Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Indigenous browse trees known to have a reasonably high fodder value, Browse leaf meal comes from seed pods and with the percentage of crude protein content leaves of trees growing naturally in rangelands. ranging from 10% to 21% (Madibela et al., These pods and leaves are air-dried (primarily 2004), making them a good source of protein. in the shade), after which the dried materials Table 11 shows the chemical makeup and can be milled into fine powder or fed to digestibility of common browsing plant species. livestock as is (Mapiye et al., 2009; Brown et The use of leaf meal and pods does not just serve al., 2018). This type of fodder conservation is as a strategy for filling the feed gap during dry common in extensive emerging and communal season, instead, it may also be used to control or subsistence farming systems where there bush encroachment. Furthermore, parasitic is lack of fodder production land or financial plants (mistletoes) that survive on browse trees constraints. in southern Africa were discovered to have CP Over 75% of the trees and shrubs in Africa are varying from 14% to 20% depending on the browse plants, and many of these are legumes parasite plant species and the browse species (Tjelele, 2006). Several browse plant species are with which they are associated with (Madibela et al., 2004). Table 11 The chemical composition and digestibility (% DM) of commonly browsed and / or harvested browse trees. Source: Macala et al., 1995, Madibela et al., 2004. Browse tree Crude Protein Calcium Phosphorus IVOMD* NDF Euclea undulata 11.9 0.91 0.12 48.1 Vachellia caffra 14.6 0.89 0.13 34.7 51.0 Vachellia karroo 12.8 1.20 0.13 39.8 Vachellia tortilis 21.2 2.0 0.15 38.9 48.1 Combretum hereroense 10.7 0.60 0.10 50.4 48.9 Ehretia rigida 10.8 0.20 0.10 70.2 37.4 Grewia bicolor 12.4 1.10 0.15 27.9 Grewia flava 12.5 1.24 0.12 48.9 Ziziphus mucronata 11.9 1.48 0.12 60.9 A. erubescens 20.3 2.0 0.11 49.4 A. fleckii 18.9 2.2 0.11 50.1 A. mellifera 21.3 2.7 0.12 62.2 550

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production A. robusta 11.5 1.8 0.09 34.1 45.3 B. albitrunca 18.9 2.0 0.09 58.4 44.4 D. cinerea 18.6 1.6 0.12 41.1 49.3 M. senegalensis 14.6 2.8 0.10 73.6 38.6 Z. mucronata 20.1 2.4 0.18 67.2 35.7 *IVOMD = In vitro organic matter digestibility; IVDMD = In vitro dry matter digestibility; NDF, neutral detergent fibre The link below is to a YouTube video indicating Agroforestry – Tagasaste or Tree lucerne the potential of harvesting encroaching tree (Cytisus proliferus) species and converting them into forage for livestock. Tree lucerne is a long-lived forage plant that can offer fodder for 20 to 40 years. It is extremely drought resistant due to its extensive root systems. Yet, this tree requires excessive amounts of water during establishment, but once established, it can resist extremely hard and dry environments. Tree lucerne is a high- quality (crude protein 14%) and high-yielding crop that can provide green feed all year. Tree lucerne, like lucerne, is nitrogen fixing and has the added benefit of improving soil conditions. It can also be grazed directly or used as a cut and carry crop (see Figure 19). Seasonal pruning and leaf chipping significantly multiplies the amount of feeding material that a tree can produce. Figure 19 Tree Lucerne can be used as a cut and carry crop or directly grazed by livestock. 551

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Although the trees can be grazed directly, Spineless cactus pruning of the trees enables: Spineless cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica) is a succulent forage species and has unique traits • Regrowth of bushy, dense foliage from the which allow it to adapt better in water-limited main stem conditions, as compared to other fodder crops. Firstly, Opuntia ficus-indica is a succulent plant • Branches to become thicker so that they do with a crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), not break as easily when grazed which means it is substantially more drought resistant to drought because it has a greater • Maintaininance of optimum grazing height water-to-dry matter conversion rate than C3 of a range between 1 to 1.5 m tall or C4 plants. Due to its shallow branching root system, it can use even small amounts (a few All of the cuttings can be used as fodder, and millimeters) of rainwater ; while such amounts the chipped materials can be offered as green, would be of little benefit to C3 and C4 fodder wet fodder. Dry chipped materials can be stored plants (Snyman, 2013). Since the moisture in bags and fed to livestock as needed (Figure content of these spineless cactus varieties 20). A hectare of 3 year old trees (containing ranges between 91 and 94 percent (Grobler et a minimum of 1250 trees), may produce more al., 2010), they could be effective in addressing than 62 tons of wet fodder per year. Direct animal water requirements during drought grazing yields roughly 30 tons of wet material / periods. hectare/ annum. Figure 20 Chipping and feeding tree Lucerne to livestock. 552

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Opuntia spp. cultivation also requires little and protein (Grobler et al., 2010). This is more agronomic inputs, is simple to establish, and common in unfertilized rangeland fodders can be employed in a variety of edaphic and (Müller et al., 2019). Fertilized spineless cactus, bioclimatic settings. Overall, Opuntia ficus-indica on the other hand, could boost its protein level provides great opportunities for incorporation by 10% to 15%. into water-limited agro-ecosystems in South Spineless cactus can be used in a variety of Africa, where it has the ability to generate ways. It can be grazed directly, or the cladodes substantial amounts of biomass that may be can be picked, sliced, and fed to livestock. Other used as livestock feed (Snyman 2013). One of options include combining dry and milled cactus the disadvantages of spineless cactus is that it pear with other feed sources such as oat straw, has a low protein content (only 6%), making it lucerne hay, or other roughages (see Figure 21). appropriate for a subsistence diet that requires animals to be supplemented with both energy Figure 21 Harvesting, processing and feeding of spineless cactus. 553

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production The spiny variety of O. ficus-indica was labeled sheeting and constructed using locally acquired a category 1 weed under the Alien and building materials (see Figure 22). Invasive Species Regulations (AIS), National The benefits of a hydroponic fodder flow system Environmental Management: Biodiversity over a planted fodder system include reduced Act (Act No 10 of 2004), which requires its water usage, with only about 2-3 percent of containment, or removal and destruction if water required for use under field conditions, practicable. Prickly pear trade and planting are to produce the same amount of fodder (Al- prohibited, with the exception of fruit used for Karaki and Al-Hashimi 2012). Because it does human use. All spineless cultivars and selections not require huge tracts of arable land, making (commonly known as Cactus Pear) are exempt the costs of fixed asset (such as fences, tractors, from this restriction and may be grown legally. ploughs, planters, and harvesters) to be low. Hydroponic fodder production As a result, the amount of labor required to Hydroponic fodder production is carried out produce feed is reduced, as well as labour costs. in a system that employs a water-harvesting Once created, these hydroponic fodder systems system to gather water during the wet season have low operational costs, with the main and supply the necessary water for fodder expenses being the purchase of seeds and the development during the dry season. chemicals required to sterilize and clean the This can be done in very sophisticated, vast, system. However, utilizing a hydroponic fodder and automated commercial systems where the production system, roughly 7-10 kg of feed environmental conditions in the system are may be generated for every 1kg of seed used regulated, or it can be done in systems consisting (depending on the fodder species utilised), and of low-cost housing wrapped in durable plastic this can be done in 7-10 days. Figure 22 Hydroponic fodder production in mechanized structures and in low cost housing structures. 554

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production A further advantage of hydroponically produced Procedure fodder in these dry agro-ecological areas is Use barley, wheat, or sorghum seeds since they that, unlike feeding grains directly to animals, sprout quickly. Soak the seeds for 30 minutes in which contain roughly 85-87 percent dry a 1-1.5 percent bleach solution to ensure that matter (13-15 percent water), hydroponically all pollutants are removed. Then, to remove the produced fodders contain approximately 80- bleach, rinse with clean water. Soak seeds in 85 percent water. This is especially critical in a clean water for 8 hours to allow them to absorb water-stressed environment where water for water. This can be done in an old mosquito net the animals is scarce. It has also been observed sack submerged in a bucket. After that, remove that hydroponically generated fodder (where the sack containing the seeds and place it in a nutrient solution is supplied after sprouting) the wet/damp bag for 48 hours to allow for has a 2% to 4% increase in crude protein initial germination and radicle emergence. content when compared to pure grains. All of You can now start planting your seeds in trays these characteristics of the hydroponic fodder (aluminum or plastic). Keep seeds well-watered production system combine to make it one of in trays. Figure 23 demonstrates how the the most essential agricultural technologies sprouts form on different days, as well as the now accessible for green fodder production, ultimate product after 7 days. particularly in water-stressed agro-ecological zones. Figure 23 Hydroponic fodder production procedure. 555

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 6 CONCLUSION 3. Conduct a complete survey of the farms fodder producing potential by The primary objective of any farmer must be to assessing the seasonal availability of generate a stable and sustainable income from feed from the natural veld as well as his/her property (Klug et al. 2000). Therefore, areas suitable for planting forages. the objective of fodder flow planning is to Once areas has been identified of where find the most cost effective way to match the forages can be grown, a more in depth fodder requirements of livestock to the fodder detail as to what species and cultivars producing capability of the farm. It is often better within species are better suited to the and more economical in the long-run to produce agro-ecological conditions, and the all feed requirements for the livestock on farm feed requirements of the herd. rather than to have recurring costs of purchasing supplementary feed. If excessive additional 4. Once a reasonable balance has been fodder should be bought in to supplement reached between fodder demand and the dry matter that can be produced on the supply, determine the cost effectiveness farm, it often means that either the stocking of the fodder flow plan. If the margin rate on the farm is too high or the livestock over feed cost is unacceptable, the production system implemented on the farm is plan must be modified by returning to not suitable or financially viable. It should also step 3 or, if necessary, by modifying the be remembered that even though sophisticated livestock system in step 2. methods of getting to the proper fodder flow plan is available, often the process of getting Before recommending the implementation of to the best plan of action for implementation a specific fodder flow program, consider the of a fodder flow program that is best suited for following: specific agro-ecological conditions is through trial and error. Klug et al. (2000) gives four steps • Are you trying to address seasonal feed that should be taken in order to get to matching gaps or are you trying to prepare for long fodder supply to fodder demand. term droughts? 1. Determine what the current and • What is the farmer’s goal – supplementary future long term sustainable carrying feed all year round or during specific capacity is of the farm which will allow periods? the natural resources on the farm to be maintained in a productive state. • Are you already in a drought? If so, will you This can most easily be done using the have all the requirements for planting feed concept of an animal unit (AU). or should you consider alternative options? 2. Using the month to month herd • How much feed will the farmer require to composition, determine what the feed sustain his livestock throughout the dry requirements of the herd would be season, and should they also consider based on the composition of the herd. reducing their herd size? • What is the costs involved, and does the farmer have the time, resources, and implements required to implement the fodder flow program? 556

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 7 REFERENCES Aucamp AJ (2008). Linking cultivated pastures with rangelands. Grassroots, 4: 19-25. Al-Karaki GN, Al-Hashimi M (2012). Green Fodder Production and Water Use Efficiency of Some Forage Crops under Hydroponic Conditions. ISRN Agronomy. doi:10.5402/2012/924672. Aucamp AJ (2000). The place and role of cultivated pastures in South Africa. In: Tainton N. (Ed) Pasture Management in South Africa. Natal University Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa ISBN 0-86980-959- 8. Bartholomew PE (2000). Establishment of pastures. In: Tainton (Ed) Pasture Management in South Africa. University of Natal Pres, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ISBN 0-86980-959-8. Benhin JKA (2008). South African crop farming and climate change: An economic assessment of impacts. Global Environmental Change. 18: 666-678. Bothma P, Van Rooyen N & Van Rooyen M (2004). Using Diet and Plant Resources to Set Wildlife Stocking Densities in African Savannas. Wildlife Society Bulletin (1973-2006). 32: 840-851. Brockett GM (1983). Pasture foggage as winter feed. Arena. 6: 7-8. Brown D, Ng’ambi JW, Norris D (2018). Effect of tanniniferous Acacia karroo leaf meal inclusion level on feed intake, digestibility and live weight gain of goats fed a Setaria verticillata grass hay-based diet. Journal of Applied Animal Research 46: 248-253. CCARDESA, GIZ (2019). 5th Global Climate-Smart Agriculture 2019 conference. Bali, Indonesia. CZEGLÉDI L & RADÁCSI A (2005). Overutilization of pastures by livestock. Grassland Studies. 29-35. DALRRD (Department Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development) (2020). Abstract of Agricultural statistics, Pretoria, South Africa. De Villiers JF, Dugmore TJ, Botha WA & Wandrag JJ (2002). The value of kikuyu foggage for overwintering dry ewes. South African Journal of Animal Science. 32: 7 - 13. DEA (Department of Environmental Affairs) 2013. Long-term adaptation scenarios flagship research program (LTAS) for South Africa. Climate change implications for the agriculture and forestry sectors in South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa. Dickinson EB, Hyam GFS, Breytenbach WAS, Metcalf HD, Williams FR, Scheepers LJ, Plint AP, Smith HRH, van Vuuren PJ, Viljoen JH, Archibald KP & Els JM (2010). Pasture handbook (2nd ed.). Singapore: Craft Print International Ltd. ISBN 978-0981-41358-7. 557

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Drewes RH (2000). Chapter 13: Fodder conservation. Hay: In Tainton N. 2000. Ed. Pasture Management in South Africa. University of Natal Pres, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ISBN 0-86980-959-8. Dugmore TJ (1995). Dairying in Kwa-Zulu Natal. Chapter 6: Characteristics of common roughages for dairy cows in Kwa-Zulu Natal. Kwa-Zulu Natal Department of Agriculture, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ISBN 0-621-16094-6. 157-162. Edwards PJ (1981). Grazing management. In: Veld and pasture management in South Africa. Tainton NM (Ed). University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg. 325-354. Engelbrecht NCM (2002). Foggage value of subtropical grasses. MSc Thesis. University of Pretoria, South Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization (2018). The state of food security and nutrition in the world: food security and nutrition. Rome, NC. Grain SA (2017). Conservation Agriculture: Integrated crop and pasture-based livestock production systems - Part 1. https://www.grainsa.co.za/integrated-crop-and-pasture-based-livestock-production- systems---part-1. Grobler SM, Dearlove K & Scholtz MM (2010). Palatibility of Opuntia varieties available in South Africa for dryland sheep. South African Journal of Animal Science. 40 (Issue 5, Supplement 1). Hardy MB, Bartholomew PE & Rethman NEG (2000). Chapter 13: Fodder conservation. Foggage: In Tainton N. 2000. Ed. Pasture Management in South Africa. University of Natal Pres, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ISBN 0-86980-959-8. Klug J & Arnott J (2000). Chapter 9: The selection of forage species. In: Tainton N. (Ed) Pasture Management in South Africa. Natal University Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa ISBN 0-86980-959-8 Kruger AC & Shongwe S (2004). Temperature trends in South Africa: 1960-2003. International Journal of Climatology. 24: 1929-1945. Macala J, Mosimanyana B & Kiflewahid B (1995). Nutrient composition of livestock feeds in Botswana. Department of Agricultural Research. Ministry of Agriculture, Government Printers, Gaborone, Botswana. Madibela OR, Letso M, Makoba B & Seitshiro O (2004). Do indigenous browse trees influence chemical composition and in vitro dry matter digestibility of parasitic plants? Animal feed Science and Technology. 115: 357-369. Mapiye C, Chimonyo M, Dzama K, Strydom PE, Muchenje V & Marufu MC (2009). Nutritional status, growth performance and carcass characteristics of Nguni steers supplemented with Acacia karroo leaf- meal. Livestock Science. 126: 206-214. 558

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Mapiye C, Chimonyo M, Marufu MC, Dzama K 2011. Utility of Acacia karoo for beef production in Southern African smallholder farming systems: A review. Animal Feed Sciences and Technology. 164: 135-146. Maúre G, Pinto I, Ndebele-Murisa M, Muthige M, Lennard C, Nikulin G, Dosio A & Meque A (2018). The southern African climate under 1.5°C and 2°C of global warming as simulated by CORDEX regional climate models. Environmental Research Letters, 13, 065002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ aab190. Muller CJC (2017). The dairy farming handbook. Western Cape Department of Agriculture, South Africa. ISBN: 978-0-9947024-4-9. Müller FL, Samuels MI, Cupido CF, Swarts MBV, Amary NM, Hattas D, Morris C, Cyster LF & Boatwright JS (2019). The impacts of season and livestock management strategy on the quality of diets selected by goats and sheep in the semi-arid rangelands of Namaqualand. South Africa. Afr. J. Range Forage Sci. 36: 105-114. PECO B, SANCHEZ AM & AZCARATE FA (2006). Abandonment in grazing systems: Consequences for vegetation and soil. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 113: 284-294. Palmer AR & Ainslie AM (2005). Country pasture/forage resource profiles. Chapter 3: Grasslands of South Africa. Grasslands of the World, FAO, Rome, Italy. 34: 77-120. Rautenbach E, van Ryssen JBJ & van Niekerk WA (2008). Changes in nutrient composition of kikuyu foggage as winter progressed. South African Journal of Animal Science. 38: 342-349. Samuels I, Cupido C, Swarts MB, Palmer AR & Paulse JW (2016). Feeding ecology of four livestock species under different management in a semi-arid pastoral system in South Africa. Afr. J. Range Forage Sci. 33: 1-9. Savory Institute (2015). Climate change, healthy soils and holistic planned grazing: A restoration story. Schlesinger WH (1999). Carbon sequestration in soils. Science. 284: 2095. Schnabel RR, Franzluebbers AJ, Stout WL, Sanderson MA & Stuedemann JA (2001). The effect of pasture management practices. 291-322. In: Follett, R.F., Kimble, J.M. and Lal. R. (eds.) The Potential of U.S. Grazing Lands to Sequester Carbon and Mitigate the Greenhouse Effect. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. Scholtz GDJ, van der Merwe HJ & Tylutki TP (2009). The nutritive value of South African Medicago sativa L. hay. South African Journal of Animal Science 39: 179-182. Schroeder A, Samuels MI, Swarts M., Morris C, Cupido CF & Engelbrecht A (2019). Diet selection and preference of small ruminants during drought conditions in a dryland pastoral system in South Africa. Small Ruminant Research. 176: 17-23. 559

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Schulze RE (2007). South African Atlas of Climatology and Agrohydrology. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, RSA, WRC Report 1489/1/06. Schulze RE & Lynch SD (2007). Annual Precipitation. In: Schulze, R.E. (Ed). 2007. South African atlas of climatology and agro-hydrology. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, RSA, WRC Report 1489/1/06, Section 6.2. Snyman HA (2013). Growth Rate and Water-Use Efficiency of Cactus Pears Opuntia ficus-indica and O. robusta. Arid Land Research and Management. 27: 337-348. Tainton N (2000). Pasture Management in South Africa. University of Natal Pres, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. ISBN 0-86980-959-8. Theron JF & Snyman HA (2015). Productivity evaluation of Medicago sativa cultivars under irrigation in a semi-arid climate. African Journal of Range and Forage Science. 32: 161-171. Tjelele TJ (2006). Dry matter production, intake and nutritive value of certain Indigofera species. Masters (Animal Production), University of Pretoria, South Africa. van de Pol R & Jordaan JJ (2008). The fodder bank system: its current place in veld management. Grassroots. 8: 36-44. Umzimvubu Catchment Partnership (UCP) (2016). ‘Landscapes and Livelihoods’ - A Communal Rangeland Stewardship Model. Model Summary and Toolkit Guide. Matatiele, Eastern Cape Province. https:// umzimvubu.org/rangeland-toolkit. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992). United Nations, New York. 560

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Well managed rangeland and cattle. 520 Figure 2 The theoretical relationship between stocking rate and average 521 daily gain and between stocking rate and livemass gain per hectare. 522 Figure 3 Grazing systems (continuous – no camps; rotational – with camps) 524 and their practical applications. 525 529 Figure 4 Cattle Herdsmen in Matatiele, Eastern Cape. 531 Figure 5 An example of poor versus good veld condition. 531 532 Figure 6 An example of a bull estimated to weigh 580 kg. 532 533 Figure 7 Seasonal changes in rangeland vegetation composition. 540 541 Figure 8 Seasonal changes in crude protein (%) content in different forage 543 types utilised by livestock in the semi-arid rangelands of the Northern Cape. 546 548 Figure 9 Percentage of SA receiving less than threshold values of MAP. 549 549 Figure 10 Annual total rainfall of SA for the period 1904 – 2015. 551 552 Figure 11 Examples of stock piled fodders and feed concentrates. 553 Figure 12 The impacts of soil pH on the production potential of Lucerne. 554 555 Figure 13 Winter dormancy in Lucerne. Figure 14 Quality and yield parameters of Lucerne at different harvesting stages. Figure 15 Cattle grazing grasses conserved as foggage. Figure 16 The impacts of extended droughts on livestock production. Figure 17 Cattle grazing tree Lucerne. Figure 18 Trees scattered throughout the rangelands. Figure 19 Tree Lucerne can be used as a cut and carry crop or directly grazed by livestock. Figure 20 Chipping and feeding tree Lucerne to livestock. Figure 21 Harvesting, processing and feeding of spineless cactus. Figure 22 Hydroponic fodder production in mechanized structures and in low cost housing structures. Figure 23 Hydroponic fodder production procedure. 561

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production LIST OF TABLES Table 1 The relationship between veld condition score and veld condition. 526 Table 2 Veld management options. 527 Table 3 Veld resting options. 527 Table 4 Herd Composition and feed requirement for 30 days 530 (This can be extended to a year feed requirement). Table 5 Improved forage species. 534 Table 6 The chemical composition of commonly fed hay and silage forages in South Africa. 539 Table 7 Different lucerne sowing densities under different agro-ecological conditions. 542 Table 8 Quality parameters of lucerne harvested at different stages. 544 Table 9 Removal of nutrients and recommended replenishment of 545 nutrients per ton of lucerne hay produced. Table 10 The effect of put-up date in the biomass production (tons/ha), crude protein (%) and crude fibre (%) content of foggage produced from a subtropical and a temperate pasture species at Cedara. 547 Table 11 The chemical composition and digestibility (% DM) of commonly browsed and / or harvested browse trees. 550 562

MODULE 14 Aquaponics Production Compiled by Dr Mary-Jane S. Thaela-Chimuka, Ms Anathi Mbona and Dr Magdaleen Wepener ([email protected], [email protected] & [email protected]) Contributor Mr. Tlou K. Ngoepe ([email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Aquaculture Unit (IRENE)

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 566 2 AQUAPONICS 568 2.1 FISH 569 2.2 BACTERIA 569 2.3 PLANTS 569 2.4 WATER 569 2.5 AIR OR OXYGEN 569 3 SIGNIFICANCE OF AQUAPONICS 570 3.1 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF AQUAPONICS FOR FARMERS 570 4 AQUAPONICS TECHNOLOGY MITIGATING AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE 575 4.1 MITIGATION ROLE OF AQUAPONICS 575 4.2 ADAPTATION ROLE OF AQUAPONICS 575 5 HOW DOES AQUAPONICS WORK? 576 5.1 IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF AQUAPONICS 576 5.1.1 Fish tanks 576 5.1.2 Fish production 576 5.1.3 Plant grow units (Hydroponics) 577 5.1.4 Filter (i.e. Mechanical filter and Bio-filter) 579 6 WHAT DO I NEED TO ADOPT AQUAPONICS INTO MY FARM? 580 6.1 WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN STARTING AN AQUAPONICS FARMING 580 6.1.1 Species selection 580 6.1.2 General feasibility and site selection checklist 580 6.1.3 Design and construction of aquaponics system 580 6.2 HOW TO SUSTAIN AQUAPONICS 581 6.2.1 Monitoring water quality 581 6.2.2 Monitoring fish health 582 6.2.3 Good vegetable husbandry 582 7 WHAT DOES IT COST? 583 7.1 FINANCIAL IMPLICATION 584 8 WHAT DOES IT RENDER? 585 8.1 NATIONAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS 585 8.2 FOOD SECURITY 585 8.3 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND EMPLOYMENT 585 8.4 FINANCIAL BENEFITS 585 8.5 REVENUE MODEL 586 9 CHALLENGES AND HOW TO COPE 587 9.1 GENERAL CHALLENGES OF AQUAPONICS IN SOUTH AFRICA 588 564

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 10 WHERE CAN CLIENTS GET HELP AND ADVICE? 589 10.1 FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE AUTHORISATION 589 REQUIREMENTS AND REGULATIONS 589 10.1.1 Freshwater aquaculture species authorisations 589 10.1.2 Land use planning and access 589 10.1.3 Water use authorisation 590 10.1.4 Environmental planning 593 11 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN AQUAPONICS PRODUCTION 593 11.1 WHERE TO START? 593 11.2 WHAT THEN? 593 11.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL? 594 11.4 DISEASE REPORTING 594 11.4.1 Controlled diseases 595 11.4.2 Reporting of diseases by farmers 595 11.5 BIOSECURITY 595 11.6 VACCINATION 595 11.7 PREVENTATIVE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL 597 11.8 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 598 12 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 601 601 LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES 565

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 1 INTRODUCTION usage of the country's water resources and limited supplies, South Africa's issue is to make Climate change is one of the most serious effective and balanced water use by all sectors threats to the water and food security of in order to establish a conducive and healthy Southern Africa. Furthermore, South Africa is socioeconomic environment. a very dry country with relatively little water According to the Food and Agriculture accessible due to a variety of factors such as Organization (FAO), with the growing global high evaporation rates, poor rainfall, climate population, global demand for fish would change, and water pollution (CSIR, 2010). Rain- outstrip availability. Wild fish harvests are fed agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa is likely declining at a 0.5% annual rate (Barroso et to be hampered by increased evaporation and al., 2014), making it increasingly difficult to soil moisture deficits (Ludi, 2009). South Africa meet global demand. As a result, sustainable is food secure on a national level since its food systems must be developed that enable people supply exceeds demand, resulting in a food net and communities to produce affordable food exporter position. for their own consumption (NDP Outcome 7, A detailed examination of South Africa's food Output 2: Improved access to affordable and security reveals that the situation differs at the diversified food). ADDITIONAL BONUS: the household level, with many households still same systems may be scaled up to convert experiencing food insecurity. South Africa's subsistence farmers into small-medium-scale food security has a unique location dimension, commercial farmers, generating livelihoods a racial dimension, and a gender dimension, all (Outcome 7, Output 4: Improved employment of which are influenced by history. According prospects and economic livelihoods) — to solve to the National Planning Commission's (NPC) the \"Missing Middle\" (DAFF, 2011).. National Development Plan 2030, around However, the aforementioned Outputs (2 and 39% of South Africans live below the poverty 4) must be accomplished in the context of the threshold of R418 per month (NDP, published following: 2012). Food insecurity affects an estimated 20% of South African households, meaning they • Dwindling water resources (i.e. reduced have insufficient or seriously inadequate access quality and availability) to a sufficient quantity of inexpensive, nutritious food (StatsSA, 2014; DAFF, 2011). Future risks to • Due to increasing demands, there is water supplies would jeopardize food security, competition for land from other users and if South Africa's food production falls short (housing, urban development) of domestic demand, food insecurity will likely worsen, especially among the poor. Land degradation is exacerbated by population Over 95% of the country's freshwater resources growth and increased human activity, had already been allocated by 2005, and the necessitating the usage of fertilisers, which are quality of these resources has worsened due becoming increasingly expensive due to high to increased pollution caused by anthropogenic processing costs. activities (Ashton et al., 2008). With significant To offset these effects, adaptive capacities such as aquaponics must be created. Aquaponics 566

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production is a bio-integrated system that combines Aquaponics is a possible technique of achieving recirculating aquaculture with hydroponics long-term food security and food sovereignty in vegetable, flower, and/or herb production urban and peri-urban settings, where production to address the difficulties described. There can take place in inconvenient locations such as is a growing demand for successful inland flat roofs, building sites, abandoned factories, intensive/semi-intensive aquaculture systems schools, housing estates, and underutilised that are driven by energy and space efficient areas. Instead of being transported over long production technologies, such as recirculating distances and relying on high carbon dioxide aquaponics with low or zero waste discharge (cCaOn 2)hafvoeotfprreisnhts of fossil fuels, urban areas and water treatment for re-use. As a result, and high-quality food (plants there is a need to develop farming practices that and seafood) produced locally. Aquaponics are economically, socially, and environmentally increases access to affordable and diversified sustainable to produce nutritious and healthy food while also having the potential to up-scale fish, as well as organically grown vegetables, subsistence farmers into small/medium-scale using minimal and sustainable resources. The commercial farmers as to generate revenue. systems must be suited for both rural and urban use, resulting in the formation of informal markets and food security through the provision of local fresh products, as well as economic benefits such as job creation, monetary gains, and a rise in GDP. Training structure This course covers topics such as freshwater aquaculture authorization, environmental planning, as well as pest and disease management. Training objectives After completing this module, learners will be better prepared to deal with the significance of Aquaponics and will have a better understanding of Aquaponics technology, mitigation, and adapting to climate change. 567

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 2 AQUAPONICS or organic system in theory. In principle, it is made up of three types of organisms: fish, Aquaponics is a method of producing protein, bacteria, and plants, all of which benefit from fruits, herbs, and vegetables that blends one another in a closed recirculating system aquaculture (the raising of fish and other with water as the medium of movement (Figure aquatic creatures in tanks) and hydroponics (the 1). Hydroponics (soilless) is a method of growing cultivation of plants without soil). Aquaponics plants without the use of soil (Figure 2). Instead is a type of ecosystem or polyculture in which of using soil, this method uses a mineral nutrient aquatic creatures or edible fish are raised in solution in a water solvent, which allows for a tanks with plants and microbes in a symbiotic more effective nutrient uptake procedure. relationship. There are no fertilisers or pesticides added to the plant beds, making it a bioorganic Figure 1 Simple aquaponics system. Source: hightechgardening.com. Figure 2 Simple hydroponics system. Source: hightechgardening.com. 568

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production In aquaponics, wastewater containing dissolved frequently used to refer to these bacteria. nutrients from fish waste is purified by plants, The nitrite-oxidizing bacteria convert nitrite to and the purified wastewater is reused for nitrate in the second stage (NOB). The genus farming fish. This novel system has attracted the name of the most frequent group, Nitrobacter, attention of scientists, farmers and fishermen is commonly used to refer to these bacteria. because of the potential for recovering nitrogen in aquaculture wastewater, and elevated 2.3 PLANTS nitrogen utilization efficiency could reduce its environmental impacts. As fertiliser and feed, plants receive transformed nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients in 2.1 FISH a bioavailable form. The water coming back to the fish is effectively filtered or cleaned by Fish feed added to the fish tanks is eaten by plant roots. In a closed system, the clean water the fish for their growth and metabolism, and returns to the fish tank, where the cycle begins excretes soluble and solid faeces in the fish again and the fish create waste. The essential tanks. This produces ammonia-rich waste from plant nutrients are provided at no additional fish feed, which becomes the main input in the expense via fish waste, removing the need aquaponics system, and as it is continuously for nutrient solution, fertiliser, or pesticide added, it accumulates as wastewater effluent adjustments, hence increasing the aquaponics rich in nutrients from faeces, uneaten food system's profitability. and bacterial biomass. Fish feed is the only main input added in the aquaponics system 2.4 WATER besides water. The feed ingested by is used for fish growth and metabolism, afterwards it Water in aquaponics is filtered through the grow- is excreted as soluble and solid faeces, while beds and works as a nutrient transport medium remaining uneaten decays in tanks. As a result due to its particular biochemical components, of continuous feed added toxic ammonia is with all processes taking place amongst three produced and accumulated. classes of organisms: fish, bacteria, and plants. The aquaponics system is a type of hydroponics 2.2 BACTERIA that grows plants in water. Bacteria are an important part of aquaponics 2.5 AIR OR OXYGEN because they act as a link between fish waste and plant fertiliser. The nitrifying bacteria turn The air pump introduces oxygen into the the ammonia in the fish waste into nitrate, system, which is necessary for fish survival and which is used as a fertiliser by the plants. This plant growth. is a two-step procedure involving two different types of nitrifying bacteria. The ammonia- oxidizing bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite in the first stage (AOB). The genus name of the most prevalent group, Nitrosomonas, is 569

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 3 SIGNIFICANCE OF AQUAPONICS One form of integrated agriculture/aquaculture • Environmentally, aquaponics prevents approach that fits the Climate-Smart aquaculture effluent from flowing into the Agriculture criterion is aquaponics. It improves watershed and damaging it. It allows for food security in a long-term way by improving better water and production management. agricultural output and earnings. Aquaponics Aquaponics, on the other hand, allows aids to watershed pollution reduction by for more water and production control. producing value-added products (both fish and Aquaponics does not use chemicals for vegetables), which is often caused by fertiliser fertiliser, insect control, or weed control, runoff and aquaculture effluent discharge. It making food safer from chemical residues. has the potential to produce larger yields of produce and protein with less labor, less land, 3.1 STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES fewer chemicals, and less water. Aquaponics, OF AQUAPONICS FOR on the other hand, is a resilient system that FARMERS can adapt to a variety of situations. It combines a high level of biosecurity with a low danger When compared to stand-alone hydroponics of illness and external contamination while and traditional aquaculture, aquaponics has producing good yields without the use of various advantages, including: fertilisers or pesticides because it is a highly managed system. Aquaponics is a technique • Contributing to reduction watershed that fits within the larger picture of sustainable pollution, which often originates from intensive agriculture, particularly in family-scale fertiliser runoff and aquaculture effluent (small-scale) applications. Its long-term viability discharge is cost-effective; despite the high start-up costs, it provides a combined return on fish and • Has the potential to increase produce and vegetables. protein yields while using less labour and land, fewer pesticides, and a fraction of the • Socially, since the food is grown locally and water culturally suitable crops may be grown, aquaponics can improve the quality of • A resilient system that can adjust to a wide life. At the same time, aquaponics can be range of changing conditions used to incorporate food security methods, particularly for landless and disadvantaged • Because it is a carefully controlled system, households. Domestic food production, it combines a high level of biosecurity market access, and skill acquisition are with a low danger of illness and external all important instruments for ensuring contamination, while providing great yields women's empowerment and emancipation without the need of fertilisers or pesticides in poor nations, and aquaponics can help provide the groundwork for fair and sustainable socio-economic progress. 570

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table 1 Strengths and Weaknesses of Aquaponics for farmers. Source: FAO, 2014. Strengths Weaknesses Comments on overcoming System of food production High initial start-up costs weaknesses that is both sustainable and compared to soil vegetable intensive. production or hydroponics. The design will take into Extremely water-efficient. The requirements of fish and account the cost and availability plants do not always match of materials Does not use fertilisers or perfectly. There is a requirement to chemical pesticides. produce the most efficient The inability to generate design. Extension help is Daily tasks such as harvesting sufficient waste for the required to allow for adaptations and planting save time and can nitrification process aids in the (flexibility) thus be performed by people of conversion of harmful ammonia The fundamental guideline for all genders and ages. (fish excreta) into nitrate for balancing the amount of fish In many locations, it is possible plant development. feed to plant growing area in an to produce either family food Aquaponics will not supply a aquaponics system is the feed fish or cash crops at a low cost. balanced food on its own. rate ratio. Construction materials and an extensive knowledge base are Expensive fish food • It can be used in conjunction generally available. with other farming Commercialization requires a techniques higher initial investment than alternative means of production, • Existing diets will benefit such as home gardens. The from the addition of fish actual cost is determined on the and vegetables/leafy greens system's size and technological capability. Pumps and plumbing Natural fish feed grows algae equipment must be factored and worms to supplement or into the costs. replace ingredients that are expensive It is always possible to start small. 571

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production By using the same area for When compared to stand-alone (This could be a good thing.) The production agriculture and aquaculture or hydroponic operation must be carried out fisheries, better yields are systems, there are fewer in accordance with established achieved than with soil culture. management options. procedures. Contributes to land conservation; produces 2-6 Mistakes or accidents can result The importance of training and times more because numerous in the system's catastrophic extension in the early stages platforms can be stacked on failure. cannot be overstated. top of one another. produce Management is required on a Daily management is possible a variety of crops in the same daily basis. because it is a 'home' system. space. Energy-intensive. Reduce pumping expenses by Lower losses due to better maximizing the use of gravity production management. Requires reliable access to and renewable energy. Biosecurity is improved, and electricity as well as fish and external pollutants are less of a plant seeds Options such as generators, threat. In comparison to other manuals, and batteries must It can be used in non-arable production, multidiscipline skills be investigated. Fingerlings lands such as deserts, damaged and technology are required are typically available, but a soil, or salty, sandy islands to manage the production consistent supply must be with no need for land. It is also (and maybe marketing) of two ensured. Seedlings or seeds are possible to practice in cities separate agricultural products typically easy to acquire. where arable land is practically at the same time. Since the 1980s, training, non-existent. mentorship, and advancements Produces less waste have evolved aquaponics technology into a practical food Produces 2-6 times more since production method. it allows us to stack numerous platforms on top of one another. 572

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production It is crucial to be close to It is impossible to achieve all of Decoupling aquaponics to the markets because it can the optimal plant and seafood fulfill RAS and hydroponic be deployed anywhere, quality standards. water quality concerns. including food markets and Recently, commercial growers distribution centers. Reducing and researchers have been transportation expenses, collaborating on a design that carbon footprint, and delivering allows for independent control products while they are still of each system unit. fresh. Table 2 Strength and limitations of hydroponics and aquaculture system. Source: Okemwa, 2015. HYDROPONICS AQUACULTURE Strength Weakness Strength Weakness Because no soil is The farmer must pay a Increases sustainable Water bodies are required, it can be done large upfront fee while food production nitrified as a result of in urban locations. installing the system. nutrient-rich effluents. Chemical treatments, Requires less labour Recurring expenditures Reduces the impact on particularly in are unavoidable because wild stock harvest intensive systems, are the farmer must used. replenish lost nutrients on a regular basis. Can be used to raise non-native species Uses little water and When using the system, Increase efficiency - in such as Nile tilapia. fertiliser technical knowledge is intensive processes, required. centralized operations have a large gain. Because of sterile The technology Smaller communities Predators have a conditions, the necessitates the use of may benefit from more negative impact in presence of soil-borne energy, which can result economic support. open systems. illnesses and pathogens in higher production It benefits species High financial costs is reduced. costs. conservation, such as as a result of greater Mozambique tilapia. consumption of fish Increased yield as a Plants cultivated in meal, particularly result of improved hydroponic systems are in carnivorous fish growth conditions susceptible to fungal species infections, which can result in root rot if not adequately monitored. 573

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table 3 Differences between hydroponics and aquaponics system. Source: Turnšek et al., 2019. Item Hydroponics Aquaponics Cost-effectiveness With the rising cost of nutrients due The utilization of organic waste from fish tanks Maintenance to mineral shortage, it is becoming to give plant nutrients saves money while less cost-effective. maintaining a natural balance. Waste Disposal It necessitates a high level of upkeep Easy to maintain since natural ecosystems are Nutrient type and frequent inspections. balanced, ammonia and pH levels are checked Productivity once a week, and nitrate levels are checked Risk of Diseases once a month. Temperature Replacement of water-based Because it is a closed system, extra nutrients solutions on a regular basis generates are used as solid waste and broken down Nutrient Solution enormous amounts of effluent, which by nitrifying bacteria, causing no or low Retention can be hazardous to the environment. environmental danger. Solid Media Start-up speed Chemical nutrients are expensive. Requires primarily the usage of fish feed, which is less expensive. Mechanical Failure Risks Low yield production With the use of biofilters, the yield can be Organic Growth increased even more. Fungal infections pose a greater risk. As a result of the presence of a natural An infection (epidemic) can ecosystem, disease resistance is increased. contaminate an entire batch. Optimal temperature for operation Higher temperatures are recommended to promote bacteria colony growth and the survival of particular fish species. Water must be unloaded on a Has a natural nitrogen balance; water is regular basis owing to toxicity rarely supplied; only supplemented due to from salt and chemical buildup. evaporation. When using pebbles and clay balls, To keep waste-eating bacteria alive, 31cm deep beds must be 16cm deep. beds of pebbles and clay balls are required. Set-up time is shortened because It will take 3-6 months for the system to be there is no need for a gestation completely operational. period. No long-term negative consequences Water circulation issues can have a negative impact on fish survival. To feed plants, it uses a pricey blend Utilises the natural waste conversion process, of chemicals and salts. which results in improved plant development and lower disease rates. 574

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 4 AQUAPONICS TECHNOLOGY MITIGATING AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE An ever-increasing population, rampant climate • It eliminates adverse environmental impact change, soil degradation, water scarcity, and - aquaponics systems use fertiliser from fish food security are all severe concerns that waste to produce organic food for human the globe is currently facing. Many of these consumption environmental challenges could be mitigated by using aquaponics. Slash-and-burn agriculture, • It requires limited water and space when the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, compared to the traditional farming and greater livestock herds account for a methods quarter of the anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that cause climate change • Aquaponics facilities can be built close to (An HSI Report, 2011). Sustainable agricultural the market (for example, on the roof of a techniques such as aquaponics, on the other shopping mall) to eliminate transportation hand, produce plant and animal products in expenses and thereby reduce greenhouse a climate-smart manner that protects the gas emissions environment and public health by using organic fertilisers instead of toxic chemical fertilisers, 4.2 ADAPTATION ROLE OF antibiotics, and pesticides that may cause AQUAPONICS human health complications such as an increase in the incidence of certain types of cancer and • Because it can grow in a regulated skin diseases, among other things. environment, the aquaponics system provides for year-round continuous food 4.1 MITIGATION ROLE OF production AQUAPONICS • This can assist offset output losses due to • Aquaponics produces both fresh vegetables urbanization-related land scarcity and high-quality fish protein without the use of hazardous pesticides or fertilisers • Aquaponics is a farming technique that may that pollute the soil and water be used in small spaces, such as roof tops, to produce large amounts of food to feed communities in densely populated urban regions with little space for food production 575

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 5 HOW DOES AQUAPONICS WORK? Aquaponics is a mutually beneficial relationship 5.1 IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF between water, aquatic life, microorganisms, AQUAPONICS nutrient dynamics, and plants that thrive in a water system together. Water from the fish tank Aquaponics systems typically consist of flows through filters, plant grow-beds, and back essential components including fish tanks, fish to the fish tank in an aquaponics system. The productionmplant growth units and a filtration fish wastes and uneaten feed are removed from system. the water in the filters, first by a mechanical filter that removes the solid waste and then by 5.1.1 Fish tanks a bio-filter that processes the dissolved wastes Due to the high stocking density, round tanks (Figure 3). will be employed for optimal water circulation Through a process known as nitrification, and solid waste treatment. the bio-filter provides a place for bacteria to convert ammonia, which is poisonous to 5.1.2 Fish production fish, into nitrate, a more accessible nutrient Both fish and vegetables are cultivated in for plants. The plants absorb these nutrients aquaponics, but the veggies generate 90% of the when the water (containing nitrate and other sales revenue due to their rapid development. nutrients) flows through plant grow beds, and Many freshwater fish, including cold-water the water eventually returns to the fish tank and warm-water species, thrive in aquaponics cleaned. If the system is properly balanced, this because they can withstand changes in water mechanism allows the fish, plants, and bacteria quality. to thrive symbiotically and work together to create a healthy growing environment for each other. Figure 3 A representation of the symbiotic aquaponics cycle consisting of three key components, fish, plants and bacteria. Source: Goddek et al., 2015. 576

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production However, because tilapia is a tropical fish 5.1.3 Plant grow units (Hydroponics) native to Africa, it has been employed in In an aquaponics system, the hydroponic most commercial aquaponics. Because it can unit refers to the plant-growing sections. For survive variable dissolved oxygen levels, pH, recirculating aquaponics systems, there are a and temperature, tilapia is ideally suited to variety of system designs to choose from. The recirculating tanks used in aquaculture. Tilapia is designs are similar to hydroponic systems, with also commonly utilised since it is easy to breed the exception that the aquaponics system's and develops quickly. water source originates from the fish tank Tilapia was chosen because of its hardiness, lack and is eventually returned to its source. In of rules and permit needs, and compatibility with aquaponics, the degree of nutrient demands aquaponics systems. Because of its adaptability is the most important aspect in deciding which and tolerance to varying water conditions, it is media to utilise. Low-nutrient-demand plants the most extensively cultivated and adapted such as herbs, legumes, and leafy greens, species in aquaponics systems. Extruded fish medium-nutrient-demand plants such as feed pellets produced under regular conditions cabbages, bulbing plants, and carrots, and high- are acceptable for feeding fish in aquaponics nutrient-demand plants such as strawberries, because they meet the balanced nutritional cucumbers, tomatoes, and peppers can all be needs for fish health and growth performance. employed. The sort of system or media to be Tilapia is an omnivore fish that requires used is then determined. In aquaponics, media approximately 32% crude protein in their diet bed systems can be used to cultivate many for optimal development. Fish can be fed a plants or polycultures of fruity vegetables, specified percentage of their body weight per herbs, and leafy greens, whereas NFT and DWC day or until they are satisfied (ad libitum). To systems are typically utilised for monoculture or provide an optimal growing environment for single-vegetable production.. fish, water quality in fish tanks should be kept at Plant adaptability in aquaponics is directly optimal levels and properly monitored. proportional to the density of fish in the Tilapia, the world's second most cultured fish, tanks and the nutrient concentration in the is very popular in aquaponics systems and is aquaculture effluent. Any leafy plants such the most widely cultivated of any farmed fish. as most common home plants such as herbs They are perfect species because they are lettuce and leafy greens (chives, lettuce, easy to breed, develop quickly, and can survive basil) can easily be grown in any aquaponics extremely bad water conditions. They eat an system because their nutrient requirements omnivorous diet that includes algae, aquatic are low to medium, which is then related to plants, small invertebrates, and detritus, and the concentration of the aquaculture effluent. they are tasty. Tilapia is becoming more popular Plants that require more nutrients (fruit- in the west due to its white muscle, mild flavor, bearing plants like tomatoes, bell peppers, and lack of intramuscular bones. Tilapia, also and cucumbers) and will only thrive in a well- known as \"aquatic chicken,\" is a versatile and stocked, well-established aquaponics system: robust fish. Due to a decrease in the supply of Clearly, the plant species used in aquaponics traditional marine fish products such as hake and cultivation is mostly determined or dependent line fish, Tilapia production must be expanded, on the fish stocking density in the fish tanks, developed, and improved as the future of South which is equivalent to effluent nutrient content. African fish industry. 577

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table 4 Advantages and disadvantages of different aquaponics systems. Source: Delaide et al., 2017. Culture systems Strengths Weakness Media bed - an inert media as • Can be easily operated by • Depending on the media substrates used to support plant roots in a grow bed such as gravel beginners because of its utilised, it might be simple design quite heavy Deep Water culture system (DWC) • Suitable for growing • Media cannot be both Deep water culture requires the plants all types of plants and widely available and is to be suspended in polystyrene sheets, can support tall fruiting expensive and the roots to be immersed in water. vegetables • It has a higher rate of Deep water culture (DWC) necessitates • Low electricity energy evaporation than the the suspension of plants in polystyrene consumptio NFT and DWC and the submergence of roots in water. • Even other media types • Plant performance can can be used vary from bed to bed • Plants may capture when there is a lack a lot of aeration and of water uniformity. mineralized solids When stocking density is high, media can clog. • On a large scale, they are Correct water volume more cost-effective calculations are required for drain-flood systems • It is ideal for minimizing • Filtration procedure is evaporation and water more complicated loss. Lightweight design • The unit can be necessitates less water extremely heavy volume • The canal must have a high concentration • In commercial of dissolved oxygen, hydroponics endeavors, it which requires the use was thoroughly studied of a more advanced air pump • Planting and harvesting • Food-grade plastic liners can be made easier by are required using shifting rafts with • Sheets of polystyrene enough bio-filter surface are easily shattered area • Plants that are taller are more difficult to support • Polystyrene rafts provide • Large amounts of water water insulation from increase humidity, which heat loss or gain, increases the risk of allowing for consistent fungal infections. temperatures. 578

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Nutrient Film Technique • They are more cost- • Filtration procedure that The nutrient film shallow water effective on a larger scale is more complicated technology uses horizontal pipes to to accommodate diverse transport water. To gain access to the plants than media beds, • Water and air pumps are boreholes, plants are cultivated in long, and pipe spacing may be essential narrow pipes. modified • Direct seeding is not • It’s ideal for leafy greens possible and herbs • Water quality issues are • Less water volume is intensified by low water required volume • Harvesting involves very • Increases little labor unpredictability in water temperature as a result • Harvesting method is of fish stress quite straightforward • Water inlet pipelines are • Suitable for rooftops prone to clogging • Weighs next to nothing • Water loss through • Power outages are a risk evaporation is negligible • Commercial hydroponic enterprises have thoroughly investigated this topic. 5.1.4 Filter (i.e. Mechanical filter and Bio- Bio-filtration filter) Bio-filtration is the process by which aerobic bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite and then Mechanical filter nitrite to nitrate. Because ammonia and nitrite This is the process of removing solid and floating are toxic to fish even in small amounts, and faecal matter as well as uneaten feed from plants require nitrates to grow, bio-filtration fish tanks. This system uses a gravel column is an essential component of aquaponics. The filtration system to handle both mechanical bio-filtration unit is designed to provide a large and biological filtering, resulting in a smaller surface area of aerated water to nitrifying footprint and lower setup costs. bacteria in order to provide a favorable growing environment. 579

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 6 WHAT DO I NEED TO ADOPT AQUAPONICS INTO MY FARM? 6.1 WHAT TO CONSIDER WHEN 6.1.2 General feasibility and site selection STARTING AN AQUAPONICS checklist FARMING • Availability of land legally zoned for the 6.1.1 Species selection aquaculture and aquaponics activity In aquaponics systems, a number of fish species • Water supply and availability have demonstrated exceptional growth rates. • Water quality Tilapia, common carp, silver carp, grass carp, • Capital barramundi, jade perch, catfish, trout, salmon, • Market Murray cod, and largemouth bass are some of the • Management fish that can be farmed in an aquaponics system. • Stability Any of these globally available organisms thrive • Presence of sunlight and shade in aquaponics systems. The most often farmed • Utilities, fences, and Accessibility species in South African aquaponics production are tilapia, trout, catfish, ornamental fish, bass, Aquaponics technology is complicated because and bluegill (Mchunu, 2018). When building an it requires the ability to control the production aquaponics facility, it is critical to appreciate the (and maybe commercialization) of two different necessity of having healthy fish available from agricultural products at the same time. reliable local vendors. However, advances in aquaponics technology have made it a viable food production system Plant adaptability in aquaponics is directly since the 1980s. Modern aquaponics systems proportionalto thedensityof fishinthetanksand can be extremely effective, but they require the nutrient concentration in the aquaculture specific maintenance and attention. effluent. Any leafy plants such as most common home plants such as herbs lettuce and leafy 6.1.3 Design and construction of aquaponics greens (chives, lettuce, basil) can easily be system grown in any aquaponics system because their nutrient requirements are low to medium, Materials needed for the construction of an which is then related to the concentration of the entry modular aquaponics system is as follows: aquaculture effluent. Plants that require more nutrients (fruit-bearing plants like tomatoes, • Fish production component (Fish tanks) bell peppers, and cucumbers) will only thrive □ Fiberglass or inert plastic in a well-stocked, well-established aquaponics □ Animal water troughs system. Plant species selection for aquaponics □ Plastic-lined ponds or cement cultivation is clearly influenced or determined □ Hole dug in the ground by the fish stocking density in the fish tanks, □ Lined with bricks or cinder blocks, implying that effluent nutrient content is a □ Used containers, such as bathtubs, factor (Adeleke, 2020). barrels or intermediate bulk containers (IBCs). 580

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production • Filtration systems – mechanical and there should be enough water in the system to biological circulate it. Plants filter water for fish, which is a □ Mechanical filtration components success if the system is balanced. The balancing ̶̶ Screen or filter located between of a new system can be tricky. It is important to the fish tank and the grow bed. observe the ratio of fish feed required per day. ̶̶ Sedimentation tanks, The feed ratio is primarily determined by the ̶̶ Radial-flow clarifiers, targeted plant type. Feed-rate ratio is the ̶̶ Sand or bead filters fundamental guideline for balancing the amount ̶̶ Baffle filters of fish feed to plant growth area in aquaponics □ Mechanical separators components systems, which is measured in grams of daily ̶̶ Bio-balls feed per square metre of plant growing space. ̶̶ Volcanic gravel, Leafy vegetables require 40–50 g/m2/day of ̶̶ Plastic bottle caps, feed, while fruiting vegetables require 50–80 g/ ̶̶ nylon shower poufs, m2/day. ̶̶ Netting, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 6.2.1 Monitoring water quality shavings The following are some of the critical water ̶̶ Nylon scrub pads. quality characteristics that must be managed in □ Bio-filtration order to sustain an aquaponics system: □ Mineralization • Temperature Any waste that remains on the mechanical Making sure that the temperature in the fish filters, within the biofilters or in the grow beds tank is within the ideal range and fits the needs is subjected to some mineralization. of the farmed species. It must be adjusted to ensure that the aquaponics system provides the • Plant production components ideal environment. □ Media grow beds □ NFT grow beds • pH level □ DWC growers It determines the health of the fish, the pace of bacterial proliferation in the system, and the 6.2 HOW TO SUSTAIN ability of plants to absorb nutrients. The optimal AQUAPONICS pH for most systems is 6.8-7.0, which some systems can consistently maintain. When the For long-term viability, the aquaponics system pH falls below 6.5, always add hydrated potash must be well-balanced. It is critical to understand or lime to raise it. what happens in an aquaponics system. Here are some of the factors to consider in order • Ammonia and Nitrate Levels to better maintain the correct conditions for Ammonia levels must be tested on a weekly basis aquaponics to work. to detect any problems before they become a To offer sufficient nutrients to plants through crisis. The levels should not be more than 0.5 fish waste products, the fish should be fed high- quality feed. The bio-filter in the system should be large enough to digest the fish wastes, and 581

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production ppm. Nitrate levels, on the other hand, should maintaining a good aquaponics system because be tested monthly and should not exceed 150 if the fish are unhealthy, waste production ppm. Levels over this indicate that there are decreases, resulting in poor plant development insufficient plants in the system to absorb the and harvest. nitrogen produced by nitrifying bacteria. This 6.2.3 Good vegetable husbandry can be remedied by planting more plants or This aquaponics technology covers the catching more fish. fundamental concepts and recommendations 6.2.2 Monitoring fish health for installing a new aquaponics unit as well as Fish health and care are vital to an aquaponics the routine management procedures of an system's general health and performance. established. Understanding the needs of the fish is critical to 582

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 7 WHAT DOES IT COST? systems (DWC); and Nutrient Film technique (NFT), Media Media-based or gravel grow bed Aquaponics' benefits and success are heavily was chosen, primarily because it is simple to reliant on its economic profit. Although operate, especially for beginners, and because aquaponics may harvest both fish and plants at it can grow a wide range of plant species. This the same time, it has greater operational costs. was a small scale entry-level modular system According to a recent study that investigated the with a production capacity of approximately bio-economic feasibility of aquaponics systems 300kg of fish food and 15 vegetables per cycle as a leapfrog technology to sustainable food (Adeleke, 2020), and was designed to produce sourcing, money provisioning for communities both ornamental (Koi and goldfish) and food in Kwa-Zulu Natal, the biggest cost components fish (Tilapia, catfish, trout, and carp) integrated are fish, notably fish feed cost (Adeleke, 2020). with common vegetable crops (spinach, basil, The study concluded that when building an lettuce, tomatoes, herbs and peppers). aquaponics system, a fish-to-plant revenue The plant culture in the system is comprised of model of 90% to 10% should be used. six 1000L flow bins/IBC tanks (halved). In each The study employed basic and widely available container lettuce, spinach, chilli and tomato components to build the aquaponics system, seedlings were grown (Adeleke, 2020) while the such as intermediate bulk containers (IBC) for fish was cultured in a full 1000L tank made from fish tanks and grow beds for plants. The material an IBC tank. The system is set up similar to the might be purchased from a nearby hardware one in Figure 4. store. Although there are three traditional crop production techniques, namely: Media Media-based or gravel grow bed; Deep water Figure 4 Aquaponics system from Agricultural Research Council- Aquaculture unit. 583

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 7.1 FINANCIAL IMPLICATION Table 5 provides an estimate of the cost of establishing a modest scale or entry-level aquaponics system. Table 5 Estimated system setup cost for an entry level modular aquaponics. Quantity Items Amount 1 Aquaponics units R25 513,70 2 Swirl filter 1 Delivery fee * Delivery must not take longer than 1 hour to offload - R1 454,80 penalty will be charge R3 500,00 1 FG185- 1000Lt Flow bin Once used Food Grade (AS NEW) 1 CUT 1000L FLOWBIN INTO TWO HALVES R2 446,70 2 Air Pump SES10 R2 446,70 2 500Lt Sump tank R1 811,90 2 JTS-3/05M .55Kw 1””x1”” Jet Pump R4 893,30 1 Accessories and Components to assemble Fish Tank R7 406,00 2 Accessories and Components to assemble Fish Tank to UV Sterilizing R14 150,75 unit to Solid waste Unit and Sump Tank Pipe and Fittings for Gravity R7 406,00 1 Flow Fish tank R10 000,00 R52 016,15 Total 584

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 8 WHAT DOES IT RENDER? 8.1 NATIONAL SUSTAINABLE of fossil fuel burning are reduced through DEVELOPMENT GOALS transportation and refrigeration. Aquaponics operations will assist homes in securing food Vision 2030, the National Development security, with extra produce being sold to shops Plan (NDP), is a 20-year strategic action plan to create cash for the household. for reducing poverty, unemployment, and inequality. Aquaculture is the world's fastest- 8.3 ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND growing animal food-producing sector, EMPLOYMENT according to Operation Phakisa (Operation \"Phakisa\" in Sesotho means \"hurry up\"), one of South Africa's unemployment rate has reached the country's mechanisms for implementing the 32.5 percent, the highest level since 2017, as National Development Plan (NDP) (FAO, 2014). the economy continues to be impacted by the As a result, aquaculture and aquaponics have Covid-19 outbreak (StatsSA, 2021). Various been identified as a possible economic driver of levels of government have set aside funding the NDP plan, with the potential to play a critical as seed capital for South Africans who can role in addressing unemployment, poverty, and demonstrate competence and run aquaculture inequality in South Africa, particularly among operations sustainably in order to drive and youth and women. expand small and medium scale businesses. Agribusiness Development Organizations, 8.2 FOOD SECURITY in collaboration with the DALRRD and other appropriate agencies, can analyze these funds In comparison to traditional field agricultural in all provinces of the country. and aquaculture operations, the aquaponics system uses significantly less space and water 8.4 FINANCIAL BENEFITS while generating higher quantities and higher quality protein food including fish and fresh Aquaculture and aquaponics are capable of vegetable crops. Aquaponics may be used both creating and expanding both income and indoors and outdoors, and it can be built up revenues that can contribute significantly to from a small operation to a large enterprise South Africa's GDP from commercial-scale utilizing simple and inexpensive locally products if they are grown sustainably. Farmers accessible materials. Even unusual or unusual may make a lot of money by selling relatively locations, such as flat roofs, building sites, cheap, high-quality animal protein and fresh abandoned industries, schools, housing estates, vegetables to local markets and feeding and underutilised areas, might be used for programs (hospitals, schools, and jails). production. This alleviates some of the issues of Vegetables can be harvested every four urban food supply by allowing fresh and high- months in aquaponics systems, resulting in quality food (plants and fish) to be grown and three production cycles per year, whereas fish sold directly to markets without having to travel can be harvested every six months, resulting large distances. As a result, the C02 footprints 585

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production in two production cycles per year. As a result, with farmers' growth schedules aimed at aquaponics production systems can create advantageous high pricing during the peak price steady revenue flow in a short time, making time. farmers less vulnerable and independent of government assistance, particularly that 8.5 REVENUE MODEL provided as part of disaster management in response to climate change. ARC is also Table 6 shows an estimated revenue that can conducting a study to maximize the profitability be generated from a small-scale/entry-level of aquaponics-grown veggies by analyzing aquaponics system of 1000l (IBC) fish tank, and price trends from the country's fresh produce six flow bins filled gravel media grow bed. markets, and all of this data will be combined Table 6 Estimated revenue for an entry-level modular aquaponics system. INPUTS INCOME PROFIT System/ Item Throughput/ Cost/ cycle Throughput/ Cost/ Profit System/ Cycle year System/ Year per year R57000 cycle year 3 Lettuce 1st cycle: Lettuce R120000 R29700 1st cycle: R115000 Vegetable Spinach R40000 Spinach R17000 cycles Basil 2nd and 3rd Basil R20000 2nd &3rd sales per Pepper cycle: Pepper cycles: year Tomatoes R8000 Tomatoes R49000 2 Fish cycle Other herbs R10000 Other herbs each Sale per (total 15 kg (total 30kg year vegetables) vegetables) R9700 R9700 1000 fingerlings/ 2000 cycle (total 270 fingerlings/ kg fish 10% year (total mortality) 540 kg fish 10% mortality) 586

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 9 CHALLENGES AND HOW TO COPE Despite the fact that hydroponics (plant Farmers face difficulty using aquaponics growth) is a well-known technique, aquaponics systems for production, even when they are (two entities) is largely unknown to the general well-designed and managed. public. Table 7 Challenges encountered in aquaponics and their possible solutions. Source: Goddek et al., 2015. Technical challenges Challenge Solution • Nutrient supplementation addition of dissolved pH stabilization (fish, plant and bacteria) limestone. • Maintain the nitrification biofilm. Pest (plants) and disease • Sanitary measures. management (plants and • Control of environmental conditions - decrease fish) relative humidity around the plants. Solid accumulation in the • Use sump to collect excess solids. system. Water scarcity • Capturing water from the vapour. • Harvest rainwater. Socio-ecological Energy availability • Use of reverse osmosis for contaminated water. challenges • Use renewable energy hybrids (solar energy Shortage of space for urban farming and short and Production of biogas from waste). supply chains • Rooftop gardens. Start-up cost • Use old industrial neglected buildings. Economic challenges • Apply for government grants. • Start up with a small system and expand over Education Energy cost Lack of knowledge and time. understanding (Skills) • Use of renewable energy • Skills development to address and reduce unemployment among youths, young graduates and women. 587

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 9.1 GENERAL CHALLENGES OF As a result, providing financial resources to AQUAPONICS IN SOUTH newly established farmers for up-front capital is AFRICA critical. • South African harsh weather conditions • Skills development One of the most important requirements for South Africa has a diverse climate, with a successful aquaculture system is competent temperatures varying from the warm East aquaculture management. Because the Coast to the humid highlands to the chilly West nutritional requirements of the plants enter Coast. Due to variable weather circumstances the system through the fish culture system, fish that are below the average temperature well-being is regarded as a critical aspect for a requirements of many resilient cultured fish successful aquaponics system (Lennard, 2004). species, including tilapia, the use of earth ponds Most farmers lack the skills and information for aquaculture production is not economically required to monitor fish development, water viable (Van der Waal, 2000). Aquaponics must quality measures, and diagnose fish infections be done in greenhouse tunnels with regulated in their systems early on. As a result, there are environmental conditions to address this worries about the food safety of the items, as problem. While controlled environmental they may be of low quality and dangerous for housing may be the answer, the cost of setting up human consumption. an operating fish-growing facility is prohibitive. 588

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 10 WHERE CAN CLIENTS GET HELP AND ADVICE? The Department of Environment, Forestry, and 10.1.2 Land use planning and access Fisheries (DEFF) established a tracing system This stage verifies that the land to be used for for compliance purposes, which fish producers aquaculture is lawfully owned by the applicant, must follow (DAFF 2007). Prior to submitting or that the applicant has obtained permission an application, all mandatory prerequisites to utilise the land, or that it is in the process of for engaging in aquaculture activities should being approved. Aspects of land use planning be met (Government Gazette, No. 32043, 27 include: March 2009). • Ensuring that the land is zoned for 10.1 FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE aquaculture use or AUTHORISATION REQUIREMENTS AND • An application for rezoning has been REGULATIONS submitted to the relevant local Municipality. 10.1.1 Freshwater aquaculture species • Ensure that the proposed aquaculture authorisations activities comply with the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 (Act No. • The farmer is required to select an 43 of 1983). appropriate fish species to be used for aquaculture activities 10.1.3 Water use authorisation This step ascertains the demand for a water use • Nature Conservation and Provincial authorisation in terms of the National Water Authorities receive applications for permits Act, 1998 (Act No. 36 of 1998) (NWA) from the for stocking, transporting fish from one area Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). to another, and the usage of acceptable The DWS employs a legislative framework to candidate species to be farmed preserve, use, conserve, manage and control South African natural water resources. The • Applications for licences for stocking, environmental authorisation process in terms transporting fish from one location to of NEMA provides for Water use planning and another, and the use of eligible candidate water use authorisation. species to be farmed are handled by Nature Requirements of water use authorisation and Conservation and Provincial Authorities. process in terms of NWA for using water for If an exotic, threatened, or protected aquaculture purposes for which authorisation fish species is used, national authorities is required: must be contacted to get the relevant authorizations and legal frameworks, which • Getting water from a water resource. are supplied by the National Environmental • Water storage. Management: Biodiversity Act, 2004 (Act • Discharging of water effluents to natural No. 10 of 2004) water resources through pipe, canal. • Discarding wastewater in a manner that will 589

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production pose negative impacts on a water resource □ If a license is required, a standardised such as river and groundwater. licence application form together • Modifying the bed, banks and characteristics with a report containing the following of a watercourse, or use of water for information regarding the proposed recreational purposes. aquaculture operation must be submitted to DWS:: If one of the above water uses are included in an ̶̶ The aquaculture type aquaculture activity, the following authorisation (freshwater) will be implemented: ̶̶ The selected aquaculture species (exotic, indigenous or • Predetermined authorisation by means of conserved species) the water use - Schedule 1 Use as defined ̶̶ Intended production capacity in in the NWA: tons per annum (round weight □ This is implemented in aquaculture and unprocessed) activities wherein water use is relatively ̶̶ Type of aquaculture production equal to domestic water use system to be used (tank culture, □ This applies to small aquaculture raceways, pond culture) systems and does not require ̶̶ Type of internal water any application for the water use management system to be used authorisation (recirculation or cage culture) ̶̶ Type of post-production water • Predetermined authorisation of the water management system to be use classified as an Existing Lawful Use as used (e.g. biological filtration, defined in the NWA: settlement systems, drum filters □ This applies to the water use, which etc.) was authorised in not more than ̶̶ Amount of feed intended to be 2-years prior to the commencement of used per annum as well as the aquaculture activity. feed type. □ No application is required. However, the recognition of competency 10.1.4 Environmental planning authorisation (Existing Lawful use) may Environmental approval is necessary based be necessary. on the aquaculture farm's production extrapolations. This ensures that required • Authorisation process to obtain a Water services and infrastructure (e.g., electricity, Use Licence: water, roads, and sewerage) are available at □ A licence is necessary when the water adequate capacities, or that an application for use for aquaculture purposes does not the services has been submitted to the relevant meet the criteria for Schedule 1 Use service provider, ensuring that all activities are an Existing Lawful Use or a General carried out within sustainable environmental Authorisation. thresholds. 590

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table 8 Contact details of relevant authorities. Water Use Authorization Enquiries Province Department Contact Person Contact Details Eastern Cape Department Vien Kooverji 043 701 0371 Free State of Water and [email protected] Gauteng Sanitation Kwa-Zulu Natal Limpopo Department Willem Blair 051 405 9332 Mpumalanga of Water and [email protected] Northern Cape Sanitation Western Cape Department Ephraim 012 392 1374 of Water and Matseba [email protected] Sanitation Department Sibusiso 031 336 2730 of Water and Mathonsi [email protected] Sanitation Department Komape Martha 015 290 1463 of Water and [email protected] Sanitation Department Standfort 013 932 2061 of Water and Macevele [email protected] Sanitation Department Nozi Mazwi 053 836 7602 of Water and [email protected] Sanitation Department Nkhetheni 021 941 6295 of Water and Nthungeni [email protected] Sanitation 591

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Freshwater Species Authorization Enquiries Province Department Contact Person Contact Details Eastern Cape Department Jeff Govendor 041 508 5811 of Economic [email protected] Mpumalanga Development, Environmental Western Cape Affairs and Tourism Gauteng Mpumalanga Dries Pienaar 013 759 5329 Tourism and Park Dorothy dries@[email protected] Kwa-Zulu Natal Agency 013 759 5334 North West [email protected] Free State Limpopo Cape Nature Martin Jordan 021 866 8011 [email protected] Dean Simpson 021 866 8049 [email protected] Department of Permit Office 011 355 1207 Agriculture and Violet Ndongeni 012 316 1638 Rural Development [email protected] (Conservation Section) Ezemvelo KZN Ken Morthy 031 274 6900 Wildlife [email protected] Department Basi Diole 018 389 5671/5270 of Agriculture, [email protected] Conservation and Environment Department of Leon Barkhuizen 051 400 8425 Economic, Tourism [email protected] and Environmental Affairs Department Anthony van 015 290 7171/7081 of Economic, Wetten [email protected] Environment and Tourism 592

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 11 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN AQUAPONICS PRODUCTION The need in South Africa to increase its f. What data do they include in their aquaculture production is ever growing. records? Aquaculture offers a way for low income household to gain extra income and to provide g. How do they choose which animals to a stable source of protein for them. keep? Climate smart disease and pest management includes aspects of mitigation and replacement. h. Which treatments are they using? Where Other sections will speak to you about the are they getting the treatments? replacement of species by more hardy species. In this section, we will look at mitigating the i. What infrastructure is available? risks. j. How much labour is available to the Climate-smart pest and disease management has the following potential benefits: farmers? k. Equipment that the farmer has. • Decrease in mortality rates • Decrease in morbidity rates 11.2 WHAT THEN? • An increase in disease reporting • Increased productivity Once you understand how the system works, you • An increase in fertility can create a plan with the farmers' help based • An increase in income on what they view as their major challenges and • Lowering of greenhouse gas emissions on disease monitoring and recording. How to Climate smart pest and disease management identify a sick animal. may be split into these categories: biological disease control, vaccination programs, 11.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK biosecurity, and preventative chemical ANIMAL? (CCARDESA, 2019). The only way to tell if an animal is sick is to 11.1 WHERE TO START? observe how a healthy animal appears.. A healthy fish should: a. Look at your target farmers and how they are farming. • Be swimming smoothly. • Not be gasping for air. b. What are the problems that they think • Have nice uniform pink gills. needs the most attention currently? • Have a straight spine. • Have a smooth body with no signs of spots c. What is their main aim with their farming enterprise? on the surface of the scales or scales. • Have no visible parasites. d. How are they looking for signs of disease • Must show interest in feed. in their animals? No more than 1% of your fish population should die over a 24-hour period. e. How do they keep records of their Other species might be more difficult to assess animals? as abalone etc. 593

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 11.4 DISEASE REPORTING According to the Animal diseases, ACT 35 of 1984 the definitions: One of the most important functions of the extension officer is to assist in the notification · ‘controlled animal disease’ means any of controlled and notifiable diseases to the animal disease in respect of which any authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases general or particular control measure Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. has been prescribed, and any animal Link to the act: disease which is not indigenous or https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ native to the Republic. Table 2 of the Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ regulations on the act gives a list of Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ controlled diseases. diseaseact Link to the regulations: · ‘notifiable animal disease’ an animal https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ disease specified in Annexure 3. StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ SubordinateFileDownload/5843 Defining the term vector as per the CCARDESA Additional diseases with trade implications definition: Vectors are insects, birds or other are also reported to the OIE through the animals that transmit a disease and/or pest Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and from one host to another. Rural Development (DALRD), as extension 11.4.1 Controlled diseases officers do not have formal training in these The controlled animal diseases (in terms of diseases and are not expected to note them. the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) that pertains to fish are presented in Table 9. Table 9 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to fish. Disease Clinical signs Vector Bacterial kidney disease Lethargy, skin darkening, eyes protruding out, blood-filled No blisters in the flanks. No Contagious hematopoietic Lethargy with periods of frenzy, protruding eyes, distended No necrosis abdomen, pale gills, darkening of the skin. Contagious pancreatic Protruding eyes, distended abdomen, pale gills, haemorrhages No necrosis over the ventral part of the body, pale gills, corkscrew swim No pattern just before death. Haemorrhagic septicaemia Skin darkening signs of bleeding, pale ventral abdomen, spiral swimming, protruding eyes, and pale gills. Koi herpes virus Lethargy, swimming on the side, yellow coloured gills, sunken (affects all carps) in eyes. 594

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 11.4.2 Reporting of diseases by farmers Hands should be washed after touching dead Make sure farmers understand their fish. responsibility to report any animals that show Disease surveillance must be done as part of signs of disease to you as the extension officer biosecurity (Banrie, 2013). or to the animal health technician who will summon a veterinarian. It's also a good idea 11.6 VACCINATION to try to avoid the stigma that comes with reporting some of these diseases. Keep in mind Although not a lot of vaccinations are available that farmers will only share information with and used currently it is still something to keep an you if you have a strong relationship with them. eye on. As the industry grows, more vaccines will According to the Animal Diseases Act, it is also become available in the aquaculture industry. the responsibility of animal owners to report An example of this is a new erythromycin- these diseases, and failure to do so is a violation resistant streptococcal vaccination for tilapia of the law. that was designed in 2019 (Lui, 2019). 11.5 BIOSECURITY 11.7 PREVENTATIVE CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Biosecurity measures will ensure that you do not introduce infections or diseases into your Probiotics for fish is a new field that has proven aquaculture unit. to improve the efficiency of fish production. Quarantine of any new stock that arrives is a Probiotics are strains of bacteria that are not vital part of this any fish can be inspected for harmful that live in the host and helps fight signs of ill health and also treated for parasites dangerous bacteria. It can be given either to avoid adding into your system. Quarantine in the water or in the feed. It is important to can be 15 days up to three months in sensitive make sure that you use the correct probiotic for systems. the species that you are dealing with (Assefa Controlling of movement of people around the et al., 2018). Aquastar product is an example unit can help prevent the spread of the diseases. of this. Plant extract is also a newly emerging Always work with healthy fish first. Make sure field showing promise as growth promotors, workers' hands are cleaned and only approved immune stimulators and antiparasitic and hand wash products are used. antibacterial agents. For example, Nile tilapia Using clean feed to prevent contamination of showed increased weight gain when garlic was the water. added to the diet. Oreganum has been shown The method used for disposing of dead fish. to be better than tetracyclines in the treatment Dead fish should be removed as soon as possible of streptococcus in fish (Reverter, 2014). from the water and be disposed of by burning. 595

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Table 10 Generic Environmental Best Management Practice Guideline for Aquaculture Development and Operation in the Western Cape. Source: Hinrichsen, 2007. Chemical Use FW/SW Method Remarks Therapeutants Ecto-parasites FW D Use with CuSO4 in hard water Acetic acid Ecto-parasites FW/SW DA 165-250 ppm up to 1 hour, 20 Formalin ppm 4 hours use in sea cages as bath Methylene Blue Ecto- FW/SW D F S B Eggs and fish, occasional use in parasites, FW D cages as a dye marker Acriflavin (or fungus SW B Proflavine Ecto- Mostly for surface bacteria, fish hemisulphate) parasites, and eggs occasional use only Nuvan (dichlorvos) fungus, bacteria 1ppm for 1 hour, canvas round Fish lice sea cage Occasional alternative to Salt Ecto-parasites FW DB formalin Disinfect eggs 10 minutes 1000 Buffered Iodine Bactericide FW B ppm Antibiotic for systemic disease Oxytetracycline Bactericide FW/SW T Antibiotic for systemic disease Oxolinic acid Bactericide FW/SW T Antibiotic for systemic disease Romet 30 Bactericide FW/SW T (Sulfadimethoxine Antibiotic and orthomeprim) Bactericide FW/SW T Tribrissen Quaternary ammonium (Trimethoprim/ Surfactant, FW A compound used for treating sulphadiazine) bactericide bacterial gill diseases Hayamine 3500 Surface antibacterial; ‘Roccel’ (similar to above) Benzalkonium Bactericide FW A As above and for some protozoa Chloride Bactericide FW A Chloramine T 596

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Vaccines SW B Not widely used Vibrio Anguillarum FW B S I Widely used in trout culture Enteric Redmouth SW I Not widely used Aeromonas Salmonicida Vibro FW/SW B Widely used approx 1:10,000 Anguillarum dilution Anaesthetics FW/SW B MS222 (tricaine FW/SW B Requires acetone to dissolve methane- Sometimes used at harvest sulfonate) FW/SW S Benzocane FW/SW S General disinfectant for tanks, Carbon dioxide FW S etc. Disinfectants For equipment and footbaths Calcium FW A hypochlorite FW/SW BA Most commonly used for earth Liquid lodophore ponds e.g. FAM30 FW/SW A Sodium hydroxide Used in earth ponds Oxidizer and detoxifier Water Treatments Lime Algaecide and herbicide Potassium permanganate Copper sulphate FW - Fresh Water, SW - Salt Water, B - Bath, A - Addition to Water, F - Flush System, D - Dip, I - Injection, S - Spray, T - Treatment of Feed 11.8 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR in your areas. None of the methods will work YOUR AREA if you do not have the support of your local farmers. To get this support a lot of education Many times a combination of all three of the and trust building will be needed. Farmers have methods listed above will be needed to be to buy into the program and make it their own successful in controlling diseases and pests for it to have any chance of working. 597

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production 12 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Adeleke BA (2020). Bioeconomic feasibility of aquaponics in South Africa: Leapfrogging for sustainable development of freshwater aquaculture. University of KwaZulu-Natal. South Africa. Human Society International (2008). An HSI Report: The Impact of Animal Agriculture on Global Warming and Climate Change . Human Society International. 1-27. Ashton PJ, Hardwick D and Breen CM (2008). Changes in water availability and demand within South Africa’s shared river basins as determinants of regional social-ecological resilience. (In Burns, M.J. & Weaver, A. (eds.) Exploring sustainability science: A Southern African perspective. Stellenbosch University Press, South Africa. Assefa A & Abunna F (2018). Maintenance of Fish Health in Aquaculture: Review of Epidemiological Approaches for Prevention and Control of Infectious Disease of Fish. Veterinary Medicine International. Article ID 5432497. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5432497. Banrie (2013). Biosecurity in Aquaculture, Part 1: An Overview. https://thefishsite.com/articles/ biosecurity-in-aquaculture-part-1-an-overview#:~:text=Biosecurity%20in%20aquaculture%20 consists%20of,and%20to%20other%20susceptible%20species. Barroso FG, De Haro C, Sanchez-Muros M, Venegas E, Martinez-Sanchez A and Perez-Banon C (2014). The potential of various insect species for use as food for fish. Aquaculture 422-432 193-201. Centre for Coordination of Agricultural Research and Development for Southern Africa (CCARDESA) (2019). Knowledge product 18 - Climate Smart decision tool for climate smart pest and disease management. https://www.ccardesa.org/knowledge-products/knowledge-product-kp18-decision-tool- climate-smart-pest-disease-management-option. Council for Scientific And Industrial Research (2010). A CSIR perspective on water in South Africa. Danner RI, Mankasingh U, Anamthawat-Jonsson K and Thorarinsdottir RI (2019). Designing aquaponic production systems towards integration into greenhouse farming. Water 11 (10) 2123. Delaide B, Delhaye G, Dermience M, Gott J, Soyeurt H and Jijakli MH (2017). Plant and fish production performance, nutrient mass balances, energy and water use of the PAFF box, a small-scale aquaponics system. Aquaculture Engineering: 78 130-139. Department of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) (2011). Food Security Report. South Africa. Department of Agriculture, Forestry And Fisheries (DAFF) (2017). Guide to the authorisation requirements for aquaculture in South Africa. 598

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Aquaponics Production Diver S. (2000). Aquaponics-Integration of hydroponics with aquaculture: ATTRA. Fact. MR Market Research Company (2017). Aquaponics Market – Global Upcoming Trends, Growth Drivers, Opportunities and Challenges 2028. KSU | The Sentinel Newspaper. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2014). Small-scale aquaponics food production. Integrated fish and plant farming. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper 589. Rome. Food Bank South Africa (2009) 19 million-face hunger in SA daily - Food Bank 02-03-2009. Goddek S, Delaide B, Mankasingh U, Ragnarsdottir VK, Jijakli H and Thorarinsdottir R (2015). Challenges of Sustainable and Commercial Aquaponics. Sustainability 7 4199-4224. HINRICHSEN E (2007). Generic Environmental Best Practice Guideline for Aquaculture Development and Operation in the Western Cape: Edition 1. Division of Aquaculture, Stellenbosch University Report. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape Town. Lennard WA (2004). Aquaponics Research at Melbourne Australia. Aquaponics Journal 35 18–24. Liu L, Lu D-Q, Xu J, Luo H-L & AN‐Xing L (2019). Development of attenuated erythromycin‐resistant Streptococcus agalactiae vaccine for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) culture. Journal of fish disease. 42 (5) 693-701. Ludi E (2009). Climate change, water and food security. Overseas Development Institute, London. Mchunu N, Lagerwall G, Senzanje A (2018). Aquaponics in South Africa: Results of a national survey. Aquaculture Reports 12 12–19. Okemwa E (2015). Effectiveness of aquaponic and hydroponic gardening to traditional gardening. International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology 2 (12) 2313-3759. Reverter M, Bontemps N, Lecchini D, Banaigs B & Sasal P (2014). Use of plant extracts in fish aquaculture as an alternative to chemotherapy: Current status and future perspectives. Aquaculture. 433: 50-61. ISSN 0044-8486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.05.048. Somerville C, Cohen M, Pantanella E, Stankus A & Lovatelli A (2014). Small-scale aquaponic food production. Integrated fish and plant farming. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589. Rome. Statistics South Africa (STATS SA) (2014). Poverty trends in South Africa. An examination of absolute poverty between 2006 and 2011. Report No. 03-10-06. Statistics South Africa. Pretoria. 599