Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture The seasonal predictions are based on a mix of rapidly increasing demand, production must observed surface temperature (SSTs) and the be expanded while natural resources must output of an ensemble (or group) of GCM or be conserved. More agricultural research is regional climate models run with downscaled needed to provide farmers, policymakers, and data as input. Farmers might use this information other decision-makers with information on how to manage their operations (Thomas et al., to achieve sustainable agriculture in the face 2007). of global climate variability. Crop simulation The Earth's land resources are finite, but the models are models that imitate and explain number of people that the land must support crop growth and development processes as a is continually increasing. This presents a function of weather, soil, and crop management significant challenge for agriculture. To fulfill techniques. Climatological seasonal totals for precipitation during August-September-October(ASO; top), September-October-November(SON; bottom left) and October-November-December(OND; bottom right). The multi-model rainfall forecast indicates mostly above-normal rainfall for the north-eastern half of the country throughout the spring to early summer seasons (ASO, SON and OND), whereas the south- western half, which falls outside the parts which receive summer rainfall, is mostly expected to receive below-normal rainfall. Figure 30 Rainfall seasonal prediction issued July 2021. Source: SAWS www.weathersa.co.za. 50

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Figure 31 Temperature seasonal prediction issued October 2019. Source: SAWS www.weathersa.co.za 51

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Use of crop models fundamental mechanisms of plant and soil activities. These models simulate Crop models may be used to predict when crop growth based on the impact of these development stages will be reached, various environmental variables on the biomass of crop components (e.g., leaves, crop growth and development. The stems, roots, and harvestable products) as they DSSAT and APSIM model families are vary over time, and changes in soil moisture examples of mechanistic crop models and nutrient status. They also forecast the yield that have been utilised for a variety of based on the supplied parameters and daily cropping systems (see Figure 32). climatic data. 3. Functional models: These mimic complicated processes by using simpler Crop models have been classified into three closed functional forms. The Penman broad categories: equation is one example of an equation that might be utilised as part of a 1. Statistical models: These rely on vast functional model. Functional models amounts of data to find broad trends. are generally performed with a daily The two primary patterns found are a time step, and the data can be updated secular tendency of increasing crop regularly. FAO-AquaCrop is an example production over time and variance of such a crop irrigation scheme (Figure dependent on weather conditions and 32). Fertiliser use. 2. Mechanistic models: These seek to mimic particular outcomes by utilizing Components of AquaCrop, FAO model Overview of the components and sub- modular structure of DSSAT-CSM Figure 32 Examples of crop models utilised for agricultural decision making: FAO-AquaCrop for irrigation, and DSSAT for a range of major field crops. 52

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 6.3 DEVELOPMENT AND DELIVERY subscription to a platform or site. AgriCloud OF AGROMET ADVISORIES augments meteorological and climate data with agricultural information and models, as well Agromet advisories are created by combining as local expertise, to create tailored advisories meteorological predictions and seasonal in real time. It assists farmers in making well- forecasts for a specific region with information informed farm management decisions in order relevant to that region's farming systems. to decrease weather/climate-related risks and They provide a description of the predicted optimise farm inputs, resulting in increased meteorological conditions, as well as information food production in a sustainable way. AgriCloud on how they will affect agricultural and livestock was created by a collaboration that included output. Farmers, extension practitioners, and ARC, SAWS, HydroLogic, and other Dutch agri-business will receive agromet services on partners as part of the Rain4Africa project a regular basis. Scientific weather forecasting (www.rain4africa.org) and was sponsored numerical models and climate monitoring by the Netherlands Space Office under the systems, added value to create tailored G4AW program (https://g4aw.spaceoffice.nl/en/ forecasts for the agricultural sector, and a good projects/g4aw-projects). two-way communication system to deliver and AgriCloud offers a practical way to adapt to receive feedback are all required components climate change and unpredictability by utilizing for an effective agrometeorological advisory both long-term climate data and current system. Transdisciplinary teams should be weather forecasts (see Figure 33). As a result, it created to develop effective integrated is a valuable tool for integrating agronomic crop methods for interpreting weather predictions information with current short-term weather in connection to local agricultural management projections and providing recommendations choices, and then to consistently prepare and for the next 10 days (Walker, 2020). AgriCloud, distribute them to the farming community at for example, offers farmers with planting date the appropriate time. Traditionally, they are guidance (Figure 33g) for their own farm at given in the form of agricultural outlooks or their own location (Figure 33c), on their own crop bulletins in print media and transmitted phone, and in their own language (Figure 33d), to consumers via email and websites. CAPES with daily updates. It also provides spraying (Nanja & Walker, 2011 ) and Science Field Shops recommendations (Figure 33f). The mobile in Indonesia co-developed with rice farmers are App also offers a way for farmers to provide examples of collaborative initiatives to produce comments on current weather conditions agromet advisories (Winarto et al., 2018). through crowdsourcing. Currently, more complex technologies are This offers opportunity for life-long learning utilised for the production and distribution of for farmers to better understand the agro- Agromet warnings, with information being sent environmental systems on their farm. Extension to consumers via mobile applications and APIs. practitioners play a vital role in disseminating AgriCloud is an example of an agromet service agro-climate information by assisting farmers (Walker, 2020). (without smart phones) to access information for their own farm, while they also obtain a AgriCloud is an online weather-based general view of conditions across a wider area. agricultural advisory system that is offered as a mobile phone App or through an API 53

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Figure 33 AgriCloud App available from GooglePlay store (a) to provide farmers with advisory service (f&g) in their own languages (d) on their own phone for their own farm (c). 54

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Farmers may use this chance for life-long to determine when to spray herbicides or learning to better understand their farm's agro- insecticides (Figure 33f). Farmers may thus utilise environmental systems. Extension practitioners this knowledge to plan their next agronomic play an important role in distributing agro- field activities and labor requirements in order climate information by aiding farmers (who do to prevent unfavorable weather circumstances not have smart phones) in accessing information that could result in agrochemical waste. for their particular farm while also obtaining a AgriCloud is available for free download from the broad picture of conditions across a larger area. Google Play Store (Figure 33a&b). Then you must Based on the rainfall received in the previous register as a farmer, which includes pinpointing 10 days and the weather prediction for the next your specific position on an interactive map 10 days, AgriCloud gives farm-specific advice for (Figure 33c). The next stage is to decide which of particular locations (see Figure 33c) for planting the 11 accessible local languages — Afrikaans, of summer rain-fed crops (Figure 33g) such as English, isiNdebele, IsiXhosa, IsiZulu, Sepedi, maize. Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, and This allows farmers to coordinate their soil Xitsonga – would be used. After a few moments, preparation and fertiliser application activities your farm's advisories will be ready for planting in preparation for seed planting at the most and spraying rain-fed crops. These warnings are appropriate moment. Weather forecasts for updated daily, so you may consult them each the following three days are frequently used morning and plan accordingly. 55

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 7 WHAT IS CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE? Overview This section introduces the concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) as a means to increasing agricultural productivity while overcoming climate change issues. It is a concept that looks at methods to preserve and increase food security, assist farmers in adapting to climate change, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. This lesson also elaborates on the fact that Climate-Smart Agriculture is a holistic strategy that integrates all essential disciplines within the agricultural sector, such as soil, water, crop, grassland, animal and climate sciences, entomology, and farm management. It involves comprehensive capacity building at several levels with the goal of fostering behavioral change. CSA is a necessary strategy to cope with climate change through sustainable agriculture systems based on the concepts of integrated water, land, and ecosystem management at the landscape scale. It consists of a set of tried-and-true practical strategies for increasing agricultural output. Key Questions • What is CSA? • What is unique about CSA to current agricultural practices? • How does CSA contribute to adaptation, mitigation and food security? • Is CSA the answer to climate related issues faced by farmers? Learning Objectives On completion of this module, participants will be able to: • Explain the concept and the perspective of Climate-Smart Agriculture • Characterise the importance to implement sustainable agricultural practices for food security • Describe the concept of adaptation and mitigation and its practices and provide examples 56

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 7.1 CLIMATE-SMART effects on agricultural systems generate an AGRICULTURE urgent need to guarantee complete integration of these consequences into national agricultural Overview planning, investments, and programs. The CSA strategy is intended to identify and operationalize This section focuses on the idea of Climate- sustainable agricultural growth within the clear Smart Agriculture and its key elements. It constraints of climate change (FAO, 2017). further emphasizes its three goals: food security, Climate-Smart Agriculture is a site-specific adaptation, and mitigation. It also investigates strategy rather than a universal one. Climate- the notion of Climate-Smart Agriculture for Smart Agriculture is thus heavily evidence- various agricultural companies. Furthermore, based, with the goal of identifying techniques this training allows participants to examine that are appropriate for the local setting. This prevalent behaviors in their region critically and foundation is based on a process of acquiring assess their good and bad consequences. information and engaging in conversation about the technologies and practices that a particular Definition and characteristics country has emphasized in its agricultural planning. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) addresses The approaches and consequences of current food security and climate issues concurrently, agriculture and Climate-Smart Agriculture vary therefore integrating the three pillars of (Table 8; FAO, 2013): sustainable development (economic, social, and environmental). It is built on three major pillars: • Agriculture today: Governments, extension services, and agricultural development 1) Increasing agricultural production and initiatives improve agricultural production incomes in a sustainable manner and productivity by expanding cultivated land, introducing new farming technology, 2) Adapting to and creating resilience to and encouraging farmers to specialize in climate change specific crops or livestock types 3) Reducing and/or eliminating • Climate-Smart Agriculture: Interventions greenhouse gas emissions whenever targeted at increasing production and practicable. productivity, therefore enhancing food security, but with two additional goals: CSA is a strategy for creating the technological, assisting farmers in adapting to climate policy, and investment conditions for long-term change and lowering greenhouse gas levels agricultural development and food security in the atmosphere in the face of climate change. The scale, timeliness, and broad reach of climate change's 57

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 8 Comparing current agriculture practices and CSA. Source: FAO, 2013. Land Current agricultural practices Climate-Smart Agriculture Natural Expand agricultural area through Instead of expanding into new regions, resources deforestation and converting grasslands intensify usage of current locations. Varieties and to cropland. Rather than deforesting new regions, breeds Make the best use of natural resources increase the c land area by rehabilitating Inputs - the land, water, forests, and soils damaged land. needed in industry - while giving Restore, conserve, and utilise natural Energy use little consideration to their long-term resources in a sustainable manner. Production sustainability. and Rely on a few crops, as well as a few To sustain production, improve yields, marketing high-yielding kinds and breeds. and assure stability in the face of climatic change, use a combination of Increase the use of fertiliser, old and new, regionally suited types and insecticides, and herbicides. breeds. Use farm equipment that typically runs • Increase the efficiency with which on fossil fuels, such as tractors and agrochemicals are used diesel pumps. To increase efficiency, specialise • Integrated management techniques manufacturing and marketing must be can be used to control pests and adopted. weeds • Compost, manure, and green manure should all be used • Rotate crops with legumes to fix nitrogen and decrease the need for synthetic fertilisers Use energy-saving technologies such as solar power and biofuels. Diversify production and marketing to add stability and reduce risk. 58

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture CSA is an approach that requires site-specific 9) views climate change mitigation as assessments to identify suitable agricultural a possible secondary co-benefit, production technologies and practices as particularly for low-income, follows: agricultural-based communities; 1) addresses the complex interconnected 10) aims to find and combine options issues of food security, development, for accessing climate-related funding and climate change while developing with existing sources of agricultural integrated solutions that produce investment finance. synergies and advantages while minimizing trade-offs Climate change has both direct and indirect effects on entire food systems as well as the 2) acknowledges that these alternatives four components of food security. Figure 34 will be molded by the circumstances which depicts the connections between types and capacities of a specific country, as of droughts and the impact of drought, is an well as the unique social, economic, excellent illustration. Food security is a major and environmental scenario in which goal of CSA, which strives to enhance agricultural they will be used production (see Table 9) and revenue from crops, animals, and fisheries while not negatively 3) assesses the interactions between impacting the environment or marginalized sectors and the needs of different social and economic groups. Climate change stakeholders adaptation requires an understanding of agro- ecological concepts. Improving water resource 4) analyzes adoption hurdles, particularly management is another area where innovation among farmers, and proposes suitable may be beneficial in mitigating the effects of solutions in the form of policies, climate change. All of these methods help with strategies, activities, and incentives carbon and nitrogen control. The pursuit of sustainable agriculture has 5) seeks to create conducive conditions resulted in the discovery of agro-ecological through better policy, financial, and concepts that may be used internationally. It institutional alignment is a comprehensive strategy that focuses on implementing the fundamental principles for 6) attempts to attain numerous goals fulfilling local needs in a sustainable manner. while realizing that priorities must Instead than relying on external inputs, agro- be established and collaborative ecological principles are largely a mimicking of judgments made on various advantages natural processes in order to produce positive and trade-offs biological interactions and synergies among the components of the agroecosystem (Parmentier, 7) Prioritises increasing access to services, 2014). Technology is not universal; it must be information, resources (including adapted to the local environmental and social genetic resources), financial products, conditions. As a result, context-specific solutions and markets in order to enhance are constantly required, as they must adapt to livelihoods, particularly those of local conditions. smallholders 8) emphasizes and resilience to shocks, particularly those connected to climate change, given the severity of the consequences of climate change on agricultural and rural development; 59

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Agro-ecological principles (Nicholls et al., 2016): • Reduce energy, water, nutrient, and genetic • Improve biomass recycling, organic matter resource losses through improving soil decomposition, and nutrient cycling. and water resource conservation and • Increase the resilience of agricultural regeneration, as well as agrobiodiversity systems by increasing functional biodiversity and establishing homes for natural insect • Diversify the agro-species ecosystem's and foes. genetic resources through time and place, • Provide the best soil conditions for plant at the field and landscape levels development by controlling organic matter and increasing soil biological activity • Improve biological interactions and synergies among agrobiodiversity components, therefore enhancing essential ecological processes and services Relationships between meteorological, agricultural, hydrological, and socioeconomic drought Figure 34 Sequence of drought occurrence and impacts for commonly accepted drought types. All droughts originate from a deficiency of rainfall or meteorological drought but other types of drought and impacts cascade from this deficiency. Source: USA National Drought Mitigation Center University of Nebraska-Lincoln, https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx. 60

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 9 Description of some sustainable agricultural practices. Source: FAO and IFAD, 2015. Zero-tillage or no- Exposing the soil only where the seeds are placed, with minimal soil tillage disturbance and retention of plant residues on surface. Adoption of nitrogen Increases agricultural productivity and minimizes nitrogen losses from efficient crop varieties the soil. Example: varieties that use nitrogen more efficiently will produce Adoption of drought global yield increase for rice. and heat-tolerant crop Specifically designed to resist specific climate related challenges, like variety cultivation droughts, floods, saline or acidic soils, and pests. Improved feed Example: adopting varieties resistant to heat and drought can produce management global yield increase for maize. Livestock manure Storing fodder such as stover, legumes, grass and, grain and making better management use of feed by combining types, growing grass varieties specifically suited Water harvesting to the agro-ecological zone. irrigation The collection and storage of livestock manure for future application to producers’ fields. It dries and composts during storage. Drip irrigation Collects water from a surface area for irrigation or for improved filtration. These systems can be small or large, ranging from individual farms and plots to a much more considerable area. Structures can include open water ditches and water pans that must be managed well to avoid insects’ proliferation, as well as closed tanks and cisterns. A form of irrigation that allows water to drip slowly to the roots of many different plants thanks to a network of pipes, tubing and emitters. Narrow tubes deliver water directly to the base of the plant. It saves water and fertilisers. Climate variability has always been a source of aimed at decreasing vulnerability and improving agricultural output inconsistency since it affects sustainable development: agriculture and agricultural systems in a variety of ways. The livelihood diversification, farmer assistance for season may be above, below, or normal, but managing agricultural risk, gender equality, and it will eventually be hot or cold, wet or dry. migration. Furthermore, these foster resilience, As a result, adaptive techniques are required which means that the agricultural system is less to produce enough food for consumption as sensitive to shocks over time and may readily well as surplus for revenue creation. During restore its strength. Resilience is accomplished extreme weather events, circumstances might through reducing exposure and vulnerability become hotter, wetter, or drier, resulting in crop and increasing adaptive capability. These can loss and livestock fatalities. Table 10 presents be carried out in the biophysical, economic, or innovative ideas as well as traditional practices social realms. In the event of a drought, one as viable responses to context and site-specific example would be the transportation of feed. situations. FAO (2016) emphasizes interrelated Resilience places a high value on a system's adaptation categories for smallholder farmers ability to recover and alter itself through time. 61

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Table 10 Farm-level options for climate change adaptation. Source: FAO, 2016a. Risk Response Changing climate • Optimise planting schedules such as sowing dates (including for feedstock conditions and and forage). climate variability • Plant different varieties, species or cultivars of crops. and seasonality • Use short duration cultivars. • Varieties or breeds with different environmental advantages may be Change in rainfall required, and water • Early sowing can be enabled by improvements in sowing machinery or availability dry sowing techniques. • Increased diversification of varieties or crops can hedge against risk the of Increased individual crop failure. frequencies of • Use intercropping. droughts, storms, • Make use of integrated systems involving livestock and/or aquaculture to floods, wildfire improve resilience. events, sea level • Change post-harvest practices, for example the extent to which grain may rise require drying and how products are stored after harvest. Pest, weed and • Consider the effect of new weather patterns on the health and well-being diseases, disruption of agricultural workers. of pollinator • Change irrigation practices ecosystem services • Adopt enhanced soil water conservation measures • Use marginal and wastewater resources • Make more use of rainwater harvesting and capture • In some areas, increased rainfall may allow irrigated or rain-fed agriculture in places where previously it was not possible • Alter agronomic practices • Reduce tillage to reduce water loss • Incorporate manures and compost, and other practices such as cover cropping to increase soil organic matter and hence improve water retention • General water conservation measures are particularly valuable during times of drought • Use flood, drought and/or saline resistant varieties • Improve drainage, improve soil organic matter content and farm design to avoid soil loss and gullying • Consider (where possible) increasing insurance cover against extreme events • Use expertise in coping with existing pests and diseases • Build on natural regulation and strengthen ecosystem services 62

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 7.2 CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE plant a cover crop. They cut the cover crop and any weeds before sowing and allow Conservation Agriculture (CA) is an agronomic them to cover the surface. They weed or strategy that is founded on three fundamental plant an intercrop between the rows. The principles: (a) minimal soil disturbance or no-till; next season, crops are rotated to preserve (b) continuous permanent soil cover with crops, soil fertility. To sow seed, use a dibble-stick cover crops / living mulch, or crop residual or special hand-planters. mulch; and (c) crop rotation and intercropping • Animal draught - Similar to manual (FAO, 2014). Although the first two principles are cultivation, but farmers employ animals to interdependent, if the soil is tilled, it is impossible draw a chisel plough or ripper into a narrow to maintain a mulch, and “true” CA is generally furrow for seeding only practiced when all three principles are • Mechanized - Farmers employ specialized properly implemented (Giller et al., 2015). This equipment that can manage enormous was caused by excessive soil erosion caused volumes of surface residue. To sow seed, by soil tillage, which compelled people to seek they may utilise a tractor-drawn ripper and alternatives and reverse the process of soil planter. Herbicides may be used to control deterioration by lowering mechanical tillage. weeds This movement advocated conservation tillage, notably zero-tillage, in southern Brazil, North 7.3 SOIL AND WATER America, New Zealand, and Australia. Over the CONSERVATION previous few decades, technologies have been developed and adapted to almost all farm sizes, Techniques for soil and water conservation are soil types, crop varieties, and climatic zones. used to avoid erosion, retain soil moisture, and CA can be included in CSA treatments because maintain and increase soil fertility (FAO, 2018). it can minimize carbon losses due to They may employ a variety of technologies, ploughing, increase organic matter in the soil, including: and prevent erosion. It also cuts down on the usage of fossil fuels because not plowing saves • Physical measures that involve moving gasoline. It can provide numerous advantages, stones and earth: terraces, bunds, contour including consistent yields, drought buffering, ditches, check dams, reservoirs, grassed lower field preparation costs, decreased soil waterways, diversion drains and others to erosion, and contributions to climate change discourage erosion and encourage water mitigation (FAO, 2016a, 2018). However, CA is infiltration not the same as CSA since it does not account for climatic changes such as rising temperatures • Biological measures that involve using and more unpredictable rainfall. trees and grass to prevent erosion, such as Conservation agricultural approaches: reforestation, hedgerows and vegetative strips. Leguminous trees and crops fix • Manual - Instead of burning or removing nitrogen for soil health. the agricultural leftover from the previous season, farmers leave it on the surface to • Agronomic measures that involve managing function as mulch. To prevent leaving the the crop itself: contour planting, strip surface barren in the off-season, they may cropping, intercropping, mixed cropping, fallowing, mulching, grazing management and agroforestry. 63

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Keeping soil from eroding reduces the amount the rainy season finishes early. It is possible if of carbon released into the atmosphere. Soil field preparation is done early, or if conservation fertility conservation minimizes the requirement agriculture practices are utilised, because not for artificial fertilisers. Increasing the quantity ploughing saves time because the farmer does of organic matter in the soil decreases the not have to wait until the soil is moist and soft ahmedoguenrtowofs,CaOn2dinvetgheetaattimveosstprhipesrep.roTvreidees,fogdradsesr, enough to plough. Growing a variety of crops for animals while also reducing soil erosion from spreads the risk of a single crop failing. Rotating wind and water. crops maintains soil fertility and reduces the risk of pests and diseases (FAO, 2018). Climate- 7.4 LAND CLEARANCE REDUCTION smart agronomic practices include: Often, farmed area will be extended or opened • Planting according to rainfall received to up from land that was previously covered by adapt to changing rain patterns natural vegetation. This is accomplished by removing the current vegetation from the • Intercropping area and exposing the bare soil surface. These • Crop rotation activities, however, are not environmentally • Crop diversification. beneficial. As a result, land clearing should be kept to a minimum. Some climate-smart land- 7.6 INTERCROPPING WITH clearance methods may include the following LEGUMES (FAO, 2018): This crop diversity helps to maintain and • Not burning vegetation conserve topsoil while also lowering GHG • Leaving as many trees as possible emissions. Farmers can harvest two harvests • Cutting vegetation and leaving it on the from a single field rather than one throughout a single season. They diversify their risk: if one surface as mulch crop fails due to drought or pests, the other • Making compost with the residues. may still yield a harvest. Legume intercrops These techniques aim to minimize the bind nitrogen in their roots, enriching the soil quantity of greenhouse gases emitted into the and lowering nitrogen fertiliser requirements. atmosphere while also retaining or increasing An intercrop protects the soil from the sun, organic matter in the soil, therefore increasing heat, and heavy rainfall while also discouraging its fertility and water-holding ability. weeds (FAO, 2018). 7.5 AGRONOMIC PRACTICES 7.7 IRRIGATION A wide range of agronomic methods may be Irrigation allows farmers to grow crops even utilised to decrease the impact of agronomic when the rains don't come, and it may also be operations on the climate and GHG generation. utilised as supplemental irrigation during lengthy Farmers can adapt to climate change by using dry spells. However, because water is a precious excellent agronomic techniques. As an example: resource, this is only viable in regions where Planting early avoids crop loss due to drought if water is available from rivers or boreholes. Current methods of irrigation, such as basin 64

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture or furrow irrigation, waste a lot of water since • Half-moon, trapezoidal or diamond-shaped they are inefficient. Drip irrigation or sprinklers basins. need a larger initial investment but consume less water. Attending an irrigation training • Terraces and contour bunds on slopes. session will provide you with more knowledge • Tied ridging. on best practices for irrigation scheduling as b) Macro-catchments. The rainwater is captured well as how to use meteorological and climatic and diverted directly into an irrigation system or information in your operations. Information on into a storage tank or pond: irrigation requirements for many crops across • Dams, weirs and channels to divert river SA is available from the SAPWAT application (van Heerden et al., 2016). water, or to collect and divert floodwater. • Subsurface dams and sand dams, which 7.8 RAINWATER HARVESTING hold water underground where a well or Water harvesting is the collecting of rainfall or borehole may access it. runoff for irrigation, cattle watering, household • Rooftops and impermeable surfaces like usage, crops, and other purposes. Water can be highways, drying floors, or rock outcrops. kept in an open pit or depression, a cistern, or • Natural catchment areas where the water even the soil and water table. Water harvesting flow can be diverted easily. comes in a variety of forms (FAO, 2018): c) Other storage options range from aquifers to a) Micro-catchments. The rainwater is held in holding tanks: the field where it is to be used: • The water table or an aquifer: larger water- harvesting systems may be designed to • Planting basins for individual plants such as refill an aquifer that supplies wells and a tree, or groups of plants such as maize. boreholes. The rest of these CSA methods are expanded further at specific crop training modules. 65

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 8 CONCLUSION to introduce and explain the details about the weather and climate side, so as to form a solid As this is part of the introductory series to the foundation upon which to build. Therefore, the whole course on Climate-Smart Agriculture, definitions and explanations about weather and the descriptions and explanations will stop climate as well as climate change and variability here. Participants will be exposed to much were a vital part of this course. more detail about CSA practices in each of the other sessions. The purpose of this course was 66

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture 9 REFERENCES & RESOURCES ARC-SCW (Agricultural Research Council - Soil, Climate and Water) (2018). National AgroMet Climate Databank, ARC-ISCW, Pretoria, South Africa. Critchfield HJ 1983. General Climatology, 4th Ed. DAEA (Dept. Agriculture & Environmental Affairs, KwaZulu-Natal) (2013). Report to the National Climate Change Committee Progress Report on Climate Change Activities of the KZN, Province of KwaZulu- Natal. 4. Davis C, Engelbrecht F, Tadross M, Wolski P & Archer van Garderen E (2017). Future climate change over Southern Africa. Chapter 3. In Mambo, J. & Faccer, K. (Eds), South African Risk and Vulnerability Atlas: Understanding the Social & Environmental Implications of Global Change. 2nd Ed. 13-25. DEA (Department of Environmental Affairs) (2013). Long-term adaptation scenarios flagship research programme (LTAS) for South Africa: Climate change implications for the biodiversity sector in South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: DEA. DEA (Department of Environmental Affairs) (2018). South Africa’s third national communication under the united nations framework convention on climate change. Pretoria, South Africa: DEA. 354. DEDET (Dept. of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism, Limpopo) (2013). Limpopo Green Economy Plan including Provincial Climate Change Response. Polokwane. 55. DoH (Dept of Health National) (2019). National Climate Change and Health Adaptation Plan 2020-2024. Pretoria, South Africa, DoH. 70. Easterling DR, Evans JL, Groisman PY, Karl TR, Kunkel KE & Ambenje P (2000). Observed variability and trends in extreme climate events: A brief review. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 81. 417-425. ECDEDEA (Eastern Cape Department of Economic Development and Environmental Affairs) (201)1. Eastern Cape Climate Change Response Strategy. Bhisho, RSA. 353. Engelbrecht FA, McGregor JL & Engelbrecht CJ (2009). Dynamics of the conformal-cubic atmospheric model projected climate-change signal over southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology .29: 1013-1033. FAO (2013). Climate-Smart Agriculture sourcebook. Rome, FAO. (also available at www.fao.org/ docrep/018/i3325e/i3325e00.htm). 67

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture FAO (2014). What is conservation agriculture? http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/thematic-sitemap/ theme/spi/scpi-home/managing-ecosystems/conservation-agriculture/ca-what/en/accessed 19 July 2020. FAO (2015). Estimating greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture: A manual to address data requirements for developing countries. Rome, FAO. (available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4260e.pdf). FAO (2016a). The State of Food and Agriculture. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6030e.pdf viewed on 7 November 2019. FAO (2016b). Climate change and food security: risks and responses. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5188e.pdf FAO (2018). Climate-Smart Agriculture. Training manual. A reference manual for agricultural extension agents. http://www.fao.org. GDARD (2012). Gauteng Climate Change Response Strategy and Action Plan. Gauteng Province: Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development. Giller KE, Andersson JA, Corbeels M, Kirkegaard J, Mortensen D, Erenstein O & Vanlauwe B (2015). Beyond conservation agriculture. Front. PlantSci.6:870. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2015.00870. Groisman PY, Knight RW, Easterling DR, Karl TR, Hegerl GC & Razuvaev VN (2005). Trends in intense precipitation in the climate record. Journal of Climate. 18: 1326-1350. https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/wcp/ccl/faq/faq_doc_en.html. Iizumi T & Ramankutty N (2015). How do weather and climate influence cropping area and intensity? Global Food Security. 4: 46-50. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007). Climate Change: The Physical Science basis contribution of working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 663-746. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2014a). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri, & L.A. Meyer (Eds.), IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. 151. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2014b). Annex II: Glossary. In R. K. Pachauri & L. A. Meyer (Eds.), Climate change 2014: Synthesis report (pp. 117–130). Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_Annexes.pdf. 68

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2018). Summary for Policymakers. In: Global warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Eds: V Masson-Delmotte, P Zhai, HO Pörtner, D Roberts, J Skea, PR Shukla, A Pirani, W Moufouma-Okia, C Péan, R Pidcock, S Connors, JBR Matthews, Y Chen, X Zhou, MI Gomis, E Lonnoy, T Maycock, M Tignor, T Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 32 pp. Kruger AC & Nxumalo MP (2017). Historical rainfall trends in South Africa: 1921-2015. Water SA. 43 (2): 285-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v43i2.12. Kruger AC & Sekele SS (2013). Trends in extreme temperature indices in South Africa: 1962-2009. International Journal of Climatology. 33: 661-676. Kruger AC & Shongwe S (2004). Temperature trends in South Africa: 1960-2003. International Journal Climatology. 24 (15): 1929-1945. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1096. Kruger AC (2006). Observed trends in daily precipitation indices in South Africa: 1910-2004. International Journal Climatology. .26 (15): 2275-2285. Kruger AC, Rautenbach H, Mbatha S, Ngwenya S, & Makgoale TE (2019). Historical and projected trends in near-surface temperature indices for 22 locations in South Africa. South African Journal Science 115(5/6), #4846, 9 pg. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2019/4846. Kӧppen Climate Classification. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification Retrieved 22-10-2019. Landman WA & Beraki A (2012). Multi-model forecast skill for mid-summer rainfall over southern Africa. International Journal of Climatology. 32: 303-314. Lapiña GF & Catelo SP (2018). Knowledge and information gaps: Implications for Philippine food security. Journal of Economics, Management & Agricultural Development. 3 (2): 55-74. Malherbe J, Engelbrecht FA & Landman WA (2013). Projected changes in tropical cyclone tracks over the south-western Indian Ocean under enhanced anthropogenic forcing. Climate Dynamics. 40: 2867- 2886. DOI 10.1007/s00382-012-1635-2. Nanja DH & Walker S (2011). Handbook for Community Agrometeorological Participatory Extension Services. At launch in Monze, Southern Province, Zambia. http://www.agrometeorology.org/files- folder/repository/HandbookCAPES.pdf. Nel W (2009). Rainfall trends in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg region of South Africa during the twentieth century. International Journal of Climatology. 29: 1634-1641. 69

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture New M, Hewitson B, Stephenson DB, Tsiga A, Kruger A, Manhique A, Gomez B, Coelho CAS, Masisi DN, Kululanga E, Mbambalala E, Adesina F, Saleh H, Kanyanga J, Adosi J, Bulane L, Fortunata L, Mdoka ML & Lajoie R (2006). Evidence of trends in daily climate extremes over southern and west Africa. Journal Geophysical Research. 111: 11. D14102, doi:10.1029/2005JD006289. Nhamo L, Matchaya G, Mabhaudhi T, Nhlengethwa S, Nhemachena C & Mpandeli S (2019). Cereal production trends under climate change: Impacts and adaptation strategies in Southern Africa. Agriculture. 9(2): 30. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9020030. Nicholls CI, Altieri MA & Vazquez L (2016). Agroecology: Principles for the conversion and redesign of farming systems. Journal of Ecosystem & Ecography. S5: 1. Parmentier S (2014). Scaling-up agroecological approaches: what, why and how? OXFAM discussion Paper, Oxfam-Solidarity, Belgium, January 2014. 92. Peel MC, Finlayson BL & McMahon TA (2007). Updated World map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 11:1633-1644. Radovanovic M, Stanojevic G & Milovanovic B (2016). Recent changes in Serbian climate extreme indices from 1961 to 2010. Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 124 (3-4): 1089-1098. doi: http://dx.doi. org/10.1007/s00704-015-1491-1. Rahut DB & Ali A (2018). Impact of climate-change risk-coping strategies on livestock productivity and household welfare: empirical evidence from Pakistan. Heliyon. 4. e00797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. heliyon.2018.e007972405-8440/Ó2018. Reason CJC, Allan RJ, Lindesay JA & Ansell TJ (2000). ENSO and climatic signals across the Indian Ocean Basin in the global context: part I, Interannual composite patterns. International Journal of Climatology. 20: 1285-1327. Reason CJC, Landman W, Tadross M, Tennant W & Kagatuke M-J (2004). Seasonal to decadal predictability and prediction of southern African climate. OceanDocs http://hdl.handle.net/1834/403:41. Richard Y, Fauchereau N, Poccard I, Rouault M & Trzaska S (2001). 20th century droughts in Southern Africa – spatial and temporal variability, teleconnections with oceanic and atmospheric conditions. International Journal of Climatology. 21: 873-895. Richard Y, Trzaska S, Roucou P & Rouault M (2000). Modification of the southern African rainfall variability/ ENSO relationship since the late 1960s. Climate Dynamics. 16: 883-895. Schulze RE (Ed) (2016). Handbook on adaptation to climate change for farmers, officials and others in the agricultural sector of South Africa. RSA Dept. Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, ISBN 978-1-86871- 450-6. 70

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Simmons KM (2015). Tornado damage mitigation: Benefits-cost analysis of enhanced codes in Oklahoma. Weather, Climate and Society .7 (3): 619-625. Simpson L & Dyson L (2018). Severe weather over the highveld of South Africa during November 2016. Water SA 44(1) 75-85. Spaargaren OC & Deckers JA (2005). Factors of soil formation: Climate. Encyclopaedia of Soils in the Environment. Oxford Academic Press. 512-520. ISBN 9780123485304. STEP (2015). Spatial Temporal Evidence for Planning – South Africa: Climate indicators: Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Viewed on 11 December 2019. http://stepsa.org/images/climate_indicators/ koppen_geiger.png. Stigter CJ & Ofori E (2013). What climate change means for farmers in Africa. A triptych review right panel: Climate extremes and society’s responses, including mitigation attempts as part of preparedness of African farmers. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition & Development. 14 (1): 8459-8473. Thomas DSG, Twyman C, Osbahr H & Hewitson B (2007). Adaptation to climate change and variability: farmer responses to intra-seasonal precipitation trends in South Africa. Climatic Change. 83: 301-322. DOI 10.1007/s10584-006-9205-4. Trewartha GT & Horn LH (1980). Introduction to Climate 5th edition. McGraw Hill, New York. Van Heerden PS & Walker S (2016). Upgrading of Sapwat3 as a Management Tool to Estimate the Irrigation Water Use of Crops, Revised Edition: Sapwat4. Water Research Commission WRC Report No. TT 662/16, May 2016. ISBN 978‐1‐4312‐0790‐9, pp231, www.wrc.org.za. Walker ND (1989). Sea-surface temperature-rainfall relationships and associated ocean-atmosphere coupling mechanisms in the southern African region. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town. Walker S (2020). Value-added weather advisories for small-scale farmers in South Africa delivered via mobile apps. Irrigation & Drainage. 2020: 1-7. http://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2506. WCG: DEAD&P (Western Cape Government Dept. of Environmental Affairs, Development & Planning) (2014). Western Cape Climate Change Response Strategy. Western Cape Government, pp52. Winarto YT, Walker S, Ariefiansyah R, Prihandiani AF, Taqiuddin M & Nugroho ZC (2018). Institutionalizing Science Field Shops: Developing response farming to climate change. Rome, Italia, Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture (GACSA), http://www.fao.org/3/I8454EN/i8454en.pdf. WMO (2020). World Climate Programme Frequently Asked Questions, World Meteorological Organisation, Switzerland, (viewed on 23/09/2020). Zuma-Netshiukhwi G & Mphandeli S (2019). The capabilities of interdisciplinary approach to strengthening farmers’ resilience to climate variability and change. International Journal of Research in Agriculture and Forestry. 6 (6): 11-15. 71

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Daily temperature and solar radiation diurnal cycles. 8 8 Figure 2 Temperature changes according to latitude. 9 10 Figure 3 Effects of radiation and cloud cover influencing surface temperature. 10 Figure 4 Sketch of an urban heat-island profile. 11 12 Figure 5 Map showing (a) altitude and distance from the coast 13 and (b) Temperature changes according to distance from coast. 13 14 Figure 6 Ocean currents around South Africa. 14 15 Figure 7 Temperature and lapse rate changes with altitude. 18 19 Figure 8 Automatic weather station. 20 Figure 9 Eastern Cape weather station distribution. 26 27 Figure 10 Limpopo weather station distribution. 28 29 Figure 11 North West weather station distribution. 30 31 Figure 12 SAWS distribution of automatic weather stations across RSA. 33 34 Figure 13 Köppen-Geiger climate classification of regions across South Africa. 40 41 Figure 14 The image showing the major ocean currents south of Africa. Figure 15 Annual rainfall across South Africa from both ARC and SAWS stations. Figure 16 Diagram to show the climate variability and how means change. Five year mean versus annual temperature variability to distinguish between climate change and climate variability. Figure 17 The El Niño effect on rainfall globally. Figure 18 The La Nina rainfall global patterns. Figure 19 Time scale indication for weather vs climate variability vs climate change. Figure 20 An idealised model of the natural greenhouse effect. Figure 21 Global greenhouse gas emissions by economic sector. Figure 22 Observed monthly global mean surface temperature. Figure 23 LTAS phase of plausible climate futures. Figure 24 Multiple impacts of global warming and climate disruption on agriculture. Figure 25 Conceptual framework on how climate change affects livestock production. 72

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture Figure 26 Conceptual framework for food security dimensions. 43 45 Figure 27 Schematic representation of the flowing effects of 48 climate change affects food security and nutrition. 49 50 Figure 28 An example of a 7 day weather forecast from 12 October 2021 for Potchefstroom. 51 52 Figure 29 A seven-day graphical weather forecast from 12 October 2021 for Potchefstroom. 54 Figure 30 Rainfall seasonal prediction issued July 2021. 60 Figure 31 Temperature seasonal prediction issued October 2019. Figure 32 Examples of crop models utilised for agricultural decision making: FAO-AquaCrop for irrigation, and DSSAT for a range of major field crops. Figure 33 AgriCloud App available from GooglePlay store (a) to provide farmers with advisory service (f&g) in their own languages (d) on their own phone for their own farm (c). Figure 34 Sequence of drought occurrence and impacts for commonly accepted drought types. All droughts originate from a deficiency of rainfall or meteorological drought but other types of drought and impacts cascade from this deficiency. 73

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Agrometeorological applications for Climate-Smart Agriculture LIST OF TABLES Table 1 An example of the monthly climate data format showing 15 Leboakgomo weather station for the summer of 2006-2007. Table 2 Description of agrometeorological climate parameters and units used from 16 both automatic weather stations (AWS) and manual weather stations (MWS). Table 3 Observed climate trends for South Africa. 21 Table 4 Provincial climate change priorities. 35 Table 5 Selected environmental and health risks in South Africa as highlighted in NCCHAP and LTAS. 38 Table 6 Summary of the vulnerability of key socio-economic sectors in 39 South Africa to climate change. Table 7 Main sources of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. 42 Table 8 Comparing current agriculture practices and CSA. 58 60 Table 9 Description of some sustainable agricultural practices. 61 Table 10 Farm-level options for climate change adaptation. 62 74

MODULE 2 Soil and Water Compiled by Dr Kobus Anderson ([email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Natural Resources and Engineering

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 77 2 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL RESOURCES 79 2.1 RAINFALL (WATER) 79 2.2 SOIL 80 2.2.1 Soil texture 81 2.2.2 Soil structure 84 2.2.3 Summary 85 3 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 87 3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE FOR CROP PRODUCTION 87 3.2 CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA 88 3.2.1 Temperature 88 3.2.2 Precipitation 89 3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE 90 3.3.1 Impacts of climate change 90 4 SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION TO CSA 93 4.1 SOIL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 93 4.1.1 No / minimum tillage 99 4.1.2 Mulching 99 4.1.3 Cover crops 101 4.2 WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 102 4.2.1 Rainwater harvesting 102 4.2.2 Use of grey water 118 4.2.3 Drip irrigation and irrigation scheduling 118 5 CONCLUSION 120 6 REFERENCES & RESOURCES 123 125 LIST OF FIGURES 125 LIST OF TABLES 76

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 1 INTRODUCTION Training structure In this module, you will learn about Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and its impacts on agriculture and food security. The training will cover the basics of climate science as well as the connections between climate, agriculture, and food security. This training is designed so that extension practitioners get a clear understanding of: • What are the natural resources? • How are the natural resources effected by climate change? • What adaptation and mitigation strategies can be put in place to deal with the impact of climate change? Training objectives After completion of the training module the extension practitioner should: a. Be able to select and implement appropriate soil and water management practices for specific scenarios. b. Know how to identify unproductive water losses (runoff & evaporation from the soil surface) and put strategies in place to minimize these water losses. c. Be able to list and describe the of adaptation and mitigation strategies to deal with the impact of climate change. Land (soil) and water are two of the most changes. Climate-induced changes include important natural resources, which are changes in air temperature and moisture, threatened by climate variability that is while land degradation-induced changes considered to be the main cause of both land include reductions in soil organic matter, above degradation and water scarcity. Climate and below ground biomass and soil fertility. variability includes changing changes in rainfall However, the occurrence of extreme weather patterns, increased frequency and intensity conditions such as extreme drought or heavy of drought and floods; rising temperatures, rainfall can accelerate wind and water erosion as well as profound ecological shifts. Arid and that which in turn will con-tributes hugely semi-arid regions are more prone to higher towards biomass, and physical and chemical temperatures coupled with limited rainfall due degradation of the land. Wind and water are to the interaction between land degradation the main driving forces for of soil erosion. Soil and climate variability. Desertification is one of erosion adversely affects the productivity of the most dire problems in these areas and is agricultural land as it selectively removes the caused by climate and land degradation related plant nutrients and organic matter in the surface 77

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water soil where the majority of crop roots are found. Research indicates that Climate-Smart Furthermore, it promotes the removal of finer Agricultural (CSA) technologies and soil particles that leads to soil compaction. Soil management practices have demonstrated ero-sion further promotes water runoff that effectiveness in addressing the issue of water causes a reduction in the availability of water scarcity for food production in resource poor to the crop. However, soil erosion depends on countries (Hensley et al., 2000) This practice factors such as the type of soil, depth of soil, is reported to have been long adopted, espe- slope of land, soil organic matter content, cially in sub-Saharan Africa using indigenous cultivation practices, crop growth and duration knowledge systems. CSA technologies and and intensity of rainfall or wind. management prac-tices are considered as an alternative option that will capture the concept One of the most affected economic sectors by that agricultural systems can be de-veloped the aforementioned conditions is agriculture, a and implemented to concurrently improve food sector considered imperative to both economic security and rural livelihoods. It will achieve this development and poverty reduction. Yet, it faces through enabling climate change adaptation a serious challengeCltimo amteeCehtatnhgee reevfeerrs-itnocareasing and offering mitigation benefits. food tidhrreeimgreaatwenddillaabnneddc(ccaerlhhiat.maagoginn.na,rggftebieeeemaysdittnspihentaartarhottrtheienvcseaaetseintsmcea.apbdteleeraTtonefodhodsfeaitrusttnshe)cdwscebt/utiayoevgtdrigetyer stitons It should be noted that agricultural production both varies widely from place to place, and climate that change affects each area and each farm in a produce food in thevanrieaabirliftuytoufriets, cthhaoruacgthertihstiscswill different way. CSA approaches are specific to be dependent upoannd itmhaptrloasvtesmfoer nantsexitnenrdaeindfed site and context and there is no one solution, or and irrigated agricupoerltrluoiorndeg.eorf.tCimlime,aoteftcehnadnegceamdeasy even one set of solutions, that fits all situations. Nonetheless, we can define some general Developing countrpbireeosccaeursesseelyds obhryeenaxavtteiulryrnaalolifnnotrecrrianniagnls-fed princi-ples to follow, and we can give examples agriculture to prosducuhceas sgorlaairncyclreompsodfuolartiomno, st that readers could adapt to suit their particular of their farmlandsv.oDlcuaneicteorutphteionesv,earn-dincchrreoansicing circumstances. tiunhnaefdapevrqoouudaruatcebtilveaintcydliamfnlch2audo0utcm0miptc7puar)co.onaostfciiinthtniaodagbnnitgioiwleiortsaynliatnseonardtfhttumaahsvtoeeasrs(pieIelPhasCelbuaCrilinl,tcitdiyns, There is a serious skill gap between resource- are significantly decreased. Climate change is poor rural farmers and using CSA technologies. attributed to decreasing rainfall events. There Furthermore, it is also recognised that these is therefore an ever increasing need to use farmers have the need for information and the limited water resources in food production appropriate learning methods that are not more efficiently. being met, and this is especially the case in South Africa. 78

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 2 OVERVIEW OF NATURAL RESOURCES Objectives: 1. Understand the importance of water and soil as natural resources. 2. Describe soil texture and soil characteristics related to texture. 3. Explain how the choice of CSA technology will be influenced by the soil structure. Natural resources are materials from the earth About one third of the arable land in South that are used to support life and meet people's Africa is of low potential for crop production, needs. Any natural substance that humans located mainly in semi-arid areas, with the main use can be considered a natural resource. Oil, problem being water shortage due to a low and coal, natural gas, metals, stone, and sand are erratic rainfall pattern, high evaporation rates natural resources. Other natural resources are and often with soils having low water holding air, sunlight, soil, and water. For this manual the capacity and poor fertility. focus will only be on soil and water as they are The situation is aggravated further by the fact the most important natural resources for the that most of the rainfall occurs in the form existence of life. of high-intensity thunderstorms, resulting in high water losses due to runoff. Storms, as 2.1 RAINFALL (WATER) extreme weather events, are considered one of the effects of climate change. Suitable CSA South Africa is generally semi-arid; its technologies (e.g. Rainwater harvesting and precipitation is highly variable, and farmers conservation practices) are needed to adapt to often face water shortages. The average the effects of climate change. annual rainfall for South Africa is about 464 mm Since water is the most limiting natural resource, (compared to a global average of 786 mm), but it needs to be utilised effectively for crop large and unpredictable variations are common. production. Some useful tips to as improve the More than one-fifth of the country is arid and water use efficiency are as follows: receives less than 200 mm of precipitation annually, while almost half is semi-arid and • While fertilisers promote plant growth, receives between 200 and 600 mm annually. it also increase water consumption. Only about 6% of the country averages more More water is lost through the process than 1 000 mm per year. of transpiration form a lush vigorously The amount of precipitation gradually declines cropping crop. By applying the minimum from east to west. Whereas the KwaZulu-Natal amount of fertiliser needed, smaller plants coast receives more than 1 000 mm annually and with a lower transpiration rate might be Kimberley approximately 400 mm, Alexander induces without compromising on crop Bay on the west coast receives less than 50 mm. yield. 79

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • If production is done on small homestead 2.2 SOIL garden level, then a garden fork can be used to aerate the garden periodically. South Africa contains three major soil regions. Holes every 30 cm will allow water to reach East of approximately longitude 25° E, soils the roots, rather than run off the surface. have formed under wet summer and dry winter conditions; the more-important soil • Plant drought resistant crops and cultivars. types there are laterite (red, leached, iron- Drought tolerant crops (like maize, bearing soil), unleached subtropical soils, and cowpeas, barley, sunflower and sorghum) gley like (i.e., bluish gray, sticky, and compact) require less water than others once they podzolic soils (highly leached soils that are low are established and continue to grow and in iron and lime). A second large region is in produce even when rains fail. an area that receives year-round precipitation (Western Cape and Eastern Cape) and generally • Apply a layer of mulch to minimize Es losses contains gray sand and sandy loam soils. In the and discouraging weed growth. rest of the country, which is generally arid, the characteristic soils consist of a sandy surface • Construct manual rainwater harvesting layer, often sandy loam, under which is a layer structures in the homestead gardens or of lime or an accumulation of silica. With some mechanized basins on a larger scale in exceptions, the soils of South Africa are not croplands to collect and store water and characterized by high fertility, and those that are prevent losses through runoff. - for example in the coastal region of KwaZulu- Natal - tend to be easily degraded.. • Collect water from roof tops in tanks Soil plays a very important role in agricultural and drums to be used for supplemental production. It performs the following functions: irrigation during periods of drought and water stress. • Providing plants with essential minerals and nutrients • Irrigate your crops early in the morning or late in the evening when it is not so hot and • Providing air for gas exchange between evapotranspiration is low. roots and atmosphere • Avoid watering when it is windy. • It stores water (moisture) and provides • Instead of irrigating the whole garden only adequate aeration irrigate around the plants where the most Improper management of soil leads to soil roots are growing. and land degradation. As soon as the pristine • Add organic matter to your soil to improve land is used for agriculture, the quality of soil the soil structure and water holding resources begins to deteriorate and the rate of capacity. deterioration depends on the skill of the land • Avoid over-watering crops, as this can manager. Therefore, it is important that land actually diminish plant health and cause and soil users learn to use the soil and land in a yellowing of the leaves. sustainable manner. • Keep the garden / cropland free of weeds as it competes with the crop for the available water and nutrients. 80

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 2.2.1 Soil texture fertility properties. It feels like flour when The inorganic material in soil is called mineral dry and smooth like velvet when moist. matter. Minerals were formed from rocks that • Clay is the smallest size soil particle. Clay have weathered into small particles. Most soils has the ability to hold both nutrients and contain mineral particles of different sizes. These water that can be used by plants. It creates particles are called sand, silt, or clay, depending very small pore spaces, resulting in poor on their size, as shown in the examples in Figure aeration and poor water drainage. Clay 1. forms hard clumps when dry and is sticky when wet. It is wet and cold in winter and • Sand is the largest of the mineral particles. baked dry in summer. Sand particles create large pore spaces • Loams are mixtures of clay, sand and silt that improve aeration. Water flows quickly that avoid the extremes of each type. through the large pore spaces. Soils with Soil texture describes the ratio of three sizes of a high sand content are generally well soil particles and the fineness or coarseness of a drained. Sandy soils lack the ability to hold soil. Soil texture can be determined in two ways. nutrients and are not fertile. Sandy soils The percentage of sand, silt and clay can be also have a gritty feel. Sandy soils are light, tested in the laboratory. After testing, the dry, warm, and often acidic. texture class of the soil can be determined using the texture triangle. • Silt is the medium sized soil grain. Silt has good water-holding capacity and good (a) (b) (c) Figure 1 Examples of a clay (a), (b) loam and (c) sandy soil. 81

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Figure 2 The textural triangle is used to classify soils. Source: https://www.trugreen.com/lawn-care-101/learning-center/grass-basics/dig-deeper/soil-texture. Soils with different percentages of sand, silt and of a soil to retain water. Most plants require a clay are given different designations. A soil with constant supply of water, and this is obtained 35% clay, 30% silt and 35% sand is called clay from the soil. Plants do need water, but they loam, as shown in the example in Figure 2. also need air in the root zone. Permeability The relative amounts of sand, silt, and clay may is the ease with which air and water can pass also be determined in the field by wetting a soil through the soil. Soil workability is the ease with sample and rolling it into a sausage and then which the soil can be worked and the timing of trying to form it into a circle. With a sandy soil the working. the moistened ball cracks when compressed and Sandy soils have low water-holding capacities falls apart, while with the cla y soil a full circle and generally high infiltration rates. Clayey without cracks can be formed, as illustrated in soils have high water-holding capacities and Figure 3. generally low infiltration rates. In addition, well- The texture of a soil is important because it drained soils typically have good soil aeration determines the soil properties that affect plant meaning that the soil contains air that is similar growth. Three of these properties are the water- to atmospheric air, which is conducive to healthy holding capacity, permeability, and workability root growth, and thus a healthy crop (see Table of the soil. Water holding capacity is the ability 1). 82

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Sand Moistened ball cracks when compressed; falls apart Loamy sand Cracks and does not allow a sausage to be rolled Sandy loam Ball or sausage can be rolled Sandy clay loam Can be rolled out thinly but cracks when bent Clay loam Cracks under attempts to form an “O” Sandy clay “O” can be formed with some cracking Clay “O” can be formed without cracking Figure 3 Determination of soil texture classes. Source: Ritchey et al., 2015. 83

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Table 1 Characteristics of Sand, Silt and Clay. Source: https://www.vaderstad.com/en/know-how/basic-agronomy/soil-basics/characteristics-of-different-soil-types. Characteristics Sand Silt Clay Looseness Good Fair Poor Air space Good Fair to good Poor Drainage Good Fair to good Poor Tendency to form clods Poor Fair Good Ease of working Good Fair to good Poor Moisture holding ability Poor Fair to good Good Fertility Poor Fair to good Fair to good With climate change, rainfall is generally aggregates are cemented to make them distinct decreasing, meaning that less water is available and strong. Clay, iron oxides, and organic for production. Production on a sandy and clay matter often act as cements. When soil micro- soil in the same area that receive in the same organisms break down plant residues, gums are rainfall will be significantly different. Total crop produced that glue peds together. failures might be experienced on the sandy The eight primary types of soil structure are soil due to the low water holding capacity, but blocky, crumb, columnar, granular, massive, acceptable yields might still be possible on the platy, prismatic, and single grain. Granular is clay soil. Different soil and water management the most desirable structure type because it practices will be used for differing soil types to has the greatest proportion of large openings mitigate the effects of climate change. between the individual aggregates. 2.2.2 Soil structure Sand, silt, clay, and organic-matter particles in • Blocky: The units are block-like. They a soil combine with one another to form larger consist of six or more flat or slightly rounded particles of various shapes and sizes. These surfaces. larger particles, or clusters, are often referred to as aggregates. The arrangement of the soil • Crumb: The aggregates are small, porous, particles into aggregates of various sizes and and weakly held together. shapes is soil structure. Aggregates that occur naturally in the soil are called peds, whereas • Columnar: The units are similar to prisms clumps of soil caused by tillage are called clods. and are bounded by flat or slightly rounded Ways in which aggregates are created include vertical faces. The tops of columns are very freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, fungal distinct and normally rounded. activity, tillage, and the surrounding of the soil by plant roots that separate the clumps. Weak • Granular: The units are approximately spherical or polyhedral. The aggregates are small, nonporous, and held strongly together. • Massive: There is no apparent structure. Soil particles cling together in large uniform masses. 84

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water • Platy: The units are flat and plate-like. They 2.2.3 Summary are generally oriented horizontally. Plates Most soils have different sizes of mineral overlap, usually causing slow permeability. particles called sand, silt, and clay. Sand is the largest of the mineral particles. Silt is the mid- • Prismatic: The individual units are bounded size soil particle. Clay is the smallest size soil by flat to rounded vertical faces. Units are particle. Soil texture describes the proportion of distinctly longer vertically. The tops of the soil particles and the fineness or coarseness the prisms are somewhat indistinct and of a soil. normally flat. The texture of a soil determines soil characteristics that affect plant growth. Three • Single grain: There is no apparent structure. of these characteristics are water-holding Soil particles exist as individuals and do not capacity, permeability, and soil workability. form aggregates. Sand, silt, clay, and organic-matter particles in a soil combine with one another to form Soil structure is important for several reasons. larger particles of various shapes and sizes. Soil Soil structure affects water and air movement structure is the arrangement of the soil particles in a soil, nutrient availability for plants, root into aggregates. The eight primary types of soil growth, and microorganism activity. The pore structure are blocky, crumb, columnar, granular, spaces created by peds are larger than those massive, platy, prismatic, and single grain. between individual particles of sand, silt, or clay. This allows for greater air and water movement and better root growth. The larger spaces make passageways for organisms. The aggregates are also better able to hold water and nutrients. Soil structure can be destroyed. A major cause Soil structure affects water and air movement of damage is driving heavy equipment (like a in a soil, nutrient availability for plants, root tractor and im-plements) over wet soil. Damage growth, and micro-organism activity. is also caused by working soil when it is either too wet or too dry. Either condition leads to the Checking your knowledge: clay particles clogging the pore spaces. The soil 1. How do sand, silt, and clay differ? becomes compacted and very dense; and when 2. What is soil texture? it dries, it becomes very hard. It is extremely 3. How is soil texture determined? difficult for most plants to survive in a soil whose 4. Why is soil structure important? structure has been destroyed. With climate change, extreme weather Expanding Your Knowledge: conditions, like floods and prolonged droughts Explore the soil around your homestead are common. Timing of cultivating fields is garden. Dig up some soil and squeeze it, therefore important so that it does not coincide crumble it, and feel it. with periods of flooding and droughts when soils are highly susceptible to structural damage. • Is the texture gritty or smooth? • Does the soil form a ball that easily crumbles? See if you can determine the texture and the type of soil structure. 85

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Practical activity 1 1. A simple activity can be performed to determine the soil texture of a given sample. Extension practitioners can be supplied samples of three soils. In their activity groups they need to work together to determine the soil texture of the given samples by making use of the touch and feel method. 2. In order to get a better understanding of the impact of soil texture on infiltration rate and water holding capacity a simple group activity can be performed. Take three transparent plastic cups and make equal amounts of holes in the bottom of each cup using a needle. Fill each cup halve full with a sand, loam a clay soil, respectively. Each cup is then placed again into a larger cup. In their groups, extension officers are then requested to pour an equal volume of water (e.g. 150 ml) into each cup with the soil. They are then requested to observe the infiltration rate and the volume of water that have drained out into the larger cup. 86

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 3 CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE Objectives: 1. Understand the meaning of “climate change”. 2. Understand how production is influenced by the impact of climate change. 3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CLIMATE Temperature FOR CROP PRODUCTION Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy. The range of temperature for maximum Nearly 50% of crop yield is attributed to the growth of most of the agricultural plants is influence of climatic factors. The following between 15 and 40oC. The temperature of a are the atmospheric weather variables which place is largely determined by its distance from influences the crop production: the equator (latitude) and altitude. It influences distribution of crop plants and vegetation. • Precipitation Germination, growth and development of crops • Temperature are highly influenced by temperature. It affects • Atmospheric humidity leaf production, expansion and flowering. • Solar radiation Physical and chemical processes within the • Wind velocity plants are governed by air temperature. • Atmospheric gases Diffusion rates of gases and liquids changes with temperature. Solubility of different substances Precipitation in plant is dependent on temperature. The Precipitation includes all water which falls from minimum, maximum (above which crop growth atmosphere such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog ceases) and optimum temperature for specific and dew. Rainfall is one of the most important crops are of importance for crop production. factors that influences the vegetation of a place. Atmospheric Humidity (Relative Humidity) The total precipitation amount and distribution Water is present in the atmosphere in the greatly affects the choice of a cultivated species form of invisible water vapour, normally known in a place. Low and uneven distribution of as humidity. Relative humidity is the ratio rainfall is common in dryland farming where between the amount of moisture present in drought resistance crops like pearl millet, the air to the saturation capacity of the air at sorghum and minor millets are grown. In desert a particular temperature. If relative humidity areas grasses and shrubs are common where is 100% it means that the entire space is filled hot desert climate exists. Though the rainfall with water and there is no soil evaporation has major influence on yield of crops, yields are and plant transpiration. Relative humidity not always directly proportional to the amount influences the water requirement of crops. of precipitation as excess above optimum Relative humidity of 40-60% is suitable for most reduces the yields. The distribution of rainfall of the crop plants. Very few crops can perform is often more important than the total rainfall well when relative humidity is 80% and above. to have a longer growing period, especially in When relative humidity is high there is chance drylands. for the outbreak of pest and disease. 87

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Solar radiation 3.2 CLIMATE OF SOUTH AFRICA From germination to harvest and even post- harvest crops are affected by solar radiation. The climate of South Africa is determined by Biomass production by photosynthetic South Africa's situation between 22°S and 35°S, processes requires light. All physical process in the Southern Hemisphere's subtropical zone, taking place in the soil, plant and environment and its location between two oceans, Atlantic are dependent on light. Solar radiation controls and the Indian. distribution of temperature and thereby It has a wider variety of climates than most distribution of crops in a region. Visible radiation other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, and it is very important in photosynthetic mechanism has lower average temperatures than other of plants. Photosynthetic Active Radiation countries within this range of latitude, like (PAR - 0.4 – 0.7μ) is essential for production of Australia, because much of the interior (central carbohydrates and ultimately biomass. plateau or Highveld, including Johannesburg) of South Africa is at a higher elevation. Wind velocity Winter temperatures may reach the freezing The basic function of wind is to carry moisture point at high altitude, but are at their most mild (precipitation) and heat. The moving wind not in coastal regions, particularly KwaZulu-Natal only supplies moisture and heat, also supplies Province and perhaps the Eastern Cape. Cold fmreosvhemCeOn2t for the photosynthesis. Wind and warm coastal currents running north-west for 4 – 6 km/hour is suitable for and north-east respectively account for the most crops. When wind speed is enormous difference in climates between west and east then there is mechanical damage of the crops coasts. The weather is also influenced by the El (i.e. it removes leaves and twigs and damages Niño - Southern Oscillation. crops like banana, sugarcane). Wind dispersal South Africa experiences a high degree of of pollen and seeds is natural and necessary sunshine with rainfall about half of the global for certain crops. Wind can causes soil erosion, average, increasing from west to east, and increases evaporation and spread certain pests with semi-desert regions in the north-west. and diseases. While the Western Cape has a Mediterranean climate with winter rainfall, most of the country Atmospheric gases experiences summer rain. CbyO2thiseimpplaonrttsanbtyfodrifpfuhsoitoonsypnrtohceessiss. fCroOm2 isletaakveens 3.2.1 Temperature tdhurroinugghdsetcoommaptao.sCitiOo2nisoref tourrgnaendictomaatmteorisaplsh,earell South Africa has typical weather for the farm wastes and bbyotrhesppliarnattisoann. d Oa2niismimalps,owrthainlet Southern Hemisphere, with the coldest days in for respiration of June - August. On the central plateau, which it is released by plants during photosynthesis. includes the Free State and Gauteng provinces, Nitrogen is one of the important major plant the altitude keeps the average temperatures nutrients. Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed in the below 20°C; Johannesburg, for example, lies soil by lightning, rainfall and nitrogen fixing microbes that lives on legume crops and then made available to plants. Certain gases like SaOr2e, tCoOx,icCtHo4plaanndts.HF released to atmosphere 88

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water at 1 753 metres, as shown in Table 2. In winter South Africa, annual rainfall averages 464 mm temperatures can drop below freezing, also due (compared to a global average of 786 mm), to altitude. During winter it is warmest in the but large and unpredictable variations are coastal regions, especially on the eastern Indian common. There are some semi-desert areas Ocean coast. along South Africa's western edge which, on Warm season weather is influenced by the average, receive the most rainfall. In general, El Niño - Southern Oscillation. South Africa rainfall is greatest in the east and gradually experiences hotter and drier weather during drops westward. For most of the country, rain the El Niño phase, while La Niña brings cooler falls mainly in the summer months with brief and wetter conditions. afternoon thunderstorms. Cape Town and the 3.2.2 Precipitation Western Cape are exceptions as their climate is South Africa is a sunny country, averaging 8 Mediterranean and they experience more rain - 10 daily sunshine hours in most regions. In in the winter. During the winter months, snow accumulates on the high mountains of the Cape and the Drakensberg. Table 2 Average temperatures (oC) in South Africa per locality. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_South_Africa. City Summer (January) Winter (July) Max Min Max Min Johannesburg 26 15 17 4 Pretoria 29 18 18 5 Polokwane 28 17 20 4 Musina 34 21 25 Thohoyandou 31 20 24 10 Nelspruit 29 19 23 6 Bloemfontein 29 15 15 -2 Kimberley 33 18 19 3 Upington 36 20 21 4 East London 26 18 19 10 Mthatha 27 16 21 4 Cape Town 26 16 16 7 Durban 28 21 23 11 Pietermaritzburg 28 18 23 3 89

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 3.3 CLIMATE CHANGE on the community and the environment in a number of ways, from air quality, temperature Climate change is any significant long-term and weather patterns to food security and change in the expected pattern of the average disease burden. The various impacts of climate weather of a region (or the entire earth) over change on rural communities include: Drought, a significant period of time. Climate change is depletion of water resources and biodiversity, about abnormal variations in climate and the soil erosion, decline in subsistence agriculture effects of these variations on other parts of the and cessation of cultural activities. Africa is earth. currently suffering from significant heat waves Climate change has had a major impact on South and will continue to do so in the future as Africa, primarily due to increased temperatures the continent is in the midst of the current and precipitation variability. Extreme weather environmental crisis. South Africa contributes events are becoming more frequent due to tSlianoor2ugs0etihgs1tn5Ai.CffiTrOcihca2ainseteimsmCiltaOittret2gere.edlAmy9bdi.s5ousveitoeotnnotsshietoasfngedClnoOebi2sragpltyeahrsveyecsra1taep4gmitteha,, climate change. This is of critical importance which relies heavily on coal and oil. As part of to South Africans as climate change will affect its international commitments, South Africa has the overall health and well-being of the country, pledged to reduce emissions between 2020 and for example in terms of water resources. As in 2025. many other parts of the world, climate research 3.3.1 Impacts of climate change has shown that the real challenge in South Farmers are challenged by the impacts of Africa has more to do with environmental issues climate change illustrated in Figure 4. than development issues. The most serious impact will be on water supply, which has huge implications for the agricultural sector. Rapid environmental changes have significant impacts Figure 4 Some effects of climate change. 90

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Rainfall: Climate change will result in a shift in Degraded soils: Typical monoculture cropping the rainfall pattern. There will likely be more systems leave soil bare for much of the year, intense periods of heavy rain and longer dry rely on inorganic fertiliser, and cultivate fields spells. regularly. These practices leave soils low in Temperature: Temperature patterns are also organic matter and prevent formation of deep, affected by climate change. Rising average complex root systems. Among the results: temperatures, more extreme heat throughout reduced water-holding capacity (which worsens the year, fewer sufficiently cool days in winter, drought impacts), and increased vulnerability and more frequent thaws in the cold season will to erosion and water pollution (which worsens likely impact farmers in all areas. flood impacts). Floods: Many agricultural regions of the country Simplified landscapes: Industrial agriculture are experiencing increased flooding. Rising sea treats the farm as a crop factory rather than a levels are also increasing the frequency and managed ecosystem, with minimal biodiversity intensity of flooding on farms in coastal regions. over wide areas of land. This lack of diversity in Floods destroy crops and livestock, accelerate farming operations exposes farmers to greater soil erosion, pollute water, and damage roads, risk and amplifies climate impacts such as bridges, and other infrastructure. changes in crop viability and encroaching pests. Droughts: Too little water can be just as Intensive inputs: The industrial farm’s heavy damaging as too much. Severe droughts have reliance on fertilisers and pesticides may taken a heavy toll on crops, livestock, and become even more costly to struggling farmers farmers in many parts of the country. Rising as climate impacts accelerate soil erosion and temperatures will likely make droughts even increase pest problems. Heavy use of such worse, depleting water supplies and, in some chemicals will also increase the pollution burden cases, spurring destructive wildfires. faced by downstream communities as flooding Changes in crop and livestock viability: Farmers increases. Farmers may also increase irrigation choose crop varieties and animal breeds in response to rising temperature extremes that are well suited to local conditions. As and drought, further depleting precious water those conditions shift rapidly over the coming supplies. decades, many farmers will be forced to rethink Climate change impacts affect people (farmers, some of their choices—which can mean making residents of rural communities, and all of us new capital investments, finding new markets, who rely on the food farmers produce) in and learning new practices. various ways. As summer heat intensifies, New pests, pathogens, and weed problems: farmers and farm workers will face increasingly Just as farmers will need to find new crops, gruelling and potentially unsafe working livestock, and practices, they will have to cope conditions. Accelerating crop failures and with new threats. An insect or weed that could livestock losses will make farmers with access not thrive in decades past may find the new to insurance or disaster relief programs more conditions due to climate change suitable - and reliant on those taxpayer-funded supports, farmers will have to adapt. while those without sufficient safety nets will face additional challenges. Failing farms and stagnating farm profits will also increase 91

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water suffering in many rural communities. Farming far downstream. Nationwide, reductions to communities will be among the first to feel the agricultural productivity or sudden losses of ways extreme weather exacerbates agriculture’s crops or livestock will likely have ripple effects, impacts on water resources - with nearby including increased food prices and greater water supplies polluted or depleted before the food insecurity. damage extends to drinking water and fisheries Practical activity 2 1. Extension practitioners need to get the long-term (20 years or more) monthly climate data for the areas where they are working. They then need to compare it to the monthly averages of the past 5 years to determine whether there has been a shift in the climate pattern due to climate change. 2. Extension practitioners need to put up a manual rain gauge at their offices to keep daily rainfall records. 92

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 4 SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN RELATION TO CSA Objectives: 1. Understand the concept of “climate smart agricultural”. 2. Understand how CSA technologies can be used as climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies. 3 Identify applicable soil- and water management strategies for various production scenarios. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) refers to 4.1 SOIL MANAGEMENT agricultural strategies that boost production and STRATEGIES system resilience while lowering greenhouse gas emissions in a sustainable way. CSA aids Soil is an essential, but frequently overlooked, in the direct integration of climate change component of the climate system. After the adaptation and mitigation into agricultural oceans, it is the second greatest carbon store, or development planning and investment plans. ‘sink.' Climate change may result in more carbon Sustainable agriculture, in our opinion, is based being stored in plants and soil due to vegetation on landscape-scale integrated management of growth, or more carbon being released into the water, land, and ecosystems. atmosphere, depending on the region. Land CSA is widely promoted as the future agriculture restoration and sustainable land use in urban and as a viable answer to climate change. CSA and rural regions can assist us in mitigating and has the potential to boost productivity and adapting to climate change. resilience while reducing the vulnerability of millions of smallholder farmers in Africa, as Climate change is an unavoidable reality, and agriculture remains critical to development. adaptation techniques are needed to address Smallholder farmers can profit directly from CSA the consequences of climate change on by boosting the efficiency of valuable inputs like agricultural production. Agricultural production labor, seeds, and fertilisers, as well as increasing is already being impacted by climate change. food security and money generation options. Drought is the most visible factor, as it reduces CSA contributes to the preservation of natural production by making many locations too dry resources for future generations by conserving for crops to flourish. Many crops grow faster ecosystems and landscapes. as a result of increased temperatures, but this means that they do not develop as fully as they grow. In other words, the crops mature before they are fully matured. This translates to a reduced overall yield. Pests, primarily insects, are expanding into previously uninhabitable 93

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water areas. Many pests are eliminated each year by To avoid erosion, save soil moisture, and a single frost and so cannot survive in colder maintain and improve soil fertility, three main climates. Pests move in and kill crops when soil and water conservation techniques are these locations warm and no longer have frost. used: There were \"age-old\" agronomic approaches advocated for soil and water conservation • Terraces, bunds, contour ditches, check and establishing drought resistant, weather dams, reservoirs, grassed waterways, robust agricultural systems before \"climate diversion drains, and other physical change adaptation\" became a trendy word. solutions to discourage erosion and Conservation tillage, mulching, increasing crop enhance water infiltration include terraces, diversity in a crop rotation (especially including bunds, contour ditches, check dams, perennial forage crops in a rotation), use of reservoirs, grassed waterways, diversion drought and heat tolerant crop cultivars, changes drains, and others. in cropping pattern and planting calendar, soil fertility improvement techniques, and soil • Reforestation, hedgerows, and vegetative moisture conservation practices are some strips are examples of biological techniques agricultural adaptation strategies that farmers that use trees and grass to prevent erosion. can use. In places where the new climatic conditions are not favorable for some crops, • Leguminous plants and crops fix nitrogen in some suggestions could be to change to other the soil, which is beneficial to soil health. crops that maintain forest cover and diversity, diversify the agricultural areas implementing • Contour planting, strip cropping, more crops, or change the cropping pattern in intercropping, mixed cropping, fallowing, warm regions shifting towards patterns used in mulching, grazing management, and hotter regions. agroforestry are agronomic measures that Human capital development through training, entail managing the crop itself. outreach strategies, and extension services at various levels will improve climate change Why is it climate smart? adaptation capacity, particularly in developing • Preventing erosion reduces the amount of nations. carbon released into the air. To deal with the effects of climate change, many • Conserving soil fertility reduces the need CSA technologies can be used. A climate smart for artificial fertilisers. agricultural technology, according to Sullivan et • Boosting the amount of organic matter in al. (2012), is described as agricultural methods the soil reduces the amount of CO2 in the that boost production and system reliance while air. lowering greenhouse gas emissions. • Trees, grass, hedgerows and vegetative strips produce forage that can be used to feed live-stock, as well as preventing soil erosion by wind and water. Currently, our natural resources (land, water, forests, and soils) are used for production with little regard for their long-term viability. Climate- Smart Agriculture focuses on natural resource restoration, conservation, and long-term use. 94

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Conservation agriculture (CA) Conservation Disturb the soil as little as possible agriculture (CA) strives to increase agricultural Farmers plough and hoe to enhance soil yields while lowering production costs, structure and control weeds in conventional preserving soil fertility, and saving water. It's a farming, but in the long run, they degrade the means to create sustainable agriculture while soil structure and contribute to deteriorating also improving people's lives. By establishing soil fertility. Tillage in conservation agriculture a permanent soil cover and reducing soil is limited to ripping planting lines or hoeing disturbance, CA improves soil structure and holes for planting. Planting directly into the soil protects the soil against erosion and nutrient without ploughing is preferable. losses. CA is a three-principle approach to agricultural management (see Figure 5): Keep the soil covered as much as possible Farmers in traditional farming remove or burn • Minimum soil disturbance: no till or crop waste, or plough or hoe them into the soil. minimum tillage. The earth is kept bare so that rain may readily wash it away or the wind can blow it away. • Keeping the soil surface covered with mulch or cover crops. Crop leftovers left on the field, mulch, and specific cover crops are used in conservation • Use of crop rotations. agriculture to protect the soil against erosion and weed growth throughout the year. Figure 5 The three principles of conservation agriculture. 95

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Mix and rotate crops to change, and they may have to learn new The same crop is sometimes sown each season skills. It also necessitates a shift in mindset: for in conventional farming. Certain pests, illnesses, example, they must learn that while a \"clean\" and weeds are able to thrive and multiply as a field is preferable, the benefits are substantial. result, resulting in decreased yields. Farmers quickly discover that by implementing these principles, they may save time, money, This is minimised in conservation agriculture by and improve the fertility and water-holding planting the proper mix of crops in the same capacity of their soil. This translates to better land and rotating crops season to season. This crop yields. also aids in the preservation of soil fertility. Why is conservation agriculture climate- All three principles must be used together smart? to reap the full benefits of conservation Conservation agriculture is climate-smart for a agriculture. Although this ideal is not achievable number of reasons. everywhere, farmers should strive to achieve it as much as feasible. Because each farmer's • Reduce carbon losses caused by ploughing position is unique, this could indicate a variety • Add to the organic matter in the soil of things. It may be preferable for some farmers • Reduce erosion to plant a cover crop first. Others might benefit • Avoiding plowing saves fuel, which reduces from decreasing their tillage to “ripping” (creating a short furrow without turning the the usage of fossil fuels soil over) or “pitting” (digging planting holes with a hoe) as a first step toward conservation Conservation agriculture can provide a number agriculture. These farmers can then leave crop of advantages, including stable yields, drought residues in the field and begin planting cover mitigation, lower field preparation costs, crops as a second step. Conservation agriculture reduced soil erosion, and contributions to can be difficult to implement. It entails a distinct climate change mitigation and adaptation. approach to farming. Farmers may be hesitant 96

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Table 3 Comparing current farming and conservation agriculture. Source: FAO, 2018. Current farming Conservation agriculture Soil structure Ploughing and disc-harrowing on a To break up a hardpan, deep ripping Soil moisture regular basis depletes soil organic may be required. Deep-rooted plants matter and destroys soil structure. As can also help to break it up. Because Erosion a result, very fine, unstable particles the soil is only lightly disturbed, its are produced. At ploughing depth, a structure remains intact. Because hardpan – a hard layer through which crop residues and cover crops water cannot pass – forms. remain on the soil, organic matter accumulates. Ploughing turns the soil over, In a well-structured soil, water can allowing much of the moisture in soak into the soil easily through pores. the air to evaporate. Water pools on It is stored in the soil, so is available the surface of flat land or becomes for crops if there are active roots. trapped above the hardpan, causing There is no hardpan, so water can waterlogging and crop death. It also percolate deep into the ground and destroys many of the soil's pores and recharge the water table. Mulch and cracks, making it difficult for water cover crops shade the soil surface, so to penetrate. Because of the slope, less water evaporates. much of the rain runs off and is lost, rather than being stored in the soil or replenishing the water table. Heavy rains pound the soil, breaking Cover crops and mulch shield the soil up lumps of soil into fine particles surface from heavy rains and impede and forming a crust that seals the erosive overland flow. Roots bind the surface and prevents water from soil together, making it less prone to penetrating. Water runs downhill erosion. Because less water runs off, on slopes, carrying valuable topsoil there is less water loss. with it. Rills form and grow into gullies, which carry soil into rivers. When the next rains come, the silt clogs reservoirs and irrigation canals, causing flooding. 97

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water Soil fertility Ploughing exposes the soil to the sun Crop residues and cover crops remain Weeds and pests and rain while burying organic matter. on the soil and contribute to organic Costs and labour It disintegrates organic matter into matter. Adding compost, manure, or smaller fragments that can be easily mulch from other sources improves washed away. Crop residue removal fertility even more. There are or burning depletes soil fertility. numerous earthworms and other soil Planting the same crop year after life forms. By fixing nitrogen, legumes year depletes the soil of valuable improve fertility. nutrients. A healthy soil requires a small number of earthworms, burrowing beetles, microbes, and other soil life. Weeds can grow unchecked when Weeds are smothered and prevented the earth is left bare. from growing quickly by the cover Planting the same crop year after crop or mulch. Weeds can also be year helps weeds, pests, and illnesses controlled with careful application thrive. of herbicides. Companion planting and mixed cropping can help to discourage weeds and pests. Crop rotation disrupts the life cycle of pests and disease organisms. A healthy soil aids in the control of pests and diseases. Ploughing and weeding are difficult Plowing isn't required, thus there's no tasks that take a long time and are need to spend money on expensive costly if hired labor is required. mouldboardm ploughs, disks, or Fuel prices are considerable, and harrows, though farmers may need expensive equipment is subjected to a to invest in new planters. Planting lot of wear and tear. Herbicides might basins, which are employed in one save time and effort, but they can sort of conservation agriculture, also be harmful to the environment, require a lot of work in the first year especially if the amount and timing but require less work in subsequent are incorrect. Many herbicides and years. Planting basins assist with seed pesticides are harmful to humans and fertiliser dosing, lowering costs. and the environment. Fuel expenditures and the cost of employing animal traction are lower, and equipment wear is reduced. 98

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Soil and Water 4.1.1 No / minimum tillage biological soil diversity. Weeds are controlled No-till and minimum tillage are conservation with herbicides, which eliminates the need to techniques that use crop remains on the till the land. soil surface to decrease the detrimental 4.1.2 Mulching impact of rainfall on the soil (see Figure 6). Mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface These approaches are classified as rainwater of the soil (see Figure 7). It is used to conserve harvesting since they result in decreased runoff soil moisture, regulate soil temperature, and improved infiltration of precipitation. improve soil fertility and health, reduce weed Tillage that minimizes mechanical soil growth, and improve the aesthetic appeal of disturbance and so conserves water in the soil the area. It's usually organic, and it can be used profile is known as minimum tillage. Rips on the on bare soil or around existing plants. Mulches row with regulated traffic to only one major are naturally integrated into the soil as a result tillage/cultivation followed by chemical weed of the action of worms and other organisms. and disease management are all examples of It's utilised in both commercial crop production minimum tillage. Croplands are not tilled at all and gardening, and when used correctly, it can with no-till. boost soil productivity substantially. Depending Because the soil is not tilled and exposed to the on the purpose, it is used at different periods evaporative components of the atmosphere, of the year. Mulches help to warm the soil at no-till (NT) conserves water in the soil profile. the start of the growth season by allowing it to The moisture is retained within the soil profile. retain heat that is lost during the night. Certain In most cases, the new crop is planted straight crops can be seeded and transplanted earlier, into the preceding year's stubble. A specifically resulting in rapid growth. Mulch regulates built planter penetrates through the crop wastes soil temperature and moisture as the season and into the undisturbed soil underneath to progresses, preventing weed seedlings from plant. NT promotes soil carbon sequestration germinating. and improves soil characteristics as well as Figure 6 Rip on the planting row where minimum tillage is used. Source: Botha et al., 2014. 99