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Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Turnšek M, Morgenstern R, Schröter I, Mergenthaler M, Hüttel S and Leyer M (2019). Commercial Aquaponics: A Long Road Ahead. Aquaponics Food Production Systems 18 453-485. Tyson RV, Treadwell DD, Simonne EH (2011). Opportunities and challenges to sustainability in aquaponic systems. HortTechnology 21 (1) 6-13.Website: https://www.hightechgardening.com. Zou Y, Hu Z, Zhang J, Xie H, Guimbaud C, Fang Y (2016). Effects of pH on nitrogen transformations in media-based aquaponics. Bioresource Technology 210 81-87. NATIONAL PLANNING COMMISSION (NPC) (2012) National Development Plan 2030 Outcome 1 Improved quality of basic education. Outcome 2 A long and healthy life for all South Africans. Outcome 3 All people in South Africa are and feel safe. Outcome 4 Decent employment through inclusive economic growth. Outcome 5 A skilled and capable workforce to support an inclusive growth path. Outcome 6 An efficient, competitive and responsive economic infrastructure network. Outcome 7 Vibrant, equitable and sustainable rural communities with food security for all. Outcome 8 Sustainable human settlements and improved quality of household life. Outcome 9 A responsive, accountable, effective and efficient local government system. Outcome 10 Environmental assets and natural resources that are well protected and continually enhanced. Outcome 11 Create a better South Africa and contribute to a better and safer Africa and World. Outcome 12 An efficient, effective and development oriented public service and an empowered, fair and inclusive citizenship. 600

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Simple aquaponics system. 568 568 Figure 2 Simple hydroponics system. 576 Figure 3 A representation of the symbiotic aquaponics cycle consisting of 583 three key components, fish, plants and bacteria. 571 Figure 4 Aquaponics system from Agricultural Research Council- Aquaculture unit. 573 574 LIST OF TABLES 578 584 Table 1 Strengths and Weaknesses of Aquaponics for farmers. 586 Table 2 Strength and limitations of hydroponics and aquaculture system. 587 Table 3 Differences between hydroponics and aquaponics system. 591 Table 4 Advantages and disadvantages of different aquaponics systems. 594 Table 5 Estimated system setup cost for an entry level modular aquaponics. Table 6 Estimated revenue for an entry-level modular aquaponics system. 596 Table 7 Challenges encountered in aquaponics and their possible solutions. Table 8 Contact details of relevant authorities. Table 9 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to fish. Table 10 Generic Environmental Best Management Practice Guideline for Aquaculture Development and Operation in the Western Cape. 601

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual ACronyms and abbreviations ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS °C = degree Celsius, unit of temperature ADFI = Average Daily Feed Intake ADG = Average Daily Gain ALVs = African leafy vegetables AOB = Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria API = Application Program Interface ARC = Agricultural Research Council ARC-GC = Agricultural Research Council – Grain Crops ARC-NRE = Agricultural Research Council – Natural Resources and Engineering ARC-SCW = Agricultural Research Council – Soil, Climate and Water ARC-VIMP = Agricultural Research Council – Vegetable, Industrial and Medicinal Plants ARS = Automatic Rainfall Station AU = Animal Unit AWS = Automatic Weather Station C = Carbon Ca = Calcium CA = Conservation Agriculture CCARDESA = The Centre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and Development for Southern Africa cCmH4 = Methane CCOON2 = Centimetre(s) = Carbon Dioxide CSA = conventional tillage = Climate-Smart Agriculture CSIR = The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CSPM = Climate-Smart Pest Management DAFF = Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries DALRRD = Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development DEFF = Department of Environmental, Forestry and Fisheries DJF = December-January-February DM = Dry matter DWC = Deep Water Culture ENSO = El Niño Southern Oscillation EPs = Extension Practitioners Es = Evaporation From The Soil Surface FAO = The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FC = Field capacity Fe = Iron FHG = Ford Hook Giant FS = Free State Province 602

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual ACronyms and abbreviations g = Gram(s) GCM = Global Circulation Models GDP = Gross Domestic Product GHG = Greenhouse gas GIZ = Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GMO = Genetically Modified Organisms Ha = Hectare IPCC = Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPM = Integrated Pest Management IRWH = In-field Rainwater Harvesting JJA = June-July-August kg = Kilogram(s) LAN = limestone ammonium nitrate LSU = Large Stock Unit m = Metre(s) MAM = March-April-May mg = Milligram(s) mm = Millimetre(s) N = Nitrogen NND2OP = Nitrous Oxide NEMA = National Development Plan = National Environmental Management Act NEMBA = National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act NFT = Nutrient Film Technique NGO = Non-governmental organisation NOB = Nitrite-Oxidizing bacteria NPC = National Planning Commission NW = North West Province NWA = National Water Act P = Phosphorus RAS = Recirculating Aquaculture System RSA = Republic of South Africa RWH&C = Rainwater Harvesting and Collection S = Sulphur SA = South Africa SADC = Southern African Development Community SAPA = South African Poultry Association SAWS = South African Weather Service SI = International System of units SOC = Soil organic carbon SOM = Soil organic matter SON = September-October-November 603

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual ACronyms and abbreviations Spp. = Species SST = Sea Surface Temperatures SWC = Soil water content t = Ton UCP = Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership UCT-CSAG = University of Cape Town – Climate System Analysis Group UNFCCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UP = University of Pretoria USDA = United State Department of Agriculture VCA = Veld Condition Assessment VCS = Veld Condition Score WEMA = Water efficient maize for Africa WMO = World Meteorological Organisation WUE = Water use efficiency Zn = Zinc 604

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY GLOSSARY Adaptation is the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment. Agrometeorology is the study of the influence of the weather and the climate on agriculture. Algae is a diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic aquatic organisms. Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell, which dissolves in water to give a strongly alkaline solution. Anthropogenic activities are the effects resulting from human activities. Aquacultur is the farming of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic plants, algae, and other organisms. Aquaponics combines fish and plant farming in a land based, soilless system. The fish and plant components work together to create a profitable, efficient and sustainable farm. Aquifer is a geologic formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains sufficient saturated, permeable material to yield substantial quantities of water. Bacteria is a member of a large group of unicellular microorganisms which have cell walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some that can cause disease. Baseflow is the contribution to runoff from previous rainfall events where rainfall percolates through the soil horizons into the vadose and groundwater zones and then contributes a very slow delayed flow to streams whose channels are “connected” to the groundwater. These constitute the ‘dry weather’ flows which are significant in sustaining flows in non-rainy seasons (Schulze, 1985). Bio-filter is a key component in the filtration portion of a recirculating aquaculture system containing living organisms to capture and biologically degrade pollutants. Biogas is gaseous fuel, especially methane, produced by the fermentation of organic matter. Biosecurity are procedures or measures designed to protect the population against harmful biological or biochemical substances. Carnivorous is an animal that feeds on other animals. Catchment is an area that drains to a tributary junction. 605

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY Catena is a series of soils linked by their topographic relationship (typically from crest to valley floor). Champagne soil form: contains organic carbon of 10% at 0-200 mm and is saturated for extended periods with water (Soil Classification Working Group, 1991). Climate is the average weather conditions of the atmosphere for a given place over a given time period or can be considered as the synthesis or summary of the long-term manifestation of the weather such as measured over a 30-year period (recommendation by WMO, 2020). Climate is derived from the Greek word “klima” which means inclination or slope and emphasizes the importance of the sun's effect on the climate as observed throughout history. It is a statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. Climate consists of three important concepts: (a) is the average condition of the atmosphere which is made up of different elements, values and frequencies of the weather – including the variation around the averages and the extreme values. (b) must be linked to a specific place or environment such as valley, farm etc. (c) highlights the time factor since climate fluctuates in both short and long term periods. When comparing two locations, it is important to include the time period of the data, especially for average values. Because of the influence of the polar and tropical areas, the sea, or height, climates are classified as arctic, tropical, marine, or mountain. For a relatively small region, one may also distinguish between macroclimate, local or meso-climate, and microclimate. Climate Change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be detected (e.g., by statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or variability of its characteristics and that lasts for an extended period of time, often decades or longer. Climate change may be caused by natural internal processes or external forcings such as solar cycle modulation, volcanic eruptions, and chronic human changes in atmospheric composition or land use (IPCC, 2007). Climate change: “Climate change is a change in the usual weather found in a place. This could be a change in how much rain a place usually gets in a year. Or it could be a change in a place’s usual temperature for a month or season.” (May, 2017). Climate projections are model simulations of Earth's climate in future decades (typically till 2100) based on assumed 'scenarios' for the concentrations of greenhouse gas, aerosol, and other atmospheric component concentrations that impact the planet's radiative balance. A projection is any description of the future and the route that leads to it. As a result, the IPCC uses the term \"climate projection\" to refer to model-derived projections of future climate (IPCC, 2007). Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is a strategy for guiding the actions required to transform and reorient agricultural systems in order to effectively support development and maintain food security in a changing 606

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY climate. CSA strives to achieve three major goals: improving agricultural production and incomes in a sustainable manner, adapting to and creating resistance to climate change, and decreasing and/or eliminating greenhouse gas emissions whenever practicable (FAO, 2018). Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state and other statistics (such as standard deviations, the occurrence of extremes, etc.) of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events. Variability may be due to natural internal processes within the climate system (internal variability), or to variations in natural or anthropogenic external forcing (external variability) (IPCC, 2007). Climatology is the study of the average weather conditions over a 30-year period or climate of an area. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water for aquatic living organisms. Ecosystem is a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. Ecosystem infrastructure: naturally functioning ecosystems that deliver valuable services to people, such as water and climate regulation, soil formation and disaster risk reduction. Ecosystem resilience: 1) capacity of an ecosystem to persist in its present state in the face of forces such as floods, droughts, fires, and pest outbreaks. 2) The rate at which an ecosystem returns to its prior equilibrium (The Heffernan Lab at Duke University, 2018). Ecosystem services: a term used to assess the goods and services that ecosystems (including wetlands) provide to people. Ecosystem services are usually classified in provisioning (food, fresh water, raw materials), regulating (waste-water treatment, protection against extreme weather events), cultural and aesthetic (recreation, aesthetic appreciation) and supporting (maintenance of genetic diversity, habitat for species) services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Effluents is liquid waste or sewage discharged. Electrical conductivity: the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity, calculated as the ratio of the current density in the material to the electric field which causes the flow of current. Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Electrical current is transported by the ions in solution and conductivity increases as the concentration of ions increases. Evaporation is loss of water in a form of vapour. Fertiliser is a chemical or natural substance added to water or the soil to increase its fertility and amount of trace elements. 607

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY Floodplain is a valley bottom area with a well-defined meandering river system characterised by alluvial transport and deposition of sediment (Ewart-Smith et al., 2006). Groundwater is water in the saturated zone that flows into boreholes/wells or debouches as springs (Vegter, 2001). Hydromorphy is the saturation of the pores of soil by water for a more or less long part of the year. Hydropedology study of the hydrological interaction of water with soil and the fractured rock zone. Hydroperiod degree, duration, frequency and seasonality of inundation or saturation. The seasonal pattern of the water level in a wetland. Hydroponics is the process of growing plants in water with soluble nutrients but without soil. Invertebrates is an animal lacking a backbone, such as an arthropod, mollusc, annelid, coelenterate etc. Large Stock Unit is an equivalent of an ox with a weight of 450kg and a weight gain of 500 g per day on grass pasture with a mean Digestible Energy (DE) concentration of 55% Macro-climate is the broad-scale climate over a large area of territory, such as Limpopo Province. Meso-climate is the climate of a small portion of the earth’s surface which is not considered representative of the general macroclimate of the area. It may be the climate of a small valley or a gap in a forest or city. The climate of this section can be more or less extreme than that of the adjacent area, for example, Taung irrigation scheme or an airport. Meteorology is the scientific study of the physical processes in the atmosphere that deals with the actual weather conditions at a given time. • Describes the movement of air in the atmosphere and its interaction with the earth's surface • \"Meteoros\" is a Greek word that means lofty or high • Atmospheric phenomena such as rain, temperature, air water vapour pressure, cloudiness, wind, pressure, and so on Micro-climate is the climate of the air layer nearest to the earth to a height where the character of the surface no longer has an effect on the meso- or macro-climate (e.g., 2 m above a mealie crop). The height of the microclimate may vary although generally refers to the lowest two meters (2 m) of the atmosphere. The largest fluctuations and largest deviations usually occur in this layer of air. A lawn, a tarred road, a bare patch or ploughed land all contribute to the microclimatic conditions. Micrometeorology is small-scale meteorology – that is, near the earth's surface – and medium- scale meteorology, which is primarily concerned with atmospheric systems of 15-150 km, such as thunderstorms. 608

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY Micro-organism is a microscopic organism, especially a bacterium, virus, or fungus. Mitigation is reducing the impact by restoring and implementing protective steps for the affected environment. Monoculture is the cultivation of a single crop in a given area. Nitrite is a salt or ester of nitrous acid, containing the anion NO2− or the group - NO2. Nitrogen is the chemical element of atomic number 7, a colourless, odourless unreactive gas that forms about 78% of the earth’s atmosphere. Nutrients are substances that provides nourishment essential for the maintenance of life and for growth. Omnivorous is feeding on a variety of food of both plant and animal origin. Pesticide is asubstance used for destroying insects or other organisms harmful to cultivated plants or to animals. pH is a figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral, lower values are more acid and higher values more alkaline. Polyculture is the simultaneous cultivation or exploitation of several crops or kinds of animals. Renewable energy is energy from a source that is not depleted when used, such as wind or solar power. Reverse osmosis is a process by which a solvent passes through a porous membrane in the direction opposite to that for natural osmosis when subjected to a hydrostatic pressure greater than the osmotic pressure. Peatland: a peatland is defined as “an area with or without vegetation with a naturally accumulated peat layer at the surface” whereas peat is ”sedentarily accumulated material consisting of at least 30% (dry mass) of dead organic material” (Joosten & Clarke, 2002:24). Permanently inundated: surface water (open water) is present throughout the year (Ewart-Smith et al., 2006). Permanent wetland: a wetland or the inner zone of a wetland that is permanently saturated (DWAF, 2005). 609

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY Ramsar: Convention on Wetlands signed in the Iranian city of Ramsar on 2 February 1971 (World Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on 2 February). Resilience is the ability of a system to withstand disturbance (The Heffernan Lab at Duke University, 2018).   Saturated: all voids filled with water. This is seldom reached in natural conditions. Related to exclusion of air to the point where soil has anaerobic conditions. Seasonal zone of wetness is the zone of a wetland that lies between the temporary and permanent zones and is characterised by saturation for 3-10 months of the year, within 50 cm of the surface (DWAF, 2005). Seep is a concave or convex area that is permanently or periodically saturated, usually on a slope, where the groundwater or inflow meets the surface (Ewart-Smith et al., 2006). Spring is an outflow of groundwater at the surface (Ewart-Smith et al., 2006). Stocking density is the quantity of fry or fingerlings per unit of water area. Synoptic climatology is the study and description of the synoptic weather records and maps. Synoptic meteorology refers to meteorological data (at different levels in the atmosphere) that is collected simultaneously over an area for a specific time period to give a wide ranging and approximately instantaneous picture of the atmospheric conditions. Temporarily inundated: surface water (open water) is present for less than three months of the year. Temporary zone of wetness: wetland area characterised by saturation within 50 cm of the soil surface for less than three months of the year, e.g. the outer zone of a wetland (DWAF, 2005). Terrain morphological unit (TMU): TMU 1 represents crest, 2 scarp, 3 midslope, 3(1) secondary midslope, 4 footslope and 5 valley floor (Land Type Survey Staff, 2004). 610

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual GLOSSARY Wastewater is any water that has been contaminated by human use. Water pollution is any chemical or physical changes in water detrimental to living organizations. Water quality is a measure of the suitability of water for a particular use based on selected physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Water resources is the entire range of natural waters that occur on the Earth, regardless of their state (i.e., vapour, liquid, or solid). Water budget is an accounting of the inflow to, outflow from, and storage within a wetland or catchment. Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a specific time • it can change each hour or each day over a short period of time (24h) • it is always changing – either quickly or slowly • it is the short-term condition of the atmosphere in connection with temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, water vapour, rainfall over a short time period – hours, days, weeks. Weather forecast is • an assessment of the likely future weather developments made from an analysis of the state of the atmosphere in an specific area, • a statement of what the weather is likely to be like for the next day or few days. Wetland is land which is transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface, or the land is periodically covered with shallow water, and which land in normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation typically adapted to life in saturated soil (RSA, 1998). Wetland delineation is the determination and marking of the boundary of a wetland by marking the outer edge of the temporary zone of wetness (adapted from DWAF, 2008). 611

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual General Conclusion GENERAL CONCLUSION Adaptation to progressive climate change, risk management adaptation, climate The FAO defines Climate-Smart Agriculture change mitigation strategies, and integrating (CSA) as a policy, technology, and financing decision-making processes are all critical. approach that allows countries to achieve There is an urgent need in Southern Africa sustainable agricultural development in the to improve agricultural water management face of climate change. Climate change is interventions through research agendas and expected to exacerbate the farming situation to train purposefully driven farmers. Significant in Southern Africa by shortening production improvements in data, models and decision- seasons, increasing rainfall variability, and rising making tools for projecting climate change and temperatures in the region. its impact on agriculture and real-time action Droughts result in crop failure, hunger, and to mitigate effects and impacts on the ground increased poverty. Changes in disease and pest are required to achieve this goal. Clear plans populations are also expected, and experience and strategies are required to achieve overall has shown that crops under drought stress are agricultural growth in South Africa, including more susceptible to pests and diseases, further increased farm productivity, introducing impairing the plant's ability to use water and climate-smart technologies, improved market nutrients. There is an urgent need and demand access, more affordable inputs, and access for agricultural interventions that will mitigate to water for irrigation or crop utilisation with the negative effects of climate change and better water and nutrient use efficiency than is specifically increase resilience to the effects currently the case. and impacts of climate change and/or normal Farming systems are complex and highly severe negative climate factors that occur, even heterogeneous at all scales, and developing if they are not caused by climate change. solutions will necessitate a thorough These factors must be considered when understanding of the socioeconomic and developing scientific solutions and approaches biophysical factors that drive the needs of to improve food security and poverty reduction farmers, agri-businesses, small entrepreneurs, in the face of changing and harsh climatic consumers, and the entire range of vegetable conditions. Recent scientific debates have made production sector role- players. Adaptable abundantly clear that Climate Smart Agriculture solutions must include a variety of technologies is critical for achieving sustainable agricultural and support systems and vegetable farming production and natural resource conservation in business models that ensure ecosystem health. harsh climatic conditions to stabilise household Agriculture and food systems must undergo food production and, in the long run, the drastic changes. On the supply side, priorities income of smallholder farming communities. include closing yield and efficiency gaps, Interventions that will allow the entire food significantly improving water, nutrient, and system to adapt to the challenges posed by other resource utilisation, and reducing pre-and climate change are among the solutions to the post-harvest losses. To accomplish this, all food problems above/challenges. system players and stakeholders must adapt and 612

Climate Smart Agriculture - Training Manual General Conclusion adopt cutting-edge knowledge and technologies ecological, and socioeconomic quality and and multiple models to address climate change productivity, as well as to achieve sustainability challenges and achieve greater resilience and by using the same/less water, improving input significant reductions in environmental impact. use, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, The goal should be to intensify the agricultural increasing natural capital, strengthening production system by improving genetic, agro resilience, and reducing water and air pollution. 613