Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Figure 7 Application of mulches using various materials. Mulch can be made from organic materials • Impermeable mulches, like a black plastic, including grass clippings, leaves, straw, reeds, do not let air or water in kitchen wastes, comfrey, shredded bark, entire bark nuggets, sawdust, shells, woodchips, • Mulch provides a convenient hiding place shredded newspaper, cardboard, wool, and for pests animal manure. Stones and gravel, for example, are inorganic materials that can be employed. • Some organic mulches or crop residues can The advantages of mulching are: be toxic to other crops (allelopathic) • Increases water infiltration Botha et al. (2003) validated the benefits of • Reduces evaporation from the soil surface effective mulching in mitigating the negative effects of climate change in their research. (Es) They have conducted a study where mulch was • Weeds do not grow well because the placed on the soil surface and temperature was recorded at a depth of 25 and 75 mm below sunlight is blocked out the soil surface. On a Bonheim soil form, the • Soil does not spatter on leaves during water content of the soil in the first 300 mm of the soil profile was also measured. They used a watering and rainfall events bare dirt surface as a control. Mulch treatments • Keeps roots and bulbs cool in summer and included organic reeds covering 50% and 100% of the soil surface, as well as stones covering warm in winter 50% of the soil surface. Temperature changes • Provides food for the micro-organisms in under the 100% mulch were the fewest when compared to bare soil, eliminating temperature the soil and for the plants extremes. The insulating effect of the mulch • Reduces greening of roots and bulbs would definitely help plant growth, particularly • Reduces soil erosion germination. Unfortunately, mulches also have some During the summer, the 100 percent reed mulch disadvantages such as: provided the coolest soil, followed by increasing • Over-mulching can bury and suffocate temperatures beneath the 50 percent (reed plants • May prevent seeds from germinating if it is placed too soon 100

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water and stone) and bare soil, respectively. During Grass, legumes, and broadleaf non-legumes are the winter, the beneficial effect of mulch was the three main cover crop categories, based proved by creating a warmer soil in extremely on their properties and application options. In cold temperatures. most cases, they serve multiple functions at Soil water storage was greatest under 100 once, such as preventing erosion, improving soil percent reed mulch, followed by 50 percent quality, and providing grazing, among others. reed and stone mulches (nearly identical), Grasses are annual cereals that include and bare soil had the lowest values. Both the buckwheat, rye, wheat, corn, barley, oats, and summer and winter measuring periods revealed others. They grow quickly and leave easily the same storage trends. As a result, both stone manageable residues. Their fibrous threadlike mulch and organic mulch are equally effective root systems are robust and resistant to erosion. at lowering Es and increasing crop yields. If In terms of nutrients, they accumulate soil there are sufficient crop residues available, a nitrogen from Azospirillum symbiosis but lack 100 percent residue cover is recommended the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. to increase soil water storage, decrease Es, and beneficially modify soil temperature to As nitrogen-fixing cover crops, legumes are improve crop growth and yield. Because of the well-known for nitrogen enrichment. When scarcity of crop residues and the critical need plants grow large, their robust taproot system for animal feed during the winter, a 50 percent aids in the control of undesirable undersurface stone mulch will most likely be the best practice compaction. Furthermore, the larger the plant, to recommend in rural areas. Because of the the more nitrogen it can fix. Figure 8 shows biological degradation of organic mulch, stone examples of legumes such as crimson and white mulch is superior to it in terms of sustainability. clover, cowpeas, alfalfa, hairy vetch, and fava 4.1.3 Cover crops beans. Cover crops are plants (grasses or legumes) that Broadleaf non-legumes absorb nitrogen from are planted in between or alongside regular the soil, hold it in place, and produce green crops to protect and improve the soil. Cover manure. They usually die in the harsh winter crops are primarily used to prevent soil erosion, weather and do not necessitate any additional improve soil health, increase water availability, termination. Non-legumes used as fall cover smother weeds, attract pollinators, control crops, on the other hand, should be treated pests and diseases, increase biodiversity, serve before seeding for weed control. as mulch and a source of green manure and organic matter, and are used for grazing or forage. Depending on the type of cover crop, they either add or absorb nitrogen. 101

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Lucerne Cowpea Clover Figure 8 Examples of crops that can be as a cover crop. Specific advantages of cover crops are: In crop rotation, no-till, and organic farming, • Cover crop roots help to prevent erosion cover cropping is highly recommended. Cover from water and wind, especially on erodible crops are usually only suggested in locations soils on steep slopes where there is enough rainfall to sustain two • Adds organic matter to the soil crops or where irrigation water is available. • Improves the texture and structure of the soil 4.2 WATER MANAGEMENT • Improves infiltration by reducing runoff STRATEGIES • They absorb excess water after winter rains, improving water infiltration (as well 4.2.1 Rainwater harvesting as soil aeration) via their roots and retaining More and more marginal regions are being used moisture for the following cash plants for agriculture as the population grows and less • Nitrogen fixation (provided that the land becomes available. However, much of this selected cover crop is a legume) land is in arid or semi-arid regions with low and • Can be cut and applied as mulch unpredictable rainfall, and much of the valuable • Cuttings can be used as fodder for animals water is lost as surface runoff and Es. Droughts in recent years have highlighted the dangers Cover crops have a number of disadvantages, that humans and cattle face when rains falter or including: fail. While irrigation is the most obvious remedy to drought, it has proven to be expensive and • There is fierce competition for limited water only benefits a select number.\" Rainwater and nutrients with the cash crop if it is not harvesting\", a low-cost alternative, is becoming adequately managed (frequent trimming) increasingly popular. • Competes with the cash crop for sunlight, especially after emergence • Management of cover crop requires a high level of knowledge and skill 102

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water The collection of runoff for productive uses • water on the spot, where the household or is known as rainwater harvesting. Instead crops and/or plants or animals need it; of allowing runoff to cause erosion, it is collected and used. Water harvesting is a • water under individual household control directly productive technique of soil and water rather than a communally managed system; conservation in semi-arid drought-prone and locations where it is already practiced. With this technology, both yields and production • capturing considerable amounts of water is dependability can be greatly increased. possible in all but the driest areas Rainwater harvesting (RWH) can be thought of as a very basic kind of irrigation. The main However, there are certain disadvantages. Roof difference is that the farmer has no control over water harvesting for residential water supply the time with RWH. is costly, with the storage facilities required Only when it rains can runoff be gathered. In to transport customers through dry times areas where crops are totally rainfed, a 50% accounting for the majority of the expense. decrease in seasonal rainfall, for example, could RWH faces clear challenges during long dry result in crop failure. However, reasonable yields seasons, and it may not be able to provide a can still be obtained if the available rain can year-round water supply. be concentrated on a smaller area. However, Water harvesting is especially useful for making there may be little runoff to collect in a year the best use of rainwater in the following of extreme drought, but in the majority of situations: years, an efficient water harvesting system will boost plant development. As a result, adopting • In dry climates, where rainfall is scarce appropriate RWH&C techniques on domestic and unevenly distributed, agricultural gardens, croplands, and rangelands in selected production is nearly impossible. Water rural villages in South Africa could empower harvesting can make farming practicable villagers to more productively produce their in the absence of other water resources if own crops utilizing arable land and increase other production parameters such as soils livestock output using RWH&C techniques. As a and crops are favorable result, using appropriate RWH&C techniques on homestead gardens, croplands, and rangelands • Crops can be grown in rainfed locations, but in selected rural villages in South Africa could yields are low and there is a high danger empower villagers to more productively of failure. Water harvesting systems can produce their own crops on arable land and supplement rainfall in this area, allowing increase livestock production on rangelands, production to expand and stabilise reducing household food insecurity. The capture of rainfall at or near the point of • In areas where there is insufficient water fall is a simple solution to the problem of water supply for domestic and animal production. access that has been practiced for thousands Water harvesting can meet these of years. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) has a requirements number of clear advantages for home and agricultural water supply: • In desertification-affected arid land, where the potential for production is dwindling due to a lack of proper management. Water harvesting can help improve the vegetative cover on these lands and help to halt environmental degradation 103

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water In many cases, even if total rainfall appears to be water losses through Es, runoff, and deep adequate for the production of specific crops, drainage. These losses impede the efficient use the intensity and distribution of the rainfall are of available water for crop production and must such that the water available during the crop be reduced to maximize rainwater productivity. growth cycle is insufficient to support a good Es and runoff are the two most significant harvest. Rainfed agriculture in semi-arid regions losses. A concerted effort must be made to must also contend with low potential soils. The reduce these wasteful water losses, which can problem of insufficient soil water is exacerbated be accomplished through a variety of water not only by low and unfavorable rainfall harvesting techniques. distribution, but also by high unproductive Table 4 Classification of rainwater harvesting systems. Source: Botha et al., 2014. Macro-catchment Micro-catchment Roof-top Micro-catchment • Non-field rainwater • Ex-field rainwater • In-field rainwater harvesting harvesting harvesting • Artificial/man-made runoff • Outside the farm/field/ • Inside/within the farm/ land boundary field/land boundary) area Characteristics • Overland flow harvested • Overland flow harvested • Generally smaller from catchment areas from short catchment catchment area compared outside the farm/field/ lengths within the farm/ to ex-field land boundary field/land boundary • Runoff stored in reservoir • Runoff stored in soil • Runoff stored directly in above/below ground profile/ below-surface the soil profile surface reservoir • No provision for overflow • Tap / outlet normally • Provision for overflow of of excess water most of attached to reservoir to excess water the time access water • Can be practised in arid • Can be practised in semi- • Can be practised in arid and semi-arid areas below arid areas with rainfall and semi-arid areas with 450 mm annual rainfall between 450 - 700 mm1 annual rainfall of less than 450 mm 104

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Makes crop production Advantages • Used to obtain water for possible in arid / semi-arid • Increases crop production irrigation purposes as well areas as domestic purposes in semi-arid areas • Reduces risk of crop • No ex-field runoff from the • Has potential to supply failure drinking water when no field water is available • Harvested water can be • No erosion from the field used for supplementary • Low maintenance • Reduces risk of crop irrigation • Only dependent on failure • Recharges aquifers rainwater from own field • Rooftop water harvesting • Jessours • Can be practised on small • Contour stone bunds • Stone dams or large areas • Low implementation cost • No high-tech structures needed Examples • Small pits • Small runoff basins • Runoff strips inter row system • In-field rainwater harvesting Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting Ex-field rainwater harvesting, for example, is runoff from roofs, roads, surrounding hills, or the collection of run-off water from hills and a compacted soil surface in a home garden or its conveyance to a storage dam, from which land during a rainstorm so that it can be used the water can later be used, for example, to more effectively for food production and other water vegetable gardens in a rural settlement. domestic uses. We can categorise rainwater As a result, run-off water is used outside of the harvesting as ex-field, in-field, or non-field catchment area. based on the extent of the water harvesting (as in Table 4). 105

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water The run-off water is used within the catchment less flooding downstream. Capturing water area with in-field rainwater harvesting (IRWH). for later use reduces the risk of dehydrated This is common in home gardens and crop populations, animals, and crops during dry production land, where run-off water is seasons and drought. Furthermore, conserving collected during a rainstorm from a 2 m wide surface water and replenishing soil moisture no-till strip between alternative crop rows and and the water table reduces the need to pump stored in basins. Because no-till is used on the water from an underlying aquifer, a practice that runoff area, a crust forms, which improves frequently necessitates the use of fossil fuels. runoff. If properly implemented, this innovative technique has the potential to significantly Extensive research has been conducted in South reduce overall runoff as well as Es. Mulch on the Africa to develop a water harvesting system for run-off area can help to reduce Es losses while growing crops in homestead gardens, but the also preventing erosion and soil movement. emphasis is now shifting to implementing water Non-field rainwater harvesting would be, for harvesting in croplands on a much larger scale. example, collecting rainwater from a house's roof and storing it in a tank. The tank's water can 4.2.1.1 Rainwater harvesting for homestead then be used for domestic purposes (drinking, gardens cooking, and washing) or as supplemental irrigation for crop production. When used Homegrown or small-scale food production in conjunction with IRWH, a person in a rural is a viable contributor to rural poor food and settlement, for example, can produce food for nutrition security. Water scarcity continues to his family all year. be a major threat to poverty alleviation, hunger Efficient water harvesting and conservation alleviation, and sustainable development. RWH techniques for smallholder crop production can and other innovative water technologies have aid in alleviating poverty and helping farmers the potential to improve rural water supply. to become self-sufficient. The lack of such RWH can also contribute to South Africa's food techniques is a pressing problem for agriculture security by increasing dryland agriculture's in semi-arid areas. Water harvesting can aid the water productivity and enabling homestead smallholder crop farmers in utilizing their low gardening. Despite being used in South Africa and erratic rainfall in order to grow a sufficient for decades, RWH is still far from being used to crop to sustain their livelihoods. its full potential due to unresolved issues that prevent widespread adoption. The current Rainwater harvesting is a climate-smart practice water-related legislation, insufficient financial for a variety of reasons. Much water runs off and support, and a lack of national coordination are is wasted, especially during heavy rain. Excess major obstacles to the nationwide expansion water can cause erosion and flooding. Slowing of RWH. Based on the available literature, the flow so that the water percolates through various RWH&C practices can be implemented the soil and recharges the water table, as well in homestead gardens. Only those with the as collecting in reservoirs of any type, means potential to be used in homestead gardens in South Africa's semi-arid regions are described in greater depth below. 106

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Trench bed gardening systems provide a low-cost source of water for Trench bed gardening involves removing soil humans and animals. Although primarily used from a bed that is typically 1 m wide, 2 m to 3 for domestic purposes, unfit for drinking water m long, and 1 m deep. The topsoil is separated may be used for supplemental irrigation. from the subsoil and mixed with compost Water collection from roofs for household and or manure. The material is placed in a thick garden use is a common practice in South Africa. layer at the bottom of the trench, and the soil Tanks and containers of all sizes are common in is returned, topped by manure-rich topsoil rural areas, ranging from large brick reservoirs mounded above ground level. Trench bed to makeshift drums and buckets. gardening is typically combined with two other Advantages of collecting rainwater from roofs RWH methods. The first is the diversion of water are the following: from adjacent garden surfaces into the beds via small cut-off channels. The second step is to • Roofs are physically in place, and runoff is build small storage reservoirs (30,000 litres) to readily available collect water from roofs and the ground, which will be supplemented by grey water (Denison & • Roofwater is much cleaner than runoff from Wotshela, 2009). the ground • Roof top systems • Because there is little absorption or Rainwater can be collected from roofs of houses infiltration on the roof surface, most of the and other buildings, as shown in Figure 9, as rainwater that falls on it can be collected well as other impermeable surfaces such as courtyards or roads, and stored in a tank. These Roof water harvesting consists of three major components: the roof, the gutter, and the storage tank. Figure 9 Example of roof water harvesting in a rural community. Botha et al., 2012. 107

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Homestead ponds • In-field rainwater harvesting Homestead ponds are more associated with Hensley et al. (2000) first proposed the IRWH cultivation, conservation, and irrigation (Denison technique in South Africa as an alternative to & Wotshela, 2009). The system of homestead conventional crop production in Figure 10. ponds, according to Denison and Wotshela On high drought risk clay and duplex soils, IRWH (2009), aimed to bring and concentrate water combines the benefits of water harvesting, no- resources around homesteads and occasionally till, basin tillage, and mulching. This novel water on agricultural land. Despite the fact that their conservation technique has the potential to construction was simple, it required a lot of hard significantly reduce total runoff and surface work. Homestead ponds were mostly hand dug evaporation (Es). This increases plant available pits built with picks, hoes, and shovels. They water and, as a result, yields. varied in depth and diameter, but on average The specific principles of IRWH are thought to were about 2 m deep and 5 m in diameter. result in the following advantages: During excessive flows, some households erected stonework to support the walls and • Basin tillage minimizes runoff from the land bottom base against erosion. Water stored in • Water collected from the untilled, crusted the homestead ponds is used for supplemental irrigation of homestead crops as well as drinking soil on the 2-m wide intercrop row area water for animals. Only a few of them remain is used to concentrate runoff water in the in use in Thaba Nchu (Free State) and Tyhume basins. This encourages water infiltration Valley (EC), owing to their uncovered nature, beyond the surface evaporation zone, which made them dangerous to young children reducing Es losses. and small livestock, and the tragedy of children • Applied mulch on the runoff area minimizes drowning, which led to homestead ponds being Es losses and prevents erosion or soil abandoned (Denison & Wotshela, 2009). movement Figure 10 Diagrammatic representation of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 108

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water The IRWH technique promotes rainfall runoff the IRWH plots were significantly higher than on a 2-m wide strip between alternate crop on the CON plots. The seed yield of maize rows and stores the runoff water in the basins. plants on the IRWH treatment was 83% higher Water collected in the basin can infiltrate deep than that of the CON treatment. The IRWH's into the soil beyond the evaporation zone at biomass was also 70% greater than the CON's. the surface. After the basins have been built, In addition, the CON treatment lost 16 mm of the land is subjected to no-till farming. Because rainwater to runoff when compared to the total there is no cultivation in the runoff area, a crust runoff stoppage from the IRWH treatment. forms, which improves runoff. Botha et al. (2003) recommended that farmers In other words, IRWH is a risk-free, socially apply mulch in the basins of the IRWH technique acceptable technique that combines rainwater and, if enough is available, on the runoff area harvesting and conservation techniques as well. Organic mulch in the basins and stone to increase crop yields while remaining mulch on the runoff area produced the highest economically viable and preserving our limited maize yields. The latter also aided in preventing natural resources. soil movement from the runoff area into the The requirements for the application of IRWH basins. are as follows: The conclusion was that IRWH outperformed CON tillage in the following areas: • The slope should not exceed 8% on non- erodible soils • better soil water storage due to less water losses through runoff and Es; • The effective soil depth should be at least 700 mm • improved water and production efficiencies; and • The annual rainfall must be between 450 – 700 mm • higher biomass and seed yield. IRWH should be recommended as a “best • Preferably clay (more than 10%) or duplex practice” technology for resource-constrained soils farmers working on clay soils in semi-arid areas. IRWH structures are commonly used in • Avoid sandy soils homestead gardens to grow a variety of Botha et al. (2003) found that the soil water vegetable crops. Basins are created by hand content of the IRWH treatment was significantly using a spade and a rake. As shown in Figure higher than that of conventional tillage 11, IRWH can also be used on a larger scale throughout the growing and fallow periods to produce cash crops such as maize and (CON). This is a significant discovery that can be sunflower. The mechanized IRWH structures used to mitigate the effects of climate change in this case are built with a furrow plough and caused by less rainfall. In a warmer, drier a basin plough. The furrow plough creates a climate, it is critical that the limited available 20-centimeter-high contour ridge with a slope rainfall be used as efficiently as possible. The that strives to be zero. Every 1.5 m along the IRWH technique increases effective rainfall by ploughed contour, the basin plough creates a concentrating runoff where crops are grown. 10 cm deep and 1 m wide basin. Botha et al. (2003) discovered that the higher soil water content of the IRWH plots contributed to more vigorous maize plant growth compared to the CON plots. As a result, plant heights on 109

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Figure 11 Construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins on a semi-commercial scale. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 4.2.1.2 Rainwater harvesting for croplands Smallholder farmers will be able to alleviate A large proportion of the population lives in rural poverty in their communities and become areas, where their livelihood is dependent on self-sufficient by employing efficient RWH&C agriculture, either directly or indirectly. Land and techniques in communal croplands. The lack of water issues; old cultivation techniques; a lack such techniques, however, is a pressing issue for of marketing information; poverty; degradation agriculture in semi-arid areas. Various cropland of natural resources and environmental issues; application techniques are available in the population growth; insufficient support services; literature, but only those deemed appropriate framework and institutional constraints; and for use in rural communities in South Africa's a lack of agricultural and rural development semi-arid areas are discussed in greater detail policies are among the prominent challenges in below. these areas. Most croplands in South African rural villages • Contour ridging have been idle for more than 20 years. Poor Contour bunds are a streamlined version yields, a lack of implements, and a lack of of micro-catchments. Construction can be fencing have resulted in the abandonment of mechanized, making the technique suitable most croplands in the former homeland states. for larger-scale implementation. The bunds, A small number of rural villagers continue to as the name implies, follow the contour at use traditional methods to produce maize, close intervals, and the system is divided into their main source of food. However, high water individual micro-catchments via the use of losses due to R and Es occur under these small earth ties. Contour bunds allow for crop conditions, resulting in less water available for or fodder cultivation between the bunds. The crop production. As a result of climate change, runoff is high, as with other forms of micro- the situation is exacerbated by low and erratic catchment water harvesting techniques, and rainfall and higher temperatures. when designed correctly, there is no loss of runoff out of the system. Bunds or ridges are 110

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water built along the contour line, on slopes ranging riding is the practice of making shorter ridges from 1 to 50%, and are typically placed at 5 to 20 at shorter intervals rather than just at the end m intervals. The first 1-2 meters above the crest of each ridge. This produces a box effect, with are used for agriculture, while the rest is used the boxes acting as basins to keep the water as a catchment area. The ridge's height ranges in. Tied-ridging is regarded as a very reliable between 0.3 and 1 m, depending on the slope method of increasing crop yield and conserving grade and projected runoff storage capacity. water, despite the fact that it has a high labor On sandy soils that are prone to erosion, ridges constraint. Farmers have a negative outlook on can be strengthened with stones. Farmers can this practice because of the decrease in the use use animal- or tractor-drawn implements to of animal draught power and labor constraints accomplish the strategy. It's critical to build among small-scale farmers, which poses a ridges along the contour precisely to avoid significant barrier to its adoption and use by water flowing down it and pooling at the lowest farmers. point. Alternatively, cross-bunds or tied ridges can be added at appropriate intervals along the • Tied furrows ridge. The contour ridge technique is the most Tied furrows, like tied-ridging, allow for the important technique for supporting forages, concentration and conservation of water, grasses, and hardy trees on gentle to steep resulting in high crop yields. This system is more slopes in low rainfall areas, while it is used for effective on soils with a high clay content, but arable crops such as sorghum and cowpeas in such positive results do not occur on sandy the semi-arid tropics. soils, which have low fertility and water holding The ability to locate the ridge as precisely as capacity. When planting sorghum and maize on possible along the contour line is required the tied furrow system, row spacing of 1.0 m, for successful application of this technique. If additional fertiliser, and top-dressing are the this is not accomplished, water will flow along best compromise for these sandy soils. the ridge and accumulate at the lowest point, threatening to destroy the entire down slope • Contour strip cropping system. Stone bunds can be built on gentle Contour strip cropping is the practice of slopes if large stones are found in the area. alternating crop strips with grass or cover Stone bunds are permeable, slowing sheet flow crops. The planted strips are used for farming. and encouraging infiltration. Excavated soil can The uncultivated strips allow runoff to enter be added to the upstream side of the bund to the cultivated crop strips, increasing soil water form an impermeable contour ridge. Surveying content in the area surrounding the cultivated instruments, an A-frame, or hand tools can crops. The system has a dual benefit in that the be used to delineate the contour, but these cover crops can be used to produce fodder. The methods are too expensive, sophisticated, and system is used on gentle slopes up to 2%. The time-consuming for the average small-scale width of the strip can be adjusted to suit the farmer. slope's gradient. With a catchment area to crop basin area ratio of less than 2:1, the system is • Tied-ridging successful. The system is suitable for most crops Tied-ridging occurs when the ridges along the and is simple to automate. contour are joined by a shorter ridge. Box- 111

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Runoff strips • Contour-bench terracing The cropping area is divided into strips along a The contour-bench terrace technique is excellent contour in the runoff strip technique. As a result, for soil conservation and water harvesting, and the technique is best suited for gentle slopes. The it can be built on very steep slopes. Cropping catchment is formed by the upslope strip, while terraces are typically built level and supported the crop is supported by the downslope strip. by stone walls to slow water flow and erosion. The width of the downslope strip should ideally Steeper, uncropped areas between the terraces be between 1 and 3 m. The amount of water provide more runoff water. Drains are used to required will determine the size of the upslope safely remove excess water. This technique is strip. Runoff strips can be fully mechanized, so mostly used for trees and bushes, and it is only labor input is minimal, though weeding and rarely used for field crops. The cost of building compaction may be required to improve runoff. and maintaining such a system is prohibitively Strip management and continuous cultivation expensive for farmers in low-rainfall areas. can increase soil fertility and improve soil structure. If the slope is gentle and the cropped Stone terracing strip is too wide, the water distribution may be uneven. Uneven moisture distribution can also Stone terracing, according to Denison and occur if a ridge forms along the cropped strip's Wotshela (2009), is a simple rainwater upstream edge during cultivation. To avoid this, harvesting and management technique that the cropping strip should not be wider than 2 is labor intensive and used by only a few m. Hensley et al. (2000) modified the runoff communities in the Eastern Cape and Limpopo strip system in South Africa to include basins for Provinces. It entails stacking stones at the runoff water storage in their IRWH technique. bottom of low-lying croplands. Stonewalls are stacked high at the base of slopes or downhill • Inter-row system areas. These stone enclosures trap sediment The inter-row system consists of bunds with that accumulates over time and contributes to heights ranging from 0.40-1 m that are built at the formation of new layers of soil. The method 2-10 m intervals depending on the crop's water is used to plant a variety of crops and trees. requirement. These triangular cross-sectional bunds are built along the land's main slope and • Bund systems are possibly the best technique for flat lands. The bunds system is made up of semi-circular To encourage more runoff, the bunds can be earthen bunds that face upslope. Bunds are compacted, treated with a water repellent, typically arranged in staggered rows. They can or covered with plastic sheets. Between the also be shaped like a trapezoid or a crescent. ridges, runoff is collected and either directed to They are built at such a distance apart that there a reservoir at the end of a feed canal or to a is enough catchment to provide the necessary crop grown between the ridges. To maintain a runoff water, which accumulates in front of the high runoff output, the catchment area must be bund. This area can then be used to grow plants. well-maintained. The distance between the two ends of each bund ranges from 1 to 8 m, and the bunds are 112

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 0.30 to 0.50 m high. When building the bund, crops such as millet, maize, and sorghum. There a slight depression is formed where runoff is is a high demand for labor, particularly in the intercepted and stored in the root zone. The first few years. The pits must be restored after technique can be used on a flat surface up to tillage. When the terrain is flat, pits are used for a 15% slope. Bunds can be used to rehabilitate in-situ moisture conservation rather than water rangeland, produce fodder, shrubs, and, in harvesting. some cases, field crops and vegetables such as sorghum and watermelons. • Small runoff basins The small runoff basin technique consist of small • Pot-holing diamond- or rectangular-shaped structures Close to the planting stations or in between the surrounded by low earthen bunds. The diamond planting stations, holes known as potholes are or rectangle's long diagonal lies parallel to the dug. Rainwater is collected in these holes, which slope, allowing R to flow to the lowest corner, then raises the soil water content near the where planting takes place. The negarim, with a planting station. The problem is that potholes fill width of 0.05-0.10 m and a length of 0.10-0.25 up during the season, necessitating the digging m, is suitable for even ground, though it may of new ones at the start of each season. Due be used on practically any slope less than 5%. to the decrease in the usage of animal draught Slopes more than 5% may induce soil erosion, power and the acute labor constraints faced hence the bund height should be raised. Small by small-scale farmers, this technique, like tie- runoff basins are ideal for growing tree crops, but ridging, has a high labor constraint, and farmers the soil must be deep enough to hold adequate have a negative attitude on these techniques. water throughout the dry season. Negarims This is a significant barrier for farmers to have a favorable impact on soil conservation embrace and apply these strategies. and require little maintenance. • Deep pits and pits • Swales Pits is a trenching system used on soils with very Swales are long, level excavations that range low infiltration rates. The size and crop are what in width and treatment from modest ridges distinguishes deep pits from pits. To ensure a in gardens to rock piles across the slope to high infiltration rate, trenches are dug across intentionally excavated hollows in flatlands and the slope and then filled to the original level low-slope landscapes. The crest of the swale with local fractured rock, river sand, or organic is frequently vegetated, with trees or reeds material. These trenches collect rainwater, planted on the crest. The swale's effect is to trap intercept runoff, and store it in the surrounding water that falls on the area above the swale and area. The combination of pits and bunds is ideal slow it down, allowing for maximum infiltration. for agricultural land rehabilitation. Pits typically In the event of heavy rain, which causes runoff have a diameter of 0.3-2 m. Because the plant flow to overtop the swale, the vegetation on the residues are thrown into the pits, the system crest holds the swale's soil. In the furrow above maintains soil fertility. Deep pitting is used the swale wall, the swale also generates a moist for deep-rooted perennial crops such as trees, microclimate. Because plant-available moisture whereas pitting is primarily used for annual is substantially higher in this area, it is often 113

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water quite productive. Swales are not the same as proved to be sustainable and outperformed the contour bunds that are widely used in soil CON. It not only increases agricultural output conservation projects. Swales enhance water but also prevents erosion by better utilizing infiltration while soil conservation tries to drain rainfall and boosting rainwater productivity. water from the area without causing damage to The mechanical IRWH constructions are built the soil. with a furrow and basin plough. The furrow plough provides a 20-centimeter-high contour • In-field rainwater harvesting ridge with a slope of zero. As seen in Figure 12, Manual IRWH was developed by the ARC-SCW the basin plough creates a 10 cm deep and 1 team at Glen, near Bloemfontein in the central m wide basin every 1.5 m along the ploughed Free State, as detailed by Hensley et al. (2000). contour. Because of the absolute stopping of ex-field runoff and the minimisation of Es, the approach 114

Furrow ploughClimate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Basin plough Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins in croplands. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 115

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Mechanised basins Small basins in a row collect rainfall, which Figure 13 depicts a mechanized basin that can then sink deeper into the soil, below was originally designed to create basins to the evaporation layer, to conserve it. The rehabilitate deteriorated veld. Ripping, ridging, mechanized basin method does not allow for and tying has proven to be a viable alternative the collection of additional runoff water. to ploughing and harrowing for seedbed preparation, as well as a considerably more efficient water saving approach. “Hap ploeg” Figure 13 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of mechanized basins. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 116

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water The mechanized basin plough has a basin • Daling plough attachment (small sharp scraper blade), which The Daling plough generates a 1.8-meter-wide pivots on the rear of a three-point hitched runoff area with a relatively wide and shallow ripper. The ripper tine operates directly in basin. A chisel plough in front is followed by front of the attachment to break up compacted a large V-shaped scraper blade with an off- soil. The scraper at the rear of the attachment center wheel on the Daling plough. The chisel creates the basins. The diamond shaped wheel plough is directly connected to the tractor's controls the movement of the scraper blade, three-point linkage. The chisel plough is trailed resulting in a row of basins being created. The by a large V-shaped scraper blade. The chisel distance between the basin rows is versatile plough loosens the soil before constructing and depends on the planter, application long V-shaped or chevron-shaped basins. The and maintenance actions. A 1 m spacing is off-center rotating wheel lifts the scraper over recommended. With a tractor wheel of 480 the soil in front of it, leaving a ridge as shown mm it implies that during implementation the in Figure 14. tractor returns on its tracks when implementing a new row, but the return trip must start about 50 mm away from the initial wheel tracks. Combined chisel and scraper plough Figure 14 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of water harvesting structures using a Daling plough. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 117

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water The Daling plough works on the same principles any type of feces-free household water. This as the IRWH technique, but no sunken basins includes, among other things, water from the are created. The Daling plough scrapes the top kitchen, kitchen sinks, bathrooms, and washing layer of soil without disturbing the natural slope machines. This water can be used to water the and with large ridges on both sides of the large homestead gardens' plants. Water containing scraper blade. Basins with V shapes are formed. urine and feces is referred to as black water. The chisel plough creates a fine seedbed, while Black water must be thoroughly treated before the scraper blade directs runoff toward the it can be used to irrigate crops. basin's lower end. 4.2.3 Drip irrigation and irrigation scheduling 4.2.2 Use of grey water Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, The amount of water received following the involves dripping water onto the soil at very rainfall event can be classified into three types: low rates (2-20 litres/hour) through a network green, white, and blue water. Green water is of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with water that infiltrates the soil and is taken up by emitters or drippers. Drip irrigation (as shown plant roots for physiological processes, whereas in Figure 16) is a type of micro-irrigation white water is water that is intercepted and system that has the potential to save water directly evaporated from the plant canopy, as and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly well as evaporation from the ground surface. to plant roots, either above or below the soil Blue water, on the other hand, refers to water surface. The goal is to direct water into the derived from runoff into river basins. This root zone while minimizing evaporation. This water is also susceptible to deep percolation climate smart agricultural technology entails into aquifers, where it eventually finds its way making efficient use of irrigation water in order to rivers. Green water is the most important to save more water for other environmental component of rainfall in a dryland agricultural purposes. It ensures that crops are irrigated at system. In addition to the three previously the appropriate time and with the appropriate mentioned categories of water for dryland amount of water based on crop requirements. agriculture, there is grey water (as illustrated In this regard, it increases yields and, as a result, in Figure 15). This category of water includes household food security. Clean water Grey water Black water Springs, wells, purified water, Used water without toxic Contaminated water with toxic city water, rain water chemicals and / or excrement chemicals and / or excrement Figure 15 Classification of water according to source of origin. 118

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water It is appropriate for arid and semi-arid regions wastes almost no water due to runoff, deep with limited access to water but irrigation percolation, or evaporation. facilities. Farmers can manage the amount of Drip irrigation reduces the amount of water water used by the crop while also saving water that comes into contact with crop leaves, stems, for future climatic disasters in this manner. and fruit. Drip irrigation can aid in the efficient use of water. A well-designed drip irrigation system Figure 16 Use of drip irrigation to improve water use efficiency. Source: https://www.atsirrigation.com/do-you-know-the-6-major-parts-of-a-drip-irrigation-system. 119

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 5 CONCLUSION technologies that various CSA technologies can be successfully used to improve crop yields Climate change is already a measurable reality and rainwater productivity in homestead that poses significant social, economic, and gardens and croplands when compared to environmental risks and challenges around the conventional tillage / farmer practices. This is world. As a result, South Africa must strike a especially important in semi-arid environments, balance between accelerating economic growth where every drop of rainwater must be used to and transformation and conserving natural produce food as efficiently as possible. resources and responding to climate change. A variety of CSA technologies can be used in In South Africa, water is the primary medium homestead gardens and cropland. Certain through which the effects of climate change technologies, such as IRWH, are very effective are felt. Changes in rainfall patterns, with at reducing unproductive water losses from the more intense storms, floods, and droughts; soil surface, such as runoff and evaporation. changes in soil moisture and runoff; and the Unproductive water losses can be reduced effects of increasing evaporation and changing even further when these water management temperatures on aquatic systems are all having strategies are used in conjunction with sound an impact on water quality and availability. soil management practices such as mulching. Climate change awareness is important because The CSA technologies offer the farmer a variety it helps people understand and address the of options from which to choose based on his impact of global warming. It increases “climate specific needs and farming enterprise. With literacy” among extension practitioners and CSA technologies, communities are no longer small-holder farmers, encourages changes in limited to homestead garden production, their attitudes and behavior, and assists them but can also expand to semi-commercial or in adapting to climate change-related trends. commercial croplands. A variety of implements By focusing on local or regional impacts, for the construction of rainwater harvesting climate change awareness can be increased. structures are available for this purpose. Changes that extension practitioners and small- According to available literature, the Daling holder farmers have already noticed, such as a plough performed better on soils with clay decrease in rainfall and increased temperatures, contents of less than 29%; mechanized basins were highlighted. Because the effects of climate performed better on soils with clay contents change vary, extension practitioners and small- between 29% and 36%; and IRWH works best holder farmers must be on the lookout for on soils with clay contents greater than 36%. climate change impacts in their specific region. It is thus critical to understand the texture of A variety of CSA technologies were showcased. the soil in order to apply the most appropriate This provides farmers with a variety of options climate smart technology. from which to select technology that will meet their specific needs. It was discovered from these 120

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Practical activity 3 A simple group activity can be performed to help extension practitioners understand the role that mulches can play in reducing evaporation losses from the soil surface. Fill four containers with soil of equal weight (for example, 2 kg) (e.g. 2 litre empty ice cream container). The soil in all four containers is the same. In one of the containers, the soil surface is left bare, while mulch is placed on the soil surface in the other containers. In one treatment, stones covering 50% of the soil surface can be used, while grass mulch covering 50% and 100% of the soil surface can be used in the other two treatments. Extension practitioners are then requested to evenly distribute the same volume of water (e.g. 250 ml) over the soil in each container. Each container is then weighed and the weight recorded. All four containers are then place outside in a sunny spot for two days. After the two days the each container with its soil and much is weighed again. Extension officers then need to calculate the percentage water loss for each treatment. 121

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Provide an example of a typical farming enterprise scenario in the area where the extension practitioners work. Examples of such a scenario include: In the Eastern Cape, a small-holder farmer is staying in a rural village near the town of Alice. The area receives approximately 450 mm of rainfall per year, with approximately 320 mm falling between October and April. The majority of the rainfall falls in the form of heavy thundershowers, resulting in a large amount of runoff. Summers are extremely hot, with temperatures exceeding 33oC not uncommon in December and January. The famer is staying in a four-bedroom house with a corrugated zinc roof, gutters, and a JoJo tank. Because the village's taps frequently run dry for long periods of time, the water collected in the tank is primarily used for domestic purposes. Despite not having access to a tractor or implements, the farmer manages to cultivate an area of about 3 hectares for maize production using animal traction. He also grows vegetables in his homestead gardens, primarily for household consumption. The texture of the soil at his homestead garden is unknown, and some patches of soil in his garden are only 500 mm deep. He has a few cattle that roam freely in the communal rangelands during the day and are kraaled at night at his homestead. His cropland is on the outskirts of the village where he is staying, at the foot of the mountains. The cropland slopes at about 4%, and the effective soil depth is 800 mm, with a clay content of about 35%. Cattle are normally allowed to enter croplands after harvesting to use maize stalks as fodder. The farmer has noticed a change in the rainfall pattern; normally, the area receives good spring rains in October, but in recent years, good rains have only begun around mid-November. The farmer has a handheld rain gauge and has recorded that the total rainfall is also slightly less than it was a few years ago. What recommendations do you have for the farmer in terms of CSA technologies and management practices to ensure continued sustainable production? 122

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 6 REFERENCES & RESOURCES Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Joseph LF, Snetler RM, Monde N, Lategan F, Nhlabatsi NN, Lesoli MS & Dube S (2012). Sustainable techniques and practices for water harvesting and conservation and their effective application in resource-poor agricultural production. Volume 2 of 2: Farmer and Extension manual. WRC Report No: TT 542/12. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria. Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Van Rensburg LD & Beukes DJ (2003). Assessment and modelling of water harvesting techniques to optimise water use in a semi-arid crop production area in South Africa. Optimizing Soil Water Consortium under the System wide SWNM Program of CGIAR. Botha JJ, Van Rensburg LD, Anderson JJ, Hensley M, Macheli MS, Van Staden PP, Kundhlande G, Groenewald DC & Baiphethi MN (2003). Water conservation techniques on small plots in semi-arid areas to enhance rainfall use efficiency, food security, and sustainable crop production. WRC Report No. 1176/1/03. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. Botha JJ, Van Staden PP, Anderson JJ, Van Der Westhuizen HC, Theron JF, Taljaard DJ, Venter IS & Koatla TAB (2014). Guidelines on Best Management practices for rainwater harvesting and conservation for cropland and rangeland productivity in communal semi-arid areas of South Africa. Volume 2 of 2. WRC Project No. K5/1775/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria. Denison J & Wotshela L (2009). Indigenous water harvesting and conservation practices: Historical context, cases and implementations. WRC Report No. TT 392/09. Water Re-search Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. Hensley M, Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Van Staden PP & Du Toit A (2000). Optimizing rainfall use efficiency for developing farmers with limited access to irrigation water. WRC Report No. 878/1/00. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa. Sullivan A, Mwamakamba S, Mumba A, Hachigonta S & Majele Sibanda L (2012). Climate-Smart Agriculture: More Than Technologies Are Needed to Move Smallholder Farmers Toward Resilient and Sustainable Livelihoods. FANRPAN Policy Brief 2, XIII. Pretoria, South Africa: FANRPAN. https://hdl.handle.net/10568/34813. Ritchey EL, McGrath JM & Gehring D (2015). "Determining Soil Texture by Feel" Agriculture and Natural Resources Publications. 139. https://uknowledge.uky.edu/anr_reports/139 FAO. 2018. Climate-smart agriculture training manual − A reference manual for agricultural extension agents. Rome. 106 pp. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO 123

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Botha JJ, Van Staden PP, Anderson JJ, Van Der Westhuizen HC, Theron JF, Taljaard DJ, Venter IS & Koatla TAB (2014). Guidelines on Best Management practices for rainwater harvesting and conservation for cropland and rangeland productivity in communal semi-arid areas of South Africa. Volume 2 of 2. WRC Project No. K5/1775/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria. Botha JJ, Anderson JJ, Joseph LF, Snetler RM, Monde N, Lategan F, Nhlabatsi NN, Lesoli MS & Dube S (2012). Sustainable techniques and practices for water harvesting and conservation and their effective application in resource- poor agricultural production. Volume 2 of 2: Farmer and Extension manual. WRC Report No: TT 542/12. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria Other useful locally developed manuals that can be used for training on CSA technologies for use in homestead gardens, croplands and rangelands are as follows: Chitja J & Botha JJ (2020). Guidelines on best management practices and scaling-up approaches for entering food value chains for homestead-, community- and school gardens. WRC Project No. K5/2555/4. Water Research Commission of South Africa, Pretoria. 124

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Examples of a clay (a), (b) loam and (c) sandy soil. 81 Figure 2 The textural triangle is used to classify soils. 82 Figure 3 Determination of soil texture classes. 83 Figure 4 Some effects of climate change. 90 Figure 5 The three principles of conservation agriculture. 95 Figure 6 Rip on the planting row where minimum tillage is used. 99 Figure 7 Application of mulches using various materials. 100 Figure 8 Examples of crops that can be as a cover crop. 102 Figure 9 Example of roof water harvesting in a rural community. 107 Figure 10 Diagrammatic representation of the in-field rainwater harvesting technique. 108 Figure 11 Construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins on a semi-commercial scale. 110 Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of in-field rainwater harvesting basins in croplands. 115 Figure 13 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of mechanized basins. 116 Figure 14 Diagrammatic representation of the construction of water harvesting structures using a Daling plough. 117 Figure 15 Classification of water according to source of origin. 118 119 Figure 16 Use of drip irrigation to improve water use efficiency. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Characteristics of Sand, Silt and Clay. 84 Table 2 Average temperatures (oC) in South Africa per locality. 89 97 Table 3 Comparing current farming and conservation agriculture. 104 Table 4 Classification of rainwater harvesting systems. 125

MODULE 3 Water Resources and Wetlands Compiled by Dr Althea Grundling and Nwabisa Masekwana ([email protected] & [email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Natural Resources and Engineering

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 128 1.1 OVERVIEW 128 1.1.1 Water Resources (Global and SA) 128 1.1.2 Catchment Management 130 1.1.3 Climate Change Predictions 130 1.1.4 Ecological Infrastructure 130 2 WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS 131 2.1 WETLAND/PEATLAND INDICATORS 131 2.2 WETLAND/PEATLAND CLASSIFICATION AND FUNCTION 132 2.3 WETLAND/PEATLAND DISTRIBUTION 135 2.4 WETLAND/PEATLAND PROTECTION AND LEGISLATION 137 3 DRIVERS AND IMPACTS ON WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS 139 3.1 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER RESOURCES 142 3.2 INTERVENTION/ACTION/MITIGATION MEASURES 142 4 CASE STUDIES – EXAMPLES 143 5 REFERENCES & RESOURCES 147 151 LIST OF FIGURES 151 LIST OF TABLES 127

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 1 INTRODUCTION Without water, there can be no life. This is especially evident in the agricultural sector, which relies on water to ensure the country’s food security. Water scarcity is a major threat to agricultural production. This one-day course discusses our water resources, as well as the pressures we face and the actions we can take to ensure the sustainable use and provision of water. The learning objectives cover topics such as water balance, wetland types and ecosystem services, water movement in the landscape, ecosystem drivers and impacts, and water sustainability. An integrated summative (multiple-choice test) and formative (video-clip) submission will be used for evaluation. Training structure You will be assessed against the specific outcomes and assessment criteria of this training unit on natural resources through an integrated summative (multiple-choice test) and formative (video-clip) assessment that will allow you to demonstrate that you have acquired the associated knowledge, skills and values. Training objectives • To understand the water balance • To understand wetland types and the ecosystem services they provide • To understand water movement in the landscape • To understand ecosystem drivers and impacts • To understand sustainable use of water 1.1 OVERVIEW The world’s average annual rainfall is 990 mm. South Africa, on the other hand, receives only 1.1.1 Water Resources (Global and SA) 460 mm of average annual rainfall, but the Water makes up 71% of the Earth’s surface. evaporation rate ranges from 1400 to 2800 mm The vast majority of this is salt water (97.5 %), per year, which is far greater than the rainfall with freshwater accounting for only 2.5%. On received! South Africa has a semi-arid climate the surface, only 0.3 % of freshwater is in liquid characterized by seasonal water deficits and form. Fresh water is becoming a scarce resource surpluses. on a global scale. Water scarcity will affect two- Seasonal rainfall in South Africa is not distributed thirds of the world’s population by 2030. In evenly across the country. The Western Cape terms of the average “total actual renewable province, for example, receives winter rainfall, water resources” per person per year, South whereas large parts of the country obtain Africa is classified as a water-scarce country. summer rainfall. Rainfall falls throughout the year in parts of the Southern Cape. 128

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands South Africa’s seasonal rainfall is not distributed of various drivers that occur at various temporal evenly across the country. The Western Cape and spatial scales (not only water balance but province, for example, receives winter rainfall, also socioeconomic drivers, such as market whereas large parts of the country obtain price changes which act as incentives to produce summer rainfall. Rainfall falls throughout certain crops). SWRM has outreach programs to the year in parts of the Southern Cape. The various sectors operating in a given catchment, average annual rainfall in the eastern parts with the goal of developing mutually agreeable exceeds 1100 mm compared to the western management plans and activities. parts where rainfall averages around 350 mm The usage of water and land use activities are per year. Additionally, South Africa is not only strongly linked. Because water scarcity (drought) a water-scarce country, but the water that is and abundance (floods) pose challenges, available is usually polluted. sustainable agricultural practices must assess As a result, Sustainable Water Resources water availability and promote efficient water Management (SWRM), which provides use by understanding a catchment’s water quantitative and qualitative data for water balance (as illustrated in Figure 1). Water use by urban, agricultural, industrial, and balance in a catchment is represented in three environmental sectors, must be prioritized phases in Figure 1, namely: incoming water in water management systems. SWRM also (precipitation, subsurface inflow), water that addresses the numerous consequences and goes out (evapotranspiration, stream flow, trade-offs that result from land use change. and subsurface outflow), and water in storage This necessitates a more nuanced examination (surface storage, subsurface storage). Figure 1 Illustration of the water balance components in a catchment. 129

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 1.1.2 Catchment Management rainstorm events. As a result, the agricultural The expansion of agricultural production will sector requires the following information: have an effect on the water balance at the catchment level. Land use changes typically have • How much water is available? a variety of effects on the hydrological response • What crops can they grow? of the catchment. For example, land use can • How can conservation agriculture practices alter streamflow regimes both quantitatively and qualitatively. Streamflow changes typically be used to maintain ecosystem functions? increase or decrease flow volume over time, • What are the risks of flooding, drought, and resulting in either flooding or downstream water shortages. water quality? Water availability and efficient water use are essential components of sustainable agricultural 1.1.4 Ecological Infrastructure practices. Crop production will almost certainly Wetlands are an example of ecological be negatively affected if water availability and infrastructure and play an important role in efficiency are not determined. climate change mitigation and adaptation. Since there is a trade-off between agricultural Ecological infrastructure is critical for socio- production and tChliemapteroCvhiasniogenreofefrs rteogaulating economic development, ensuring the quantity upeceseoospyclsehtaelinmvginesgecrinavnitcheiescc(cnelhhcic(.maaglrainn.ekat,ggecatbeeehsyswietmnsihnatateatthtthtenhiecsreteats.irntmcIeavfabteugleseaultnneotdlhasefeattatrtnsihea)todcebb/nptyioe)rlidr,otlyvaindodef and quality of water, and preserving biodiversity. water regulation sevravriiacbeislit(ysuocf hitsacshwareatcltaenridstsic)sare Natural ecosystems like wetlands provide impacted by encraonadcthhmatelansttss foarssaonceixatteenddedwith valuable goods and services (i.e., ecosystem Fmaugarryitchuelbrtumeroalrueen,xappbealanetsbpopliaeerrotonrlnocoicdoa,enudsstgsshpeo(eearefrds.otCtoaibvymlrfyiipmfdeeenex,eacatotttoeefuertfrnctedawhhanlealieidsnfnctoegtolrceaecsasrniymndensdaergat)lvsseyiamcrees. services) that benefit people, such as water important carbon siunckhsa.sPseoalatrlacnycdlse,mfoorduelxaatimonp,le, and carbon storage, flood control, groundwater lose their ability tovoclacapntiucreeruapntidonsst,oarnedccahrrobnoinc if replenishment, sediment and nutrient retention they disappear or ahcoruemmpdaonesgcithriaoadnngeoedrs.liannadtumsoes(pIPhCeCri,c and export, water purification, soil formation, As a result, the inte2r0a0c7t)i.on between catchment, wetland products, biodiversity reservoirs, land use change, and climate change is complex. cultural values, recreational and tourism Changes in land use will have a negative opportunities. impact not only on agricultural catchments’ Not all wetlands provide all of the above- water resources, but also on climate change mentioned services all of the time because predictions. different wetlands provide a variety of services depending on their type, size, and location. For 1.1.3 Climate Change Predictions example: Drought is a natural occurrence in South Africa, but future climate change predictions predict an 1) the headwater Waterval wetland in the increase in temperatures, a decrease in rainfall Kgaswane Mountain Reserve provides (in some areas), and frequent droughts and water to downstream users, and 2) the Muzi swamp in the Tembe Elephant Park not only provides water to the park’s animals, but it also serves as a source of reeds (Phragmites australis) and sedges that local communities harvest during the winter months (le Roux et al., 2021). (refer to the Wetlands and Peatlands section). 130

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 2 WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS • Soil Wetness Indicator (“identifies the morphological signatures (soil forms) de- 2.1 WETLAND/PEATLAND veloped in the soil profile as a result of pro- INDICATORS longed and frequent saturation”). Wetland delineation is the process of • Vegetation Indicator (“hydrophilic vegeta- demarcating and marking the boundary of tion associated with frequently saturated a wetland using the indicators listed below soils”). Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 show (DWAF, 2005): examples of wetland vegetation. It can be noted in these Figures that flood retention • Terrain Unit Indicator (describes “parts in is made possible by the robust nature of the the landscape where wetlands are more plants. likely to occur”). • Soil Form Indicator (“hydromorphic soil forms which are associated with prolonged and frequent saturation”). Figure 2 Palmiet (Prionium serratum). Source: Grundling, 2004. Figure 3 Swamp forest. 131

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Figure 4 Reeds (Phragmites australis). 2.2 WETLAND/PEATLAND Wetlands are further classified as temporal, CLASSIFICATION AND seasonal, or permanently wet (saturated), with FUNCTION saturation defined within 50 cm of the surface (DWAF, 2005): Temporal wetlands are saturated Wetlands in South Africa are classified using for less than three months of the year, seasonal the Hydrogeomorphic (HGM) classification wetlands for 3-10 ten months, and permanently system, which is based on the hydrological wet wetlands are saturated throughout the year and geomorphological characteristics of the (DWAF, 2005). wetland (Ollis et al., 2013). Figure 5 provides a Peat is classified into four diagnostic horizons, schematic view of where inland wetlands occur with three classes of peat horizon decomposition in the landscape, and Figure 6 captures various (fibric, hemic, and sapric) as shown in Figure HGM wetland units. Wetland classification 7 (Soil Classification Working Group, 2018). is important for wetland conservation, management, and for keeping the inventory of • MFABENI: Peat /Gley horizon ecosystem services (Ollis et al., 2013). • MUZI: Peat/Hard Carbonate • NHLANGU: Peat/Albic horizon • KROMME: Peat/Hard Rock 132

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Ollis et al., 2013 Figure 5 Illustration of where inland wetlands could occur in the landscape. Source: Ollis et al., 2013. 133

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands KEY Input Output Throughput Figure 6 Illustration of the different HGM wetland units. Source: Ollis et al., 2013. 134

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands AB C Figure 7 Decomposition stages of the peat horizon: A) Fibric, B) Hemic and C) Sapric peat from Karst system. 2.3 WETLAND/PEATLAND deficits and surpluses. Wetlands, according to DISTRIBUTION Winter (1999), are not isolated features in the landscape. According to South Africa’s National Wetland Wetland complexes are commonly linked to Map version 5 (NWM5), 2.2% has been mapped streams and/or groundwater flow systems. as inland wetlands, totalling 2.6 million ha According to Jolly et al. (2008), wetlands (SANBI, 2018; Van Deventer et al., 2020) (see (particularly peatlands) in semi-arid climates are Figure 8). typically dependent on groundwater discharge from intermediate hillslope seepage or regional In South Africa, peatlands are found in a or perched aquifers because evaporation rates variety of v ecoregions including the Bushveld, are significantly higher than seasonal rainfall. Highveld, Lowveld, Coastal belt or plain, and Peatlands that occur in more arid regions of Cape Fold and Escarpment mountain areas, South Africa, such as the karst regions of the all of which rely on groundwater to maintain North West Province (Highveld Peat Ecoregion) hydrological peat forming processes (Grundling and the Southern Coastal Belt Peat Ecoregion et al., 2017; Grundling et al., 2014b; Grundling, on the West Coast, are thus extremely sensitive 2014a). Figure 10 provides a map of peatland to groundwater flow disruption or changes in ecoregions in South Africa. It is remarkable the hydrological regime.  that peatlands can still be found in a semi-arid environment characterized by seasonal water 135

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Figure 8 National Wetland Map version 5. Source: SANBI, 2018; Van Deventer et al., 2020. Figure 9 Wetland confidence map and categories. Source: SANBI, 2018. 136

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Figure 10 Peat ecoregions with Palmiet systems (wetlands dominated by Prionium serratum) occur along the Southern Coastal Belt (A). The Mfabeni Mire (oldest system) occurs in the Natal Coastal Plain (B). The map also shows known peat sites in the National Peatland Database (C). Source: Grundling et al., 2017. 2.4 WETLAND/PEATLAND Some peatlands fall in another four of South PROTECTION AND Africa’s Ramsar sites, including Verlorenvlei, LEGISLATION Drakensberg, Ntsikeni and the Marion and Prince Edward islands. The efficacy of protection Peatlands in South Africa are poorly protected, is, however, constrained by a lack of knowledge, according to Grundling et al. (in review). The the extent of wetlands in SA, which of these iSimangaliso Wetland Park on the east coast of are peatlands, ecological status to determine KwaZulu-Natal Province is estimated to contain management and conservation requirements, between 30%-50%  of the extent of peatlands. poor enforcement of relevant environmental This area is home to three Ramsar sites: Kosi legislation and policies, lack of response to (estuarine, lake, and swamp forest), Lake Sibaya disaster events such as peat fires and erosion (limnetic depression), and the Lake St Lucia events. system (lakes, estuary, wetlands, mires and Peatlands are also found in four other Ramsar swamp forests). The Mahlapanga and Mfayeni sites in South Africa: Verlorenvlei, Drakensberg, Hot Spring Mires are located in the Kruger Ntsikeni, and the Marion and Prince Edward National Park, and the Marakele National Park islands. The efficacy of protection is, however, (Limpopo Province) also has peatlands. limited by a lack of knowledge about the 137

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands extent of wetlands in South Africa. This includes Over the last three decades, wetland identifying wetlands that can be classified as management has been implemented through peatlands, determining their ecological status, the Conservation of Agriculture Resources Act and establishing effective management and 43 of 1983 (CARA), the National Environmental conservation requirements. Some of the major Management Act 28 of 2008 (NEMA), challenges are a lack of enforcement of relevant Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) policy, environmental legislation and policies, as well as and Water Use Licence Authorisations (WULA) in a lack of response to disaster events such as peat accordance with regulations 21c and 21i of the fires and erosion events. National Water Act 36 of 1998, resulting in: Furthermore, because most peatlands in semi- arid regions rely on sustained groundwater • limited approval of commercial wetland and/or hillslope intermediate flows, their cultivation permits; designation should take catchments and related landscapes into account as part of the strategy • EIAs and WULA regulations applied to any to conserve these peatlands. Not only should peatland-related impacts, resulting in a land use practices in and adjacent to peatlands decrease in development and dams built in be managed, but so should those in related peatlands or upstream; catchments, particularly those that may have an impact on a peatland’s water and sediment • no granting of peat extraction licenses; and balance. • a decrease in afforestation and mining Finally, since most peatlands occur outside of formal areas, the precautionary rule should apply authorisations in peatland areas. to any activities that may jeopardize the integrity This demonstrates the importance of intervention of peatlands, and authorisation stipulations in efforts through legislation, policy, and terms of relevant legislation must be followed, enforcement, as peatlands and wetlands do not as well as being monitored and enforced by the occur in isolation and are components of larger relevant authorities. landscapes (refer to the section on Sustainable Water Resources Management (SWRM)). 138

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 3 DRIVERS AND IMPACTS ON WETLANDS AND PEATLANDS The cumulative effect of poor protection and A driver is any natural or anthropogenic compliance, climate change, and increasing (human-induced) factor that causes a change demand for surface water and groundwater will in an ecosystem, either directly or indirectly. ultimately determine the fate of our peatlands. Whereas ecosystem responses can include Figure 11 depicts the processes, patterns, habitat reductions, species and population and connectivity of the ecosystem. Land use changes, phenology changes, and plant-animal activities can have an impact on any of the interactions. ecosystem drivers or responses, potentially affecting all of the drivers and or responses and thus affecting the ecosystem services provided. Figure 11 Ecosystem drivers and responses influencing the ecosystem services provided. Source: Roets, 2020. 139

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Table 1 contains a list of examples of change Changing the hydrological regime has a number drivers and impacts in relation to some South of drivers and consequences for wetlands African wetlands. and peatlands (Grundling et al., in review) as illustrated in Table 1. Table 1 Drivers and impacts on wetlands and peatlands with examples. Source: Grundling et al., in review. Driver Impact Example Excessive water abstraction and Lowering of the water table in Rietvlei and Molopo peatlands (North diversion for domestic primary aquifer to the extent West Province) and the Langvlei and agricultural use that no discharge of water to system (Western Cape Province). Increased water the peatland is taking place. demand from land uses such as forestry Exotic trees not only tap into Vasi Pan peatland in the (plantations) the groundwater table but also Manzengwenya Plantations and the retard rainwater infiltration KwaMbonambi Plantations in the Increased water leading to lower groundwater KwaZulu-Natal Province and Lakenvlei attribution to low levels, as the land cover on in the Mpumalanga Province. energy ecosystems recharge areas is extensively altered. The combined impacts are that peatlands in and adjacent to these plantations are desiccated and eventually the dried peat burns, which has a negative effect on biodiversity. The addition of water to Colbyn wetland in Pretoria, Klip River systems, resulting from either south of Johannesburg (both in the Waste Water Treatment Gauteng Province). Works (WWTW) or irrigation, Additional flows are often polluted increased run-off from urban and nutrients such as phosphates areas, overgrazed areas and can accelerate peat degradation as afforestation, result in and is evident in the Rietvlei peatlands increase flow of water in where erosion resulted in peat peatlands. Particularly in the desiccation with polluted return dry season, the peatland is flows from upstream WWTWs further changed from low energy exacerbating the degradation of peat. to higher energy regime causing severe erosion and degradation. 140

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Driver Impact Example Clearing vegetation This is particularly problematic cover in the swamp forest Siyaya and Swamanzi systems Peat extraction peatlands across the northern flowing into Kosi Bay (KwaZulu-Natal and eastern parts of the Province), as well as Lakenvlei near Invasive small mammal country. Degradation due to Dullstroom (Mpumalanga Province) damage hydrological flow alteration and palmiet systems such as in occurs where trees are cleared the Kromme in the Langkloof and and the peatland drained for Riviersonderend downstream of the cultivation of subsistence and Theewaterskloof Dam (Western Cape commercial crops. Province). Impact of these extraction operations continues to Peat mining occurred extensively linger with erosion evident in the interior of South Africa from in drainage channels (e.g. the 1980s to 2011, especially in the Kliprivier, Rietspruit and karst related peatlands in North Rietvlei wetlands in the West and Gauteng provices, with Gauteng Province), open some peat mining also reported water bodies unable to in the Soutpansberg Mountains in support revegetation and Limpopo Province and the George peat accumulation (Kliprivier area in the Western Cape Province. and Gerhard Minnebron), The last peat extracting operation all related in diminished in the Gerhardminnebron peatland functioning of these systems eventually ceased in 2011 by the in terms of water storage, personal intervention of the late base flow maintenance, Minister of Environmental Affairs, Ms carbon storage, filtration and Edna Molewa. biodiversity. Impact due to the erosion of Ice Rats (Otomys sloggetti robertsi) the peatlands and subsequent in the head water peatlands of the desiccation as a result of a Maluti Mountains (Lesotho). docu- variety of factors such as mented (Du Preez & Brown, 2011; infrastructure development Grundling, Linström, Fokkema, & and overgrazing. Animals Grootjans, 2015). burrowing tunnels causing Gerbil (Tatera leucogaster) in Mpu- peat surface desiccation. malanga Highveld. Mice (Mus musculus) of Marion Island. 141

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 3.1 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE 1) Immediate updating of the National ON WATER RESOURCES Peatland Database to complete the inventory and status assessment Climate change is expected to have a negative (determining the current ecological state) impact on peatlands in the western and drier, of all South African peatlands.. groundwater-dependent regions. The DEA (2008) states: 2) Continuous legal compliance enforcement, extension, and control of • Sub-continental warming is expected to be use or exploitation (enforce EIS and WULA greatest in South Africa’s northern regions; regulations), particularly in the forest industry and municipal and agricultural • Temperature increases of 1°C to 3°C are water supply. expected by the mid-twentieth century, with the greatest rises in South Africa’s 3) The development of a disaster response most arid regions; protocol for threatened peatlands, including measures to prevent and • a broad reduction in rainfall of 5% to control peat fires, as well as rehabilitation 10% is expected in the summer rainfall measures to rewet degraded sites and region, accompanied by an increase in the stop erosion. incidence of both droughts and floods, with prolonged dry spells followed by intense Along with environmental degradation, the storms; and following issues must be addressed: • a marginal increase in early winter rainfall is • Karst systems: calculate the water reserve predicted for the winter rainfall region. and then allocate and control the water accordingly. Grundling et al. (in review) report that wetlands in South Africa are heavily reliant on hydrological • Primary systems: identify recharge processes related to catchments, with zones, delineate peatlands, and remove catchment changes influencing hydrological plantations as needed. Determine and geomorphological processes as well as groundwater reserves as well, and allocate water quality. Storms in degraded catchments and control abstraction accordingly. will cause adverse stormflow into peatlands, causing erosion and desiccation, and high clastic • Palmiet systems: Map and assess the extent sediment flows may disrupt peat accumulation. of peatlands, as well as their status and Furthermore, wetlands in these areas will allocation of restoration resources. Parallel compete with humans for water resources to this, enforce sound soil conservation (particularly groundwater), increasing the practices in peatlands and catchments likelihood of desiccation. alike, with special emphasis on catchment overgrazing, palmiet wetlands cultivation, 3.2 INTERVENTION/ACTION/ and alien invasive species control. MITIGATION MEASURES • Peat swamp forests: map and assess Grundling et al. (in review) recommend the the extent of swamp forests, as well as following three key steps for South African their status and allocation of restoration peatlands: resources. Identify household dependency, alternative income streams, and enforce wise use and sound soil conservation practices in swamp forests, such as mulching, rewetting, and revegetation. 142

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands 4 CASE STUDIES – EXAMPLES Figure 12 depicts peat loss as a result of a peat fire in Bodibe, North West Province, and Figure Grundling et al. (in review) identified 17 known 13 depicts peat loss as a result of erosion in systems that could have collapsed completely. Kromme, Western Cape Province. This indicates that the system has degraded to the point where the vegetation cover, hydrological regime, and substrate have all been destroyed. Figure 12 Bodibe (North West Province); MUZI: Peat/Hard Carbonate. Figure 13 Peat loss due to erosion (Kromme, Western Cape Province), KROMME: Peat/Hard Rock. 143

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands To date, extreme water abstraction has resulted can result in severe burns. However, Working on in 17 burnt or desiccated peatlands totaling Fire (WoF) recently used a revolutionary effective an estimated 616 ha in size (Figure 14; Table but simple technique to extinguish a peat fire 2). Desiccation cracks create an unsafe work in the Onrus wetland (Grundling et al., 2019). environment, and an undetected subsurface The WOF Programme is a job-creation program fire beneath a thin crust of hardened peat ash funded by the South African government that can result in severe burns. recruits youth from marginalized communities, Extreme water abstraction has led to 17 burnt trains them in fire awareness and education, peatlands to date or becoming desiccated, prevention, and suppression skills, and employs totalling an estimated 616 ha in extent (Figure them as WOF Participants. Emergency response 14; Table 2). Risks involved in peat fires include plans are critical for landowners with these desiccation cracks creating an unsafe work systems that have historically collapsed or are environment and undetected subsurface fire on the verge of collapsing. under a thin crust of hardened peat ash which Figure 14 Locations of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported across South Africa since 1996. 144

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Table 2 Extent of peat fires and desiccated peatlands reported across South Africa since 1996. Peatland name Dates Maximum Maximum Province Total peatland extent extent FS extent (ha) GT affected in burnt (ha) desiccated province (ha) KZN 3 Vaal 4 September 3 16 Racecourse 2018 16 9.4 LP Rietvlei 1991 (for ± 6 40 NW 121 KwaMbonambi months) 33 Lake Sibaya Various 2.6 359 WC 5 (four 43 peatlands) 2018 and 2019 69 Muzi North 26 Various 1 402 Vasi Pan 1996, 2014 10 and 30 October Sehlakwane 2018 13 Zaalplaats 25 August 2016 46 Bodibe 2000, 2010 and Lichtenburg 16 May 2019 1.4 Game Breeding 8.6 Centre 28 May 2016 Molopo Leipoldtville- 8 May 2016 and Langvlei 9 January 2018 wetlands Onrus 2010 Verloren Before 22 January 2019 April 2019 145

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Water Resources and Wetlands Grundling et al. (in review) and Grundling & • Illegal peat extraction (no authorisations Grundling (2019) reported that other peatland were issued in accordance with the systems, particularly those in dolomitic areas, National Environmental Management can only be addressed through a holistic Act and the National Water Act) in the approach that includes political will to address Gerhardminnebron peatland was permitted the causes, drivers, and pressures affecting by DAFF officials on the basis of an expired these peatlands. According to the major reviews, CARA licence. current legislation and related regulations are poorly enforced when granting authorisations As a result, a turnaround strategy for these or making decisions by the government. The systems must begin not only with proper legal Karst systems are a case in point: compliance and enforcement, but also with working with wetland users (mapping the users • Water abstraction in the Molopo system and affected parties), establishing agreements, is carried out by the Department of Water developing protection protocols, and so on. and Sanitation (DWS) in the absence of Figure 15 demonstrates the loss of water and a reserve determination for the system. carbon storage due to peat desiccation and Furthermore, sewage and dumping in and subsurface fire. downstream of the town of Mahikeng are completely uncontrolled, and no attempt is made to recycle water that is released into two downstream dams. Figure 15 Water and carbon storage lost due to peat desiccation and subsurface fire. 146

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