Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production The following information is required of the Priorities in breeding could include the farmer: following: • His or her most important traits • Tolerance to heat • Which breeds exhibit these traits and which • Slaughter weight is higher, and feed don't? conversion is more efficient. • The main issues with production. • Increased milk production A one-size-fits-all approach should be avoided • Gaining weight more quickly because each farmer may have different • Resistance to disease breeding goals for the same species. Some • A greater number of offspring are produced farmers who own cattle/goats may place a greater emphasis on milk production because per reproduction cycle. it is a key source of income, while others may place a greater emphasis on the speed with When breeding animals and/or sourcing which they can reach maturity and target replacement animals, farmers must identify weights for sale and/or slaughter. their specific traits of importance. (Advisors will use a ranking matrix to list important characteristics.) Table 1 shows how a simple ranking matrix can be used to identify traits and preferred breeds. Understanding the farming context and production system will allow the farmer to make climate-smart decisions about how to best address their breeding priorities. Table 1 Example of trait ranking table. These should be completed for all the different breeds of livestock held by the farmer(s). Traits Breed 1 Breed 1 Breed 1 Breed 1 E.g. Disease tollerant (Rank 1 – 5) (Rank 1 – 5) (Rank 1 – 5) (Rank 1 – 5) Overall ranking (Sum of scores > = Better) 350

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Practical Activity 2: Divide officers into groups. a) Do different farmers have different species and breeds? i. Make a list of all the breeds of each species. ii. What are the underlying causes of the differences (if any)? b) Ask your farmers which characteristics are important to them and make a list of them. For example, inter-calving period, wean weight, heat tolerance, number of offspring, disease resistance, ability to cope with dry season, and so on. Has the importance of any of these characteristics shifted in the last five years? If so, how so? c) Rank the breeds kept by farmers (and others they are familiar with) in terms of these characteristics. Provide a breed's overall ranking (see Table 1). 351

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 6 CLIMATE-SMART LIVESTOCK - RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY Given the current and projected scarcity of Improving feed-to-food conversion efficiency in resources, as well as the expected increase animal production systems is a critical strategy in demand for livestock products, there is for improving the sector's environmental widespread agreement that increasing resource sustainability. Even before it reaches the efficiency is a critical component to improving consumer, a large amount of food is wasted. the sector's environmental sustainability. According to a recent FAO (2011) study, More efficient use of natural resources is a approximately one-third of all food produced critical strategy for decoupling livestock growth is wasted. Reducing waste along the animal from negative environmental impacts. The ratio food chain can significantly help to reduce between the use of natural resources as input the demand for resources such as land, water, to production activities and the output from energy, and other inputs such as nutrients. production is used to calculate efficiency in the Current prices for inputs used in livestock use of natural resources (e.g. kg of phosphorus production, such as land, water, and feed, used per unit of meat produced, or hectares frequently do not reflect true scarcity. As a result, of land mobilized per unit of milk produced). the sector's resources are being overutilised, The concept can be expanded to include the and production processes are inefficient. Any amount of emissions produced per unit of future environmental policies must include output (e.g. GHG emissions per unit of eggs adequate market pricing for natural resources. A produced). Higher yields per hectare, higher further necessary policy element for improving water productivity, higher feed efficiency, resource use is ensuring effective management improved manure and fertiliser management, rules and liability, whether the resources are and reduced losses along the food chain are owned privately or communally. examples of opportunities within this strategy (Westhoek et al., 2011). 352

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 7 CLIMATE-SMART BREEDING: THE UTILIZATION OF SOUTH AFRICA’S ADAPTED LANDRACE BREEDS Figure 6 depicts a large number of indigenous and then breeding these to replace the existing livestock breeds in Africa that can withstand animals. The greater the number of new breeds harsh local conditions. brought in at the start, the faster the transition A farmer can choose to switch from the breed will be. he or she previously raised to an indigenous For example, through Department of Agriculture breed with traits that better suit their priorities and Forestry (DAFF) projects, many emerging and circumstances. This could be due to more farmers in South Africa have used local breeds extreme temperatures causing heat stress, or to cross-breed with exotic breeds. Local breeds it could be because another breed requires are much more tolerant of harsh conditions less water or lower quality feed to stay healthy. than other breeds in the area. This could mean switching from an exotic to Over the last 33 years, indigenous breeds have an indigenous breed, or from a disease-prone improved their efficiency while exotic breeds breed to one that is disease-resistant. The have decreased. change can be implemented gradually over several years by first changing a few animals Nguni Bonsmara Afrikaner Figure 6 Indigenous cattle breeds of South Africa. Table 2 Cow efficiency = kg calf weaned / Cow feed intake (LSU) X calving percentage. Landrace breeds Exotic breeds (over 33 years) (over 25 years) BC Afrikaner Bonsmara Drakensber Nguni A -4% +9% D +18% +10% -4% +12% +10% +14% 353

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 7.1 LOCAL CASE 7.2 ASSISTED REPRODUCTION Example 1: Understanding the effect of climate Artificial Insemination (AI), embryo transfer, on production and reproduction semen quality assessment, and genetic marker assisted breeding are all examples of assisted • Higher temperatures and lower average reproduction. It could be used to boost rainfall reduce the quality and quantity of productivity and resistance. It has the advantage forage produced and consumed, resulting of allowing for the selection of specific genetic in lower livestock production traits. To assist the farmer in making a decision, a cost-benefit analysis should be performed to • Heat stress affects the bulls' (and cows') compare assisted reproduction to other options. fertility and is a common cause of Assisted reproduction is generally costly, and reproductive inefficiency. When bulls are farmers in many parts of South Africa have exposed to high ambient temperatures, the raised concerns about quality control. It is likely quality of their sperm decreases that it will only be available to intensive dairy and/or beef farmers. • In times of extreme heat, how can you In some countries, it may be an option for adapt? - During periods of heat stress, it is smallholder farmers if funding is available critical to use bulls from adapted breeds. through a non-governmental organisation Figure 7 shows a photo of a heat-stressed (NGO) or another organisation. Importing animal taken with a thermos camera, frozen sperm and/or embryos requires a lot demonstrating various levels of heat of paperwork, so the initial investment can be tolerance quite high. The challenge of appropriate semen storage for smallholder farmers in (sub-)tropical environments is becoming more difficult as the temperature rises. Figure 7 Heat stressed animal in red captured with a thermal camera. 354

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Example 2: Adaptation Table 3 compares the weaning weights of indigenous and exotic breeds. Table 3 Comparison of the weaning weights (kg) of Sanga sired calves and Angus/Simmentaler sired calves between the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. Season Sanga sires Angus/Sim sires Bonsmara 2015/2016 Afrikaner 161±20.7 Nguni Angus Simmental Average 179±26.6 172±31.0 176±43.3 166±14.8 2016/2017 171 Average 176±34.0 186±27.6 186±26.5 171 183 204±36.9 215±15.9 210 7.3 SEASONAL EFFECTS ON 7.4 COW-CALF EFFICIENCY WEANING WEIGHT FOR SUSTAINABLE BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The effect of weather patterns on growth of beef calves in a warm climate (Bonsmara herd at The cow-calf production cycle consumes Vaalharts) from 2000 to 2016 are listed below. the majority of the energy (in beef cattle - approximately 72% of the energy consumed • Correlation between BLUE values (“true from conception to slaughter). Maintenance environment”) and maximum seasonal costs account for 70% of a mature cow's feed temperature for weaning weight: -0.65 expenses, and the average feed cost per cow is 42% of the total annual production cost. If • The maximum seasonal temperature parent maintenance requirements per unit accounts for 42% of the variation in weaning product can be reduced, the carbon footprint weight will be reduced. • Correlation between relative humidity one month before the breeding season begins and calving percentage: -0.95 • Minimum temperature and calving percentage have a -0.35 correlation. (Cows were unable to cool down at night, resulting in lower conception and resorption rates) Key message: Use multi-sire breeding and/ or bulls from tropical adapted genotypes, to mitigate effect of heat. 355

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 7.4.1 What is important for cow efficiency? 7.4.2 Relevant equations The following are the three traits that influence Cow efficiency = (Weaning rate [deducted from cow efficiency: ICP] x 205-day weaning weight) / cow large stock unit (LSU) i. Weaning weight of the calf Example: 0.80 x 190kg / 1.37 LSU = 111 kg ii. Because it is linked to daily feed intake, In South Africa the enteric methane emissions factor (MEFenteric) of a LSU is approximately 94 the feed requirements to produce the kg methane/year calf - cow Large Stock Unit (LSU) units were estimated iii. Inter calving period (ICP), the frequency at which a calf is born, was used to calculate the calving percentage Table 4 Changes in the component traits and the effect on cow efficiency and the carbon footprint over 33 years. Breed Wean. weight Cow weight ICP Cow MEFenteric efficiency -12.0% Afrikaner +20.4 kg -8.3 kg -19.7days +18.8% -6.6% Bonsmara +9.1 kg +17.5 kg -16.9 days -9.3% Drakensber +1.7 kg +8.5 kg -34.0 days +10.0% -6.8% Nguni -0.7 kg -17.3 kg -19.4 days +14.2% +10.4% 356

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 7.5 THE EFFECTIVE USE The main constraint here is a lack of data on OF CROSSBREEDING / the traits of some indigenous breeds, such as ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION Nguni. This means that the traits being selected SYSTEMS for by the farmer are observed rather than scientifically documented, making a breeding This is the process of cross-breeding between program less predictable. Cow productivity can indigenous traditional breeds or with specific be increased through crossbreeding (generally individuals with desired traits within the with about 26%). indigenous breed in order to achieve breeding goals. Cross-breeding indigenous breeds provides the farmer with the assurance that the offspring will be well adapted to local conditions, including the following traits: • improved heat tolerance • Survival rates are higher on poor fodder • Resistance to local pests/diseases is higher Figure 8 Nguni X Charolais Bulls. 357

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 8 ANIMAL AND HERD MANAGEMENT, DISEASE CONTROL AND FEEDING STRATEGIES Land-based systems, like all livestock production In addition to improved animal health systems, have a variety of animal and herd management to maintain and improve animal management options that can boost animal performance, disease risk management may productivity, improve feed conversion efficiency, become increasingly important due to an and thus reduce enteric emission intensities. increase in the emergence of gastro-intestinal Improving animal husbandry by ensuring parasites as a result of climate change (Wall and proper nutrition and appropriate feeding and Morgan, 2009). One approach to addressing reproductive strategies, as well as regularly this issue is to breed more disease resilient maintaining animal health, can improve (pathogen-tolerant) animals. reproduction rates, reduce mortality, and lower the slaughter age. All of these measures will increase output for a given level of emissions. These measures are likely to have no effect on adaptation. 358

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 9 EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND INSURANCE The use of weather data to help rural animal mortality rates, may be effective (Skees communities manage the risks associated & Enkh-Amgala, 2002). However, there may be with rainfall variability is a potentially effective limits to what private insurance markets can do preventative option for climate change for large vulnerable populations facing climate- adaptation. It applies to all systems, but related risks (UNDP, 2008). In situations where especially to land-based systems, which rely risks are unacceptably high for the private heavily on local feed availability and are more sector, public-private partnership approaches vulnerable to production failures. However, to index-based livestock insurance, in which the there are some concerns about the accuracy public sector underwrites a portion of these of climate forecasts for livestock management risks, could be crucial. that must be addressed (Hellmuth et al., 2007). When preventative measures fail, weather- Indexed insurance schemes based on satellite indexed livestock insurance schemes in which imagery are already being tested in several policyholders are paid in response to 'trigger drought-prone areas of northern Kenya (Barrett events' such as abnormal rainfall or high local et al., 2008; Mude, 2009). 359

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 10 SHORT-TERM MITIGATION STRATEGIES The following are some potential short-term • Feeding alternative feeds, such as shredded mitigation strategies: scrub (boskos), should be considered. This implies that bushes and smaller tree • To mitigate possible male infertility during branches are shredded and fed to animals. heat stress seasons, multi-sire breeding Other feedstuffs can be fed to livestock in and/or the use of bulls from tropical addition to hay. In fact, they will thrive on a adapted genotypes may be used variety of other feeds, including shredded scrub, with a focus on invasive species • Introduction of alternative, more drought- like Acacia to reduce overuse of natural resistant crops, such as sorghum, that resources can provide grain sources for base animal feeds. These alternative grains can be used • Farmers must ensure that their livestock in a variety of silages and balanced rations have access to water and shade because drought is often accompanied by extreme • Reduce the number of animals in order to heat, and because hide texture and hair manage stocking rates. This suggestion is color affect animal thermal regulation easier to implement for commercial and and heat stress. Sylvopastoral systems smallholder farmers on privately owned are agroforestry arrangements that land, but it is more difficult for livestock purposefully combine fodder plants, such as owners on communal land, where decisions grasses and leguminous herbs, with shrubs about reducing stock numbers involve and trees for animal nutrition and other many owners who may not readily agree purposes. They enable cattle production to the idea. The campaign to reduce stock intensification based on natural processes numbers could be carried out in tandem and are recognized as an integrated with government drought relief programs approach to sustainable land use (supply of feeds), with farmers required to agree to reduce stock numbers in order to • Livestock movement should be limited be eligible for such programs to an acceptable level (in terms of animal welfare), especially during the hotter hours • In this situation, every possible source of of the day. Furthermore, when providing hay is considered, and the possibility of drought feed, livestock movement should ammonisation of some low-quality hay be limited as much as possible, because could be considered. For example, 27 kg livestock that are allowed to move around of anhydrous ammonia per ton of straw a lot will expend more energy, which is will improve livestock performance and inefficient and increases maintenance costs allow the use of wheat straw as the sole roughage source in the diet, which is not • During periods of extreme heat, feed at recommended for untreated straw night. During periods of high heat, livestock consume more feed at night. As a result, it's • Poor quality hay from all over South Africa critical to make sure there's food available may play a role in the spread of weeds in at all times of the night grazing lands. Feeding must be restricted to specific locations on the farm to reduce the possibility of introducing undesirable plant species that may come with purchased fodder 360

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production • During droughts, parasites should be • Drought awareness, as well as its effects and controlled, and the same salt and mineral mitigation strategies, should be improved. mixture should be provided as during This can be accomplished through training, normal times. Parasitic resistance is lower brochures, leaflets, bulletins, the internet, in cattle under nutritional and heat stress radio, television, newspapers, and other than in normal conditions forms of communication 361

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 11 LONG-TERM STRATEGIES Breeding for animals and forage cultivars that are more drought tolerance It is also critical to develop long-term strategies, To improve the drought tolerance of South as evidence suggests that as a result of global Africa's indigenous breeds, breeding strategies warming, South Africa will experience more should be implemented for selection and extreme and variable climates. Some of the breeding. Afrikaner, for example, evolved longer-term options are briefly discussed below. in drier climates and has distinct adaptive Drought-tolerant crop planting: characteristics. The Nguni breed is known Old man saltbush (Atriplex nummularia), for being well-suited to low-input farming. spineless cactus (Opuntia spp.), and American Indigenous livestock breeding should be aloe are some of the drought fodder crops that encouraged in government and research farms can be carefully considered for South Africa in with the goal of distributing them to farmers. the future (Agave mericana). They use a small Drought-tolerant animal breeding should amount of water per kilogram of dry matter also be studied using cutting-edge genomics produced. technology. Alternative fodder production systems: The feasibility of using \"hydroponics,\" also The identification of drought tolerance genetic known as contained feeding systems, as an markers and genes will be critical to the success alternative way to produce fodder during of this strategy. To maximize the efficiency of droughts should be investigated. A review is veld utilization by livestock, new forage, pasture currently underway at the University of the Free cultivars, and eco-vars with higher nutritive State in this regard. quality and tolerances to limiting conditions (low The development of pastoral risk management soil fertility, drought and low water availability, and decision support systems: heat stress, etc.) and competition from other The availability of risk identification/evaluation plants (weeds and mixtures) are needed. and decision support systems; or early warning systems, would greatly aid livestock farmers' Veld monitoring and management management and decision-making. The Sustainable livestock production requires provision and development of databases based environmentally sound livestock management on sound research findings should provide the on various veld types. Pastoralists need veld necessary inputs for risk management and monitoring and management systems to decision support tool development. This should maximize economic efficiency in livestock include decision-making tools that allow the production while avoiding the negative effects stock farmer to be informed of environmental of severe droughts. risks (e.g., drought and/or floods) and extreme events (e.g., high and low temperatures) in real Sustainable drought relief strategies e.g. time, allowing the farmer to employ strategies fodder bank establishment to mitigate the risk. Farmers must develop long-term drought relief strategies, as evidence suggests that as a result of global warming, South Africa will experience 362

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production more extreme and variable climates. Fodder Climate change flow planning, as well as alternative feed More research on climate change and its impact preservation strategies, must be developed and on livestock production should be undertaken passed on to livestock farmers. Farmers will be in order to develop and implement appropriate less reliant on government fodder-provision mitigation strategies (e.g., nutritional/ration schemes or subsidies as a result of this. adaptations to reduce heat load). One initiative The importance of water would be to create projections of future changes Droughts are almost always accompanied by in heat stress in cattle as a result of climate periods of heat stress. Heat stress can have change, as well as medium- and seasonal an impact on how livestock consumes feed prediction models for heat stress in cattle as an (more night feeding) and how much water they early warning system for farmers based on the consume (which can dramatically increase). temperature-humidity index, an internationally Water is used by livestock to regulate body used parameter that indicates heat stress in temperature by exhaling warm moist air from animals. the lungs. 363

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 12 DROUGHT RELIEF STRATEGIES FOR LIVESTOCK Drought forces farmers to make some difficult 12.1 WEANING CALVES EARLY economic decisions. Early action and well- considered decisions can reduce the impact of At weaning time, the majority of beef cattle the drought on a farming enterprise's long-term producers are in the market for calves. During success. There are a few things to consider, a drought, weaning weights are usually affected particularly when it comes to the fate of negatively. Calves can be sold at a younger age, livestock, in order to provide the best possible weaned and fed separately from cows, or the care for them and one's finances. Drought cowherd can be supplemented with stored has the ultimate effect of reducing forage or purchased feeds. In terms of nutritional production, resulting in less feed available for requirements, dry cows in early to mid- cattle. Reduced pregnancy rates, loss of body pregnancy have the smallest requirements. condition in the cow, and lower milk production, With little or no supplemental feed, these cows which lowers weaning weights, are all possible can be kept on low-quality forages. consequences. Considerations for Early Weaning Due to the decreased availability of nutrients from forages, producers must either supplement 1. A dry cow needs 30 to 40% less energy to meet nutritional needs or reduce the protein feed than a lactating cow. nutritional requirements of their cattle. Supplemental feeding increases the cost of 2. You can cull cows that you plan to cull production; therefore, supplemental feed costs after the calves are weaned now. should be kept as low as possible, and purchased The amount of feed needed will be feed should be kept to a minimum. reduced as a result of this. Each year, During drought conditions, producers should the average culling rate is 15 to 20%. consider climate-smart management strategies Culling and early weaning will reduce such as culling. the amount of feed required for cows Culling by at least half. During a drought, the most common way to reduce feed needs is to sell a portion of the 3. Cows that have had their calves weaned herd and reduce the number of animals on the might be able to survive on low- farm. Consider pregnancy testing and culling producing dry pastures. Cow and calf open cows, low-producing cows, and cows who pairs kept on dry pasture will have very calve late in the calving season. More feed will low calf growth rates, as well as lower be available for younger, more productive cows. body condition scores and conception rates. 4. When grazing the same forage as cows who continue to nurse their calves, early weaning the calf at 120 days or less has been shown to greatly improve conception rates. Furthermore, when calves are weaned early, cow body condition improves, and cows require less supplemental feed in the fall and winter to regain body condition. 364

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 5. At seven months of age, when calves lowering supplemental feed costs. When would normally be weaned, calves can grazing drought-stressed pasture, pregnant be fed higher quality supplemental cows may lose body condition. Therefore, body feeds without losing weight. When fed condition score cows at least 60 days before a high-quality diet, early-weaned calves calving and adjust the ration to ensure cows are extremely efficient, requiring only have a condition score of at least 5 at calving. 450g to 2.5 kg of feed per kilogram of Use containment areas if possible. These are gain. small camps near a water source with adequate shade, either natural (trees) or artificial (shade 12.2 STOCKING AND FEEDING cloth shelters). This will aid in the reduction of heat stress, which consumes more energy in Overstocking can deplete your feed supply. Sell your animal. or cull animals that are too old, out of shape, These camps will also reduce weight loss not pregnant, or without a calf. Only keep the because the animals will move less and thus number of male animals that you actually save energy. It will also make feeding the require (for e.g. 1 bull to 50 cows under extensive animals easier because they will be in a smaller conditions). Consider whether you have the area, and it will help save what is left of your financial means to purchase supplementary pasture. It also makes it easier to keep track of feed for the number of animals you intend to your animals. Make certain that the water in keep. It's sometimes more cost-effective to sell the containment areas does not come from a an animal in good condition now rather than natural source that is surrounded by mud, as spend money trying to keep them fed during animals that are weakened by drought are more the drought and then running out of money likely to become stuck or injure themselves. If before the rains arrive, forcing you to sell an you don't have a containment area, make sure animal in poor condition. to fence off any natural water sources on your farm to prevent losses and instead use drinking 12.3 MATING SEASON troughs. Ensure that all animals have access to feed; On farms with a season, the mating season roughage should be provided at 1% of the should be postponed until fodder safety can be animal's body weight. Feeding new feed to assured. your animals should be done with caution, as especially hungry animals will overeat on 12.4 GROUPING, FEEDING AND concentrates, which can result in urea poisoning WATER ACCESSIBILITY if licks are given that they are not used to, or acidosis (suurpens) if maize is included in the Cows should be divided into groups based on new feed. It is best to gradually introduce their nutrient requirements, such as production them over the course of at least two weeks. If status (dry vs. lactating), age, and body you are unsure, consult an animal nutritionist condition. By grouping cows, it is possible to avoid over- or under-feeding a specific group, 365

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production if one is available, or an Agricultural Advisor if Because animals are in close proximity to one one is not. Feeding an animal that is still in good another and their immune systems may be condition is far less expensive than attempting compromised, they are more likely to contract to gain weight on an already weak and poorly infectious diseases. Make sure to deworm the conditioned animal. animals because worms will be more prevalent Be sure to supplement pregnant animals near water sources and worm loads in your and ones with suckling young as their energy animals will be higher, wasting the valuable feed requirements will be the highest. Stock up that you are giving them. Also, make sure to dip on roughage if possible. If the rains come be the animals because ticks will cause energy loss careful to let your animals out onto green at the very least and tick-borne diseases at the pastures without adaptation as this could cause very worst, which the animals' weak immune nutritional diseases such as grass staggers, fog systems will not be able to fight off. fever, nitrate poisoning or prussic acid poisoning Animals should be vaccinated on a regular to name but a few. basis, especially against contagious diseases Dietary indiscretion is an issue in these animals, like pink eye. Rift Valley fever and Brucellosis which means they will eat anything. Make sure are examples of zoonotic diseases that pose a there are no plastic bags lying around, and risk because animals are in close contact with collect anything you don't want them to eat. humans. Vaccinations should not be halted Poisonous plants can also be a problem because because, in most cases, the first rains will cause they are sometimes the only green plants major outbreaks even if they did not exist around; keep an eye out for them and have previously. activated charcoal on hand to treat any animals Use well-adapted (usually indigenous) breeds that may have eaten the plant. To prevent cases because their small frame allows them to of poisoning, activated charcoal can be added perform much better in harsh conditions. They to the concentrate that is being fed. require less maintenance energy for their frame time and lose the absorbed heat faster. 12.5 DAILY MONITORING Using these pointers and enlisting the assistance of professionals such as local feed supply Monitoring your animals on a daily basis will companies, nutritionists, rangeland managers, allow you to detect problems sooner and and veterinarians to assist with decision potentially save their lives. Check cows that are making will go a long way toward ensuring you due to calf because the reduced energy may get through the difficult environmental and cause them to struggle with the birthing process financial times. and may necessitate assistance. Any animal that has strained for more than four hours to get the calve out should be examined. 366

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Practical Activity 3: Constraints to livestock production (discussion and written activities with officers) It is always a good idea to ask farmers about the main problems and opportunities they face when selecting the best fit climate smart livestock strategy options for livestock with your farmers. a) Describe the major issues that farmers face in livestock production. b) This should not be limited to breeding because systems can be complex. For example, sorghum production issues may have an impact on the availability of crop residues as supplementary feed, affecting the condition of breeding males and/or females at critical times of the year. c) Identify the source of each problem: i) Take the time to figure out what's causing the problem by asking, \"Why is that?\" (several times if necessary). d) Once a list of issues has been created, they can be prioritized using a simple pairwise ranking tool (see Table 5) » Changes in climate may cause animals to suffer from heat stress, for example e) Which breed is most affected? i) Compare how each identified problem affects different breeds f) How do farmers deal with each situation now? i) If there is a drought, do they sell off important breeding livestock or do they sell off animals with less desirable traits? ii) What potential solutions to these identified problems do farmers see? iii) It is always preferable to begin with a discussion of local solutions, as these are far more likely to be implemented than external ideas iv) In the preceding example, silage production during the rainy season would allow the farmer to keep key breeding stock in good condition on the farm throughout the dry season Bonus outdoor activity: Demonstration of a thermos camera and detecting a heat stressed animal. 367

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Table 5 Example of pairwise ranking table for five identified problems. A matrix can be developed to rank as many problems as identified. Pair Problem considered more important Problem 1 vs. Problem 2 Problem 1 vs. Problem 3 Problem 1 vs. Problem 4 Problem 1 vs. Problem 5 Problem 2 vs. Problem 3 Problem 2 vs. Problem 4 Problem 2vs. Problem 5 Problem 3 vs. Problem 4 Problem 3 vs. Problem 5 Problem 4 vs. Problem 2 Table 6 Example of a table that can be used to summarise priority issues, explain how they affect farmers and propose climate smart solutions. Problem Importance Cause Breed most/ Current Solutions (ranking 1-5) (describe) least affected coping mechanisms 1 2 3 4 5 368

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN BEEF PRODUCTION 13.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 WHERE TO START? As temperatures have risen, certain disease Look at your target farmers and how they are vectors have been able to spread to previously farming. uninhabitable areas (WHO, 2021). Heat stress in animals has increased as temperatures • What are the issues that they believe have risen, leading to an increase in metabolic require the most attention right now? diseases in these animals (Lees et al., 2019). Flooding has also increased, bringing with it a • What is the primary goal of their farming greater number of vectors, such as mosquitoes, business? which carry diseases not only in animals but also in humans. Scientists are always looking for new • How do they look for disease symptoms in ways to fight infectious diseases by preventing their animals? rather than treating them, as this is the most cost-effective way to deal with disease. • How do they keep track of their animals' Climate-smart pest and disease management whereabouts? has the following potential benefits: • What information do they keep in their • Decrease in mortality rates records? • Decrease in morbidity rates • An increase in disease reporting • What criteria do they use to decide which • Increased productivity animals to keep? • An increase in fertility • An increase in income • What vaccines and veterinary medications • Lowering of greenhouse gas emissions are they using? Climate smart pest and disease management for beef cattle may be split into these • Where do they get their vaccines? categories: biological vector control, resistant • What kind of infrastructure is there? breed development, vaccination programs, and • How much labour are farmers able to parasite control (CCARDESA, 2019). access? • Equipment that the farmer has. What then? Once you understand how the system works, you can create a plan with the farmers' help based on what they see as their biggest problems and on disease observation and recording. 369

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK Looking at the back ANIMAL (FAO, 2021) The body condition score of an animal can be assessed if looked at from behind and above. The only way to tell if an animal is sick is to Looking at the Abdomen observe how a healthy animal appears. The amount of fill (whether or not the animal has eaten) can be seen in the paralumbar fossa Looking from a distance (the triangle formed behind the last rib in front • The animal should stand straight, with its of the hind leg). You can also feel if the large feet squared and its head held high stomach is moving or not by placing your and • It must be constantly alert and aware of its in the paralumbar fossa. When an animal is in surroundings pain, it will constantly look and kick at its flank. • Animals that separate from the herd and Looking at the udder or scrotum refuse to move are sick The udder must be checked for signs of mastitis • When walking, animals should distribute such as heat, swelling, pain and inflammation. their weight evenly across all four legs The thickness and flakes in the milk, as well as without arching their backs the presence of blood, can all be checked. The scrotum of a male animal should be examined Looking at the head for the same signs of heat, swelling, pain, or • The eyes must be bright and alert and not inflammation, as well as lumps. This can be have any discharge. caused by Orchitis or chronic testicular atrophy. • The ears should be checked for presence of Taking the temperature ticks and any bad smells must be noted. Any bovine exhibiting symptoms of illness • The nose and muzzle must be moist and not should have their temperature taken; an adult have coloured discharges coming from it. bovine's normal temperature ranges from 38.5 • The mouth must not have excessive saliva to 39.5 degrees Celsius. dripping from it. Food falling from the Looking at the dung of animals mouth can be a sign of teeth problems. In cattle, a normal looking putty consistency • The incisor teeth should be checked for should be looked for, dehydration can cause wearing. firmer dung, and diarrhea can be a sign of infectious disease, worms, or metabolic diseases Looking at the chest like acidosis. When resting in the shade, adult bovines should Looking at the urine be breathing at a rate of no more than 40-50 Urine should be clear, and the animal should breaths per minute. The heart of a bovine can not show signs of pain while urinating. Blood in be felt on the left side, just behind the elbow; a bull could be a sign of prostatitis. Blood in the the heart rate should be no more than 60-80 urine can be caused by a disease like Red water beats per minute. A lymph node just in front of or a severe urinary tract infection.. the shoulder can be felt if it is enlarged, which is a sign of disease. The animal's coat can be evaluated on the chest; it must be smooth and shiny in short-haired breeds. 370

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.4 DISEASE REPORTING According to the Animal diseases, Act 35 of 1984 the definitions: One of the most important functions of the extension officer is to assist in the notification • 'controlled animal disease' means any of controlled and notifiable diseases to the animal disease in respect of which any authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases general or particular control measure has Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. been prescribed, and any animal disease Link to the act: which is not indigenous or native to the https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ Republic. Table 2 of the regulations on the Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ act gives a list of controlled diseases. Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ diseaseact • 'notifiable animal disease' an animal Link to the regulations: disease specified in Annexure 3 https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ Defining the term vector as per the CCARDESA SubordinateFileDownload/5843 definition: Vectors are insects, birds or other Additional diseases with trade implications animals that transmit a disease and/or pest are also reported to the OIE through the from one host to another. Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and 13.4.1 Controlled Animal Diseases Rural Development (DALRD), as extension The controlled animal diseases in terms of officers do not have formal training in these the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984 that diseases and are not expected to note them. pertains to cattle are presented in Table 7. Table 7 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Disease Clinical signs Vector Anthrax (insects, ticks) Aujeszky’s disease Sudden death with small amount of un-clotted blood No (Pseudorabies) coming out of all openings. Trashing and convulsions, Bovine contagious fever. No pleuropneumonia Intense pruritus (itchiness) causing the animals to scratch (CBPP) and bite at the affected area. Neurological signs will No include weakness and bellowing, teeth grinding and irregular heart rates. Adult cattle show signs of pneumonia, standing with elbows out and having chest pains. Calves will show signs of arthritis. 371

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Bovine spongiform Abnormal behaviour, struggling to walk, weight loss. Lastly No encephalopathy decumbency. (BSE) Abortion, stillborn or weak calves, retained placentas No Brucellosis and reduced milk yield. Testicular abscesses. Arthritis in Corridor or Buffalo chronic infections Rhipicephalus disease (Theilerlosis) Fever, listlessness, enlarged lympnodes, reduced milk appendiculatus yield, discharge from the eyes, difficulty breathing. (brown ear East coast fever tick) and R. Fever, listlessness, enlarged lympnodes, corneal opacity, zambeziensis Foot and mouth nasal discharge, diarrhea, anemia and neurological Rhipicephalus disease (FMD) symptoms appendiculatus Johne’s disease (brown ear Blisters in the oral cavity and on the tongue, blisters tick) and R. between the toes and above the hooves and on teats. zambeziensis Hyper salivation. No Chronic diarrhea and weight loss with a normal appetite. No Nagana Starts with animal becoming listless, coat becoming Tsetse fly (Trypanosomiasis) roughened, ocular discharge, progressive weakness, No Rabies animal uninterested in surroundings and death. No Sudden behavior changes, incoordination, abnormal No Rinderpest (globally bellowing, excessive salivation, paralysis of the throat and eradicated) a sudden stopping of milk production in dairy cattle. Tuberculosis Fever, diarrhea, discharges from the eyes and nose, sores Any animal disease in the mouth and death in 10-15 days. or infectious agent Persistent cough, diarrhea, weight loss and abdominal that is not known pain. to occur in South Usually there is a history of an animal being imported or Africa. feed that has been imported or taken from ships in the case of these diseases. 372

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.4.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases Notifiable animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) that pertains to cattle are presented in Table 8. Table 8 Notifiable animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Disease Clinical signs Vector Bovine malignant catarrhal Fever, discharge from the Wildebeest or sheep fever (snotsiekte) eyes and nose, lesions in the oral cavity and on the Cullicoides Bluetongue muzzle, opacity of the corneas, Suspected biting flies, 3 species Lumpy skin disease neurological signs like head of hard ticks have been shown pressing or circling. to be able to transmit the Rift valley fever Fever, ulcerative lesions in disease. the oral cavity, ulcerative Various mosquito species dermatitis, stiffness, increased (Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, salivation, lacrimation. Eretmapodites, Mansonia, etc.) Swollen hard nodules on the skin, lymph nodes are enlarged, the nodules can become ulcerated and get secondary infections, also affects the teats, swelling of the udder and brisket does also develop. Nasal discharge, excessive salivation, loss of appetite, weakness and diarrhoea. 373

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.4.3 Other common diseases • Salmonellosis The diseases that are vector-borne will vary • Campylobacteriosis depending on the environment; for example, • Leptospirosis heart water is only found in areas where the • Rift valley fever bont tick is present. Diseases transmitted by • Ringworm biting flies are most common during the rainy • Anthrax season, when mosquitoes and biting midges are If you become ill, please notify your healthcare more prevalent. provider that your job requires you to work with A reduced immunity will also cause more skin sick animals. diseases to be prevalent. Verminosis (worms) are also a big problem and 13.4.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers regular deworming of weak animals should Make sure farmers understand their be implemented. These include roundworm, responsibility to report any animals that show flatworms and tapeworms. signs of disease to you as the extension officer Nutritional diseases such as ketosis and rumen or to the animal health technician who will acidosis may occur as a result of heat stress, summon a veterinarian. It's also a good idea as well as dietary changes caused by the to try to avoid the stigma that comes with inaccessibility of normal feed that animals are reporting some of these diseases. Keep in mind accustomed to due to drought (Lees et al., 2019) that farmers will only share information with In times of flooding and wet conditions, animals you if you have a strong relationship with them. are more vulnerable to diseases carried by flies, According to the Animal Diseases Act, it is also such as footrot, mastitis, and eye infections. the responsibility of animal owners to report Diseases transmitted by biting flies will become these diseases, and failure to do so is a violation more common (Caminade, 2019). Nutritional of the law. diseases such as prussic acid poisoning, grass stagers, and fog fever may become more 13.5 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF problematic as the new grass grows. VECTORS 13.4.4 Zoonotic diseases These are diseases that are transmitted between The diseases that are transmitted by vectors animals and humans; the most common of these will vary depending on the local environment; diseases that have recently been discovered in for example, heart water is only found in areas South Africa are: where the bont tick is present. Biting flies transmit disease primarily during the rainy • Bovine Tuberculosis season, when mosquitoes and biting midges are • Brucellosis more abundant. • Rabies Some ways to control these diseases include: • Long fallowing periods are required to ensure that the vector dies before the introduction of new hosts 374

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production • To prevent transmission, fence off areas or • If you don't have any sick animals, go from herd animals away from other herds the youngest to the oldest • Keeping animals stabled or kraaled away • As an extension officer do not visit multiple from high-risk areas at specific times of day, farms in the same clothing such as to avoid the bluetongue virus or to keep animals away from swampy areas at • Hygiene measures and regular disinfection dusk to avoid biting midges 13.6.2 Selecting of resistant breeds Other sections go into greater detail about this. • Getting rid of vector breeding grounds, such In general, native breeds are more resistant as stagnant water where mosquitoes breed to diseases and parasites found in the area. (I. Kohler-Rollefson, 2004.) Certain diseases, • Setting up pest traps, such as tsetse fly however, are not endemic to the area, and the traps, is one example (CCARDESA, 2019) belief that indigenous breeds do not need to be vaccinated should be avoided. 13.6 OTHER METHODS OF The best way to go is to select animals from your DISEASE CONTROL herd that are constantly afflicted with a disease condition. Allowing unplanned mating to occur Not all diseases are transmitted by vectors, will weaken your herd. some other transmission methods include: 13.6.3 Vaccination campaigns If vaccination campaigns are conducted by • Direct contact between sick animals is extension officers rather than veterinarians, prohibited (domestic animals and wildlife) make certain that any other diseases in the animals are documented and brought to • The sick animals' excretions the attention of the veterinarian or animal • Personnel, clothing, and equipment health technician to assist with treatment and • It is found naturally in soil veterinary drugs. Many diseases can be avoided • Housing was not cleaned after sick animals or the severity of symptoms reduced by using commercially available vaccines. were housed in it When planning a vaccination campaign ensure: • Feed and water • The time is agreed upon with the owners of 13.6.1 Biosecurity the livestock Good biosecurity is the key in keeping these diseases out of your herds. • If the animals do not already graze together, try going to the farms rather than gathering • On your farm, quarantine all new animals them from different farms for at least 14 days • Make arrangements for the farmers to pay • Separate any sick or dead animals from the for vaccines and veterinary drugs healthy ones immediately • Check to see if there are any handling • Allow no visitors to your herds facilities available • Wash your hands regularly • When returning to your farm after a trip, make sure to disinfect your footwear • If you lend someone your equipment or vehicle, make sure to disinfect it • Always start with the healthy animals and work your way down to the sick animals. 375

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production • Check the availability of equipment and • If the vaccine label says you can't keep it, storage to ensure that the vaccines are kept don't use it again. at the proper temperature • Check the vaccine dose. • Ascertain that there are enough trained • Check to see if it's safe to give to pregnant vaccinators animals. • Estimate the number of animals that will • Look for potential risks to vaccine recipients require vaccination and make them aware of them. • Ensure that enough vaccines have been • Vaccinate only healthy animals. ordered and are available to carry out the • Never guarantee a vaccine's 100 percent campaign success rate to a farmer. • Make sure the vaccination is done at the The following is an example of a vaccination right time of year for the disease and when program from Onderstepoort Biological the farmers have the time products: https://www.obpvaccines.co.za/resources/ • Ensure that farmers are informed about documents/Immune-Program.pdf. the vaccine's benefits and the need for This information can be combined with current revaccination. disease trends in the area to create your own practical vaccination list. • Ascertain that a method for identifying vaccinated animals exists. 13.6.4 IMMUNISATION FOR CATTLE 13.6.4.1 Animals that have not been • Make sure there's a way to keep track of the immunized before animals that have been vaccinated, as well as receipts for payment from the farmers. Initial vaccination should be done in accordance with the farm's management systems and • Will the farmers be able to continue breeding program. The schedule in Table 9 can receiving these vaccinations? be changed to fit the specific farming conditions. When giving the vaccine: • Make sure you know the vaccine's batch number and expiration date. • Ascertain that the cold chain was kept intact. • Only use the vaccine as directed on the package. 376

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Table 9 Immunisation schedule for animals that have not been immunized before. Time of Essential vaccines Optional vaccines Dose and route administration Rift Valley fever - 2 mℓ subcutaneously (inactivated) 1mℓ Subcutaneously 6 - 8 weeks before RVF (live vaccine) OR the breeding season Clone 13 Vibriosis (1st inject.) 2 mℓ subcutaneously (heifers) 3 - 4 weeks before - Vibriosis (2nd inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously the breeding season Escherichia coli (1st inject) (bulls) 8 weeks before - 2 mℓ subcutaneously calving (heifers) (heifer) - 5 mℓ subcutaneously 2 - 4 weeks before (bulls) calving 2 mℓ subcutaneously 7 - 14 days of age - Escherichia coli (2nd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Paratyphoid (1st inj) - 5 mℓ subcutaneously (live or inactivated (live or inact) vaccine) 10 mℓ subcutaneously (inact for cows) Heartwater blood - 3 mℓ intraveneously (endemic areas) Pasteurella (1st inject) (0 - 21 days of age) 5 mℓ subcutaneously 5 mℓ subcutaneously - (<6 months) 10 mℓ subcutaneously - C. pyogenes (1st inject) (>6 months) 377

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Paratyphoid (2nd inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously (Inactivated vaccine at - (live or inact) 3 weeks of age) 10 mℓ subcutaneously (inact for cows) 3 - 8 weeks of age - Pasteurella (2nd inoc.) 5 mℓ subcutaneously - C. pyogenes 5 mℓ subcutaneously (2nd + 3rd inject) (<6 months) 10 mℓ subcutaneously 4 months of age Contagious abortion - (>6 months) 5 - 6 months of age S19 - or at weaning (heifers at 4 to 8 - 2 mℓ subcutaneously months) **Gall sickness (3-9 1 mℓ intramuscularly months) endemic areas 5 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism/Blackquarter OR (1st inject) OR 5 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism/Gasgangrene 2 mℓ subcutaneously (1st inject) 1 mℓ subcutaneously OR Doublesure Anthrax - 5 - 6 months of age - Redwater (3-9 months) 1 mℓ intramuscularly or at weaning (endemic areas) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Rift Valley fever - 1 mℓ (inactivated vaccine) 1 mℓ Clone 13 - 5 mℓ subcutaneously Rift Valley live OR Botulism/Blackquarter 5 mℓ subcutaneously (2nd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously OR Botulism/Gasgangrene (2nd inject) OR Doublesure Lumpy-skin disease - 5 mℓ subcutaneously B. phemeral - 2 mℓ subcutaneously (Dairy cattle) ** Gall sickness + Redwater vaccine can be administered together. 378

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.6.4.2 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle Booster injections can be given once a year or six times a year. Table 10 is a practical example that can be changed to fit the local farming conditions. Table 10 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle. Time of Essential vaccines Optional vaccines Dose and route administration Three-day stiff sickness - 2 mℓ Late winter, Early spring (Aug - Sept) Lumpy skin disease - 2mℓ subcutaneously Autumn or early Rift Valley fever - 2 mℓ subcutaneously winter (Inactivated vaccine) C. pyogenes (April - June) Clone 13 Pasteurella 1 mℓ Rift Valley (Live) 1 mℓ ± 4 weeks before - 10 mℓ subcutaneously breeding (<6 months) & 2 - 4 weeks before - 5 mℓ subcutaneously calving (>6 months) 5 mℓ subcutaneously Blackquarter/Botulism - 5 mℓ subcutaneously OR - OR Gasgangrene 5 mℓ subcutaneously Anthrax 2 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism – (if combinations - 2 mℓ subcutaneously were not used) C. pyogenes - 10 mℓ subcutaneously (>6 months) - Pasteurella 5 mℓ subcutaneously - Vibriosis 2 mℓ subcutaneously (heifers) 5 mℓ subcutaneously (bulls) - Escherichia coli mℓ subcutaneously 379

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.6.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control. where Acaricide resistance is widespread, Although selecting a resistant animal is still the selecting for animals with greater tick resistance best option, using endoparasites at specific is a better economic and environmental option. times of the year will benefit the animal and help it produce more. When using a product, 13.7 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR check to see if: YOUR AREA • It protects you from the parasite you want A combination of all three of the methods listed to get rid of. above is frequently required to be successful in controlling diseases and pests in your area. • It has not expired. None of the methods will work unless you have • The dosage that you should administer. the backing of your local farmers. To obtain this • It is safe to use in lactating dairy cows, for support, a significant amount of education and trust-building will be required. Farmers must example. buy into the program and make it their own in • The times of milk and meat withdrawal. order for it to work. Acaricides should only be used if ticks are found on the animals. Avoid causing product resistance by using the product incorrectly. In South Africa, 380

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 14 CONCLUSIONS gain traction through collaboration among governments, research institutions, and There has been a significant shift in thinking farmers. about how livestock is produced under changing Practical and meaningful interventions to climate conditions. Significant gains in securing support small-scale livestock farmers, who play more climate-resilient livestock agriculture can an important role in supporting livelihoods and be made by using more appropriate genotypes, food security in the Southern African region, adapted and efficient indigenous animals, should be a particular focus in this regard. better managing feed resources, conserving rangelands, and improving water resource efficiency. These ideas must be integrated into larger climate adaptation strategies and 381

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Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production FAO (2018). Climate-Smart Agriculture: Training Manual- A reference manual for agricultural extension agents. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation files/13247_i0772e001.pdf. FAO. Manual for the primary animal health care worker. http://www.fao.org/3/t0690e/t0690e04. htm#unit%205:%20appearance%20of%20the%20healthy%20animal. Farmers weekly (2020). Biosecurity measures on an animal farm. By Staff Reporter. September 23, 2020. Gantner V, Kuterovac K & Potočnik K (2016). Effect of Heat Stress on Metabolic Disorders Prevalence Risk and Milk Production in Holstein Cows in Croatia. Annals of Animal Science. 16 (2). Hellmuth ME, Moorhead A, Thomson M & Williams J (2007). Climate risk management in Africa: learning from practice. Climate and Society, No.1. Palisades, NY, the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI). Hoffman MT & Vogel C 2008. Climate change impacts on African rangelands. Rangelands, 30: 12-17. Jordaan FJ (2015). Genetic and environmental trends in landrace beef breeds and the effect on cow productivity. [masters thesis]. [Bloemfontein (South Africa)]: University of the Free State. Kohler-Rollefson I (2004). Farm animal genetic resources: Safeguarding national assets for food security and trade. A summary of workshops on FAnGR held in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Eschborn, Germany: GTZ, Rome, Italy: FAO and Wageningen, The Netherlands: CTA. Kurukulasuriya P & Rosenthal S. 2003. Climate change and agriculture: a review of impacts and adaptations. Climate Change Series Paper No. 91. Washington D.C., World Bank. Lees AM, Sejian V, Wallage AL, Steel CC, Mader TL, Lees JC & Gaughan JB (2019). The Impact of Heat Load on Cattle. Animals. 9: 322. doi:10.3390/ani9060322. Mude A (2009). Index-based livestock insurance for northern Kenya’s arid and semi-arid lands: the Marsabit pilot. Project document, ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya, 14 pp. Nesamvuni E (2012). Effects of climate change on dairy cattle, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 7. 10.5897/AJAR11.1468. Rajala-Schultz PJ, Gröhn YT, McCulloch CE & Guard CL (1999). Effects of clinical mastitis on milk yield in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 82 (6): 1213-20. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(99)75344-0. PMID: 10386307. Randolph SE (2008). Dynamics of tick-borne disease systems: minor role of recent climate change. Revue Scientifique et Technique. International Office of Epizootics. 27: 367-381. Rojas-Downing MM, Nejadhashemi AP, Harrigan T & Woznicki SA (2017). Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation, Climate Risk Management. 16: 145-163. ISSN 2212- 383

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 0963, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2017.02.001. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S221209631730027X). Scholtz M & Maiwashe N & Magadlela M & Tjelele J & Douglas N & Matabane M (2016). The reality of drought, consequences and mitigation strategies for livestock production in South Africa. Applied Animal Husbandry and Rural Development. 9: 6-10. Scholtz MM, Chadyiwa MC, Jordaan FJ, Pyoos-Daniels GM & Chabalala NT (2020). Going green with livestock production. National Dialogue on Climate-Smart Agriculture from 6-7 February 2020, Kempton Park, South Africa. Scholtz MM, Mokolobate MC, Jordaan FJ, Pyoos, GM, Linde, DA, Theunissen A, Seshoka MM & Neser FWC, 2018. An overview of ruminant production systems in sub-Saharan Africa and the outlook beyond 2025. In: Scientific challenges and opportunities in the Protein economy. Ed. Binder EM, Erber AG, Austria. Scholtz MM, Neser FWC & Mahlako M (2020). A balanced perspective on the importance of extensive ruminant production for human nutrition and livelihoods and its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. South African Journal of Science. 116. Skees JR & Enkh-Amgala A (2002). Examining the feasibility of livestock insurance in Mongolia. Policy Research Working Paper 2886, Washington D.C., World Bank. South Africa’s Second National Communication under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2011). Sperling L (1987). The adoption of camels by Samburu cattle herders. Nomadic Peoples. 23: 1-18. Thornton PK & Gerber P (2010). Climate change and the growth of the livestock sector in developing countries. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 15: 169-184. Thornton PK (2010). Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 365: 2853-2867. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2008. Human Development Report 792 2007/2008: Fighting climate change: human solidarity in a divided world. New York, USA. Waghorn GC & Hegarty RS (2011). Lowering ruminant methane emissions through improved feed conversion efficiency. Animal Feed Science Technology. 166-167: 291-301. Wall R & Morgan E (2009). Veterinary parasitology and climate change. Veterinary Parasitology, 163: 263. Westhoek H, Rood T, Van den Berg M, Janse J, Nijdam D, Reudink M & Stehfest E (2011). The protein puzzle: the consumption and production of meat, dairy and fish in the European Union. The Hague, PBL 384

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. (available at http://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/cms/ publicaties/Protein_Puzzle_web_1.pdf). Word Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. World Health Organization, Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet. https://www.who. int/hac/techguidance/ems/flood_cds/en/#:~:text=and%20preventive%20measures-,Risk%20 assessment,fever%2C%20and%20West%20Nile%20Fever. For additional resources see: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Resource-Centre?folderId=147&view=gridview&pageSize=10. 385

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Average temperature and rainfall in North West from 1961−1990 and 1991−2016. 344 Figure 2 Average temperature and rainfall in Limpopo from 1961−1990 and 1991−2016. 344 Figure 3 Average temperature and rainfall in Eastern Cape 345 from 1961−1990 and 1991−2016. Figure 4 Changes in the component traits and the effect on 347 cow efficiency and the carbon footprint over 33 years. Figure 5 Illustration of how climate change affects livestock keepers and production. 348 Figure 6 Indigenous cattle breeds of South Africa. 353 Figure 7 Heat stressed animal in red captured with a thermal camera. 354 Figure 8 Nguni X Charolais Bulls. 357 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Example of trait ranking table. These should be completed 350 for all the different breeds of livestock held by the farmer(s). Table 2 Cow efficiency = kg calf weaned / Cow feed intake (LSU) X calving percentage. 353 Table 3 Comparison of the weaning weights (kg) of Sanga sired calves Angus/Simmentaler sired calves between the 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 seasons. 355 Table 4 Changes in the component traits and the effect on 356 cow efficiency and the carbon footprint over 33 years. Table 5 Example of pairwise ranking table for five identified problems. 368 A matrix can be developed to rank as many problems as identified. Table 6 Example of a table that can be used to summarise priority issues, 368 explain how they affect farmers and propose climate smart solutions. Table 7 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to cattle. 371 Table 8 Notifiable animal diseases that pertains to cattle. 373 Table 9 Immunisation schedule for animals that have not been immunized before. 377 Table 10 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle. 379 386

MODULE 9 Dairy Production Compiled by Sandra Erasmus and Dr Magdaleen Wepener Agricultural Research Council – Animal Institute

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 390 2 WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? 391 2.1 WEATHER AND CLIMATE 391 2.2 CLIMATE VARIABILITY 391 2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE 391 2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING 392 3 HOW DOES CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECT DAIRY FARMING? 393 3.1 CHOOSING THE DAIRY BREED 393 3.2 ADAPTABLE DAIRY BREEDS 394 3.3 STRENGTHENING RESILIENCE OF DAIRY COWS TO 395 CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH ADAPTATION 396 3.4 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY PRACTICES 396 3.4.1 Destocking 396 3.4.2 Changing to drought-tolerant livestock species or breeds 397 4 DAIRY FEED AND FEEDING 397 4.1 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY FEEDING PRACTICES 397 4.1.1 Dairy feed supplements 397 4.1.2 Improved feed management 398 4.2 TOTAL MIXED RATIONS (TMR) 400 4.3 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY FEEDING PRACTICES (PASTURE) 400 4.4 MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS 403 5 ADAPTING DAIRY COWS TO HOT WEATHER 403 5.1 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 403 5.2 METHODS TO COOL THE COWS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 405 6 CLIMATE-SMART WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN DAIRY FARMING 405 6.1 WATER HARVESTING FOR FARM PRODUCTION 406 6.2 DAIRY MANURE MANAGEMENT 407 6.3 CLIMATE ADAPTATION PRACTICES 408 7 DAIRY COWS GRAZING MANAGEMENT / PASTURES 408 7.1 PASTURE SPECIES AND MIXTURES 410 7.2 PASTURE SYSTEMS 411 8 CLIMATE-SMART PLANTED PASTURE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 413 9 RAISING CALVES FROM BIRTH TO WEANING 413 9.1 NEONATAL DEVELOPMENT 413 9.2 THE NEW BORN CALF 413 9.3 HOUSING THE CALF 414 9.3.1 Critical Temperatures 414 9.3.2 Lower critical temperatures 414 9.3.3 Higher critical temperatures 415 9.3.4 Alternatives 388

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN DIARY PRODUCTION 416 10.1 WHERE TO START? 416 10.2 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL 416 10.3 DISEASE REPORTING 417 10.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases 418 10.3.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases 419 10.3.3 Other common diseases 419 10.3.4 Zoonotic diseases 420 10.3.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers 420 10.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 421 10.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL 421 10.5.1 Bio-security 421 10.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds 421 10.5.3 Vaccination campaigns 422 10.5.4 IMMUNISATION FOR CATTLE 422 10.5.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control 426 10.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 426 11 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 427 429 LIST OF FIGURES 429 LIST OF TABLES 389

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual examples that readers can adapt to their own ClimaDteaCirhaynpgerroedfeursctotaion situations. Climate change, land and water competition, and food security are all likely to change in the state of the have a negative impact on dairy production at a climate that can be detected time when it is most needed. (e.g., by statistical tests) by Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which result changes in the mean and/or in atmospheric warming, are the primary cause of global climate change. In the livestock sector, 1 INTRODUCTIONvariability of its characteristics intensified systems, such as dairy farming, account for 14.5% of global GHG emissions, and that lasts for an extended potentially worsening land degradation, air and water pollution, and biodiversity loss. Equally, Bmanyappobdnererporlaacoicioagyemnudeisgnsspmeoeegrlfds.eetCcomibnmllryitomeeenssnx,aeyatotttseiefutnraterncetgahmantlealidnsfnnaoegtptfrceieocaporirmndnrnoaefgaelsspyteordiavitnaegripoarunasdctpicrsaepcset,citcihfeiecs climate change will impact livestock production usseucohfaasvsaoillaarbclyeclefamciolidtiuelast,ioann,d good sanitation, through competition for natural resources, feed mivloklcparnoicdeurcutpiotionncs,aanndbcehrionncirceased to relatively quantity and quality, livestock diseases, heat ofhaifgrfhc2imoh0ucm0mee7lrprea)sso.nvsiwencithliistoaa.hnnssTgpoiehserstislsiiatnnnagmadntsuomdmsdoeduasi(pllsIelPhe-CseacwCrsia,ceillelmaaasnnsdiasgtseuembxsetiesntntesanioscnea stress, and biodiversity loss, while demand for result of climate change. The demand for more livestock products is expected to double by the milk in South Africa, and indeed the world, is middle of the twenty-first century. Therefore, constantly increasing (Rojas-Downing, 2017); maintaining a balance between productivity, producing more milk per adapted cow in a household food security, environmental climate-smart way means reducing greenhouse preservation, and animal welfare is a challenge. gas emissions. Pest and disease management that is climate-smart is a big part of that. Each region and each dairy farm are affected differently by climate change. Site and context specific dairy climate-smart approaches exist, and there is no one-size-fits-all solution for all situations. We can, however, define some general guidelines to follow and provide Training structure In this module, you'll learn about Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) and what it means to be climate- smart. You'll also learn about weather and climate, climate variability, climate change and global warming. How climate change affects dairy farming will also be explored.. Training objectives After completing this module, participants will have a working knowledge of key CSA practices and will be able to answer the following questions: • What is climate change? • How does climate change affect dairy farming? • Dairy feed and feeding • Adapting dairy cows to hot weather • Climate-smart water management practices • Dairy cow grazing management • Calf rearing 390

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 2 WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE? average to far above average from year to year, with unpredictable timing. Climate variability 2.1 WEATHER AND CLIMATE has an impact on weather conditions such as cyclone activity, temperature, and rainfall. To understand what climate change really Natural internal processes within the climate means, it is important to first differentiate system, such as the El Nio Southern Oscillation between weather and climate. (ENSO) or the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO; Box 1), or natural external forces, such • Weather refers to the state of the as volcanic eruptions, cause climate variability. atmosphere at a specific location and time. Rain, humidity, wind, sunshine, Box 1. Example of climate variability - cloudiness, and temperature are the AMO most common aspects of weather that The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) everyone experiences throughout the day, is a mode of variability in the North Atlantic but extreme events such as tornadoes, defined by sea surface temperatures. droughts, and tropical cyclones are also With only a few shifts between its warm common. Weather is dynamic, and it can and cool phases in the twentieth century, change dramatically in a short amount of it is a longer-term source of variability. time, even within a single day Temperature and rainfall patterns in North America and Europe, as well as Brazil, • Climate is the set of weather conditions the Sahel, and India, have been linked by that prevail in an area over a long period of scientists. According to research, the AMO time, typically three decades (IPCC, 2007). has an impact on hurricane activity in the Long-term averages of temperature and Atlantic. precipitation, as well as the type, frequency, duration, and intensity of weather events such as heatwaves, cold spells, storms, floods, and droughts, all contribute to the definition of climate 2.2 CLIMATE VARIABILITY 2.3 CLIMATE CHANGE Climate variability refers to the natural The main distinction between climate variability fluctuation of the climate, which includes and climate change is that climate change swings above and below the mean state as is indicated by a trend over time. Climate well as other variables. It depicts the various variability is defined by fluctuations over shorter weather conditions over the course of a day, time periods – days, seasons, years, or several month, season, or year. For example, if we look years – and in cycles, whereas climate change is at rainfall over a period of time in a specific defined by a consistent linear trend as patterns region of the world, the variability can be low, shift over decades. When the climate – the implying that there is little variation in the long-term pattern of climate variability – and amount or timing of rains from one year to the mean show significant measurable changes, the next. In another region, rainfall quantity climate change is detected. Over decades, for may be highly variable, ranging from far below example, the climate gets warmer or cooler, 391

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production wetter or drier on average. Climate variability Studies show that concentrations of greenhouse averages out to a steady-state climate over gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere, have years, whereas climate change averages out to risen dramatically since the beginning of the a changing trend over decades (see Figure 1). industrial era. Industrial-scale production began around 1750, resulting in a global increase in 2.4 CLIMATE CHANGE AND the use of fossil fuels, which emit greenhouse GLOBAL WARMING gases when burned. The planet warmed by 0.85 degrees Celsius on average between 1880 and Natural factors such as widespread volcanic 2012. Temperatures are expected to rise by 0.3 activity and oscillations in the planet's rotational to 4.8 degrees Celsius by 2100, depending on and orbital cycles have always caused climate a variety of factors (IPCC, 2013). Each of the change on Earth. Scientists, on the other hand, last three decades, from 1981 to 1990, 1991 to have been observing trends toward higher 2000, and 2001 to 2010, has been warmer at average global temperatures that are occurring the Earth's surface than any other decade since at a much faster rate than previously observed records began. 2001 to 2010 was the warmest and cannot be attributed to natural causes. decade ever recorded, and 2016 was the Rather, scientists believe that this longer- warmest year on record, with a 1.1°C increase term warming is anthropogenic, or caused by over pre-industrial levels (WMO, 2017). Living human activity. As a result, the UN Framework in the year 2020, it is clear that the previous Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) decade (2011–2020) will be the warmest ever defines climate change as “a change in climate measured – until the next decade surpasses that is attributed directly or indirectly to human it. Despite the fact that these appear to be activity, that alters the composition of the global minor changes when compared to long-term atmosphere, and that is in addition to natural observations of stable conditions, the shift is climate variability observed over comparable noticeable. Long-term global warming causes time periods” (UNFCCC, 1992). climate changes at regional and smaller scales, which have significant consequences for the planet's ecosystems. Figure 1 Climate variability and climate change. Source: Muya ARC. 392

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 3 HOW DOES CLIMATE CHANGE AFFECT DAIRY FARMING? The concentrations of greenhouse gases in exploited. This applies more to resource- the atmosphere are at their highest point in poor systems; in input-intensive systems the 800,000 years. As a result of their presence in approach would be different. Either way, there is the atmosphere, the Earth's ability to reflect the an urgent need to alleviate the negative effects sun's energy back into space is reduced, causing of climate change on livestock production to the surface temperature to rise. The effects of meet growing demand for livestock products rising temperatures on our rainfall, sea levels, worldwide. and overall weather patterns are severe. Climate-smart dairy farming is sustainable Climate change has a two-way impact on dairy farming that meets the demand for safe and farming: sufficient milk while preserving ecosystem integrity, and does so by maximizing the net • it affects cows and milk production directly, benefit to society after all costs and benefits are and taken into account. The genotype of the dairy animal within its environment guides climate- • dairy farming contributes significantly to smart dairy farming. climate change through GHG emissions. Africa's indigenous breeds and cross-breed animals play a critical role in climate-smart Temperatures in southern Africa are expected livestock production. Breeds from temperate to rise by 1.5 to 3 degrees Celsius by 2050. The environments cannot express their full genetic consequences are already being felt: the 2015 potential in Africa without costly environmental agricultural season was the driest in 35 years, modifications. It is prudent to capitalise on the prompting partial drought declarations in eight inherent competitive advantages of indigenous of South Africa's nine provinces. genotypes or more adaptable breeds in order to Pests and diseases, crop yields, flooding, animal mitigate climate change. stress, drought effects, and the limited ability to South Africa is home to a few dairy breeds. These provide sufficient resources for animals during breeds are known for producing more milk and extreme weather events are the most significant are well-suited to intensive milk production impacts of climate change for the dairy industry systems like parlour equipment, cow housing, as a whole. and concentrate feeding. 3.1 CHOOSING THE DAIRY BREED Choosing the dairy breed can be a difficult These should be selected based on their decision. However, if you know which breed adaptability to the environment (see Figure 2): suits your needs, you will be able to choose and buy the right one. Usually this depends on the • Brown Swiss quantity of milk that one wants to produce, but • Dexter also on the resources available as requirements • Guernsey differ from one breed to another. • Holstein-Friesian • Jersey • Shorthorn Dairy production would be climate smart if adaptability of indigenous breeds were fully 393

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Figure 2 Dairy breeds found in South Africa. 3.2 ADAPTABLE DAIRY BREEDS The degree to which an animal suffers from heat stress is determined by a variety of factors. Adaptability to temperature Among the most important are: Heat stress is caused by a combination of environmental factors that result in • Temperature and humidity temperatures that are higher than the animal's • Length of the heat stress period thermal neutral zone. Several weather factors, • Degree of night cooling that occurs particularly temperature and humidity, • Ventilation and air flow influence an animal's survival and performance • The cow's size during heat stress periods (see Figure 3). Feed • Level of milk production and dry matter consumption, milk production, and breeding efficiency are all reduced when animals are intake prior to the heat stress (higher exposed to extreme heat for long periods of producing animals will experience greater time. effects of heat stress) • Type of housing, ventilation, overcrowding, and other factors to consider • Availability of water • Colour of the breed's coat (lighter colour coats absorb less sunlight) • Hair coat thickness 394

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Figure 3 General stress levels at different temperature / humidity indexes. 3.3 STRENGTHENING RESILIENCE may perish as a result. The average amount of OF DAIRY COWS TO rainfall is decreasing in some areas, and rains CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH are becoming more erratic. Rain is falling more ADAPTATION frequently and with greater intensity in other parts of the country. The dairy industry's producers and systems Adapting to climate change in dairy farming have always had to contend with changing entails enabling dairy producers to deal with weather conditions. The season can be hot or such shocks. Dairy farmers' adaptive capacity cold, wet or dry in general. Dairy farmers, on refers to their ability to implement strategies the other hand, adjust and usually still produce that help them maximize productivity even in enough milk to sell. However, the weather can the face of adverse weather conditions. be unusual at times: it can be much hotter, To reduce the vulnerability of dairy systems, wetter, or drier than usual. The growth of forage three variables can be changed at the local level and other crops may be hampered, and animals 395

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production and within communities: 3.4 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY i. Lower the farm system's risk. Planting PRACTICES healthy windbreaks and hedgerows, as well as using no-tillage planting Dairy producers must develop their own adaptive techniques, will help soil stay put and capacity in order to thrive in the face of rising resist erosion. Feed that is stored off climate risk. Many innovative solutions and the ground is safer from floods and traditional practices have emerged as potential vermin. responses to site-specific circumstances after ii. Reduce the farm systems' sensitivity to decades of sharing experiences and refining these shocks. Drought sensitivity can approaches. be reduced by using drought-resistant varieties or having enough hay on hand. 3.4.1 Destocking Reduce runoff and balance supply and demand by implementing water Reducing the number of dairy cows as a harvesting, storage, and conservation deliberate decision, rather than as a result management techniques. of hardships, to improve resilience and make iii. Improve your adaptive capacity by the herd more manageable. The Livestock learning new skills and experimenting Emergency Guidelines and Standards (LEGS) are with new ideas. This includes taking a good resource for destocking advice. into account all potential shocks and changes as compensating, exacerbating, 3.4.2 Changing to drought-tolerant livestock and cumulative effects, as well as species or breeds considering system modifications. Animals that are more drought or disease tolerant can be purchased or bred. This can include changing the animal's type or species. Drought-tolerant species include zebu cattle and small ruminants, to name a few. 396

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 4 DAIRY FEED AND FEEDING The goal of dairy animal nutrition is to ensure 4.1 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY that they get enough nutrients for maintenance, FEEDING PRACTICES growth, pregnancy, and production. Feeds contain a variety of nutrients that the animal 4.1.1 Dairy feed supplements requires. Potassium, sodium, and chlorine are all minerals Animals should be fed enough food and water that help to reduce the effects of heat stress. on a daily basis to meet their physiological Saturated fatty acids can also be used to replace needs. The animal's age, body weight, lactation rapidly fermentable carbohydrates like maize. stage, production level, growth, pregnancy, 4.1.2 Improved feed management activity, and climate should all be reflected in the feed's quality and quantity, which includes • Storing animal feeds such as silage and appropriate fiber. stover, making better use of feeds (by To put together a feeding schedule for dairy combining them), growing grass varieties cows, you must be aware of the animals' needs better suited to the agro-ecological zone, as well as the feed composition available. In fodder conservation, and fattening animals practice, a lack of knowledge about feeds are just a few examples. frequently leads to animals being fed too much or too little, resulting in financial losses. • Higher feed density, no feed ingredient Roughage (hay, silage, pasturages, and straw) separation, better bacteriological quality, and concentrates are the two types of feed for easier ingestion, and improved growth and dairy cows (maize, wheat, etc.). feed conversion ratio are all advantages of For dairy cows, grazing is usually the cheapest pelleting. Always have fresh, clean water source of roughage. The energy content of and good quality hay, such as Eragrostis, on crops and their high moisture content are two hand factors that limit milk production from grazing. Pastures can be a good source of nutrients if • Feeding weaned heifers according to age they are well-managed. For high-producing and weight in groups makes for more cows, more grain is required. efficient feeding practices. Having fresh hay Silage crops are the most cost-effective way to on hand at all times. store roughages. Maize is primarily used for silage production. Most grasses and legume • Feeding the lactating dairy cow plants can be used to make high-quality silage. - Improve feed efficiency by optimizing Silage has a high moisture content and is feed energy and protein content. therefore bulky. Silage often has a higher crude - Use precision feeding techniques to protein content than hays. match animal needs to nutrient supply - Make use of locally produced feeds and look for low-emission feeds such as local by-products. - Offering a Total Mixed Ration (TMR) or pasture-based feeding are the two main feeding options at this stage. 397

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Figure 4 Concentrate mash and pellet. Figure 5 Heifers fed grass / concentrate. 4.2 TOTAL MIXED RATIONS (TMR) nutritional value, and cost, with the main goal of obtaining a well-balanced ration at a low cost. These animals can graze and be supplemented EXAMPLE: TMR formulated to meet the with concentrate to compensate for pasture minimum requirements of a 680kg Holstein deficits, or they can be fed a complete feed cow in early lactation producing 40 kg of milk called TMR, depending on the system used (total with 4% fat and 3.5 percent protein: mixed ration). TMR is a formulated and mixed mixture of roughage and processed ingredients High energy concentrate (19% CP): 12.6 kg (concentrate), formulated and mixed to meet Cotton seed : 2.2 kg the needs of the cow in a form that prevents Lucerne hay: 4.0 kg selection. A constant supply of fresh, clean Molasses meal: 2.3 kg water is required. Total mixed ration Eragrostis hay: 3.0 kg TMR can be made up of a variety of ingredients Water: 13.0 kg that are chosen based on their availability, 398

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production The concentrate (mash or pellet) must be a mix Molasses meal is a source of energy that is prepared for a lactating cow. However, not any made up of bagasse and molasses. It enhances mash or pellet can be used. The concentrate palatability and has good binding properties. is designed to meet the nutritional needs of Eragrostis curvula is most commonly used as young, adult, pregnant non-lactating, and hay. Under favorable weather conditions, it can lactating dairy animals, which vary. be cut, dried and baled on the same day (see Cotton seed (whole) is a good protein and Figure 6). energy supplement for lactating cows when fed Maximum feed intake should be achieved in whole. It should not be fed at more than 3 kg order to support milk production and minimize per cow per day. body weight loss. Lucerne hay is the best-known legume hay. TMR can be prepared using a feed mixer It has a pleasant taste and is generally beneficial which cuts the hay and thoroughly mixes the in almost all rations. It has a high protein ingredients. Water is then added is to improve content in general, but it is low in energy. intake and prevent feed selection (Figure 7). It goes well with maize silage, maize, and molasses as a feed. There are no limitations on the degree of inclusion. It should, however, be avoided during the dry period in cows that are prone to milk fever due to its high calcium content. Figure 6 Dairy feed ingredients. Figure 7 Mixing feed and feeding using a mixing wagon. 399