Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 4.2 INTERCROPPING STUDY AT In general, the study's goal was to generate ARC knowledge about the cultivation of indigenous leafy vegetables by smallholder farmers through Comparative analysis of advantages provided the use of intercropping and rotational farming by legumes to native non-leguminous systems. indigenous leafy vegetables when grown in The following objectives were established in intercropping and crop rotation systems. The order to achieve the study's overall goal: majority of smallholder farmers have depleted Aims: To determine the impact of legume their soils of nutrients in large quantities (cowpea) and non-legume (Amaranth) without replenishing them, either through the intercropping nutritional values on soil application of sufficient manure or the use of fertility and crop productivity at various levels chemical fertilisers. However, nitrogen and of nutrition (25, 50, 75, and 100% of the phosphorus are essential in the soil, and farmers recommendation) (Figure 21). will not be able to maximise their yields if these nutrients are not present. As a result, improving • To determine the level of microbial activity soil fertility is a critical component of increasing in legumes (acid and alkaline phosphatase crop productivity in Africa, which is currently activity) experiencing low production trends. Because of the reduced use of chemicals, this can be • To determine the amount of nitrogen fixed made more affordable for smallholder farmers by legumes by intercropping leafy indigenous legumes with non-legumes and, as a result, making the The overall goal of the study is to generate environment more sustainable. new knowledge about intercropping and crop rotation systems for smallholder farmers who cultivate indigenous vegetables. Figure 21 Cowpea and amaranth planted (intercropping) at ARC-Roodeplaat. Source: ARC. 300

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production The study's specific objectives include: We will organic fertiliser rich in NKP and micronutrients be measuring the nutrient concentrations in and can be applied to the soil. Vermicompost plant and soil samples in order to assess the also contains beneficial soil microbes, such benefits of intercropping and crop rotation of as nitrogen-fixing and phosphate-solubilizing indigenous vegetables grown in South Africa. bacteria, as well as actinomycetes, which help This has not yet been looked into further. the soil to function properly. Vermicompost is Non-legumes are expected to benefit from more nutritive when lime is added to it, and intercropping and crop rotation, which are both it has made a significant contribution to the recommended. When legumes are grown with improvement of plant growth. little or no fertilisation, higher nitrogen fixation The project's goal is to persuade smallholder is expected. Using indigenous vegetables, the farmers to use organic soil amendments project will demonstrate the beneficial effects instead of chemical fertilisers in their efforts to of intercropping and crop rotation on the increase the production of native vegetables. plants. The project will be implemented in rural Utilizing such practises will result in an increase communities in six South African provinces by in fertility, water holding capacity, and organic the end of the five-year period (Limpopo, North matter in your soils. More sustainable farming West, Mpumalanga, Kwa Zulu Natal, Gauteng will be achieved in the long run, contributing and Eastern Cape). to increased crop productivity, increased food security, and poverty alleviation while also 4.3 VERMICULTURE caring for the environment and conserving natural resources. Improvement of indigenous vegetable production among smallholder farmers in 4.4 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS South Africa through the use of vermiculture products to improve soil quality is being Even though there are many different types of pursued. Agricultural productivity has increased irrigation systems available, no single irrigation in part as a result of the depletion of natural system is optimally suited for every situation resources as a result of the farming systems and every crop. The most important factors to currently in use. Consequently, an urgent call consider when deciding on the type of irrigation is needed to reverse the trend by encouraging system to use are discussed in greater detail farmers to adopt farming methods that are below. environmentally friendly and have a long- term benefit to the environment. It is difficult 4.4.1 Influence of environmental factors in for farmers to manage intensive farming the selection of the irrigation system operations on a sustainable basis because they When deciding on the irrigation system lack the necessary knowledge, resources, and to be used, the influence of agro-climatic skills. In turn, inappropriate technologies and conditions must be taken into consideration. unsustainable practises are employed, which Despite the fact that taking into account agro- contribute to the depletion of natural resources climatic conditions is critical in the selection and the pollution of the environment in which of an irrigation method and the effective they are used. It is possible to significantly reduce implementation of that method, irrigation the problem by using soil organic amendment products such as vermicompost, which is an 301

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production methods are frequently selected and promoted localized/drip irrigation methods or surface without taking this into consideration. Thus, irrigation methods are preferred. Surface the following checklist identifies agricultural- irrigation may be preferable in areas where climatic factors that should be considered when supplementary irrigation is required because determining the most appropriate irrigation of the flexibility and adaptability of sprinkler or method: localised irrigation systems to varying irrigation Soil type demands in these areas. Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate, making them ideal Water availability for irrigation. As a result, they require more Surface irrigation has a lower efficiency than a frequent but smaller irrigation applications, sprinkler and localized/drip irrigation, which is which is particularly important when the why these methods are more commonly used. sandy soil is also shallow. Rather than using a As a result, when water is in short supply, these surface irrigation system, sprinklers or localised methods are preferred. Nevertheless, it should irrigation are more appropriate in these be remembered that the efficiency of a method situations. If the soil is loam or clay, any of the is just as much a function of the duration of three irrigation methods can be used; however, the crop cover, the evaporative demand, and surface irrigation is the most commonly used the standard of water management as it is method. Clay soils with low infiltration rates are of the method itself. When irrigation water ideal for surface irrigation because they allow contains dissolved salts, localised irrigation is water to pass through quickly. A sprinkler system particularly advantageous because less water is or localised irrigation is recommended when applied to the soil than with surface application there are several different soil types present in methods, resulting in better water quality. one irrigation scheme because they will ensure Sprinkler systems are generally more efficient a uniform distribution of water throughout the in the leaching of salts than surface irrigation entire system. For this soil type, drip irrigation methods, according to research. may also be an option to consider. Slope 4.4.2 Types of irrigation systems and a When dealing with steeper or undulating terrain, comparison of the different systems sprinkler or localised irrigation is frequently preferred over surface irrigation because it • Systems that are permanent (drip, micros requires little or no land levelling. Crops that are and permanent sprinkler systems). grown on terraces are an exception to this rule. On a sloping terrace, drip irrigation can also be • Systems that can be moved by hand (such an effective method of watering the plants. as the dragline and overhead sprinklers) are Climate available. Strong winds will have a negative impact on the uniform distribution of irrigation water as well • For flood irrigation, hosepipes and furrow as on the efficiency of sprinkler irrigation, which irrigation are frequently used methods. will be reduced. When there is a lot of wind, Hand watering systems, bucket irrigation systems, drip irrigation systems, as well as sprayers that use portable hoses, are all examples of irrigation systems that have been developed specifically for small garden plots (draglines) (Table 7). 302

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Table 7 Comparing irrigation systems for smart climate agriculture. Water quantity Surface irrigation Overhead irrigation Drip irrigation Water quality Average/plant More/plant Less/plant needed Suitable for water with Water quality should be sediment loads too high potable to remain safe Recycled, non-potable Suitable soils for overhead or drip for people and animals water can be safely used irrigation Water Not suited to highly Suited to any soils Suited to any soils distribution sandy soils with high infiltration rates Can be patchy if the Uniform and Climate Uniform, but correct right pressure is controllable. Minimal uncontrolled. Needs not there pressure required Preparation pressure Suited to areas with Suited to water-limited and Suited to areas with unlimited water and little areas, where wind maintenance unlimited water and little wind may contribute to high wind evaporation rates Field shape Requires know-how, Requires know-how, Erosion Little know-how little field levelling, no field levelling, required, requires labour maintenance of pipes maintenance of pipes Salinity intensive field levelling needed and filtration to prevent and digging Often determined by clogging Fertilisation sprinkler, e.g. pivots Any shape Any shape Soils easily eroded if Chemicals Soils vulnerable to floods water pools Soil erosion minimized added and erosion As for surface irrigation, Soil salinization may but salts may be leached Salinity problems may occur due to capillary out of rooting zone occur at wetting front action drawing up salts easier if system is not flushed from below to the Soil can be fertigated, periodically wetted soil above but involves nutrient wastage Soil can be fertigated Not suited to fertigation No limitation on type of without wastage fertilisers and biocides Need to choose fertilisers No limitation on type of and biocides that do not fertilisers and biocides require surface wetting 303

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Crop health Germination generally Germination generally Germination may be Diseases not limited by water not limited by water limited water only Weeds Foliage remains dry and Foliage gets wet and occurring in the wetted less susceptible to fungal encourages disease in area Costs disease some crops Foliage remains dry and Weeds get as much Weeds get as much less susceptible to fungal water as crop water as crop disease Weeds minimized as Lowest cost, initially High investment costs, water targets crop labour intensive and relatively high labour Generally has highest and energy costs to investment and maintain replacement costs (plastic degrades in the sun or may be attacked by rodents), but there are lower labour and energy costs 4.4.2.1 Movable sprayers (Draglines) 4.4.2.3 Dripper irrigation • Drip irrigation is the most water-efficient • Labor intensive. way of irrigation and is utilised when the • The spray radius will seldom exceed 8 m. water supply is limited. • The application rate is high and if the • Irrigation efficiency is good as water is placed within the root zone. sprayer is left in one position for too long, • Runoff and evaporation are limited to the water will run off and not infiltrate the soil. minimum. • This system can be adapted to suit a wide 4.4.2.2 Micro sprayers variety of crops and growing conditions. • Micro-irrigation systems are used when • The use of drip irrigation is limited mainly water is sprayed directly onto the plants and because of additional costs for filters and can increase infestation by fungal diseases. control systems. • Micro-sprayernozzleshavedifferentdelivery • Drip systems are permanently installed for rates and patterns of water distribution and the duration of the crop’s growing season should be selected according to the crop and can be removed after harvesting to be requirements. re-used for new planting. • Evaporation losses in the air and from the • Drippers are a high maintenance system soil surface can be significant. and need good management skills. • Normally these systems are permanently installed for the duration of the crop’s growing season and can be removed after harvesting to be re-used for new planting. 304

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 4.4.2.4 Flood irrigation Some vegetables, particularly lettuce and • The slow soaking of the water into the soil potatoes, have sparse root systems that do not will wet the soil evenly to the depth you make good contact with the soil moisture that is want, but there is a danger of applying too available in their root-depth zone as a result of much water this way. this. Application of sufficient water to bring the • Furrow irrigation is most successful on level soil moisture content in the effective rooting ground and with soil that is not very sandy. zone of the crop up to the field capacity level. Make the furrows before planting, making Irrigating vegetables should not be delayed until them up to 30 cm wide and 15 cm deep, they show signs of wilting or develop color or and make them as level as possible. texture changes that indicate that they are not • Hoses can also be used for hand watering growing properly (see Table 8). and many nozzles have been designed to deliver a shower of water rather than a jet of water. Table 8 Characteristic rooting depths of selected vegetables. Shallow Moderately deep Deep (45-60 cm) (90-120 cm) (More than 120 cm) Broccoli Amaranthus Pigeon pea Brussels sprouts Bambara nuts Pumpkin (Boer) Cabbage Beans bush Pumpkin (Butternut) Cauliflower Beans climbing Squash Celery Beetroot Sweet potato Cleome Carrots Tomato Garlic Cowpeas Watermelon Leek Cucumber Lettuce Eggplant Onion Melon Parsley Pea Potato Peppers Radish Turnip Spinach 305

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Even though irrigation systems are expensive in the root zones. Squeeze the soil sample in to install, sub-surface or normal drip systems the hand and compare its behavior with those reduce the need to retrieve pipes and may of the soils listed to get a rough idea of its become more common as water becomes moisture content. scarcer in South Africa as a result of the drought During rainfall or irrigation, water seeps into the there is currently. Drip irrigation systems, while soil pores and completely fills them with water. having the lowest water and electricity efficiency The air has been forced out of the space, and the of the various types of irrigation systems, also soil has become saturated with liquid. If the rain have the advantage of lowering the cost of or irrigation continues, it is possible that surface cultivation. It keeps weeds under control by pooling or runoff will occur. It is important to restricting their growth to the wetting front/ take into account the texture and structure of area. the soil when it comes to soil absorption. Water holding capacity is generally low in all sands and loamy sands, regardless of their 4.5 SOIL MOISTURE composition. Clay and loam have medium water-holding capacities, whereas very fine After rainfall or irrigation, all the soil pore spaces sandy loam, silt loam, peat bogs, and other soils are filled with water. The air is displaced and the with a high water table have high water-holding soil is water-saturated. If the rain or irrigation capacities. Clay soils frequently contain a large were to continue, then surface pooling or runoff amount of water, but this water is not available would occur. The rate at which a soil can absorb to plants for use as a source of nutrition because water is influenced by its texture and structure. it is not available to them. For the purpose of collecting soil samples All sands and loamy sands tend to have a low from shallow soils or when growing crops with water holding capacity. Loams and clay have shallow roots, a shovel must be used. In order a medium water holding capacity, while very to collect samples from deeper in the root zone, fine sandy loam, silt loams, peats, and any soil it is necessary to use a soil auger or a soil tube with a high water table have high water-holding to collect the samples. You can get an idea of its capacities. Clay soils often have a large amount moisture content in a rough sense by squeezing of water within them, but it is not available for and comparing the soil sample in your hand to plant use. the behavior of the soils listed in Table 9. A shovel will serve to obtain a soil sample from shallow soils or when a shallow-rooted crop is being grown. A soil auger or soil tube is necessary to draw samples from greater depths 306

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Table 9 Practical soil-moisture interpretation guidelines. Amount of Sand Sandy lam Clay loam Clay readily available (gritty when (gritty when (sticky and plastic (very sticky when moisture moist, almost like moist, dirties when moist) moist, behaves remaining for the beach sand) fingers, contains like modeling plant silt and clay) Dry clods that clay) Dry, loose, single- Dry, loose, flows break down into Hard, baked, Close to 0% grained‘ flows through fingers powder cracked surface. Little or no through fingers Somewhat Hard clods moisture Still appears Still appears to be crumbly, but will difficult to break, available to be dry, will dry, will not form hold together sometimes has not form a ball a ball when pressure is loose crumbs on 50% or less when pressure is Tends to form applied surface Approaching time applied a ball when Forms a ball, Somewhat to irrigate Same as sand pressure is somewhat plastic, pliable, will form under 50% applied, but will will sometimes a ball when 50% - 75% Tends to stick seldom hold stick slightly pressure is Enough available together slightly, together when pressure is applied moisture sometimes forms Forms weak ball, applied Forms a ball, a very weak ball breaks easily, will Forms a ball and will ribbon out 75% to field under pressure not become slick is very pliable, between thumb capacity Upon squeezing, becomes slick and forefinger Plenty of available no free water Same as sand readily if high in moisture appears, but clay content Easily ribbons out moisture is left on Free water will Same as sand between fingers, At field capacity hand be released with feels slick Soil will not hold Free water kneading Can squeeze out any more water appears when soil free water Same as sand (after draining) is put in hand Puddles and free Above field water form on capacity surface Unless water drains out, soil will be water- logged 307

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 4.6 WATERING TECHNIQUES It is necessary for water to reach the root zone of the plants in sufficient quantities. The depth From the time of planting until the time of to which a given amount of water will penetrate harvest, food crops require a consistent supply is determined by the soil type. Water applied to of water. If you give your plants too little water, a square metre of land at a rate of 25 litres per they will begin to wilt and, if the situation is not square metre will wet a sandy soil to a depth of corrected, they will die eventually. Giving plants 30 cm, while clay soil will be wet to a depth of too much water may cause the roots to become 10 cm to 15 cm.. drowned, resulting in the plants ceasing to grow or dying. Proper (correct) watering is something 4.7 WATER REQUIREMENTS OF of an art – the best way to learn how often and VEGETABLE CROPS how much to water your crops is through trial and error in the field. Vegetables require a consistent supply of The frequency with which you water your water from the time they are planted until crops is determined by the types of crops you they are harvested, and they cannot be grown are growing, the age and size of the plants, the successfully in rain-fed conditions. The following type of soil, and the weather. In order to keep are only general guidelines that should be their root zones moist, young seedlings with tailored to your specific plot or garden based on small shallow roots that are located in the top the season and local conditions: layer of the soil will require frequent watering – sometimes as frequently as twice or three times • Seedlings: The critical time is between per day. Crops with deep roots in the soil (such sowing and the emergence of the seedling. as pigeon pea) may only require watering once At all times the soil in contact with the seed a week or only once every two weeks. must be moist. Watering frequency is determined by the amount of clay, sand, silt, and organic matter • Transplants: Watering before and after present in the soil. Clay is the most common transplanting is essential, particularly in hot type of soil. Clay soils retain a large amount of weather water and release it slowly, whereas sandy soils retain a small amount of water and release it • Leafy crops: Leafy crops such as Brassicas quickly. (e.g. Swiss chard, Cabbage) generally need The weather also has an impact on how about 25 litres per square meter soil a frequently the crop needs to be watered. Cool, week and should be actively growing from cloudy weather allows any soil to retain moisture the time they are sown or transplanted. for a longer period of time than it would in hot, Any lack in water supply can affect yield dry weather. In a few places, rainfall during the and quality and during summer it may be growing season is sufficient to meet all of the necessary to irrigate twice a week water requirements. • Root crops (e.g. Potatoes, carrots, sweet potato): The average weekly water requirement is between 10-15 litres per square meter during the first month after planting. From one month after planting until plants approach maturity 30 litres per square meter will be adequate. Regular watering must be maintained in the 308

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production absence of rain and it is important to ensure • Plant vegetable plants at optimal spacing. that water penetrates deeply into the soil. Using this method decreases the amount Shallow watering discourages good root of water needed per unit area, and reduces development. Potatoes need additional evaporation from the soil surface. water when tubers start forming. • Other crops (e.g. green beans and other • Use drought-tolerant (water conserving) legumes, cucurbits, Solanaceae): The plants or varieties. Separate water- average weekly water requirement is 25 conserving plants from water-demanding litre per square meter but varies according plants. Group plants with similar water to the stage of development. requirements together. Water-efficient vegetables (e.g. cowpeas, amaranth, pigeon peas and Bambara). These Other methods that can be used to supplement crops are known to be tolerant to drought and water in the garden will be discussed. can be grown under rainfed conditions if the 4.8.1 Use of greywater rain is well distributed. Use the wastewater, usually referred to as greywater (all the non-toilet wastewater 4.8 WATER-SAVING TECHNIQUES produced in the average household, including the water from bathtubs, showers, sinks, Watering slowly, deeply, and infrequently is the washing machines, and dishwashers) (Figure key to success. Plants with shallow root systems 22): are encouraged to grow as a result of frequent shallow watering. • Apply the greywater directly to the soil surface. Do not use an overhead sprinkler, • Use drip or trickle irrigation. This method or allow the recycled water to splash off the wets the soil slowly, allowing for slow, soil and be exposed to the above-ground deep penetration. Up to 60% of the portion of the plants. irrigation, water can be saved using drip vs. conventional sprinkler irrigation. A • Rotate applications of greywater with perforated hose placed upside down (with fresh water. The freshwater will help leach holes facing down) makes a very good out any soil contaminants that might be temporary drip irrigation system. building up. • Water at low application rates. If water runs 4.8.2 Rooftop water harvesting off the soil surface or forms puddles, the Rooftop catchments and cistern storage have water application rate is too high and water been the basis of domestic water supply in many is wasted. countries. Collect rainwater from the roofs of buildings into tanks as follows (see Figure 23). • Irrigate at night or in the early morning when the temperatures are cooler and the humidity is higher. There will be less evaporation. 309

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Figure 22 Use of greywater in the watering of vegetables and fruit. Source: ARC. 310

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Figure 23 Collecting of rainwater from the roofs of buildings into tanks. Source: ARC. 311

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 4.8.3 In-field rainwater harvesting It is impossible to prevent droughts from The principle is to transfer run-off water from occurring, but interventions and preparedness a land area that is not cropped to supplement for droughts can help (i) better prepared to rainfall received directly on the area where crops cope with drought; (ii) develop more resilient are grown (Figure 24). This is more relevant for crops and ecosystems; (iii) improve resilience areas where drought is experienced and rainfall to recover from drought, and (iv) mitigate is irregular. the consequences of droughts. Drought There are two types of catchment areas: preparedness strategies include: (a) shifting agricultural systems to more arid regions; (b) • Catchment strips within the boundary of climate-proofing rainfall-based systems; and (c) the cultivated area are altered to direct run- introducing more efficient irrigation systems to off to cultivated plots increase efficiency. • In the external areas (for example, the 4.9 INSTRUMENTS MAKING playground and the roads), water is diverted IRRIGATED SYSTEMS MORE to the cultivated areas. Take, for example, EFFICIENT the incline of the school grounds. Water will be directed to the school garden if trenches Tensiometer: Measures the water status in the are dug to direct it. Plant something, such as soil (increased reading indicates that the soil is fruit trees, in a furrow that will receive this too dry and vice versa). water. This method is not recommended Chameleon: Measures the water status in the for use in shallow soils or areas prone to soil. landslides, among other things The above instruments use the same principle Water collected from trenches on large school where they will give a certain meaningful grounds can be collected in a simple dam reading, but the chameleon is much more structure and then used for furrow irrigation. farmer user friendly (blue, red and green lights This method is particularly useful for large will light up depending on the soil water status). school grounds. Figure 24 Rainwater catchment beds. Source: ARC 312

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5 SELECTED DROUGHT TOLERANT VEGETABLES 5.1 PEARL MILLET and C and protein. It is most prevalent along the coasts of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. South Africa's pearl millet is an example of Taro production has increased as a result of an indigenous cereal that can be found in the improved access to niche markets, according to northern and western regions of the country. the USDA. Local studies into drought tolerance Small-holder farmers in South Africa produce and water use of some of the landraces currently the majority of the pearl millet that is consumed in production, on the other hand, have not been by the country's population. There are some conducted in sufficient numbers. It is possible areas where it is only grown commercially as that taro production and commercialization will forage for animal consumption, but this is not be expanded beyond their current levels as a the case everywhere. Despite the fact that pearl result of improved information availability. millet can grow in a wide variety of soils ranging from clay to loam to deep sand, it performs 5.3 WILD MUSTARD (BRASSICA best when grown in deep, well-drained soil. JUNCEA L.) Pearl millet is a crop that is easy to cultivate and can be grown in arid and semi-arid regions Wild mustard is a crop that is indigenous where water availability is a constraint on crop to South Africa and is a member of the production. Brassicaceae family of plants. There are many different environmental conditions under which A \"high energy\" cereal, pearl millet is it can be grown, and it has a significant impact distinguished by having a higher oil content than on the nutritional and economic well-being of maize, as well as higher levels of vitamin A and rural South Africans. In addition to providing protein. Pearl millet is less susceptible to pests essential vitamins and trace elements (iron and and diseases when compared to other staple calcium), wild mustard also contains a variety of grains such as maize, wheat, and sorghum. other nutrients necessary for good health. The oil and protein content of the seeds is high, but 5.2 TARO (COLOCASIA ESCULENTA this is dependent on the environment in which (L.) OR AMADUMBE they are grown. In a short period of time, this plant establishes itself, achieving maximum Taro is a member of the Araceae family of plants. ground cover, which serves as a stress-relieving Taro leaves and corms are both edible and mechanism, particularly in water-stressed contain a high concentration of carbohydrate, environments. vitamin A and C, as well as protein. Taro is an indigenized crop grown in South Africa, where 5.4 WILD MELON (CITRULLUS it is neglected and underutilised, as are many IANATUS L.) other traditional crops. TARO's leaves and corms are both edible and contain a significant Wild melon is a crop that is indigenous to amount of carbohydrate as well as vitamins A Southern Africa. The Kalahari Desert is thought 313

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production to be the origin of this plant's existence. There, tropical and subtropical regions, where warm the ancestral melon, known as the Tsamma weather prevails, it is possible to grow this crop melon, grows in its natural habitat. It is a vine- and have it available all year round, despite like plant or climber that bears edible fruits and the fact that drought poses a challenge for leaves, and it is native to Asia. Wild watermelons staple crops such as cereals. Wet weather in were extremely bitter in the beginning, but this subtropical environments causes rain-fed crops was overcome through selective breeding for to be subjected to water stress at all stages of improved palatability. their growth, and this is especially true during Wild melon is a member of the Cucurbitaceae the growing season. It has the advantage family, which includes cucumbers. It is cultivated of being drought tolerant once established, all over the world as a staple food, with edible which is an added bonus. Its yield potential is seed and flesh, as well as for animal feed and therefore generally higher than that of popular animal bedding. The skin is used for pickling staple crops in South Africa, such as maize. and the extraction of pectin from the fruit. Farmers who grow sweet potatoes in areas Seeds have the potential to be a good source of prone to drought stress will benefit from the protein. It is also considered to be a species that higher nutritional value of the crop, in addition is underutilised. to the higher yield advantage that sweet Despite the fact that wild melon is considered potatoes provide. It is also simple to obtain drought tolerant, water stress during the sweet potato because the vines and roots can formation of the vines that will bear flowers and be easily stored or multiplied, making it readily fruits can have a negative impact on the amount available. Despite the fact that sweet potato has of fruit produced. In addition, the quality of the been identified as a potential food security crop seeds is a significant obstacle to the successful for dryland production, there are still challenges production of wild melon. that may prevent it from contributing fully to food security in the future. A greater emphasis 5.5 SWEET POTATO should be placed on participatory research and extension in order to educate smallholder Sweet potato is still an important root crop, farmers about the importance of sweet potato and it has the inherent ability to produce more as a major crop for subsistence and rural edible energy than most major food crops, economic development. which makes it a valuable source of energy. It is well-suited for production on marginal lands and 5.6 SPINACH (SWISS CHARD) has the potential to be a significant contributor to food security. It is impossible to overstate 5.6.1 Introduction the importance of orange-fleshed sweet potato In this document, the term spinach will be used varieties in the prevention and treatment of to refer to Swiss chard. Despite the fact that vitamin A deficiency. It is recommended that Swiss chard has a similar appearance to spinach, the production of orange-fleshed sweet potato it produces much broader leaves with thicker varieties be encouraged in areas where vitamin stems and contains significantly higher levels of A deficiency is prevalent. In South Africa's vitamin A. Even though spinach itself contains a higher concentration of calcium (Ca), it does 314

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production so in an oxalate form that is not suitable for 5.6.4 Cultivars children. Swiss chard has become increasingly Ford Hook Giant (FHG) and Lucullus are the popular as a result of this, as well as the low two most widely planted spinach cultivars. yield of spinach. It is a member of the beetroot In contrast to FHG, which is more resistant to family of vegetables. ‘bolting' and therefore better suited for summer The crop is grown on an annual basis for its production, Lucullus produces higher yields nutritionally dense and luscious leaves. Both the and grows at a faster rate. In addition, there leaves and the stems (petiole) are edible and is a third cultivar, Rhubarb (which is reddish in can be prepared in a variety of ways. With the color), which produces good yields. exception of vitamins, it also contains significant amounts of readily available minerals, with iron 5.6.5 Crop rotation being the most important of these minerals. It is not recommended to plant the crop on The crop is relatively simple to cultivate and can the same plot of land year after year because be harvested on a regular basis due to its regular this can result in the accumulation of pests harvesting. Average yields range between 8-10 and diseases in the soil. Other vegetables such t ha-1, with a maximum yield of 15 t ha-1. as pumpkin, beans and peas are good to plant Spinach can be used to do the following: alongside the crop. Other vegetables to plant alongside the crop include lettuce, tomatoes, • Cooking with other vegetables such as potatoes and cabbage. potatoes, onions and tomatoes. 5.6.6 Soil preparation It is important to clean the area intended for • Cooking with minced meat (green meat). planting at least a month before removing weeds • Can be used in stir-fry recipes. and grasses, just as it is with the production of • Can be sun-dried and be stored for later any other vegetable. To work the soil, you can use a fork to help you out. This practice can aid use. in the prevention of pests and diseases from infecting the newly planted crops in the future. 5.6.2 Soil requirements Before beginning the preparation process, Fertile, well-drained soils are required for the the soil must be thoroughly watered. This will production of spinach. The best soil for this ensure that the soil is loose, which will improve plant is a sandy loam, but it also grows well in drainage, root penetration, and aeration of the loam to clay soil with a pH of 6.0-6.8. soil. Using a plough or fork, loosen the soil to the 5.6.3 Climatic requirements proper depth. In addition to fertiliser, spinach Despite the fact that it is a cool-weather crop, necessitates a substantial amount of compost it can also be grown during the hot summer or manure. months. Some cultivars, on the other hand, When using direct sowing, make sure that the may experience bolting as a result of this. The seedbed is well prepared and that it has a very optimal temperature ranges between 16- 24oC. fine structural structure. Large clods will prevent The best time to plant in Gauteng is from the the germination of seeds. middle of February to the beginning of April, and from August to the end of October. 315

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.6.7 Planting method and spacing to burn. As soon as the fertiliser is applied, it It is possible to plant seedlings in rows with a must be thoroughly mixed into the top 2 cm of spacing of 10-20 cm between plants and 25-35 the soil with a fork or a grob to ensure proper cm between rows, depending on the variety. incorporation. Take care not to damage the Alternatively, seeds can be directly sown in shallow roots, which are particularly vulnerable shallow rows or furrows. Furrows should be during the early stages of growth. After the approximately 2-3 cm deep when made with a fertiliser has been worked into the soil, make spade or rake. Sow seeds 2cm apart and cover sure to water the plants immediately. with soil using a spade or a rake to ensure good coverage. 5.6.9 Water requirements When growing crops in hot weather, the soil Spinach has a very shallow root system; therefore must be watered immediately after sowing the soil must be kept moist throughout the and properly mulched with a thin layer of grass active growing season of the crop. One or two (mulching). It is necessary to keep the soil moist light irrigation periods is better than one very until the seeds have germinated, which takes heavy irrigation period because of the shallow approximately 7-8 days. Remember to remove root system. the grass after 5-6 days to avoid seedlings that 5.6.10 Harvesting are too long and leggy. These plants are heavy The crop must be harvested on a regular basis in at the top and are susceptible to damage from order to stimulate regrowth, increase yield, and the sun. ensure that it does not bolt. It is only necessary It is critical to thin out the plants to a distance of to remove the outer leaves with a sharp knife, 10cm between them no later than 3 weeks after 30-50 mm above the soil, in order to prevent the seedlings have emerged. the plant from growing back. Take care not to 5.6.8 Fertilisation damage the newly formed buds. If the leaves Before planting, apply a fertiliser containing the are not used immediately, they can be bunched ratio 2:3:2 (22) Zn. Apply 90 g m-2 and work into together and placed in water to keep them fresh the top 10 cm of the soil with a fork. for a longer period of time, if necessary. Topdressing is extremely important because spinach requires a lot of nitrogen in order 5.6.11 Storage to produce high-quality, broad leaves and, Because of the extremely high transpiration consequently, high yields. rate of the broad leaves, the keeping quality When planting or transplanting, a second is extremely poor in this variety. You can store topdressing should be applied 8 weeks after the spinach in the refrigerator for up to 6-8 days if first, especially in lighter soil types. you have the proper storage facilities. Caution should be exercised when applying the limestone ammonium nitrate (LAN) fertiliser 5.6.12 Disease control measures directly to the plants, as this will cause the plants • Practice crop rotation. • Remove infected plants from the field and burn or bury it. 316

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production • Remove all plant residues from the field 5.7 AMARANTH (AMARANTHUS after harvesting. SPP) • No registered chemicals for disease control 5.7.1 Origin and distribution of spinach. Amaranth thrives in warm climates and requires little irrigation. In South Africa, it is rarely • Fertilize plants well. cultivated due to the misconception that it • Avoid over-watering. grows naturally, despite the fact that it has the • Water plants early so that leaves can dry potential to be developed as a cultivated crop there. Amaranth leaves are high in protein, before nightfall. vitamins, and minerals, making them a nutritious 5.6.13 Pests addition to any diet. Because of its nutritional Aphids feed on plant juices and are known to benefits and ability to adapt to a variety of spread viral diseases. environmental conditions, it is considered Regular scouting is required for control. Using a promising crop for cultivation in marginal, soapy water, saturate the surface (Sunlight Liquid arid, and semi-arid regions worldwide. It can diluted in water). Phosdrin and Mevinphos are grow in a wide variety of soils and can tolerate two pesticides that have been approved for use. pH levels ranging from 4.5-8. In addition, it is Cutworms normally hibernate beneath the tolerant of moderate salinity, which means that surface of the ground during the day and it can be grown in semi-arid climates and areas emerge at night to feed on young seedlings by prone to salinity stress, such as deserts. Despite cutting them down to the ground. the fact that amaranth can withstand adverse Regular scouting is required for control. Make conditions, irrigation and fertilisation will use of cutworm bait. increase both fresh and dry mass in the crop. Red spider mite: Stippled areas on the leaves are an early sign of an infestation of this mite. 5.7.2 Production level: South Africa As a result of the chlorotic condition of the Despite the fact that amaranth is not typically leaves, webs appear on the leaves and stems planted in South Africa, it does appear as in severe cases. Regular spider mite scouting a volunteer crop after the first rains and is is extremely important in the control of spider harvested from the wild. In South Africa, mites. Using soapy water, saturate the surface the reasons for cultivating this plant are (Sunlight Liquid diluted in water). not particularly diverse, with the primary Infestations of nematodes can be identified by motivations being food security for the the presence of swellings on the roots. household and replenishment of the country's Crop rotation is used to keep things under seed bank. It is not known how much Amaranth control. Planting marigolds, mustard, and is produced at any given time. A recent study rapeseed in between rows. Fallowing. has found that under cultivated conditions, Solarization of the soil. Nemacur and EDB are Amaranth can produce fresh leaf yields of up to two pesticides that have been approved for use. 40 t ha-1, according to the researchers. The yield of grain Amaranth is highly variable, with 1 000 kg ha-1 considered to be a good yield in some areas. 317

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.7.3 Major production areas Flowers The provinces of Limpopo, the North West, Tiny, green flowers are borne in dense, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal are the main elongated clusters on the tips of the branches, producers of amaranth in South Africa, with the which are usually covered in leaves. They are rest of the country following closely behind. borne in spikes or plumes and are available in a variety of colours including white, green, pink, and purplish. 5.7.4 Cultivars • Amaranthus cruentus Seed • hybridus (Africa) A shiny black coloration is common among the • spinosus (Africa) small seeds, as opposed to the cream coloration • caudatus (America) found among grain types. There are up to 3000 • thunbergii (America) seeds g-1 in this variety. The tiny, lens-shaped seeds are usually a pale colour due to their size and shape. 5.7.5 Description of the mature plant Amaranth species are erect or spreading 5.7.6 Climatic requirements annuals with a rough or prickly appearance Temperature that can be found in a variety of colours. Grain Amaranth grows well in arid conditions and is amaranths are available in a variety of colours extremely drought tolerant. The soil temperature for the flowers, leaves, and stems, but maroon must be between 18 and 25oC for amaranth or crimson colouring is common in all three seeds to germinate, and the air temperature plant parts. Some varieties have green flowers, must be above 25oC for optimal growth. while others have golden flowers. When they When the temperature drops below 18oC, the are in full bloom, some of the deep crimson growth stops. A major factor influencing the varieties can be quite eye-catching. Because the growth of Amaranth plants during the growing plant grows at different rates depending on the season is the number of growing days at the species, growth habitat, and environment, its appropriate temperature during the growing height can range between 0.33-2 m. season. Lower temperatures and shorter days Stems will cause flowering to occur, which will result in Reddish-tinged, erect, occasionally ascending, a reduction in leaf production. branched, with linear marks on the surface, As long as the crop grows during the summer, and hairless to moderately pubescent when the rains begin to fall, there should be no with multicellular hairs; erect, occasionally problem with frost damage. Frost, on the other ascending, branched, with linear marks on the hand, has a significant impact on the harvesting surface. of the crop. The fact that amaranth is an annual Leaves crop means that it does not mature completely The leaves are variable in size and colour, in regions with a short growing season. Frost is ranging from green to purplish, and are borne required in order to bring the crop's growth to on slender stalks. According to the species, a halt. these are alternate, usually simple, with entire margins and distinct markings on the underside. 318

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Rainfall 5.7.9 Soil preparation Grain Amaranth is said to be drought tolerant Fill in any gaps in the soil with cattle or chicken when compared to most vegetables, according manure or compost at a rate of one bucketful to reports. Amaranth is considered to be per 1 m2 after it has been thoroughly prepared. drought resistant, but the exact mechanism It is critical to have a fine, firm seedbed for by which this is accomplished is not well successful seeding. Seedbed preparation can be understood. In extremely dry conditions, one accomplished with a disc or spike-tooth harrow, of its characteristics that helps it is its ability followed by cult packing and planting, which to wilt temporarily before reviving after a should be accomplished with a planter equipped heavy rainstorm. Because it has a low capacity with press wheels, if possible. Depending on the for water consumption, the crop is unable soil texture and surface moisture at the time of to withstand waterlogging in its early stages. planting, seeds should be planted no deeper When a plant is subjected to prolonged periods than 1.25 cm deep at most. Crusting can be a of severe drought, it flowers prematurely and serious problem, and although no solutions fails to produce any leaves. have been discovered, rotary hoeing may be of 5.7.7 Soil requirements assistance in some cases. A variety of soil types, including marginal soils, 5.7.10 Field layout and design can be used to grow this crop, but it performs Although no optimal plant population has been best in fertile, well-drained soils and deeper identified, it is believed that approximately 272 soils, according to the USDA. In order to produce kg seed ha-1 is a reasonable estimate. Amaranth an early and heavy yield, loose and friable soils trials have been reported to use row widths with high organic matter content are ideal. It of 762 mm as the industry standard. The crop is possible to achieve good stands by selecting provides good shade for the ground at this row soils with lower clay content and managing the spacing, and the wide rows make it easy to use seedbed to reduce the likelihood of crusting in a row crop cultivator to control weeds in the the seedbed. field. This is critical because there are currently To ensure rapid germination and emergence, no registered herbicides for Amaranth. amaranth requires good seed-to-soil contact, When Amaranth plants are spaced closer and sufficient soil moisture must be maintained together, there appears to be an excessive at the seeding depth throughout the first few amount of competition among them. As a weeks of establishment. The growth of the result, plants grow shorter and less vigorously, vegetable Amaranth is negatively affected by and grain heads grow smaller. On the plus side, soil pH levels ranging between 5,5-7,5. A soil planting only 0.9 kg seed acre-1, which is the with a pH of 6.44 has the potential to produce recommended rate, results in an abundance of high yields. If the plants are properly cared for, it seedlings, allowing a large number to be lost should be possible to harvest leaves every two while still having enough left over to establish a weeks if the plants are properly maintained. sufficient stand. Plants are spaced approximately 5.7.8 Propagation 1m apart in rows. Amaranth grows naturally, but can also be propagated from seed. 319

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.7.11 Planting In the case of poultry or pig manure, apply a Sow seeds in seedbeds or directly in rows in 10L bucket in a band approximately 20cm wide the field, depending on your preference. It is over a length of 15m, work the manure into the preferable for nurseries to be located in flat topsoil, thoroughly water the band, and wait areas with fertile soil and close to a water 1 or 2 weeks before planting. When applying source, rather than in shaded areas. Seed and kraal manure, follow the same procedure as sand should be mixed in a one-to-two-to-one described above, but apply a 10L bucket over a ratio before sowing at a depth of 0.5-1 cm in 5m length of the land. rows or broadcasting directly in the field. After 5.7.13 Irrigation covering the seeds with a thin layer of soil and Plants that are suffering from drought will begin watering them, they are ready to plant. If you to flower and will cease to produce leaves prefer, you can water the seed first, then spread unless they are watered regularly. The amount it over the soil and cover it with a thin layer of of water required by crops varies depending dry soil. Depending on the size of the plants, the on their growth stage, soil type, and weather optimal spacing ranges from 20 x 20 cm to 50 x conditions (hot or cold). Because sandy soils dry 50 cm. If you are transplanting seedlings, they quickly, it will be necessary to irrigate them on will be ready to transplant after 3 to 5 weeks a regular basis. Clay soils, on the other hand, when they have four true leaves on their stems drain more slowly than sandy soils and retain (15 cm). more water than their sandy counterparts. 5.7.12 Fertilisation There are a few \"rules of thumb\" that can be To get the best results from chemical fertiliser, used as a starting point for determining the look for a 3:1:3 or 3:12: (NPK) mixture. By frequency and volume of irrigation. Drought- hoeing a furrow and applying the fertiliser prone sandy soils should be watered three mixture at a rate of 40 g m-1 in the bottom times weekly, while sandy loam soils should be of the furrow, you can increase the yield watered once a week. Irrigation should be done significantly. A normal-sized tea cup holds once a week on clay, clay loam, and loam soils. approximately 200g of chemical fertiliser, which Irrigate a 1m x 1m plot with 4 L water day-1 for is sufficient to cover 5 m. To mix fertiliser into the first 30-35 days after transplanting for the the soil after it has been evenly spread in the best results. Following that, irrigate a 1m x 1m furrow, use a stick to stir the fertiliser into the plot with between 5-6 L day-1, depending on soil. After you have watered the furrow, you the weather. Amaranth can be irrigated with can start making the holes for the transplants. both sprinklers and drip irrigation; however, To achieve exceptional growth, apply limestone drip irrigation saves the most water of the two. ammonium nitrate (LAN) at a rate of 20 gm-2 If you must use a sprinkler irrigation system, when the plants have approximately 5-6 leaves avoid watering your plants in the late afternoon on them. The LAN should be spread along a to avoid foliar disease problems. Overwatering row of 10m, one teacup at a time. LAN fertiliser causes nutrients to be leached away from should be applied to a growing crop by opening the roots of the plants, so careful planning of a furrow with a hoe about 10-15 cm away from irrigation volume and frequency is required to the row of plants, mixing the fertiliser into the avoid crop stress and to produce large, healthy soil with a stick, and then watering the furrow vegetable Amaranth plants. and closing it again. 320

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.7.14 Weed control be avoided. Phoma and Rhizoctonia can both Weeds are the most serious pest in the cause damping-off of young seedlings in certain production of amaranth. Before planting the environmental conditions. Pythium can also Amaranth, weeds are controlled either by tillage cause stem canker, which is caused by Pythium or by applying a contact herbicide before the or Rhizoctonia, in some situations. A. tricolour Amaranth is planted. Because amaranth grows appears to be particularly susceptible to the slowly during the first few weeks, three or four fungus Phomopsis, which colonises the leaves cultivations may be required to keep weeds and stems of the plant and causes dieback. under control during this time (no selective Pests and diseases are eliminated through herbicides are registered for use with Amaranth). effective weed control. Weeds have the potential Grain Amaranth seeds do not go into dormancy, to serve as a host for pests and diseases. Clean and their growth is not particularly vigorous in seed and the establishment of sterilised soils the early stages of the growing season. So there before sowing seeds can help to reduce the is little chance of it becoming a weed problem amount of damping-off that occurs. Seed trays in succeeding crops after it has been harvested. should be cleaned with commercial bleach after However, although cover crops and no-till each planting. Plant seedlings in well-drained planting can help prevent weed seeds from soil in a well-ventilated area to ensure a healthy germinating, Amaranth seedlings grow slowly start. and are easily overtaken by early weeds in the 5.7.16 Other cultivation practices first few weeks after planting. Once Amaranth It is possible to grow amaranth as a double reaches a height of 6-10 inches, it will begin to crop following wheat or canola. In order for grow at a rapid rate, allowing it to outperform amaranth to be successful, it must be planted in other emerging weeds. a two-year rotation with another crop. 5.7.15 Pest and disease control Amaranth is susceptible to a variety of insects, 5.7.17 Harvesting maturity though the plants are able to recover after being The majority of amaranth cultivars grow quickly attacked by the majority of leaf-chewing insects and can be harvested between 30-55 days after that feed on them. Amaranth is susceptible sowing, when they reach a height of 0.06 m. to insect pests such as the tarnished plant Amaranth cultivars are available in a variety of bug, leaf miners, flea beetle, grasshoppers, colours and sizes. The timing of harvest is not caterpillars, and amaranth weevils, which are all as straightforward as it is with commodity crops potentially damaging. Flea beetles are known such as corn and soybeans. to cause damage to young leaf tissue. The adult It is possible to lose the majority of the seed if amaranth weevil feeds on the leaves of the harvesting techniques are not followed carefully. plant, but the larval stage is more destructive It is necessary for a killing frost to occur before because it bores into the central tissue of roots harvesting can begin, followed by a week of dry and occasionally stems, causing rotting and weather to allow the crop to become drier in potential lodging in the process. preparation for harvesting. Disease problems can arise in large monoculture production systems, which is why they should 321

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production When the plants are harvested at regular removed. By tipping the bowl, you can get rid of intervals, begin picking the leaves 8 weeks after a lot of the chaff that has accumulated. Remove sowing or 4 weeks after transplanting to ensure any remaining small particles of flowers or dirt that the plants are harvested regularly. It is from the seed by shaking it through a small possible to harvest a small amount of leaves on mesh screen about the size of a window screen a daily basis in small quantities. When dealing for a couple of minutes. It is also effective to with large quantities, it is recommended that winnow the seed in a light breeze to remove the you do so every two weeks. By removing flowers flowers and chaff from the seed. Because the from the plant, it is possible to maintain leaf seeds are so light, it is critical to winnow them production. carefully in only a light breeze. Leaves can be harvested in two ways: 5.7.21 Grading A gravity table can be used to separate particles • Picking of individual leaves when these are that are the same size but have different the size of the palm of your hand. weights, such as dark pigweed seeds, by using the force of gravity. • Breaking off the leaves around the terminal 5.7.22 Packing growth tips of the stems. This is done by Immediately following harvest, the leaves are pulling one hand up towards the growth tip placed in a bag and sold on the same day of and breaking off the leaves with the other harvest to avoid quality degradation. The leaves, hand. on the other hand, can be stored in containers in places where there is cooling storage. 5.7.18 Seed harvesting 5.7.23 Storage When the leaves of the plant begin to turn The maximum amount of moisture that can be yellow, it is time to harvest the seeds. It is stored in the grain is approximately 11 percent. necessary to place the harvested seed heads By blowing air across the Amaranth, you can dry on a clean plastic sheet and allow them to dry small quantities of grain quickly and efficiently. in the shade. Seeds can be easily threshed by The heated air may be required at certain times. hand and cleaned by the wind blowing through Ideally, grain should be stored in wooden storage the fields. If you want to avoid insect damage, bins or heavy-duty (4 or 5-ply) paper bags after store properly dried seeds in a tightly sealed it has been cleaned and dried to prevent mould container. growth. It is critical to store properly dried seeds 5.7.19 Post-harvest handling in a tightly sealed container in order to prevent Thorough planning in terms of handling, contamination. grading, packing and storage of products should 5.7.24 Preserving methods be done. Washing the leaves and drying them in the 5.7.20 Screening shade allows you to store them for up to a year, It is possible to remove the dry seeds by placing them in a shallow bowl and swirling them around until the large pieces of flowers rise to the top of the bowl, where they can be easily 322

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production ready to use during the winter months. Cooked wide range of growing environments, make it a leaves can be dried and stored for later use. very promising crop for the future of agriculture. Fresh leaves can be stored in the refrigerator for Despite the fact that the market for amaranth is up to two weeks. small, the popularity of grain as food is growing 5.7.25 Transport as a result of its nutritional benefits. Amaranth requires refrigerated transport to Despite the fact that the physical characteristics retain the turgidity of the leaves. of grain starch have the potential to be valuable 5.7.26 Marketing for both food and industrial applications, no Both the domestic and international markets are products based on these characteristics have overrun with exotic crops, making it difficult to been commercialised to date. introduce new indigenous varieties. As a result, When undertaking such initiatives, marketing indigenous crops such as amaranth continue to considerations must be taken into account in be primarily the crops of small farmers, and they order to ensure that the communities reap are primarily consumed in the regions where the greatest possible benefit from the efforts they are grown. The leaves of this crop are sold they have made to re-establish and propagate by street hawkers in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu- underutilised, but undeniably popular species. Natal, and the Eastern Cape, among other A farmer who enters the market with grain places. Farmers who grow amaranth have sold harvested from several hundred hectares their crop in a variety of ways over the years. of Amaranth could cause a glut of grain and Some companies sell small bags of whole-grain consequently lower prices by a significant or flour to consumers who order it through the margin. This is why amaranth should only be mail. Many of these buyers are allergic to wheat planted after a market for the crop has been products, which is understandable. Other identified, and preferably after a contract with a growers sell their produce to the local market, buyer has been drafted with the buyer. as well as to health food stores and restaurants 5.7.27 Utilization in the area. Also present are some middlemen Leaf Amaranth is a steamed vegetable that can who purchase grain from farmers and sell it be added to soups and stews. One of the reasons to the larger health-food corporations on a there has been a recent resurgence of interest in commission basis. amaranth is the nutritional benefits it provides. As has been the case with leafy Amaranth, the The grain contains a small amount of protein grain market continues to be the most difficult (12-17%) and is high in lysine, an amino acid obstacle to the development of this crop. Even that is found in small amounts in other grains. though Amaranth is beneficial to commercial As a result of the grain's high fibre content and farmers, the relatively high price of the grain low saturated fat content, it is popular in the is a factor in limiting the extent to which it health food market. Calcium, iron, and vitamin is currently used in the food marketplace. C are among the nutrients found in abundance However, the beneficial characteristics of in this food. Potassium, vitamin A, riboflavin, amaranth grain, as well as its adaptability to a and niacin are also abundant, and protein is above-average in this food. 323

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Humans have used grain amaranth for food in 5.8 COWPEAS a variety of ways for thousands of years. The ground grain is used in a variety of products such 5.8.1 Introduction as breads, noodles, pancakes, cereals, granola, Various studies in South Africa have emphasized cookies, and other flour-based items. The grain the importance of indigenous food crops in can be prepared in a variety of ways, including meeting many of the basic needs of rural popping it like popcorn or flaking it like oatmeal. communities, including serving as dietary Currently, there are more than 40 products on supplements, animal fodder, and generating the market that contain Amaranth extract. income. There is little information available about the Cowpea has been identified as a significant production and use of amaranth as a forage indigenous food crop in South Africa, with a wide crop. The leaves, stem, and head of the plant range of applications and advantages. Seeds can are said to be high in protein (15-24% on a dry- be consumed fresh or dried for storage, leaves matter basis). Redroot pigweed, a relative of can be consumed as a vegetable, and plants grain Amaranth, has been shown to contain can be used as green manure. It can be used as 24% crude protein and 79% in vitro digestible grazing for livestock or baled for use as hay or dry matter, according to research. silage for them. Plants like vegetable amaranths, which are Cowpea is generally regarded as a drought- closely related, produce 30-60 tonnes of tolerant crop that is also simple to grow. It is silage per hectare of land (80% moisture). an especially good crop for rural areas, where Depending on the results of further research, the rural poor typically rely on an energy-dense grain Amaranth may prove to be a viable silage carbohydrate food as their staple food, to which alternative in areas where maize silage yields a protein-dense food such as cowpea can be are low due to moisture limitations. added to provide a more balanced diet. The There are many different species of Amaranth protein content ranges between 24-36%, with that are grown for food. The edible seeds of lysine being the most abundant amino acid some types of Amaranth are grown for human found. consumption, while the edible greens of others Besides being beneficial for fixing atmospheric are grown for human consumption. It is widely nitrogen, it also helps to increase soil organic cultivated in West Africa for its edible greens, matter content while improving soil structure. particularly in Sierra Leone, and is one of the The crop can be grown in rotation with a variety most important crops in the region. The plant of other crops such as vegetables, herbs, cut is a fast-growing annual that thrives in high flowers, annual ornamentals, and root crops, temperatures, allowing it to reach its maximum among others. height of 5-6 feet in height. 324

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.8.2 Soil requirements from the previous season, which has caused the Cowpeas can be grown in a wide variety of soil crop to fail. It is important, however, to avoid types, ranging from heavy clays to sandy soils, other leguminous crops in a rotation system provided that the soils are well-drained. It is because they are more or less susceptible to unable to withstand being submerged in water the same pests and diseases as cowpeas and or being flooded. It is preferable to have medium should be avoided if possible. loam soil with a clay content ranging between 15-35%. A pH range of 5.5-6.5 is preferred for 5.8.6 Soil preparation soil acidity. The majority of cowpeas are grown by gardeners 5.8.3 Climatic requirements and small-scale farmers in South Africa using Cowpea is primarily a hot-weather crop that traditional agricultural methods and hand tools, grows well in semi-arid climates, according to frequently in intercropping systems with maize, the USDA. Temperatures in excess of 21oC are sorghum, and millet. It is critical to remove all favorable for vegetative growth. Temperatures weeds and loosen the soil deeply with a fork above 35oC can cause flower and pod shedding, before applying fertiliser if necessary. When which can reduce yields. Cowpeas are sensitive applying fertiliser, work the fertiliser into the to frost and can suffer damage if they are soil with the fork, breaking up clods and evening exposed to temperatures ranging from 5-10oC out the soil. The final seedbed must be uniform, for periods as short as 24 hours. It is also sensitive fine, slightly firmed, free of clods, and free of to day length, but cultivars with short days, day weeds and weed remnants. It should also be neutral days, and long days are available. free of weeds and weed remains. 5.8.4 Cultivars 5.8.7 Planting time There are primarily three types of plants Planting too soon may result in poor classified according to their growth habits: germination. Planting too late may result in crop upright, semi-upright, and runner. Because losses if a frost occurs too soon, or it may not be runner and semi-runner cultivars have a possible for the pods to form before the frost tendency to produce fruit that ripens over a arrives. Cowpeas are planted after the first rains longer period of time, they are more suitable for in October and continue to grow until the end use as a vegetable, for forage, for silage, and as of December. The optimal planting date varies green manure. Consult with your seed company depending on the cultivar and the geographical for assistance in selecting a cultivar. location. Obtain information from your local extension services or seed supplier about the best time to plant in your specific area and cultivar choice. 5.8.5 Crop rotation 5.8.8 Growth period Cowpeas have long been recognized for their It is influenced by a variety of factors, including value in crop rotation. The growth of grain crops the cultivar, planting date, soil type, rainfall, and and other vegetables on land that had been temperature over the course of the season. The planted with cowpeas the previous season is following are general guidelines for growing noticeably improved. This is due to the residual cowpeas during their growth period (see Table effect of nitrogen (N) bound by the cowpeas 10). 325

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Table 10 Growth comparisons for cowpeas. Cowpea types Growth period Growth stage (days) Planting to 50% flowering Upright 50 Planting to green uses (hay, vegetable, green manure, etc.) Runner 60 Planting to harvesting of grain Upright 100 Runner 120 Upright 120 Runner 140 5.8.9 Seed be sufficient to produce a good crop. It is It is critical that you purchase high-quality seed preferable, however, to have the soil tested and from your cooperative or seed supplier. The then consult with your available expertise to importance of selecting healthy plants when develop a fertilizing programme for you based growing your own seed cannot be overstated on the results of the soil test. when growing your own seed. Some diseases 5.8.12 Water requirements caused by viruses and bacteria are frequently However, even though it is generally considered transmitted through seed. to be a drought-tolerant crop, moisture stress 5.8.10 Spacing during the period from emergence to the Types that stand upright perform better in development of the first flower can cause a narrower rows with 0.9 m between rows and significant reduction in seed yield. The use of 10 cm between plants (12 kg seed ha-1). When three or four irrigations (at 25 mm per irrigation) there is enough water available (through heavy during this period (only to supplement rainfall if rainfall or irrigation), the spacing between necessary) is recommended if water is readily plants can be reduced to 0.45 m apart and 10 available. cm between plants (24 kg of seed per ha). 5.8.13 Planting process Semi-runners and runners do better in wider In all cases, cowpeas should be planted at a rows that are 1.5 m apart and 10 cm between depth of 4 cm or deeper. In a vegetable garden, plants, as opposed to narrower rows (9 kg seed the number of rows required for planting can ha-1). be determined, and then a furrow 4 cm deep 5.8.11 Fertilisation with a spade or hand hoe can be dug, the seeds placed 10 cm apart in the furrows, and the soil Cowpeas grow best in heavier clay soils with covered with 4 cm of soil can be completed. high organic content, so fertilizing them is Fertilisers should not be allowed to come into rarely necessary. On sandy soils, approximately contact with seedlings. 100 gm-2 of a 3:2:1 (28) fertiliser mixture should 326

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.8.14 Cultivation after planting Control: Resistant cultivars and crop rotation. No extra cultivation is needed, except for weed Anthracnose (Fungus): Most legumes affected. control. Affect all above-ground plant parts, especially 5.8.15 Weed control the stems, peduncles and petioles. Herbicides can be used to control weeds, as Control: Use healthy seed and practice good can manual or mechanical removal, as well as crop rotation. herbicide application. The weeds are typically Other diseases: Other diseases that can be a pulled out by hand or with a hand hoe by the problem are stem rot, leaf spot, downy mildew, average home gardener. Herbicides are not stem canker and various virus diseases. recommended for use in vegetable gardens Control: The most effective and cheapest because they are expensive and can cause control measure are crop rotation and planting damage to other crops as well as vegetables. only healthy seed and resistant cultivars if 5.8.16 Diseases available. Cowpeas can be infected by virus, bacterial and 5.8.17 Harvesting fungal diseases. Fresh, immature seed pods and seeds are Cowpea mosaic virus: Chlorotic lesions on boiled and eaten as a vegetable in place of the leaves which may develop reddish brown mature seeds. It is possible to grow cowpea as necrosis. a dual-purpose crop, in which the green pods Control: Avoid practices that injure plants, are harvested for use as a vegetable and the sanitation is important and use good healthy remaining plant material is used for animal feed. seed. Seeds that are not yet mature can be roasted Bacterial canker: Swollen canker-like lesions and eaten as a snack in the same manner as on the stem. Leaves, stems, pods and seed are groundnuts. Shoots, leaves, and growth points prone to the disease. from young plants are harvested, boiled, and Control: Use only good healthy seed. consumed as spinach. Damping-off (Fungus): Cause pre-and post- When fresh vegetables are in short supply, emergence wilting and dying of seedlings. The mature leaves can be boiled, drained, and disease is usually only important in humid, then dried in the sun before being stored and warm, tropical conditions. later used as a meat substitute or as a relish to Control: The disease is difficult to control. Avoid supplement the diet. infestation by good rotational practices. In some cases, the preparation of cowpeas in Fusarium wilt (Fungus): The vascular tissue of its various forms is regarded as indigenous the plant becomes reddish extending to the knowledge that belongs to the communities tips of the runners. Leaves turn yellow in color who practice it. The ARC-VOP can provide you and drop, followed by fairly rapid wilting of the with additional information in this regard. whole plant. 327

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.9 PIGEON PEAS 5.9.5 Rainfall Pigeon peas are a legume crop that is drought Scientific name: Cajanus cajan L. tolerant, but they are not frosted tolerant. Common names: Pigeon peas; Letlhodi; Ndozi; These plants are also tolerant of a wide range Duifert; Udali; Dithlodi; Tintoji of rainfall amounts; however, optimal rainfall 5.9.1 Background amounts ranging between 600-1000 mm year- Pigeon peas are believed to have originated in 1 are preferred over anything else. Pigeon peas India and first appeared in West Africa around produce a large number of seeds in dry areas 2000 BC, which is considered to be their second with less than 600 mm of annual rainfall because major centre of origin. Pigeon peas are currently the crop matures early and the incidence of found in abundance throughout the tropics pest damage is low. Pigeon peas are particularly and subtropics of the world. They are grown in successful in dry areas with less than 600mm India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, the of annual rainfall. It is best for pigeon peas to Caribbean, and East and West Africa, among grow in moist conditions during their first two other countries. growing seasons and in dry conditions during 5.9.2 Production areas their flowering and harvesting stages. Limpopo-Bohlabela, Capricorn and Mopani Districts 5.9.6 Propagation material Mpumalanga - Gert Sibande, Ekangala, Pigeon peas are best established by direct Ehlanzeni South and North districts seeding in a well-prepared seedbed, rather than 5.9.3 Climatic requirements by transplanting from another location. The use Pigeon peas thrive in temperatures ranging of a cowpea group strain of Rhizobium is not from 18-35oC. For the best possible yield, bright usually required, but it can be done if desired. sunlight is required. Waterlogging and frost damage the plants, making them vulnerable. 5.9.7 Soil preparation 5.9.4 Soil requirements Pigeon peas do best in a seedbed that has been Growing conditions for the crop are excellent in prepared by deep tillage to reduce the amount a wide range of soil types, ranging from sandy to of weeds. Primary tillage in the autumn allows heavy loams, with well-drained medium heavy the soil to dry and warm up more quickly in the loams being the best. spring, allowing for earlier seeding in the spring. In order for it to work, it needs a pH level ranging 5.9.8 Planting from 5-7. Excessive acidity causes nodulation Planting takes place between October and to be inhibited, and the plants become chlorotic December, with the seeds being planted and susceptible to die-back disease. approximately 4-5 cm deep. It is possible to plant seeds with a seed rate ranging from 45-67 kg ha-1, or to seed with a maize planter, depending on the weather conditions. Approximately 70- 90 cm between the long and medium duration plants is the recommended interspacing. 328

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.9.9 Fertilisation 5.9.12 Pest and disease control Plants, in general, do not respond well to nitrogen Pests and diseases such as pod-sucking bugs and phosphorus fertilisers, and they require (Clavigralla spp.), pod fly (Melanagromyza adequate amounts of calcium, potassium, spp.), pod borers (Helicoverpa armigera), as and magnesium. In order to increase nitrogen well as rust, downy mildew, and Cercospora leaf fixation in such plants, Rhizobium must be spot, have a negative impact on the productivity introduced into the plant. Plants such as pigeon of pigeon peas and result in poor-quality seed peas have the ability to survive and produce high production. Crop stand is reduced by pests and economic returns in arid climates and low-input diseases; however, pest-resistant cultivars, crop farming systems. The root nodules of the peas rotation, weed removal and inoculation with enrich the soil by supplying approximately 40 kg a cowpea group strain of Rhizobium as well N ha-1 of land planted with them. Pigeon peas as intercropping with cereals can be used to can be used as a green manure crop because of control these problems. their high nitrogen content. 5.9.13 Harvesting methods 5.9.10 Irrigation The majority of the seed pods are harvested If you live in a dry area with less than 400 mm by hand, though mechanical harvesting can of annual rainfall per year, you can supplement also be used in some cases. A sickle is used to your water supply with irrigation for the first harvest the mature crop, which is harvested by two growing months. Irrigation should be cutting the entire plant in half. Harvest the dry discontinued between the time of flowering and grain when 80% of the pods are fully matured harvesting in order to reduce damage caused and have turned brown if you want to make by pests and diseases. flour. When a second ratoon crop is required, 5.9.11 Weed control the pods can be harvested by hand when they As a result of their slow initial growth rate, reach maturity. pigeon peas are extremely sensitive to weed 5.9.14 Uses competition, particularly during their first 45-60 Human uses: Pigeon peas are primarily grown days of growth. as a vegetable food crop, where they provide Effective weed control during the crop's early a good source of protein, carbohydrates, growth stages is one of the most important and other minerals, among other things. The factors in achieving high yields, particularly flavourful seeds are consumed in a variety of during the first 4-8 weeks of growth. Following forms, including fresh, shelled, and dried. For that, herbicides such as Alachlor and cooking purposes, mature seeds are soaked for Metolachlor should be applied at a rate of 1.25 several hours, pounded, and fried or steam- L ha-1 within 2-3 days of planting, according to cooked in Africa and Indonesia. Local South the manufacturer's instructions. Africans in Mpumalanga use the whole seed to make porridge and soup, either with or without meat, according to their tradition. 329

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Animal consumption: Pigeon peas are an Similarly to other land races, the colours of excellent form of fodder that can be used for bambara seeds are diverse, with the most animal and poultry feed. common being cream, brown and red, with Other uses: Pigeon peas are also important mottled and white being the most common as for nitrogen fixation and are a good crop for well. Because of the expansion of groundnut intercropping and crop rotation, according to production, bambara has been relegated to the the USDA. The branches and stems can be used status of an underutilised crop in most parts to make baskets and fuel, among other things. of Africa as a result of groundnut production It can also be used as a shadow crop in certain expansion. situations. 5.10.2 Production levels in South Africa 5.10 BAMBARA GROUND NUTS In South Africa, it is primarily produced by local (VIGNA SUBTERRANEA) people for subsistence purposes, according to the government. It has only been in recent years Classification that people have begun to sell it at farmers' Scientific name: Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc markets (e.g. boiled groundnuts). It is grown Common names: Bambara groundnut; as an intercrop with other crops such as maize, Jugoboon, ditloo-marapo, izindlubu, Indlubu, cowpeas, and melons, as well as a stand-alone jugo bean, nduhu, phonda, ndlowu, njugo, crop. The size of bambara plots varies from 300 tindlubu, inhlowa to 2500 m2 per farmer, depending on the region. 5.10.1 Origin and distribution Because the crop is not grown commercially in Bambara groundnut, also known as Nyimo in South Africa, and because it has been neglected Zimbabwe and Izindlubu in South Africa, is a by National Research Institutes in the past, little type of groundnut that originated in North is known about the best agronomic practices Africa and was brought to South Africa by for this crop in the country. indigenous people. It is a biennial legume with 5.10.3 Major production areas in South Africa a well-developed tap root system that grows The provinces of Limpopo, Mpumalanga, the in the ground. Women have traditionally been North West, Gauteng, and KwaZulu-Natal are the primary producers of bambara, which is the primary production areas for bambara grown in semi-arid regions where water is groundnut in South Africa, with the rest of scarce and where they lack access to inorganic the country following. The Mopani, Capricorn, fertilisers as well as little guidance on improved Waterberg, and Vhembe Districts in the production practices. Bambara is considered Limpopo Province are the primary producers of to be a significant source of protein in these bambara groundnut. The Ehlanzeni District in communities. Its protein content is comparable Mpumalanga is home to a significant amount to, and in some cases superior to, that of other of agricultural production. Greytown, Msinga, well-established legumes, making it an excellent Nkandla, Nguthuthu, Makhati, and Kosibaai are complement to diets based on cereal grains. among the towns where it is grown in KwaZulu- As a legume, it also has the ability to replenish Natal. Smaller quantities are also produced in the nitrogen in the soil through nitrogen fixation, Umzinyathi and Illembe Districts, respectively. which may be of particular importance to farmers who have limited access to resources. 330

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 5.10.4 Varieties and cultivars Stem: It has lateral stems, which develop from The seven types of the bambara groundnut the root. cultivated varieties include: Leaves: The leaves are trifoliate (± 5 cm long) and are attached to the stem by the petiole. The • Black: Early maturing, usually small to petioles are about 15 cm long, stiff and grooved, medium-sized kernels. Mainly one-seeded. and the base is green or purple in colour. Leaves and flower buds arise alternately at each node. • Red: Late maturing. Kernels are large. A Leaves are pinnately trifoliate, with erect good yielder, however, it is prone to rotting. petioles and thickened at the base. Two stipels are subtended to the terminal leaflet, while • Cream/black eye: A large kernel and a good only one is assigned to each of the two lateral yielder. leaflets. The terminal leaflet is larger than the lateral leaflets, with an average length of 6 cm • Cream/brown eye: A medium-sized kernel and an average width of 3 cm. and a good yielder. Flowers: The flowers are typically papilionaceous and are borne in a raceme on long, hairy • Cream / no eye: Very small pods and peduncles, which arise from the nodes on the kernels. It mainly produces one seed and stem. The branching types are usually self- yields are lower. pollinated, while the spreading types are cross- pollinated by ants. Flowering starts 30-35 days • Speckled/flecked/spotted: Purple color after sowing and may continue until the end predominates. Kernels are small and pods of the plant’s life. After fertilisation, the flower are mainly one-seeded. stem elongates. The sepal enlarges and the fruit develops above or just below the soil surface. • Brown: Continuous variation between light Pods: The pods usually develop underground and dark brown. Kernels are of medium to after pollination and fertilisation. The unripe large. pod is yellowish-green, with up to six pods, while the mature pods may be yellowish-green The bambara varieties, in general, have or purple. photoperiod requirements that are specific to The pod is small, about 1 to 5 cm long, round or their location; as a result, high yielding varieties slightly oval-shaped, and wrinkled with mostly from one location may fail to thrive in another one or sometimes two seeds. Mature pods are location. As a result, rather than focusing indehiscent, wrinkled, ranging from yellowish to on the introduction of exotic varieties, the reddish dark brown in colour. emphasis has been placed on the selection and Seeds: The seed is hard, smooth, usually round improvement of local cultivars. and varying in size, and can be up to 1.5 cm in 5.10.5 Mature plant diameter. It also varies in colour from white, The bambara groundnuts are herbaceous cream, dark brown, red, or black and maybe annual plants with creeping stems that grow speckled or patterned with a combination of from the ground up to the surface of the soil. It the colours. The average seed mass is about takes between three and six months for a plant 500-750 g. to reach maturity, depending on the weather and the cultivar. Roots: A compact well-developed taproot with many profuse geotropic short lateral roots 20 cm long. The roots form nodules for nitrogen fixation, in association with African wild-type Rhizobia. 331

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Essential part: The essential parts are the pods. Soil preparation: The bambara groundnut produces the highest yields when planted in a 5.10.6 Climatic and environmental field that has been deeply ploughed and has a requirements fine seedbed. Ploughing followed by harrowing Temperature: A fast-growing plant that of the soil twice is recommended for compacted requires warm temperatures and will not soil and weed-infested areas in order to ensure tolerate freezing temperatures during the good germination and stand development. It is growing season, the bambara groundnut is best to plant on a level seedbed; however, when a good choice for a food source. For the crop conditions are extremely wet, it can be planted to mature, it will require a growth period of on ridges. between 110-150 days. Temperatures between Fertilisation: Nitrogen fertilisation in excess 30-35°C are ideal for the germination of the promotes vegetative growth at the expense of bambara groundnut, and sprouting can take crop yield. Potassium has no value because of a anywhere from 5-21 days. The ideal daytime well-developed tap-root system that is shallowly temperature for crop development is in the located in the soil. Phosphorus fertiliser, on the range of 20-28°C on average during the growing other hand, has no beneficial effect on crop season. Extreme temperatures cause the leaves yield. to die, resulting in a reduction in the amount of Irrigation: Bambara groundnut is commonly biomass produced. grown under rain-fed conditions, so no statistical Rainfall: From the time of sowing until the time information on water management for the crop of flowering, the bambara groundnut requires is available at this time. moderate rainfall. During the growing season, 5.10.9 Weed control annual rainfall of 500 - 1200 mm is required Weed control can be done chemically before per hectare. Heavy rainfall is tolerated by the planting, mechanically, or by hand, depending plant, but an excessive amount of rainfall during on the situation. Pre-emergent herbicides that harvest may result in yield losses. Additionally, have been approved for use on bambara fields the bambara groundnut can survive in hot, dry can be used to control weeds in an effective climates where other crops would fail. manner. The use of hand hoes is also acceptable, but caution should be exercised when weeding 5.10.7 Soil requirements around the plant, particularly during flowering, Because it can be grown in poor, sandy to as the flower stalks are delicate and may break if sandy loam soils with good drainage, Bambara handled roughly. Hoeing should be done twice groundnut is easier to harvest than other a week to ensure that the plot is free of weeds. groundnut varieties. The pH of the soil should 5.10.10 Pest and disease control be between 5-6.5 for Bambara groundnut to thrive. 5.10.8 Cultivation practices Pest control Propagation: The bambara groundnut is Root-knot nematodes have the potential to propagated by seed. significantly reduce crop yields. Rodents, termites, ants, and cutworms are among the 332

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production pests that can be attracted to seeds. Insects debris from the previous season, as well as by may attack the plant and cause it to die. Insect using disease-resistant cultivars. pest control measures include the use of Fusarium wilt is characterised by vascular insecticides, such as Malathion against aphids, discolouration, yellowing, necrosis, and wilting among other things. Beetles and maize weevils of the leaves. Plants that are affected become are two of the most common storage pests. stunted and eventually die. Fusarium wilt can Infestation frequently begins in the field during be controlled through the use of resistant seed ripening and is then transported to the cultivars and crop rotation, two practises that store by the customer. Apply ash to stored seeds are recommended. to keep them safe. Chemical products such as In South Africa, there are no chemicals that Malathion and Carbamyl are also used. have been approved for the control of diseases and pests on the bambara groundnut tree. Root parasite Alectra vogelii (Mhlilwane) has 5.10.11 Other cultivation practices been discovered to be a serious root parasite Earthing up (Ridging) of bambara, particularly in Mpumalanga, and It is necessary to earth up around the base of has been shown to cause yield reductions of the bambara groundnut plant in order for it up to 49%. The Lowveld Research Unit has to grow properly. It has been discovered that developed two local variety selections, MPB51 earthing up after the development of flowers and MPB31, that have higher yields than their has a positive effect on yield and also makes parent varieties. harvesting more convenient. The occurrence of Sclerotium rolfsii can be increased by earthing Pests such as Callosobruchus maculate, up the area where it is found. Callosobruchus subinnotatus, and Crop rotation Callosobruchus tenocampa hilda cause In commercial production systems, the crop is problems during storage. If the seeds have typically planted after the maize crop. It can been shelled, they must be treated with also be grown as a stand-alone crop, but it is insecticidal dust before being stored. It is more commonly intercropped with sorghum, sometimes necessary to store seeds in sand or maize, and tuberous crops. treat them with wood ash in order to prevent 5.10.12 Harvesting insect damage. Harvest maturity For the crop to reach its full potential, it requires a Disease control growth period of 110 to 150 days. Ideally, plants should be harvested when they begin to yellow Cercospora leaf spot, powdery mildew, and or wilt, or when approximately 80% of the pods Fusarium wilt are just a few of the serious have reached maturity. Generally, seeds are diseases that can affect your plants. Cercospora leaf spot is characterised by reddish- brown circular spots on the leaves, as well as lesions on the stems, petioles, and pods of the affected plants. When the attack is severe, the leaves fall off and the plant may die. A reduction in disease incidence can be achieved by practising crop rotation and burning of crop 333

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production considered mature when the parenchymatous pods are shelled by hand with a flat stone or layer surrounding the embryo has vanished and brick to create a smooth surface. To handle the brown patches appear on the outer surface of crop on a large scale, groundnut shellers can be the pod. When growing in humid and moist modified to work with it. conditions, it is likely that a delay in harvesting Storage will result in pod rot. Shells are commonly used to store the crop. Harvesting methods When nuts are needed for rations, sale, or Hand lifting and pulling out the plant is the seed, shelling should be done as soon as they most common method of harvesting bambara are harvested. As a result of the seed's high groundnut, but cutting the taproot with a susceptibility to weevil damage after shelling, groundnut harvester, ploughing out, or hoeing Bambara groundnuts store exceptionally well in out the groundnut plant is also common. Once their pods. the nuts have been removed from the plant, 5.10.14 Marketing they are dried and either stored or consumed The sale of bambara groundnuts in local raw. markets, alongside other foods such as Harvesting small plots of land is often done over boiled groundnuts, has only recently become a period of several weeks or months. In some commonplace. In Bambara, the majority of cases, up to half of the pods can remain in the the crop is grown by local people, primarily for soil and must be collected by hand, making their own consumption, with any surplus being it necessary to collect the pods in a manual sold by individuals who engage in street sales manner. In order to minimise pod loss, plants at local markets. When it comes to marketing should be handled gently. the bambara groundnut, the size and colour 5.10.13 Post-harvest handling of the seeds are important considerations. Sorting The bambara groundnut has not yet reached Normally, seeds are separated into groups a significant level of value on the international based on colour and size. The small seeds are market. consumed at the household level, whereas 5.10.15 Utilization the larger seeds are available for sale in the marketplace. • Bambara groundnuts are essentially grown Packaging for human consumption. Immediately after the plants have been cut, they are allowed to dry for a day or two before being • It can be eaten fresh or grilled while still stacked in wind rows to dry further. When the immature. pods rattle when the crop is shaken, it indicates that it is ready for shelling. After drying, the • Seeds are pounded into flour and used to make porridge with maize. • Leaves can be used for animal feed after harvesting. 334

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production 6 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Álvarez-Hernández JC (2019). Grafting in Horticultural Crop Species: Effective Pest and Disease Management Technique with Potential in Michoacan, Mexico, Horticultural Crops, Hugues Kossi Baimey, Noureddine Hamamouch and Yao Adjiguita Kolombia, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89288. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/horticultural-crops/grafting-in-horticultural-crop- species-effective-pest-and-disease-management-technique-with-potentia. Ashwell A & Hoffman T (2001). Nature Divided Land Degradation in South Africa. South African Journal of Botany. 69 (1):116. Baker RD, Ball ST & Flynn R (1997). Soil Analysis: A Key to Soil Nutrient Management, Guide A-137. https://aces.nmsu.edu/pubs/_a/A137.pdf. BASF (2017). American bollworm. https://www.agro.basf.co.za/en/Services/Pest-guide/Pests-(Insects- Rodents)/Chewing-insects/American-bollworm. Bost S (2021). Home Vegetable Garden Disease Control https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/ Documents/W316.pdf. Burrell C (2021). Assessing Your Climate for Starting a Vegetable Garden. https://home.howstuffworks. com/assessing-your-climate-for-starting-a-vegetable-garden.htm. Chandrasena NR (2019). Seeing Weeds with New Eyes’ Part II– Some Historical Perspectives and ‘Proto Weeds, 2019. Journal of Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society.1 (2). Eran F (2021). How to Kill Red Spider Mites On Plants: Identification, Treatment and Prevention of Spider Mite Damage, Leafy Place. https://leafyplace.com. Harri V & Franca B (2003). Fruits And Vegetables. IARC. p. 2. ISBN 978-92-832-3008-3. Hoffmann H, Learmonth S & Wood P (2014). Common insect pests and diseases on vegetables in the home garden. Kansiime MK & Mastenbroekvan A (2016). Enhancing resilience of farmer seed system to climate- induced stresses: Insights from a case study in West Nile region, Uganda. Journal of Rural Studies 47: 220-230. Levy T & Sideman B (2016). Research Report: Managing Cabbage Aphid in Brussels Sprout. https:// extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource006332_Rep9072.pdf. 335

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production Linda LY (2019). Vibrant Gardens Using Drought Tolerant Vegetables. Gilmour. https://gilmour.com/ drought-tolerant-vegetable-garden. Masabni J, Dainello F & Cotner S (2009). The Texas Vegetable Growers Handbook was compiled and edited. https://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/vegetable/guides/texas-vegetable-growers-handbook. Maulana T, Nyalugwe N, Mwale F, Phiri N & Crozier J (2016). Diamondback moth on cabbage. Pest management decision guide: Green and yellow list. Petruzzello M (2018). Vegetable food. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Plant Care Today (2021). Cutworm Control: How To Treat Cutworms In The Vegetable Garden. Cutworm Control: How To Treat Cutworms In The Vegetable Garden (plantcaretoday.com). Sarah C (2013). Research Priorities for Advancing Adoption of Cover Crops in Agriculture-intensive Regions. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development 3: 125-129. Scholthof KBG (2006). The disease triangle: pathogens, the environment and society. Nature Reviews Microbiology 5: 152-156. Tilley N (2020). Learn More About Green Manure Cover Crops. https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/ edible/grains/cover-crops/green-manure-2.htm. United State Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2021). Crop Cover. https://www.rma.usda.gov/en/ Topics/Cover-Crops. Varela AM, Seif AA & Lohr B (2003). A Guide to IPM in Tomato Production in Eastern and Southern Africa. ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya. ISBN: 92 9064 149 5 www.icipe.org. 336

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Grouping vegetables according to their water needs. 263 264 Figure 2 Annual rainfall distribution in South Africa. 271 272 Figure 3 General plant pests and diseases. 276 276 Figure 4 The disease triangle. 277 277 Figure 5 American bollworm. 278 279 Figure 6 American Aphids. 279 280 Figure 7 Bagrada bug. 287 289 Figure 8 Cutworm 291 293 Figure 9 Diamond-back moth. 294 297 Figure 10 Thrips. 298 Figure 11 Red spider mite. 299 300 Figure 12 Examples of indigenous and naturalised vegetables. 310 311 Figure 13 How to make a compost heap. 312 Figure 14 Examples of mulching spinach beds. Figure 15 How to apply mulch. Figure 16 Bag system just after transplanting. Figure 17 Bag system (pictured, Ms Hellen Mokitlane). Figure 18 Preparing rainwater-harvesting plot and plastic covered catchment area. Figure 19 Rainwater harvesting and mulching trial of Swiss chard and Amaranth planted in November 2015. Figure 20 Improving water and nitrogen efficiency of nightshade. Figure 21 Cowpea and amaranth planted (intercropping) at ARC-Roodeplaat. Figure 22 Use of greywater in the watering of vegetables and fruit. Figure 23 Collecting of rainwater from the roofs of buildings into tanks. Figure 24 Rainwater catchment beds. 337

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Vegetable production LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Water use in South Africa. 265 Table 2 Climatic conditions to be considered in the production area. 265 267 Table 3 Depicts some of the characteristics of typical soil types. 273 285 Table 4 The method by which plant diseases transmitted. 292 Table 5 Compost making. 303 305 Table 6 An example of a rotational cropping system with four plots over five years. 307 326 Table 7 Comparing irrigation systems for smart climate agriculture. Table 8 Characteristic rooting depths of selected vegetables. Table 9 Practical soil-moisture interpretation guidelines. Table 10 Growth comparisons for cowpeas. 338

MODULE 8 Beef Production Compiled by Dr Motshabi MC. Chadyiwa and Dr Magdaleen Wepener ([email protected] & [email protected])

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 342 2 CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE CONCEPT 343 2.1 CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD SECURITY 343 3 CLIMATE CHANGE: LOCAL STUDY 344 3.1 TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL TRENDS 344 4 ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION NEEDS 346 5 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVESTOCK 349 5.1 ANIMAL BREEDING 349 5.2 DEFINE BREEDING OBJECTIVES 349 6 CLIMATE-SMART LIVESTOCK - RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY 352 7 CLIMATE-SMART BREEDING: THE UTILIZATION OF SOUTH AFRICA’S 353 ADAPTED LANDRACE BREEDS 354 7.1 LOCAL CASE 354 7.2 ASSISTED REPRODUCTION 355 7.3 SEASONAL EFFECTS ON WEANING WEIGHT 355 7.4 COW-CALF EFFICIENCY FOR SUSTAINABLE BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 356 7.4.1 What is important for cow efficiency? 357 7.5 THE EFFECTIVE USE OF CROSSBREEDING /ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 358 8 ANIMAL AND HERD MANAGEMENT, DISEASE CONTROL AND FEEDING STRATEGIES 359 9 EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS AND INSURANCE 360 10 SHORT-TERM MITIGATION STRATEGIES 362 11 LONG-TERM STRATEGIES 364 12 DROUGHT RELIEF STRATEGIES FOR LIVESTOCK 364 12.1 WEANING CALVES EARLY 365 12.2 STOCKING AND FEEDING 365 12.3 MATING SEASON 365 12.4 GROUPING, FEEDING AND WATER ACCESSIBILITY 366 12.5 DAILY MONITORING 369 13 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN BEEF PRODUCTION 369 13.1 INTRODUCTION 369 13.2 WHERE TO START? 370 13.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL (FAO, 2021) 371 13.4 DISEASE REPORTING 371 13.4.1 Controlled Animal Diseases 373 13.4.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases 374 13.4.3 Other common diseases 374 13.4.4 Zoonotic diseases 374 13.4.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers 374 13.5 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 340

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 13.6 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL 375 13.6.1 Biosecurity 375 13.6.2 Selecting of resistant breeds 375 13.6.3 Vaccination campaigns 375 13.6.4 IMMUNISATION FOR CATTLE 376 13.6.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control. 380 13.7 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 380 14 CONCLUSIONS 381 15 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 382 386 LIST OF FIGURES 386 LIST OF TABLES 341

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 1 INTRODUCTION This varies depending on the type of production system used, such as intensive vs. extensive, Climate change is a global phenomenon beef vs. dairy, and so on. Improving efficiency with varying implications. Southern Africa is is a form of adaptation that can lead to lower expected to be warmer (range of 1.5-3°C) and emissions. Climate change impacts on the sector drier. Rainfall will be higher in some coastal can be direct, such as increased temperatures, or regions, particularly in the south. indirect, such as changes in ecosystems, yields, Because agriculture is climate-dependent, and crop quality. Simultaneously, livestock food climate change will have a negative impact on chains are a primary source of greenhouse gas the sector due to expected changes in weather (GHG) emissions (FAO, 2006a). patterns and increased intensity of severe This is a module for extension officers to use weather events such as droughts and floods. It when assisting small-scale and subsistence will also alter and disrupt the active ecosystems farmers, particularly in communal pasture and natural resources that livestock rely on. systems. The demand for climate-smart beef Livestock has a feedback loop in that it is not production in South Africa is growing. Climate- only impacted by climate change, but it also smart pest and disease management is a big contributes to it, accounting for 65 % of the part of it (Rojas-Downing, 2017). sector's emissions. 342

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 2 CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE CONCEPT The Food and Agriculture Organization of households in southern Africa rely on livestock, the United Nations (FAO) defines Climate- and these animals are critical to their livelihoods Smart Agriculture (CSA) as an approach to and well-being (Scholtz et al., 2020). developing the technical, policy, and investment Excessive consumption (more than the daily conditions for achieving sustainable agricultural recommended portion) is harmful to one's development for food security under climate health. Livestock can help to improve the change. This method takes into account all world's edible protein balance by converting three aspects of sustainable development: inedible protein found in forage into digestible economic, social, and environmental. As a forms. Livestock, on the other hand, can alter result, the method addresses both food security the global edible protein balance by consuming and climate change. As a result, the three main large amounts of edible protein from cereal pillars are: grains and soybeans and converting it to small amounts of animal protein. The selection of 1. Increasing agricultural productivity and production systems and good management incomes in a sustainable manner; practices are critical for optimising livestock protein output. 2. Adapting to climate change and building Livestock production and marketing can help resilience; to stabilise food supplies and provide a buffer against economic shocks and natural disasters 3. Reducing and/or eliminating greenhouse for individuals and communities. However, gas emissions, where possible. disease outbreaks can destabilise the livestock food supply. Income and social customs The FAO's Climate-Smart Agriculture influence access to livestock-derived food. sourcebook (http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/ Animals as a source of income, and thus food, is i3325e/i3325e.pdf) describes the CSA approach also unequally distributed. in detail. Gender dynamics play a role in this inequality, especially in pastoralist and small-scale farming 2.1 CONTRIBUTION TO FOOD communities, where female-headed households SECURITY have fewer resources and, as a result, own fewer and smaller livestock, and within families Livestock contributes significantly to global where men often control the larger and more calorie and protein supplies. Nonetheless, commercial livestock operations. These issues livestock should be managed with caution in are not unique to livestock, but they are order to increase this contribution. Foods from common among both livestock producers and livestock are essential for human nutrition, consumers, and they demand attention. according to research, because they support early childhood and cognitive development (Scholtz et al., 2020). In the right amounts, meat, milk, and eggs are excellent sources of complete and easily digestible protein as well as essential micronutrients. Livestock products will continue to be in high demand. Many rural 343

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 3 CLIMATE CHANGE: LOCAL (-2°C). The average annual rainfall is around 460 STUDY mm, but it is lowest in the arid north-west and rises southwards. The average annual rainfall in 3.1 TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL South Africa varies from less than 100 mm in the TRENDS north-west to nearly 1,200 mm in the east and along the southern borders (Second National Because of its geographical location, South Africa Communication, 2011). From 1961 to 1990, the experiences an annual seasonal temperature average temperature and rainfall in the North cycle that peaks in the austral summer in West, Limpopo, and Eastern Cape provinces are January (30°C) and peaks in the winter in July shown in Figures 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3. Figure 1 Average temperature and rainfall in North West from 1991−2015. Source: Word Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Figure 2 Average temperature and rainfall in Limpopo from 1991−2015. Source: Word Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. 344

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production Figure 3 Average temperature and rainfall in Eastern Cape from 1991−2015. Source: Word Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Practical Activity 1: Important issues to be discussed with South African farmers and stakeholders When does the rainy season begin? In South Africa, the rains generally begin in mid to late October. However, the changing climate means this is becoming less predictable. Farmers need to have some idea when the rains will start so they can plan their breeding season. A breeder ultimately wants to have his animals (calves &/ lambs etc.) born when there’s enough pasture. How long does the rainy season last? Rains generally continue through the end of March into early April. A late start to the rains may shorten the length of the rainy season. Climate change may also mean the rains stop earlier than usual. That may be a problem for forage that need water late in the season. How much rain will fall? To have sufficient forage for your herd, a certain amount of water is required to grow and produce a pasture. The water is stored in the soil, where plant roots can reach it. If too little rain falls, there is not enough water to support the forage. How heavy is the rain? If the rain comes in a few heavy storms, most of the water will run off, causing erosion and flooding. Little water sinks into the soil, so the crop may go thirsty later in the season. When will the rain fall? Dry spells can cause problems with germination or flowering. Wet spells can make it difficult to harvest and dry the plants. 345

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 4 ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION NEEDS The impact of climate change on livestock options (Aydinalp and Cresser, 2008). The most Climate stability is critical for the agricultural severe effects are expected in arid and semi-arid sectors, which include crop, livestock, forestry, grazing systems at low latitudes, where higher fisheries, and aquaculture. Temperature rises temperatures and lower rainfall are expected have a variety of consequences that affect the to reduce rangeland yields and increase land entire ecosystem as well as human activities as degradation (Hoffmann and Vogel, 2008). illustrated in Figure 4. Climate change's direct effects are likely to be Climate change poses significant challenges to limited in non-grazing systems, owing to the livestock production. However, because of the fact that housing animals in buildings allows sector's uncertain and complex interactions for more control over production conditions between agriculture, climate, the surrounding (Thornton and Gerber,2010; FAO, 2009b). environment, and the economy, these impacts Lower crop yields, feed scarcity, and higher are difficult to quantify. Increased temperatures, energy prices will have greater indirect effects shifts in rainfall distribution, and an increase in in non-grazing systems. Increased emergence the frequency of extreme weather events are of livestock diseases as a result of climate expected to have a negative impact on livestock change could have additional indirect effects, production and productivity throughout the as higher temperatures and changing rainfall world. These negative consequences may be patterns can alter the abundance, distribution, the direct result of increased heat stress and and transmission of animal pathogens (Baylis decreased water availability. Indirect effects can and Githeko, 2006). include decreased feed and fodder quality and When combined with other important availability, the emergence of livestock disease, environmental and socio-economic factors that and increased competition for resources with affect disease prevalence, such as changes in other sectors (Thornton, 2010; Thornton and land use, host abundance, international trade, Gerber, 2010; FAO, 2009). migration, and public health policy, the net Climate change is likely to have a wide-ranging effects of climate change are unclear (Randolph, impact on livestock. The most severe impacts 2008; Kurukulasuriya & Rosenthal, 2003). The are expected in grazing systems due to their effects of climate change on livestock keepers reliance on climatic conditions and the natural and production are depicted in Figure 5. resource base, as well as their limited adaptation 346

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production THE STATE OF FOOD ADAPTATION AND AGRICULTURE 2016 CLIMATE CHANGE, AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY increasing intensity of CLIMATE CHANGE rising changes in extreme weather events AFFECTS AGRICULTURAL temperatures precipitation PRODUCTION temperature IN MANY REGIONS increased patterns variability frequency of dry spells and drought The greatest rising vulnerabilities to sea levels climate change impacts are in sub-Saharan All these effects have Africa and South and negative impacts on the South-east Asia. productivity of crops, Food insecurity livestock, fisheries and climate change and forestry. vulnerability present day Productivity Millions CLIMATE CHANGE declines would have of low-income people POSES A SERIOUS THREAT serious implications that are already highly food insecure, TO FOOD SECURITY would be affected. Smallholder for food security. producers in developing countries are amongst the most vulnerable. Significant improvements can be achieved with the introduction of sustainable agricultural practices. Smallholders need support to access the right technologies to implement them. RESPONDING Some examples N2 No-till Cultivating TO CLIMATE CHANGE of sustainable heat-tolerant agriculture practices Cultivating crop varieties Innovation is key to nitrogen-efficient farm system adaptation. crop varieties Precision Integrated Improved Improved agriculture soil fertility pasture fodder grasses management management or legumes Natural Cultivating Drip Water harvesting predation of pests drought-tolerant irrigation & sprinkler irrigation and reduction crop varieties of pesticides 2030 How we mitigate climate change and adapt to it today will determine whether humanity succeeds in eradicating hunger and poverty by 2030. #SOFA16 ©FAO, 2016 #ClimateChange I6217EN/1/10.16 fao.org/publications/sofa Figure 4 Changes in the component traits and the effect on cow efficiency and the carbon footprint over 33 years. Source: Jordaan FJ, 2015. 347

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production a b Animals Forages and feed crops Labour force and capital Shortages in drinking and Decreased yields servicing water Decreased forage quality Altered human health and resources alloca9on to Diseases Changes in pasture livestock Increased pathogens, composi9on (species, parasites & vectors Decreased produc9vity Changed distribu9on & communi9es) Changes in produc9on Migra9on transmission system (e.g. from mixed New diseases Conflict for resources crop to livestock) Domes9c biodiversity loss Decreased yields Heat stress Decreased forage quality Deceased feed intake & Change in forage quality and pasture composi9on livestock yields Decreased concep9on Par9al stomata closure and rates reduced transpira9on Altered metabolism & increased motality Figure 5 Illustration of how climate change affects livestock keepers and production. 348

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Beef production 5 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON LIVESTOCK Heat stress is likely to occur in cattle raised Crossbreeding programs can provide benefits on natural pastures and in feedlots as a result for adaptation, food security, and mitigation of the warmer temperatures and concurrent all at the same time. Composite cattle breeds changes in heat exchanges expected in the developed in the tropical grasslands of northern region. Climate change has a direct impact on Australia in recent decades, for example, have livestock productivity and health, as well as the demonstrated greater heat tolerance and quantity and quality of pastures and animal disease resistance, as well as improved fitness feed. Increased variability in precipitation can and reproductive traits, when compared to pure lead to waterlogged ground and drinking water shorthorn breeds that previously dominated shortages, making people more vulnerable these harsh environments (Bentley et al., 2008). to disease. Heat stress is caused by higher In general, with climate change, crossbreeding temperatures, and animals are less resistant to strategies that use locally adapted breeds that pathogens as a result. are tolerant of not only heat and poor nutrition, Reduced foraging time translates to lower feed but also parasites and diseases (Hoffmann, intake, growth performance, unhealthy states, 2008) may become more common. lower rates of reproduction (lower reproduction Switching livestock species can also help with rates, longer calving intervals, and lower semen climate change adaptation. The Samburu of quality), productivity, and mortality rates. northern Kenya, for example, a traditionally It can also lead to changes in disease distribution cattle-keeping people, have adopted camels as (FAO, 2016). Rift Valley Fever outbreaks, for a source of income. This switch enabled them to example, are linked to heavy rainfall and reverse a decline in their cattle economy, which flooding in East Africa. had been harmed by drought, cattle raiding, and animal disease since 1960. (Sperling, 1987). 5.1 ANIMAL BREEDING 5.2 DEFINE BREEDING OBJECTIVES Improving production efficiency is one strategy that could be used to lower methane emissions. Genetic improvements are long-term solutions It's also important to consider the effects of to production problems. It could take three crossbreeding between indigenous and exotic years to evaluate a decision to breed two cattle breeds on adaptability and resilience. The with specific traits today (the time it takes a mitigation benefits of using residual feed intake cow to calve, the calf to grow up and have a as a selection tool for low methane-emitting calf of its own before it starts milking). This is animals have been studied, but the results have especially true if detailed data on each breed's been inconclusive (Waghorn & Hegarty, 2011). traits was not recorded, and the farmer may have to start from scratch. Before deciding on a course of action, the farmer must have a clear understanding of his or her goals. 349