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6-8 Curriculum

Published by sarojthapaliya26, 2023-07-01 04:08:46

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cfjZos ;fdu|Lsf]  tof/L, tYofª\\s ;ª\\sng, tYofªs\\ sf] j1} flgs ;r\" Ls/0f, tYofª\\ssf] ljZni] f0f / lgisif{  cg;' Gwfg÷;j{I] f0fsf] kl| tj]bg nv] g @ ;\"rgf tyf @=! cfOl;6Lsf ;fwgx¿  k|of]u l;k /  ;~rf/ – Pl6Pd, kmf6] f]slk, ;d:of k|ljlw :Sofg/, lk|G6/, ;dfwfg l;k /fp6/, jfO{ kmfO{ l8efO{;, l6=le= ;6] ck aS;sf] ;fwf/0f k|of]u @=@ ;r{ OlGhg, ja] ;fO6,  l;sfO l;k  cfOP;kL sf] kl/ro @=# ;f;] n g]6jlsª{ ;fO{6  ko| f]u l;k /   ;fdfGo kl/ro ;d:of   k|of]u ;dfwfg l;k cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


ljZn]if0f / lgisif{_ nfO{ ;/n  kl| tj]bg tof/ kfg{ pbfx/0f;lxt l;sfpg] nufP/ / To;df ;a} cªu\\ x¿ ;lDdlnt  Ps ;/n cg';Gwfg;j]I{ f0f ug{ nufpg] eP gePsf] x]//] -pbfx/0fsf nflu la?jfsf] ljsf;sf nflu ;o\" s{ f] k|sfzsf] cfjZostf_ / k|ltab] g n]Vg l;sfpg]  cfOl;6Lsf ;fwgx¿ -Pl6Pd, kmf]6f]skL,  cfOl;6Lsf ;fwgx¿ #) :Sofg/, lk|G6/, /fp6/, jfO{ kmfO{ k|of]u ug{ nufP/ l8efO{;, l6=le= ;6] ck aS;_ sf] ;fwf/0f k|of]u ug{ l;sfpg] / ug{ nufpg]  dlN6ldl8of k|f]hS] 6/sf] ko| f]u u/L ;r{  ;r{ OlGhg, OlGhg, ja] ;fO{6, cfOP;kL sf] af/d] f j]a;fO6, 5nkmn u/fO{ kl/ro lbg] cfOP;kLsf] kl/ro lbg nufP/  jj] df zl} Ifs ;fdu|Lsf] vfh] ugs{ f nflu ljsLk]l8of, Anu, 6l\\ j6/, P;PdP; /  lel8of] sGk|m]G;df ljBfnosf] j]a;fO6 x]g{ l;sfpg] / efu lng nufP/ k|of]u ug{ nufpg]  kf| ]hS] 6 d\"Nofª\\sg  Anluª j]j;fO6sf] ko| f]uaf6 Anu lgdf0{ f u//]  lgdf0{ f u/]sf] Blog 237


 @=$ ;fOa/ ck/fw, sDKo'6/  l;sfO l;k  cfrf/;l+ xtf, ;fOj/ sfgg\"  / OG6/g]6 ;'/Iffsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro @=% /f]afl] 6{S; / erj'{ n  jf:tljstfsf] kl/ro  l;sfO l;k /  k|of]u l;k @=^ cfl6{lkml;on  ko| f]u l;k /  OG6l] nh]G; / Snfp8 /rgfTds  sDKol' 6ª ;f]r l;k  kl/ro / ;fdfGo ko| f]u 238


ug{ nufpg] sf] :t/ cjnf]sg u/]/  ljBfnosf] j]a;fO6af6 ljBfnoåf/f k|sflzt ;r\" gf tyf ;fdu|Lx¿ ;ª\\sng tyf 8fpGfnf]8 ug{ nufpg]  ;fO{a/ sfg\"g, ;fO{a/ ck/fw / sDKo6' /  ;fOa/ ck/fw / cfrf/ ;+lxtf / OG6/g]6 ;/' Iffsf] af/d] f ;fOj/ sfg\"gsf] 5nkmn u/fpg] af/]df k|Zg ;f]w]/  ;fOa/ sfg'g, ;fOa/ ck/fw / sDKo'6  ;fOa/ sfg\"g, cfrf/ ;l+ xtfsf] ;r\" L agfP/ sIffdf ;fOa/ ck/fw / 6f:F g nufpg] sDKo6' cfrf/ ;+lxtf kfngf u/] gu/s] f]  ;fOa/ sfg'g, ;fOa/ ck/fw / sDKo6' cjnf]sg u//] cfrf/ ;l+ xtf kfngf ug{ nufpg]  /f]af]l6{S; / er{c' n jf:tljstfaf/]  /f]afl] 6{S; (robotics) ;fwf/0f 5nkmn ug{] / OG6/g6] df vfh] L / er'j{ n l/oflnl6 k|:t't ug{ nufpg] (virtual reality) af/] ;/n k|Zg ;f]w/]  cfl6l{ kml;on OG6l] nh]G; / Snfp8  cfl6l{ kml;on sDKo'l6ªsf] af/]df 5nkmn ug]{ / OG6l] nh]G; OG6/g]6df vf]hL o;;DaGwL dlN6ldl8ofåf/f k|:t't ug{ nufpg] (artificial  cfl6{lkml;on OG6]lnh]G;sf ;sf/fTds / intelligence) / gsf/fTds kIfaf/] jfbljjfb ug{ nufpg] Snfp8 sDKo'l6ª (cloud computing) sf ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds kIfx¿ cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


# hLjx¿ / #=! hLj sf]if  l;sfO l;k  ltgLx¿sf]  agf]6  hgfj/ / jg:klt  cjnfs] g sf]ifsf cjojx¿ l;k  sf]ifdf cjojx¿sf sfo{  /rgfTds   hgfj/ / jg:klt ;fr] l;k  sf]iflar leGgtf      cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


 sf]ifsf] :nfO8 ;\"Idbz{s oGqåf/f atfpg nufP/ !@ cjnfs] g u/fpg]  hgfj/ sf]if / la?jf  hgfj/ / la?jf sf]ifsf] lrq k|bz{g ug]{ sfi] fsf] lrq sfg] { / lrq sfg] { nufpg] nufP/  Kofhsf] leqk66\\ Lsf] lemNnL lgsfnL  hgfj/ sf]if / la?jf ;I\" dbzs{ oGqåf/f cjnfs] g u/fpg] sfi] fsf] cjojx¿ Kflxrfg ug{ nufP/  dv' sf] Sofle6Lsf] dflyNnf] txsf] lemNnL lgsfnL ;I\" dbz{s oGqåf/f cjnf]sg  sfi] fsf] :nfO8 u/fpg] ;I\" dbzs{ oGqåf/f cjnf]sg u/fpbF f  pSt cjnfs] gkZrft sf]ifx¿sf] lrq sfi] fsf] cjojx¿ sfg] { nufpg] Kflxrfg ug{ nufP/ / ljBfyLs{ f] ;ljm| otf  hgfj/ / jg:kltsfi] fsf] lrq, rf6{ tyf cjnf]sg u/]/ lel8of] cjnf]sg u/L sf]ifsf cjojx¿ klxrfg ug{ nufpg]  sfi] fsf ljleGg cjojx¿ / pSt  hgfj/ / la?jf sf]ifsf] rf6{ / lel8of] cjojx¿sf] sfox{ ¿ cjnfs] g u/fO{ ljleGg cjojx¿ - kl| tljDag ug{ ;fO{6fK] nfHd, dfO6fs] f]lG8o« f, Gol' Sno;, nufP/ Eofs'cn, sf]if leQf, Knlfi68 cflb_ sf] klxrfg ug{ nufpg]  ljBfyL{n] agfPsf] sfi] fx¿sf] gd'gf  pSt cjojx¿sf] sfo{x¿ 5nkmn u/L cjnf]sg u/]/ ;\"rL tof/ ug{ nufpg]  hgfj/ sfi] f / la?jf  Sn] jf wfuf], r/' f, jf cGo 7f;] j:t'sf] sfi] fsf larsf] ko| f]u u/]/ hgfj/ sfi] f / la?jf sfi] fsf] leGgtfx¿sf] :fr\" L 239


 #=@ dfgj z/L/df sfi] f,  l;sfO l;k  tGt' / cª\\usf] cGt/ ;DaGw #=# hLjx¿sf] juL{s/0f  l;sfO l;k   ;d:of  b'O{ hut\\ k|0ffnL / kfFr  hut\\ k0| ffnLsf] kl/ro ;dfwfg l;k    #=$ s]xL ;I\" d hLjx¿    ;\"Id hLjsf] kl/ro  #=$=! kmGhfO, AofS6l] /of / efO/; hLjsf c;/x¿  ;sf/fTds c;/x¿ M h}ljs kbfy{nfO{ sx' fpg], loi6 -yeast_ sf] pkof]u, bxL hdfpg,] PlG6afofl] 6S; agfpg] cflb  gsf/fTds c;/x¿ M 240


gd'gf tof/ ug{ nufO{ k|:t't ug{ tof/ ug{ nufP/ nufpg]  hgfj/ sf]if / la?jf sf]ifsf] af/d] f 5nkmn u/fpFb} ltgLx¿larsf] leGgtfx¿sf] ;r\" L tof/ ug{ nufpg]  dfgj z/L/df sfi] f, tGt' / cªu\\ x¿sf]  dfgj z/L/df sf]if, cGt/;DaGw emNsfpg] rf6{ / lel8of] tGt' / cª\\usf] k|:t't u/L 5nkmn u/fpg] cGt/ ;DaGw atfpg nufP/  cl8of] tyf lel8of] ;fduL| x¿sf] k|of]u  juLs{ /0f al' emg] u/L u/L hLjx¿sf] auLs{ /0fsf] bO' { hut\\ rf6{ agfpg nufP/ k|0ffnL / kfrF hut\\ k0| ffnLsf] kl/ro lbg]  ;\"Id hLjsf pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  kfrF hut\\ k0| ffnLx¿sf] hut\\x¿sf pbfx/0f / dV' o d'Vo ljz]iftfx¿  kmGhfOs{ f] kl/ro 5nkmn u/fpg] lbg nufP/  ;I\" dhLjsf ;DaGwdf ljleGg kZ| gx¿  kmGhfOsf nIf0fx¿ ;fw] L ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] cg'ejsf cfwf/df k|ltljDag ug{ pQ/ lbg nufpg] nufP/  dlN6ldl8ofsf] k|of]u jf lrq rf6s{ f]  kmGhfOaf6 xg' ] k|bz{g u/L ;\"Id hLjx¿sf] kl/ro lbg] kmfObf / xflg atfpg nufP/ tyf  ;I\" d hLjsf] kl/rosf] cfwf/df ;\"Id bl} gs hLjgsf hLjx¿sf] pbfx/0fx¿ atfpg nufpg] pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  /fl] 6÷kfp/f]6Lsf s]xL 6s' f| aflx/ cf]l;nf]  AofS6]l/ofsf] kl/efiff cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


/fu] ;+j|md0f, 3fp kfSg,]  vfgs] '/f s'lxg] cflb  #=$=@ vfgf s'lxg glbg]  tl/sfx¿    ;S' vf /fVg]  lr:ofpg]  gg' jf lrgLsf] 3f]ndf jf t]ndf 8a' fpg]    cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


7fpd‘ f /fvL @, # lbg kl5 To;df ;fw] /] pldP| sf kmGhfO{sf] x]G8 n]G; jf dfOj|mf:] sf]kaf6 cjnfs] g u/fpg] / lrq  AofS6l] /ofaf6 x'g] agfpg nufpg] kmfObf / xflg atfpg nufP/ tyf  AofS6l] /ofsf rf6{ k|:t't u/L jf ldNbf] bl} gs hLjgsf lel8of] b]vfO{ AofS6]l/ofsf] kl/ro lbg] pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  efO/{ ;sf] rf6{ k:| t't u/L o;sf]  efO/;sf] kl/ro dfWodaf6 efO/;sf] kl/efiff atfpg lbg nufP/ nufpg] / ltgLx¿sf nIf0fx¿ 5nkmn u/fO{ :ki6 kfg{]  efO/{ ;sf] nIf0fx¿ kl| tljDag ug{  ;I\" d hLjn] xfd|f] bl} gs hLjgdf kf/]sf nufP/ ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds c;/x¿ ;DaGwdf 5nkmn u/fpg]  efO/;af6 xg' ] kmfObf / xflg  bl} gs hLjgdf kmGhfOaf6 x'g] kmfObfsf atfpg b}lgs 36gfx¿ atfpg] hLjgsf pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  AofS6]l/ofaf6 xg' ] kmfObf / xflg 5nkmn u/fO{ sx] L xflgsf/s AofS6l] /of  ;\"IdhLjn] xfd|f] tyf s]xL ;xofu] L AofS6]l/ofsf pbfx/0f b}lgs hLjgdf kfg]{ lbg] ;sf/fTds / gsf/fTds c;/sf  efO/;af6 xg' ] kmfObf / xflg 5nkmn pbfx/0f ;f]w/] u/fO{ :ki6 kfg{]  ;\"IdhLjsf  lel8of] k|bz{g u/L efO/;af6 x'g] kmfObf gsf/fTds / xflgx¿df yk k:| 6 kfg]{ c;/x¿af6 aRg] tl/sf eGg nufP/  ;\"Id hLjsf sf/0fn] la/fdL xg' af6 aRg] 241


   $ h}ljs $= h}ljs ljljwtf /  l;sfO l;k /  ljljwtf / jftfj/0f l;sfO l;k  jftfj/0f $=! hl} js ljljwtf  /rgfTds  kl/ro / dxTj ;f]r l;k  gk] fndf h}ljs  ;d:of  ljljwtfsf] jtd{ fg l:ylt ;dfwfgL l;k  hl} js ljljwtf xf| ;sf sf/0f / ;+/If0fsf pkfox¿   $=@ jftfj/0fLo lbuf]  /rgfTds  242


tl/sfsf af/]df 5nkmn u/fpg]  vfg]s'/f e08f/0f;DaGwL  3fp kfSg glbg s] ug{' k5{ / lsg < k|of]ux¿ cjnfs] g 5nkmn u/fpg] u//]  vfg]s'/f ;+/If0f ug]{ ljlwx¿sf af/d] f pbfx/0f lbbF } 5nkmn u/fpg], kb| z{g ug,]{ k|of]u u/fpg]  Sofg (can) ko| f]u u/L vfgf ;+/If0f u/]sf] ;/n lel8of] b]vfO 5nkmn ug{]  h}ljs ljljwtf;DaGwL rf6{ jf lel8of]  h}ljs ljlj3tfsf] * kb| zg{ u/L o;sf] kl/ro lbg] kl/ro lbg nufP/  glhss} f] sg' } kfl/l:ylts k|0ffnLdf uP/  h}ljs ljljwtf x|f; h}ljs ljljwtfsf] l:yltsf] cjnfs] g x'gsf sf/0fx¿ u/fpbF } 5nkmn ug]{ atfpg nufP/  lel8of] k|bz{g u/L hl} js ljljwtf xf| ;  hl} js ljlj3tf xg' sf sf/0fx¿ / pbfx/0fx¿ af/] ;+/If0fsf pkfox¿ 5nkmn u/fpg] / h}ljs ljljwtf x|f; atfpg nufP/ x'g glbg ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] e\"ldsfsf] af/d] f 5nkmn u/fpg]  ed| 0f k|ltj]bg d\"Nofªs\\ g u/]/  hl} js ljljwtf ;/+ If0fsf pkfox¿af/] 5nkmn u/fpg]  sg' } ;/+ If0f If]qdf e|d0f u/L k|ltj]bg tof/ kfg{ nufpg] .  lel8of] jf rf6s{ f] dfWodaf6 lbuf]  lbuf] ljsf; cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ j|md, @)&&


ljsf; ;fr] l;k  lbuf] ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff  / dxTj   jftfj/0f ;+/If0f ;DalGw  lbuf] ljsf;sf] nIox¿ / g]kfnsf ko| f;x¿ % hLjg %= hLjg kl| j|mof  l;sfO l;k  k|ljm| of  %=! k|hgg  /rgfTds  ;f]r l;k  la?jf / hgfj/df x'g] cdy} l' gs k|hggsf]  cjnf]sg ;fdfGo kl/ro l;k  la?jf / hgfj/df x'g]  dy} 'lgs kh| ggsf] ;fdfGo kl/ro  k/fu;]rgsf] kl/ro cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff / dxTj ;DaGwdf cjwf/0ff ;f]w]/ !% 5nkmn u/fpg]  lbuf] ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff, dxTj / xfdf| ]  lbuf] ljsf;sf] el\" dsf gfds zLifs{sf lgaGw nv] g dxTjsf] af/d] f sfo{ u/fpg] JofVof ug{ nufP/  rf6{åf/f lbuf] ljsf;sf] nIox¿sf] hfgsf/L lbg]  lgaGwsf] dN\" ofs+ g  jftfj/0f ;/+ If0f ;DalGw lbuf] ljsf;sf] u//] nIox¿ k\"/f ug{sf nflu /fli6o« tyf :yfgLo:t/df ePsf s]xL dxTjk\"0f{  lbuf] ljsf;sf] ko| f;x¿df 5nkmn u/fpg] nIox¿ kl| tljDag ug{ nufP/  la?jf / hgfj/df x'g] ljleGg lsl;dsf cdy} 'lgs kh| ggsf] lel8of] / rf6{x¿  jftfj/0f ;+/If0f k|:t't u/L 5nkmn u/fpg] / :ki6 xg' ;DalGw lbuf] ;xof]u ug{] ljsf;sf] nIox¿ k\"/f ug{ g]kfndf  cfˆgf] j/k/ kfOg] la?jfdf x'g] ljleGg ePsf k|of;x¿ lsl;dsf cd}y'lgs k|hggsf] cjnf]sg atfpg nufP/ u//] kl| tj]bg tof/ ug{ nufpg]  la?jf / hgfj/df  la?jfdf tyf hgfj/df x'g] d}y'lgs xg' ] cdy} l' gs kh| gg kh| ggsf] Plgd]6]8 lel8of] / rf6x{ ¿ ;DaGwL k|Zgf]Q/ k|:t't u/L ;dx\" df 5nkmn u/fpg] / u/]/  la?jfdf xg' ] cdy} 'lgs k|hggsf] pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  la?jf / hgfj/df x'g] dy} 'lgs k|hgg;DaGwL 243


 uef{wfg lso| fsf] kl/ro     %=@ e]h]6l] 6e k|f]kfu;g  l;sfO /  cjnf]sg   la?jfdf 8fF7, kft / l;k h/faf6 xg' ] e]lh6]l6e k|f]kfu];g %=# lap  k|of]u l;k   laleGg lsl;dsf lapsf  ;d:of  agf]6 ;dfwfg l;k  lapsf ljleGg efusf  l;sfO l;k sfo{x¿  lap k|;f/0f -dispersal_ 244


kl/ro lbg nufpg] k|Zgf]Q/ u//]  la?jfdf xg' ] k/fu;]rgsf] lel8of] tyf  ljBfyL{n] agfPsf] rf6{ k:| t't u/L 5nkmn u/fpg] k|ltj]bg d\"Nofªs\\ g u//]  la?jfdf x'g] k/fu;]rg lj|mofsf] j0f{g ug{ nufpg]  k/fu;]rg lj|mofsf] j0fg{ ug{ nufP/  k/fu;]rg lj|mofdf ;xof]u ug{] kIfx¿ -xfjf, kfgL, r/f, ls/f, dflg;, cflb_ df  k/fu;]rg lj|mofdf 5nkmn u/fpg] k'tnL, ls/f, xfjf cflbsf] e\"ldsf  la?jf / hgfj/df xg' ] uef{wfgnfO{ klxrfg ug{ nufP/ lel8of] jf rf6s{ f] dfWodaf6 :ki6 kfg{]  uefw{ fg ljm| ofsf] kl/efiff lbg nufP/  kmf]6f] jf gdg\" f b]vfP/ la?jfdf xg' ]  la?jfdf 8fF7, kft el] h6l] 6e k|f]kfu];gsf] kl/ro lbg] / h/faf6 x'g]  la?jfdf 8fF7, kft / h/faf6 x'g] e]lh6]l6e e]lh6]l6e kf| ]kfu];gsf pbfx/0fx¿ k|:t't kf| ]kfu];gsf ub{} j0f{g ug{] pbfx/0fx¿ lbg nufP/  rgf, s]/fp, ds,} wfg, ux'F cflb laleGg  lapsf] ljleGg lsl;dsf lapx¿nfO{ lehfP/ lapx¿ efux¿ lrGg nufP/ cs+ '/0f x'g] cj:yfsf] lap cjnfs] g ug{ nufO{ ljleGg efux¿ klxrfg ug{  lapsf] ljleGg nufpg] efux¿sf sfo{;DaGwL ;fw] ]/  laleGg lsl;dsf lapsf efux¿;DaGwL  lapsf] k|;f/0fsf cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


sf tl/sfx¿   lapsf] cªs\\ '/0fdf xfjf,  kfgL / tfksf] ke| fj  lap cs+ /' 0fsf] dxTj      ^ an / rfn ^=! rfn  ;d:of  ^=!=! ;fk]lIfs ultsf] ;dfwfg l;k kl/ro ^=!=@ cf;} t ultsf]  kl/ro tyf ;fdfGo ul0ftLo ;d:of cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


Plgd6] 8] lel8of] b]vfO{ cjnfs] g ug{ tl/sfx¿ pbfx/0f nufpg] ;lxt j0f{g ug{ nufP/  lapsf ljleGg efux¿sf] sfox{ ¿ j0fg{ ug{ nufpg]  lap cª\\s'/0f x'gsf nflu cfjZos  ljleGg la?jfsf] kmnaf6 lap aGg] cj:yfx¿ k|ltljDag k|ljm| ofsf pbfx/0fx¿ k:| t't u/L lapsf] ug{ nufP/ k;| f/0fsf] tl/sfsf af/]df 5nkmn u/fpg]  lap cªs\\ '/0f ljm| of kb| z{g u/s] f]  lap k|;f/0f x'g] tl/sfnfO{ lel8of]åf/f cjnf]sg u//] b]vfO{ 5nkmn u/fpg] .  lapsf] cªs\\ /' 0f  lapsf] c+s'/0f xg' cfjZos cj:yfx¿ lj|mof JofVof ug{ -xfjf, kfgL, tfk_ sf] c;/ / dxŒjaf/] nufP/ lel8of] kb| z{g u/L 5nkmn u/fpg]  lapsf] cª\\s'/0fsf]  lapsf] c+s'/0f lso| fsf] k|of]ufTds ¿kdf dxTj atfpg kb| z{g u/L k|ltjb] g tof/ ug{ nufpg] nufP/  lapsf] cs+ /' 0f lso| f JofVof ug{ nufpg]  lap c+s'/0fsf dxTj ;DaGwdf 5nkmn ug{ nufP/  rfn, lj>fd / ult ;DaGwL b}lgs  ;fk]lIfs / cf};t !% hLjgsf pbfx/0f k:| tt' ub}{ 5nkmn ultsf] kl/efiff u/fO{ ljBfyLn{ fO{ ult / j]uaf/] cfjZos ;f]w]/ kj\" 1{ fg lbg]  cf};t ult;DaGwL  ljleGg pbfx/0f lbO{ ;fkl] Ifs ultsf] ;/n ul0ftLo kl/ro lbg] ;d:of xn ug{ 245


  c        ^=!=# k|j]u  ;d:of   kl/efiff ;dfwfg l;k 246


 ljBfyLn{ fO{ pgLx¿n] ;fk]lIfs ult nufP/ ;DalGw ef]u]sf cg'ejx¿ atfpg nufpg]  plrt pbfx/0f lbO{ c;dfg rfndf cf;} t ult Ö (;'?sf] ult ± clGtd ult) cf;} t ultsf] dxTj atfpg] /  ;q\" k|of]u u/L cf;} t ult kQf nufpg l;sfpg]  cf;} t ult j:tn] kf/ u/]sf]  nfus] f] ;do    klg xG' 5 egL atfpg] . of] ;DaGw ko| f]u u/L cf};t ult lx;fa ug{ nufpg]  cf;} t ult;DaGwL ;/n ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{ l;sfpg] tyf ;d:of xn ug{ nufpg]  dflyaf6 vl;/xs] f] j:t' nufot ljleGg  kj| ]usf] kl/efiff pbfx/0f lbO{ kj| ]usf] kl/ro lbg] . ;f]w/] cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


 ;fdfGo ul0ftLo ;d:of ^=@ pQf]ns  /rgfTds  ;f]r l;k /   kl/efiff / k|sf/ ;d:of  ;dfwfg l;k  sfo{ l;4fGt  oflGqs kmfObf, ult cg'kft / sfo{Ifdtfsf] kl/efiff / ul0ftLo ;d:of      cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


kj| ]usf] kl/efiff lbO{ ������ = ( ) xG' 5  k|j]u;DaGwL ;/n ul0ftLo ;d:of xn egL atfpg] . of] ;\"q ko| f]u u/L kj| ]usf] ug{ nufP/ ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{ nufpg]  ljleGg k|sf/sf pQf]nssf] kl/ro /  b}lgs hLjgdf k|of]u pbfx/0f lbg] xg' ] pQfn] sx¿ lrGg nufP/  pQf]nssf ljleGg pkofu] sf pbfx/0f lbO{ o;nfO{ ;/n oGqsf] ¿kdf lrgfpg]  pQfn] ssf] sfo{ l;4fGt atfpg  b}lgs ko| f]usf] sg' } Pp6f lj|mofsnfkaf6 nufP/ pQf]nssf] l;4fGt k|dfl0ft ug]{ / ug{ nufpg]  pQf]nssf] l;4fGt kd| fl0ft ug{ nufP/  oflGqs kmfObfsf] kl/efiff lbO{ pQf]nssf] oflGqs kmfObf ul0ftLo  oflGqs kmfObf, ult ;dZof xn ug{ l;sfpg] cg'kft / sfo{ Ifdtfsf] kl/efiff  ult cg'kftsf] kl/efiff lbO{ pQfn] ssf] ;fw] /] ult cg'kft ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{ l;sfpg]  ;/n ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{  tfn} b'/L eGbf an b'/ nfdf] xF'bf sd nufP/ ann] w]/} tfn} prfNg ;lsg] t/ sfd u/fOsf] j]u 36\\g] tYo af]w u/fpg]   oGqdf ul/g] sfo{ / oGqn] ug{] sfos{ f] kl/ro lbbF } sfo{ Ifdtfsf] kl/efiff lbg] / o;sf] η = Work output/ Work input sf] dbtn] lx;fa ug{ nufpg]  η = Work output/ Work input × 247


^=# rfk  ;d:of  ;dfwfg l;k   rfksf] kl/ro, PsfO / ;\"q  /rgfTds ;f]r l;k  rfk;DaGwL ;/n ul0ftLo lx;fa  l;sfO l;k  ko| f]u l;k  bl} gs hLjgdf rfksf] dxTj   t/n kbfy{sf] rfk /  o;sf] bl} gs hLjgdf pkof]u   vflF bPsf] xfjfsf] rfksf]  kl/ro, o;sf] dxTj / dfkg  jfod' 08nLo rfksf] kl/ro, dxTj / pkof]u  248


100% बाट η = MA/ VR× 100% k|dfl0ft ub{} o;sf] k|of]u u/L ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{ nufpg]  sg' } ;txdf nfUg] ansf] c;/ To;sf]  rfksf] kl/efiff, dfqfdf dfq geO ;txsf] If]qkmndf klg PsfO / ;\"q atfpg lge/{ ub5{ eGg] tYo kb| z{g ug{] / PsfO nufP/ If]qkmndf kg{] an g} rfk xf] egL hfgsf/L lbg]  rfk;DaGwL ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{  rfk;DaGwL bl} gs k|of]usf nufP/ pbfx/0fx¿sf] dfWodaf6 rfksf] kl/efiff lbg nufpg] / PsfO atfpg]  rfk Ifq] kmn / tyf yk pbfx/0f lbg nufpg] andf e/ kg{] tYosf] pbfx/0fx¿  ������ = ;\"q ko| f]u u/L rfk;DaGwL ;fw] /] ;/n lx;fa ug{ nufpg] .  7f;] kbfy{sf] tf}n / cfwf/sf] Ifq] kmn;Fu  7f]; kbfys{ f] tf}n / cfwf/sf] If]qkmn To;n] pTkGg ug{] 36a9 ubf{ rfkdf kg]{ c;/af/] 5nkmn rfk;DaGwL ;/n ug{] / ko| f]uåf/f kd| fl0ft ug{] k|Zg ;fw] /]  of] tYosf] bl} gs hLjgdf k|of]u -7f];  pltg} ann] klg j:t'nfO{ sf6\\g, efFRg, k'm6fpg, s'Rofpg, km/s rfk pTkGg Kjfn kfg{ jf o:tf] x'gaf6 arfpg_ ub{5 eGg] lx;fa atfpg,] 5nkmn u/fpg] . ug{ nufP/  kt} fnf k/flsnf] lsg ePsf] xfn] f <  t/n kbfy{n] kb} f r'Rrf] lxn ePsf] hT' tfn] lsg sfk]{6 jf ug]{ rfk kb| z{g ug{ e'O{ lauf5{, kmnfdsf sfF6L lsg cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


      cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


Psfk6\\l6 ltvf] / csf{k6\\l6 6fpsf] nufP/ ePsf x'G5g\\ < sf7 jf afF;sf] lsnf] agfpbF f lsg Psflt/ ltvfl/G5 < sf6g\\ ]  t/n kbfy{sf] rfk xltof/df lsg wf/ lgsflnG5 < r/fn] ulx/fO{ / 3gTjsf] 6S] bf lsg v6' \\6fsf cfn}F f km}nfPsf xf]nfg\\ ;DaGw atfpg < lsg r/fsf rflxF b'Oc{ f]6f v'6\\6f t/ nufP/ / o;nfO{ 7'nf hgfj/sf rflxF k|foM rf/ v6' 6\\ f kb| z{g ug{ nufP/ ePsf xfn] fg\\ < 7'nf ufl8df lsg w]/} rSsf x'G5g\\ < h:tf k|Zgx¿df 5nkmn  bl} gs hLjgdf u/fpg] t/nsf] rfksf] dxTjsf] pbfx/0f  t/n kbfyn{ ] k}bf ug{] rfk k|bzg{ ug]{ / lbg nufP/ ug{ nufpg]  xfjfn] kb} f ug{] rfk  t/n kbfy{sf] rfk xg' s' f] sf/0f 5nkmn kb| zg{ ug{ nufP/ ug]{  bl} gs hLjgdf  t/n kbfy{sf] rfk ulx/fO / 3gTj vfFlbPsf] xfjfsf] cg';f/ a95\\ eGg] k|bzg{ ug]{ / rfksf] pkof]usf ljBfyLx{ ¿nfO{ ;d]t k|bzg{ ug{ nufpg] pbfx/0f lbg nufP/  b}lgs hLjgdf t/nsf] rfksf] dxTj  k]|;/uh ko| fu] ug{ ;DaGwdf pbfx¿0f k|:t't ug]{ / o;sf] nufP/ cfwf/df dxŒj atfpg nufpg]  jfo'd08nLo rfksf]  vfFlbPsf] xfjfn] kb} f ug]{ rfk k|bz{g ug{] dxTj tyf ;/n tyf vfFlbPsf] xfjfsf] rfk x'g'sf] sf/0f pkofu] af/] k|Zg 5nkmn u/fO{ lgisif{ lgsfNg nufpg] ;f]w]/  bl} gs hLjgdf vfFlbPsf] xfjfsf] rfksf] pkof]usf] pbfx/0f lbg] / ljBfyLn{ fO{ yk 249


     & b}lgs &=! Tffk  ko| f]u l;k,  hLjgdf &=!=! tfksf] k;| f/0fsf ;d:of  zlSt ;~rfng ljlw ;dfwfg l;k,  kl/ro l;sfO l;k  ljleGg j:ts' f] ;~rfng  Ifdtf  pkofu]  250


pbfx/0fx¿ vf]Hg nufpg]  aGb j:t' -es'G8f,] 6fo/sf] 6\\oa' , Uof; l;lnG8/ cflb_ leq ePsf] xfjfsf] rfk dfkg ug{ l;sfpg] jf dfkg u/]sf] lrq b]vfP/ k|];/uh lrgfpg]  Dofgf]ld6/sf] ko| f]u u/L ljleGg ljBfyL{x¿sf] kmf]S;f]n] pTkGg ug{] xfjfsf] rfk t'ngf ug{ nufpg]  jfo'd08nsf] klg rfk x'g] s'/f atfP/ o;sf] sf/0f 5nkmn u/fpg]  jfod' 08nsf] s'g efudf a9L rfk x'G5 / lsg xf]nf 5nkmn u/fpg]  b}lgs hLjgdf jfo'd08nLo rfksf] dxŒj atfpg] tyf pkof]usf ;/n pbfx/0f lbg] / ljBfyL{nfO{ yk pbfx/0fx¿ vf]Hg nufpg]  tfk Ps 7fpFaf6 csf{] 7fpFsf s;/L  tfk k|;f/0f x'g] @) ;b5{ eGg] k|Zg ;fw] /] 5nkmn u/fO{ ljleGg ljlwx¿nfO{ ljBfyL{sf] k\"j{1fg kQf nufpg] cf0fljs txdf JofVof ug{ nufP/  k|of]uaf6 ljleGg ks| f/sf 7f];x¿dWo] tfksf ;'rfns (good conductor) /  tfk ;~rfngsf sr' fns (bad conductor) 5'6\\ofpg ;'rfns / s'rfns nufpg] lrGg nufP/  ;dud| f wft'x¿ tfksf ;r' fns / sf7,  tfk ;~rfngsf] cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ j|md, @)&&


&=!=@ tfksf] k|;f/0fsf  ;+jfxg ljlw   kl/ro   ;+jfxlgs wf/ / df;} d   pkofu]  &=!=# tfksf] k;| f/0fsf ljls/0f ljlw   kl/ro   pkofu] &=!=$ t/ªu\\ \\u  oflGqs / ljBt' \\ rD' asLo t/ª\\uu\\  ljBt' \\ r'DasLo t/ª\\u\\u / tfk k|;f/0fsf] ljls/0f ljlw – tfk k|;f/0fsf] ljls/0f ljlwdf j:ts' f] /ªsf] k|efj / pkof]u cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


sk8f, Knfli6s cflb s'rfns xFb' f/x5] g\\ 1fgsf] bl} gs eGg] lgisz{ lgsfNg nufpg] hLjgdf pkof]u af/] kZ| g ;fw] ]/  t/n tfksf] sr' fns egL k|of]uåf/f kb| z{g ug]{  tfksf] ;+jfxg kb| zg{ ug{ nufP/  Uof; tfksf] s'rfns egL k|of]uåf/f k|bz{g ug{]  ;j+ fxlgs wf/ k|bzg{ ug{ nufP/  t/n / Uof;df lsg tfk ;~rfng xF'bg} kZ| g ;f]Wg] / c0fx' ¿sf] cj:yfsf  Tffk k|;f/0fsf] cfwf/df, JofVof ug{ nufpg] ;+jfxg ljlwsf] b}lgs hLjgdf  cfO; aS;n] s;/L sfd u5 < cgd' fg pkof]u ;f]w]/ ug{ nufpg]  Tffk k;| f/0fsf]  tfk ;~rfngsf] 1fgsf] b}lgs hLjgdf ;j+ fxg ljlwsf] 1fg pkofu] af/] 5nkmn u/fpbF } vfgf ko| f]u u/L b}lgs ksfpg] efF8f lsg tfdf, l:6n, kmnfd hLjgsf ;DalGwt jf cfndl' godn] ags] f x'G5g\\ t/ cg'ej JofVof ug{ ltgLx¿sf xo\\ fG8n lsg sf7 jf nufP/ ydf]{;l] 6ª Knfli6sn] ag]sf] x'G5g\\ < Hofs6] nufpbF f lsg Gofgf] x'G5 <  tfk k|;f/0fsf] df6fs] f] 3/ lsg udL{ ofddf zLtn / ljls/0f ljlw k|bzg{ hf8f] ofddf Gofgf] xG' 5 < w]/} lr;f] ug{ nufP/ lbgdf r/fx¿ lsg df]6f b]lvG5g\\ < h:tf k|Zgsf] pQ/ vf]Hg nufpg]  tfk k|;f/0fsf] ljls/0f ljlwdf  k|of]uåf/f kfgLdf tyf xfjfdf tfksf] /ªsf] k|efjaf/] k|Zg ;Djfxg kb| z{g ug]{ ;f]w]/  >Ao bZ[ osf] ;xfotfn] t/n / Uof;df  bl} gs hLjgdf 251


      252


s;/L tfksf sf/0fn] ;+jfxlgs wf/ tfksf k;| f/0f pTkGg x'G5 eGg] s'/f JofVof ug]{ ljlwx¿sf] pkof]u;DaGwL  3/df el] G6n;] g lsg l;lnªsf] glhs / k|Zgx¿ ;fw] /, 9fs] fdfly /flvG5, emo\\ fn lsg leQfsf] JofVof ljZn]if0f ug{ dflyNnf] efudf /flvG5 < h:tf kZ| g nufP/ ;f]w/] Tffk k;| f/0fsf] ;+jfxg ljlwsf] bl} gs hLjgdf pkofu] atfpg]  k|of]uåf/f tfk k|;f/0fsf] ljls/0f ljlw k|bz{g ug]  t/ª\\usf] ;fdfGo kl/ro lbg kfgLsf] efF8fd] f t/ª\\u\\u kb} f u/L b]vfpbF } o;n] lsgf/lt/ zlStsf] k|;f/0f u/s] f] bv] fpg]  lrq tyf Plgld6]8 lel8of]sf] ;xfotfn] ;xfotfn] t/ª\\uu\\ sf] nDafO, cfjl[ Q / t/ª\\uu\\ sf] ultsf] kj\" { 1fg klxrfg ug{]  t/ª\\u\\unfO{ zlSt k;| f/0f ug]{ ;fwgsf] ¿kdf lrgfpFb} of] bO' { k|sf/sf] xG' 5 egL oflGqs / ljB't\\ rD' asLo t/ªu\\ \\usf] kl/ro lbg]  ;o\" {, cfuf], lx6/ h:tf tfksf ;f| ]tn] ljBt' \\ r'DasLo t/ª\\u\\u -ljls/0f_ pTkGg ug{] / Tolx t/ªu\\ \\un] tfk / ks| fzsf] k|;f/0f ug{] s'/f atfO lbg] . tfk k;| f/0fsf] of] ljlwnfO{ ljs/0f ljlw egL lrgfpg] cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ j|md, @)&&


    &=!=% yd;{  l;sfO l;k   agfj6 / sfo{ &=!=^ xl/t ux[  l;sfO l;k   sfo{ k|lj|mof  xl/tux[ k|efj   cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


 ljBt' \\ rD' jsLo t/ª\\uu\\ z\"Godf klg  yd;{ sf] agfj6 / k|;f/0f x'g ;Sg] ePsf]n] ;\"os{ f] tfk sfo;{ DaGwL k|Zgx¿ xfdL ;Dd cfPsf] tYo k|:6 kfg{] ;f]w]/  z\"Godf ljB't\\ rD' asLo t/ª\\uu\\ sf] j]u  slt xG' 5 kQf nufpg nufpg]  xl/t ux[ / xl/t ux[  j:t'sf] tfk zf]if0f ug{] Ifdtf / To;sf] ke| fjsf] cy{ atfpg /ªsf] ;DaGw :d/0f u/fpFb} tfk nufP/ k|;f/0fsf] ljls/0f ljlwdf j:t'sf] /ªsf] k|efjaf/] 5nkmn ug{] tyf kb| zg{ ug]{  ljBfyL{n] agfPsf] xl/t ux[ sf] df]8n]  udL{ 7fpdF f 3/sf aflx/L leQfdf lsg cjnfs] g u//] ;]tf] /ª kf]ltG5 < h:tf kZ| gx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg nufpg] . o:tf cGo pbfx/0f atfpg nufpg]  yd;{ sf leqL efu b]vfP/ o;sf] agfj6 JofVof ub}{ o;n] leqsf] tfknfO{ aflx/ / aflx/sf] tfknfO{ leq ;~rfng, ;+jfxg / ljls/0f ljlwaf6 cfpg hfg s;/L /f]S5 eGga] f/]df 5nkmn u/fpg]  >Ao bZ[ o ;fdu|Lsf] ko| f]u u/L xl/t ux[ sf] sfo{ kl| jm| ofaf/] 5nkmn u/fpg]  xl/t u[x k|efj kb| zg{ ug{]  xl/t ux[ tyf xl/t ux[ ke| fjsf] pkof]uaf/] 5nkmn u/fpg], si[ fsn] agfpg] Knfl:6ssf xl/tu[x -6g]n_sf] 253


  &=@ k|sfz  /rgfTds  ;fr] l;k  &=@=! sGse] tyf sGe]S;  Pg] fsf] kl/ro  ko| f]u l;k  &=@=@ uf]nfsf/ P]gf  l;sfO l;k   uf]nfsf/ Pg] fsf]  k/fjt{g;Fu ;DalGw zAbfjnLx¿  sGse] tyf sGeS] ;af6 x'g] k/fjt{gsf] k|bz{g  jf:tljs / cjf:tljs cfs[lt  sGse] tyf sGeS] ;af6 x'g] k/fjt{gsf ls/0f /]vflrq  ufn] fsf/ Pg] fsf] pkof]lutf 254


kmf]6f] b]vfO{ rrf{ u/fpg], 5nkmn u/fpg]  jftfj/0fdf xl/t ux[ ke| fj atfpg  xl/t ux[ sf] gdg' f agfpg nufpg] nufP/  jftfj/0fdf xl/t u[x k|efj -Unf]an jfld{ª\\_ sf] cy{ atfO{ o;sf c;/, sf/0f tyf o;sf c;/nfO{ Go\"gLs/0f ug]{ pkfox¿af/]df 5nkmn u/fpg]  5nkmnaf6 k|sfzsf] k/fjt{g ;DaGwL  sGse] tyf sGe]S; kg' /jnf]sg u/fpg] ufn] fsf/ P]gf lrGg nufP/  sGs]e tyf sGeS] ; ufn] fsf/ P]gf lbP/ sGs]e tyf sGeS] ; ufn] fsf/ Pg] f lrGg  ufn] fsf/ P]gfsf] tyf ltgLx¿sf] leGgtf atfpg nufpg] ljleGg efu lrGg nufP/  k|bz{g ljlwsf] ko| f]u u/L uf]nfsf/ Pg] fsf] jj|mtfsf] sG] b,| k|d'v cIf, P]gfsf]  uf]nfsf/ Pg] faf6 sG] b,| sG] b|Ls/0f b'/L / s]Gb|Ls/0f ljGb' ljleGg b'/Ldf /xs] f lrgfpg] j:t'sf] cfs[lt agfO{ cfsl[ tsf] k|sl[ t  ufn] fsf/ Pg] faf6 ljleGg b'/Ldf - j0f{g ug{ nufP/ cgGtdf, jj|mtfsf] sG] b| eGbf k/, jjm| tfsf] sG] b|df, jjm| tfsf] sG] b| /  jf:tljs / sG] bL| s/0f ljGb'sf] lardf, s]GbL| s/0f cjf:tljs cfs[lt lrGg nufP/ ljGb'df / s]Gb|Ls/0f ljGb' / P]gfsf] s]Gbs| f] lardf_ /x]sf j:ts' f] cfs[lt  k/fjtg{ sf ls/0f agfO{ cfs[ltsf] k|s[lt cWoog ug{ tyf /]vf lrq agfpg j0f{g ug{ nufpg] / ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;d\"x nufO{ lrqsf] ;d\"xdf ;fx] L sfo{ kb| z{g ug{ nufpg] . dN\" ofªs\\ g u/]/  jf:tljs / cjf:tljs cfs[ltsf] kl/ro cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ j|md, @)&&


   &=# Wjlg  ;d:of  ;dfwfg l;k   Wjlgsf] j]u;DaGwL ul0ftLo ;d:of  k|of]u l;k   l;sfO l;k  >Jo Wjlg, OGk|mf;fpG8 / cN6f« ;fpG8  Wjlgsf] lta|tfsf] gfk  Wjlg kb| i\" f0fsf] sf/0f, c;/ / Go\"gLs/0fsf pkfox¿ cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


/ ljz]iftfsf] af/]df :ki6 kfg{]  ufn] fsf/ P]gfsf] pkof]lutf ;f]w]/  dflysf k|of]udf jf:tljs / cjf:tljs cfsl[ t 5'6o\\ fpg ;3fpg]  k/fjtg{ ;DalGw lgodx¿ :d/0f u/fpbF } ltgLx¿nfO{ k|of]u u/L ufn] fsf/ P]gf -sGs]e tyf sGeS] ;_ af6 x'g] k/fjt{gsf] ls/0f /]vf lrq agfpg l;sfpg] / o;/L ag]sf] cfs[ltsf] ks| [lt dflysf] cWoog;uF tn' gf ug{ nufpg] .  bl} gs hLjgdf pkofu] ul/Psf] ufn] fsf/ Pg] fsf pbfx/0f lbP/ uf]nfsf/ Pg] fsf] pkof]lutf 5nkmn u/fpg]  v = f ko| f]u u/L ljleGg dfWoddf  Wjlgsf] j]u;DaGwL Wjlgsf] k;| f/0f;DaGwL ;/n ul0ftLo ;/n ul0ftLo ;d:of xn ug{ l;sfpg] tyf nufpg] ;d:of xn ug{ nufP/  dfgj sfgn] 20 Hz b]lv 20,000 Hz ;Ddsf] Wjlgdfq ;'Gg ;Sg] tYo OG6/g6]  dfgj sfgsf] >j0f jf df]afOnsf] ;xfotfn] k|bz{g ug]{ . Ifdtf atfpg o:tf] WjlgnfO{ >JoWjlg egL lrgfpg] nufP/ / >Jo Wjlgsf] kl/efiff :yfkgf ug{ nufpg]  OGk|mf ;fp08, >Jo Wjlg / cN6«f  20 Hz eGbf sd cfjl[ Q ePsf] WjlgnfO{ ;fp08sf] cfj[lQ OGk|mf;fpG8 / 20,000 Hz eGbf a9L ;f]w/] cfj[lQ ePsf]nfO{ cN6«f;fpG8 elgG5 egL hfgsf/L u/fpg]  Wjlgsf] lta|tfsf] gfk;DaGwL k|Zg 255


   * ljBt' / *=! r'Das  l;sfO l;k  r'Das *=!=! kf| sl[ ts / sl[ qd  k|of]u l;k rD' as   km/s tyf pkof]u  *=!=@ r'DasTjsf] cf0fljs l;4fGt  *=!=# r'DasLo zlStsf] x|f;  kl/efiff tyf sf/0f *=!=$ er\" 'Das  kl/ro 256


 Wjlgsf] lta|tf o;df ePsf] zlStdf e/ ;fw] /] k5{ o;nfO{ 8]l;jn] PsfOdf gflkG5 eGg] tYosf] hfgsf/L u/fpg]  Wjlg kb| \"iff0fsf sf/0f, c;/ /  bl} gs hLjgdf k|of]u xg' ] cfjfh slt Go\"gLs/0fsf slt 8]l;j]nsf x'G5g\\ / slt 8]l;j]n pkfox¿ ;f]w]/ eGbf dfyLsf] cfjfh s0f{ lk|o xF'b}g eGg] tYonfO{ ko| fu] u/L kQf nufpg nufpg]  xfd|f j/k/af6 pTkGg x'g] tyf ljBfyL{ cfk}mn] cge' j u/]sf] clk|o / 7'nf] Wjlgx¿sf] pbfx/0f lbbF } Wjlg k|b\"iff0fsf sf/0f, ;fdfGo c;/x¿ tyf Wjlg kb| i\" f0f Gog\" Ls/0fsf pkfox¿df 5nkmn ug{]  ljBfyLx{ ¿sf] ;d\"xdf k|fsl[ ts / sl[ qd  kf| sl[ ts / s[lqd !) rD' as ljt/0f u/L cjnf]sg ug{ nufpg] r'Dasdf km/s / 5nkmn ug{ nufO{ km/s 5'6\\ofpg / 56' \\ofpg nufP/ ltgsf pkof]lutf atfpg nufpg]  rD' assf] pkof]lutf  >Job[Zo jf lrq ko| fu] u/L r'DasTjsf] atfpg nufP/ cf0fljs l;4fGt 5nkmn u/fpg]  r'DasTjsf] cf0fljs  r'DasTjsf] cf0fljs l;4fGtsf cfwf/df l;4fGt j0f{g ug{ r'DasLo zlStsf] x|f;sf] sf/0f atfpg] nufP/ / r'DasLo zlSt ;/+ If0fsf pkfox¿  rD' asLo zlStsf] 5nkmn u/fO{ l6kf]6 u/fpg] x|f; kl| jm| ofnfO{  k[YjLn] 58 rD' assf] h:tf] rD' asTj JofVof ug{ nufP/ b]vfpg] s'/f atfpFb} e\"r'DasTjsf] kl/ro lbg]  er\" D' assf] pkofu] ;DaGwL k|Zg cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


 kY[ jL / 58 r'Dassf]  t'ngf   *=@ ljBt' \\  l;sfO /  cjnf]sg *=@=! ufx{:y ljB'tL\\ s/0fsf] l;k  kl/ro   ;DalGwt pks/0fx¿sf] gfd -d]g l:jr, ljBt' \\ ld6/, l8l:6A« o';g\\ af8] {, ˆo'h, Pdl;aL=, aQL, l:jr, tyf ;s6] _, sfd / h8fgj|md *=@=@ nfOe∕kmh] , Go'6«n /  l;sfO l;k cy{ tf/sf] klxrfg *=@=# Knudf tf/ h8fg  ko| f]u l;k  ug{] tl/sf cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


 s'g} klg 7fpFdf 58 rD' assf] ;xfotfn] ;fw] ]/ lbzf kQf nufpg] tl/sf k|bzg{ ug]{ . ljBfyL{nfO{ sDkf; ko| f]u ug{ lbg]  ufx{:y ljB't\\ kl/kydf x'g]  cfhsn dfa] fOn kmfg] df klg sDkf; pks/0fx¿ lrGg x'gs] /' f b]vfpg] / k|of]u ug{ l;sfpg] nufP/, x/]ssf] sfo{ atfpg nufP/  lrq jf lel8ofd] fkm{t ufx:{ y ljB't\\sf] kl/ro lbg]  nfOe, Go'6n« / cy{ tf/sf] sfo;{ DaGwL  lel8of,] lrq jf jf:tljs j:t'x¿sf] k|Zg ;fw] /] k|bzg{ u/L ufx{:y ljB't\\ kl/kydf k|of]u x'g] pks/0fx¿ -d]g l:jr, ljBt' \\ ld6/,  Knudf tf/x¿ hf]8g\\ l8l:6A« o;' g\\ af]8{, ˆoh' , Pdl;aL=, aQL, nufP/ / sfo{ l:jr, tyf ;s6] _ lrgfpg] / ltgLx¿sf] s'zntfsf] sfd tyf h8fg jm| d atfpg] d\"Nofª\\sg u/]/  ljBfnodf plNnlvt pks/0fx¿ sxfF 5g\\ ed| 0f u/L bv] fpg] .  ufx:{ y ljB't\\ kl/kydf ljleGg /ªsf tf/ k|of]u ul/g] s'/f b]vfpg] / nfOe jf kmh] , Go'6«n / cy{ tf/ lrgfO{ ltgLx¿sf] sfd atfpg]  Knudf ;/' lIft tl/sfn] tf/x¿ hf8] \\g l;sfpg] 257


*=@=$ aQLsf] ljBt' \\kl/ky  ko| f]u l;k  h8fg j|md   ( kbfy{ (=! kf/df0fljs ;/+ rgf  l;sfO l;k   k/df0fd' f OnS] 6«f]g, kf| 6] «fg] / Go6\" «f]g cjl:ylt  kf/df0fljs ;+/rgf lrq / OnS] 6«f]g ljGof; -;n] cjwf/0ff_ – (=@ ;o+ 'Hotf  ko| f]u l;k /  l;sfO l;k   EofnG] ; On]S6«f]g / ;o+ H' otfsf] kl/ro   kf/df0fljs ;ªV\\ of @)  ;Ddsf tTjx¿sf] ;+oH' otf 258


 aQL, xf]N8/ / l:jrnfO{ tf/n] Knudf  k|of]usf] dN\" ofª\\sg hf]8/] aQLsf] kl/ky tof/ kfg{ l;sfpg] u//] / ug{ nufpg]  rf6{ k]k/df k/df0fs' f] gd'gf (Model)  kf/df0fljs df8] ]nsf] !% kb| zg{ ub{} k/df0fd' f OnS] 6«f]g, k|f]6f« g] / j0f{g ug{ nufP/ Go\"6«f]gx¿ x'G5g\\ egL :ki6 kfg{] u/]/  rf6{ / df8] nsf] ;xfotfn] OnS] 6f« g] ,  tTjsf k/df0f'x¿sf] kf| ]6«f]g / Go\"6«f]gsf] k/df0fd' f cjl:ylt ;+/rgf lrq, df]8n atfpg] / kf/df0fljs ;ªV\\ of @) ;Dd agfpg nufP/, ePsf tŒjsf] k/df0f' ;+/rgfsf] lrq To;sf] kl| tj]bg agfpg nufpg] d\"Nofªs\\ g u/]/  Bohr and Bury sf] 2n2 lgodsf]  kf/df0fljs ;ªV\\ of hfgsf/L lbbF } kf/df0fljs ;ª\\Vof @) ! b]lv @) ;Ddsf ;Dd ePsf tTjx¿sf] ;]n OnS] 6f« g] tTjx¿sf] ljGof; ug{ l;sfpg] On]S6«f]lgs ljGof; nV] g nufP/  OnS] 6«fg] ljGof;sf cfwf/df EofnG] ;  k/df0fs' f] EofnG] ; OnS] 6«f]g klxNofpg nufpg] OnS] 6«fg] klxNofpg nufP/  pbfx/0fx¿ k|:t't ub}{ Eofn]G; On]S6«fg] sf cfwf/ / ;o+ f]hg Ifdtfsf]  ;o+ H' otfsf] kl/efiff cfwf/df ;+o'Hotfsf] cjwf/0ff :ki6 kfg]{ ;f]w/]  kf/df0fljs ;ªV\\ of @) ;Ddsf  tTjx¿sf] ;+o'Hotf tTjx¿sf] ;o+ 'Hotf lgsfNg] cEof; lgsfNg nufP/ u/fpg] cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


(=# tTjx¿sf] k]l/ofl] 8s  ko| f]u l;k,  juLs{ /0f l;sfO l;k, ljZn]if0f l;k   k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf]  kl/ro  cfw'lgs k]l/of]l8s lgod  tTjx¿sf kl] /ofl] 8s 6G]« 8 -;n] ;ª\\Vof, ;o+ 'Hotf, kf/df0fljs ;fOh / wft' u0' f_   (=$ c0f' ;q\"  l;sfO l;k /   kl/ro ko| f]u l;k  cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\ojm| d, @)&&


 kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] cfl+ zs efu rf6{  kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsf, kk] /df agfO{ u|k' -;dx\" _, lkl/o8 af/] ;dx\" / lkl/o8sf] ae' mfpg] / kf/df0fljs ;ª\\Vof @) ;Dd kl/efiff ;fw] ]/ ePsf tTjx¿nfO{ k/df0f' ;ªV\\ ofsf] cfwf/df k]l/ofl] 8s tflnsfsf] lkl/o8 /  ! bl] v @) ;Ddsf u'|kdf eg{ l;sfpg] tTjx¿sf] cfl+ zs kl] /of]l8s tflnsf  cfw'lgs k]l/of]l8s tflnsf k|:t't ub{] agfpg nufP/ lgod atfO{ o; lgodn] kl] /ofl] 8s tflnsfdf tTjx¿sf] cjl:ylt s;/L  kl] /ofl] 8s lgod lgwf{/0f u/]sf] 5, JofVof ug]{ j0f{g ug{ nufP/  k]l/of]l8s tflnsfdf Pp6} u|'kdf kg]{  tTjx¿sf kl] /of]l8s tTjx¿sf] ;+o'Hotf Pp6} x'g] t/ ;]n 6]G« 8 ljZn]if0f ug{ ;ªV\\ of km/s x'g] sf/0fnfO{ On]S6f« g] nufP/ ljGof;sf] ;xfotfn] :ki6 kfg{]  c0f';\"qsf] kl/efiff  kl] /of]l8s tflnsfsf] Pp6} lkl/o8df lbg nufP/ tTjx¿sf] ;]n ;ª\\Vof Pp6} xg' ] t/ ;o+ 'Hotf km/s km/s x'g] sf/0f OnS] 6«fg]  ljleGg ofl} usx¿sf] ljGof;sf] ;xfotfn] :ki6 kfg]{ 259  tTjx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ;+/rgfsf df]8n tyf lrqx¿ k|:t't u/L lkl/o8 / u'|kcg';f/ kf/df0fljs ;fOh / wft' u0' fdf xg' ] km/s JofVof ug{]  s]xL ;/n c0f'x¿sf] ;\"qsf pbfx/0f lbFb} c0f;' q\" sf] kl/ro lbg]  ljm| ;–j|m; ljlwaf6 c0f;' q\" nV] g] tl/sf


 c0f';q' n]Vg] tl/sf   sx] L kbfyx{ ¿sf] c0f;' \"q (=% kf/df0fljs ef/ /  ;d:of  cf0fljs ef/  kl/ro / ;lDalGwt ;dfwfg l;k ul0ftLo ;d:of  l;sfO l;k /  k|of]u l;k  (=^ /f;folgs ;dLs/0f  kl/ro   zAb ;dLs/0f / ;Gtl' nt ;q\" ;dLs/0f !) b}lgs !)=! cDn, Iff/ / nj0f  l;sfO l;k  pkof]usf  kbfy{x¿  efl} ts u0' fx¿  /f;folgs u0' fx¿ -;/n /f;folgs ;dLs/0f ;lxt_  pkof]uLtfx¿ 260


pbfx/0f;lxt JofVof ug{] gfd lbO{ c0f';\"q nV] g nufP/  s]xL ;/n ofl} usx¿ / :jtGq cj:yfdf kfOg] tTjx¿sf c0f' ;q\" n]vL bv] fpg] / c0f' ;q\" nv] g ;DalGw yk cEof; u/fpg]  tŒjx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ef/ (atomic  tTjx¿sf] kf/df0fljs ef/ / weight) / c0f'x¿sf] cf0fljs ef/ c0f'x¿sf] cf0fljs (molecular weight) ul0ftLo ;d:of ug{ ef/ ul0ftLo ;d:of l;sfpg] ug{ nufP/  s]xL ;/n /f;folgs k|ltlj|mofsf  ;/n /f;folgs pbfx/0f lbg] / ltgLx¿nfO{ zAb k|lj|mofnfO{ zAb ;dLs/0fåf/f JoSt ug{ l;sfpg] ;dLs/0f / ;\"q ;dLs/0fdf n]Vg  s]xL ;/n /f;folgs k|ltlj|mof 5fg/] nufP/ ltgLx¿sf /f;folgs ;dLs/0f n]Vg l;sfpg] / ;Gtn' g ug{ l;sfpg]   s]xL kl/lrt cDn, Iff/ / nj0fx¿sf  cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf !% u'0fx¿ cjnf]sg ug{ nufpFb} ltgLx¿sf ef}lts u'0fx¿ efl} ts u'0fx¿ 5nkmn u/fpg] atfpg nufP/  cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf sx] L ;fdfGo  cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf /f;folgs kl| tljm| of k|bz{g u/L /f;folgs u0' fx¿ tn' gf ug{ nufP/ ltgLx¿sf] /f;folgs u0' fx¿ atfpg tyf ;/n /f;folgs ;dLs/0f nV] g  cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf] pkof]lutfsf] ;\"rL nufpg] cfwf/et\" lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7\\oj|md, @)&&


!)=@ cDn aiff{  l;sfO l;k    kl/ro  /rgfTds  ;f]r l;k,  sf/0f / jftfj/0fLo l;sfO l;k  ke| fj  !)=# kfgLsf] s8fkg    s8f / g/d kfgLsf] kl/ro  kfgLsf] s8fkgsf sf/0fx¿  kfgLsf] s8fkg x6fpg] tl/sfx¿ -pdfn]/, nu' fwg' ] ;f]8f xfNf/] _  s8f kfgL / g/d kfgLsf kmfObf / a]kmfObfx¿ !)=$ ldl>t wft'  l;sfO l;k   cfwf/e\"t lzIff -sIff ^–*_ kf7o\\ jm| d, @)&&


 5nkmnåf/f cDn, Iff/ / nj0fsf] tof/ ug{ nufP/ pkof]lutfsf] ;r\" L agfpg nufpg]  cDn jiff{sf] sf/0f /  bl} gs hLjgdf cDn Iff/ / nj0fsf jftfj/0fLo k|efj pkofu] Ltfx¿ vfh] L ug{ nufpg] JofVof ug{ nufP/  cDn jiff{ ;DalGw ljleGg lel8of], rf6,{  g/d kfgL / s8f lrq, kmf6] f] cflbsf] dfWodaf6 cDn kfgLlar leGgtf jiffs{ f] kl/ro lbbF } o;sf] sf/0f / atfpg nufP/ jftfj/0fLo k|efjsf] rrf{ ug{]  kfgLsf] s8fkgsf  ljleGg ;|ft] af6 kfgL ;ª\\sng u/L sf/0f atfpg ltgLx¿n] ;fag' jf :ofDk'df lbg] nufP/ lkmhF sf] dfqf cjnf]sg ug{ nufpg] / o;sf cfwf/df kfgLsf] s8fkgsf]  kfgLsf] s8fkg cjwf/0ff k:| 6 kfg]{ x6fpg nufP/  kfgLsf] s8fkg xg' ] sf/0fx¿ 5nkmn  g/d / s8f kfgLsf u/fpg] kmfObf tyf a]kmfObf atfpg nufP/  pdfn/] / nu' f wg' ] ;f]8f xfn]/ s8f kfgLnfO{ g/d kfgL agfpg ;lsG5 egL  l:6n, lkQn / k|bz{g ug]{ tyf k|of]u ug{ nufpg] sfF;sf] cjojx¿  pbfx/0fx¿ lbP/ g/d / s8f kfgLsf] 261 kmfObf tyf a]kmfObf -gsf/fTds c;/x¿_ rrf{ u/fpg]  ldl>t wfts' f] kl/ro lbg]  l:6n, lkQn / sfF; bv] fpg], logLx¿


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