add equal sides and three sides. The angles opposite that is 90º (a right angle). different lengths and three up to 180º. There are several equal angles (each 60º). that is greater than 90º different types of triangles. these sides are equal. It also has a hypotenuse. (more than a right angle). different-sized angles. QUADRILATERALS Parallel sides Shapes that are made from four straight lines are called SQUARE RECTANGLE RHOMBUS PARALLELOGRAM TRAPEZIUM KITE quadrilaterals. They have four vertices (points where the sides This quadrilateral has four This is like a long version of the This quadrilateral has This has two pairs of A trapezium (or A kite has two pairs of meet) – each of these is called equal sides and four equal square: it has four right angles four sides of equal equal-length sides and trapezoid) has one pair adjacent sides (sides that a vertex. The interior angles angles (right angles). The and two pairs of sides, but one two pairs of equal angles. of opposite sides that are next to each other) that of a quadrilateral always add opposite sides of a square length, and two pairs are equal in length, and one up to a total of 360º. There pair is longer than the other. of opposite angles that The opposite sides are parallel but not are several different types are parallel. Opposite sides are parallel. are parallel. equal in length. pair of equal angles. of quadrilaterals. are also equal. POLYGONS TRIANGLE SQUARE PENTAGON HEXAGON HEPTAGON OCTAGON 3 sides and angles 4 sides and angles 5 sides and angles 6 sides and angles 7 sides and angles 8 sides and angles A polygon is a closed two- dimensional shape that has DECAGON HENDECAGON DODECAGON three or more sides. It is 10 sides and angles 11 sides and angles 12 sides and angles usually named according to how many sides it has. For example, hexa is Greek for “six”, so a hexagon is a polygon with six sides. Every type of polygon has the same number of sides as it has angles. The shapes may be regular – with equal length sides and angles – or irregular, with unequal sides and angles. NONAGON PENTADECAGON ICOSAGON 9 sides and angles 15 sides and angles 20 sides and angles CIRCLES Arc Segment Sector Chord A circle is a closed curved line surrounding RADIUS DIAMETER CIRCUMFERENCE ARC AND SECTOR CHORD AND SEGMENT AREA a central point, where every point along the A straight line A straight line The circumference A sector is a space A chord is a straight line The total amount curved line is the same that runs from that runs from is the total length enclosed by two radii linking two points on a of space inside distance from the the centre point one side of a (the plural of radius). circle’s circumference. centre point. In maths, of a circle to any of the outside An arc is a section of A segment is the area a circle’s the parts of a circle all point on its edge. circle to the edge of a circle. the circumference. between a chord and circumference. have their own names. other, through the centre point. the arc of the circle. 48