Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 6 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Brown-Brandl, T. M., Nienaber, J. A., Xin H., and Gates R. S. 2003. A literature review of swine heat production. Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Conference Proceedings and Presentations. 118. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/abe_eng_conf/118 Brumm, M. 2006. Patterns of Drinking Water Use in Pork Production Facilities. Nebraska Swine Reports. 221. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/coopext_swine/221 DAFF Commodity Profiles: A profile of the South African pork market value chain 2019. http://webapps. daff.gov.za/AmisAdmin/upload/Pork%20Market%20Value%20Chain%20Profile%202019.pdf Linden J. 2014. Heat stress in pigs. Originally Published in The Pig Site issue of July 2014 https://www. thepigsite.com/articles/heat-stress-in-pigs Mayorga, E.J., Renaudeau, D., Ramirez, B.C., Ross, J.W., and Baumgard L.H. 2018. Heat stress adptations in pigs. Animal Frontiers 9 (1) 54-61. DOI: 10.1093/af/vfy035 Olczak, K., Nowicki, J., and Klocek, C. 2015. Pig behaviour in relation to weather conditions – a review. Annals of Animal Science. 15. 601-610. Pearce, S. C., Gabler, N. K., Ross, J. W., Escobar, J., Patience, J. F., Rhoads, R. P., and Baumgard, L. H. 2013. The effects of heat stress and plane of nutrition on metabolism in growing pigs. Journal of Animal Science. 91: 2108–2118. doi:10.2527/ jas.2012-5738 Rojas-Downing, M. M., Nejadhashemi, A. P., Harrigan, T., and Woznicki, S. A. 2017. Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation. Climate Risk Management, 16; 145-163. Rust, J.M., and Rust, T. (2013). Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis on Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science, 43(3), 256-267. Schlink, A.C. Nguyen, M.L. Viljoen G.J. 2010. Water requirements for livestock production: a global perspective. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizootes., 29 (3) 603-619. Shields S., Orme-Evans G., 2015, The Impacts of Climate Change Mitigation Strategies on Animal Welfare. Animals, 5:361—394. doi:10.3390/ani5020361. Sishuba, S. 2016. SAPPO helping small-scale pig farmers. Originally Published in Farmer’s weekly issue of 17 August 2012. https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/bottomline/sappo-helping-small-scale-pig-farmers/ The Pig Site Editor. 2009. Climate Change and Pig Production. Originally Published in The Pig Site issue of August 2009. https://thepigsite.com/articles/climate-change-and-pig-production 450

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Thien Thu, C.T.; Cuong, P.H., Hang, L.T., Chao, N.V., Anh, L.X., Trach, N.X., Sommer, S.G. 2012. Manure management practices on biogas and non-biogas pig farms in developing countries – using livestock farms in Vietnam as an example. Journal of Cleaner Production, 27: 64-71. Ume, S. I., Ezeano, C. I. and Gbughemobi, B. O. 2018a. Effect of climate change on pig production and choice of adaptation strategies by farmers in southeast, Nigeria. International Journal of Academic Research and Development 3. 858-868. Ume, S.I., Ezeano. C.I. and Gbughemobi, B. O. 2018b. Analysis of the Environmental Effect of Pig Production in Okigwe Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental and Agriculture Research 4. 12-21. Van der Peet-Schwering, C.M.C., Aarnink, A.J.A., Rom, H.B. and Dourmad, J.Y., 1999. Ammonia emissions from pig houses in the Netherlands, Denmark and France. Livestock Production Science 58: 265-269. 451

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Pig production distribution in South Africa. 432 Figure 2 Heat index chart combines the effects of both temperature and relative humidity to provide classification as alert, danger and emergency zones for grower-finisher pigs for heat stress management. 435 Figure 3 Thermal (heat) exchange between a pig and its surroundings 436 with prediction of different cooling strategies as they relate to heat exchange. Figure 4 Effects of ambient temperature on the average daily gain of grower-finisher pigs. 437 Figure 5 Pig body weight has a significant effect on the critical temperature for 437 average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily gain (ADG). Figure 6 Body condition score of a pig. 443 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Water requirements of pigs (litres day-1). 439 444 Table 2 Controlled animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Disease Act, 445 Act 35 of 1984) pertaining to pigs. 448 Table 3 Notifiable animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases Act, Act 35 of 1984) as pertaining to pigs. Table 4 Vaccination and routine treatment program (Agricultural Research Council, South Africa, Introduction to pig production manual). 452

MODULE 11 Poultry Production Compiled by Dr XP Nduku, Dr CN Ncobela and Dr Magdeleen Wepener ([email protected] , [email protected] & [email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Animal Production

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 455 1.1 BROILER PRODUCTION 456 1.2 PRODUCTION OF EGGS 459 1.3 PURE BRED LINES - DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS 461 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR POULTRY HOUSING 462 2.1 DETERMINANTS OF POULTRY FARMING 462 .2 HOUSING 462 3 POULTRY FARMING SYSTEMS 464 3.1 INTENSIVE SYSTEM 464 3.2 SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM 464 3.3 EXTENSIVE SYSTEM (FREE-RANGE) 464 4 CLIMATE CHANGE 465 5 CONTRIBUTION OF POULTRY TO CLIMATE CHANGE 466 5.1 METHANE EMISSIONS 466 5.2 NITROUS OXIDE EMISSIONS 467 6 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON POULTRY PRODUCTION 468 7 CLIMATE-SMART POULTRY PRODUCTION 469 7.1 MITIGATION APPROACHES 469 7.2 ADAPTATION APPROACHES 472 8 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN POULTRY PRODUCTION 474 8.1 WHERE TO START? 474 8.2 IDENTIFICATION OF A SICK ANIMAL 474 8.3 DISEASE REPORTING 476 8.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases 477 8.3.2 Other common diseases 477 8.3.3 Zoonotic diseases 478 8.3.4 Reporting of diseases by farmers 478 8.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 478 8.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL 478 8.5.1 Biosecurity 479 8.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds 479 8.5.3 Vaccination campaigns 479 8.5.4 Endo- and ectoparasite control methods. 482 8.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 482 9 CONCLUSIONS 483 10 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 484 486 LIST OF FIGURES 486 LIST OF TABLES 454

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 1 INTRODUCTION the egg industry. The South African Poultry Association (SAPA) represents all poultry The poultry industry in South Africa (SA) is farmers (small-scale, emerging, and large one of the most important contributors to the commercial poultry farmers) across these three country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (DAFF, lines of production (DAFF, 2014). 2017). It is the largest in the agricultural sector There are vast differences in the competitive in SA, accounting for approximately 22% of the dynamics of the broiler chicken and egg country's agricultural income (SAPA, 2012). industries, due to the fact that chicken meat can The poultry industry is also nutritionally be frozen and stored for a long time, whereas important to the South African population, eggs are more perishable. As a result, the accounting for roughly two-thirds of all animal broiler market is more susceptible to import protein consumed. Poultry is an important competition. sector due to the large consumer market for The need in South Africa to produce more chicken products, including meat and eggs, and poultry meat in a climate smart way is ever the relatively low cost of chicken meat compared increasing as poultry is the most consumed to other types of meat. So, poultry plays a vital protein in South Africa (SAPA, 2019). A large role in addressing key national development part of this module deals with is climate smart goals as well as improving the standard of living pest and disease management. of people by alleviating poverty and creating employment opportunities. Poultry can be categorised into two major types of production, namely, the broiler industry and Training objectives This training module is an aid for extension workers to help small scale and subsistence farmers. As such, this module will deal mostly with chicken farming, as these farmers do not traditionally keep other poultry such as ostriches. Upon completing the training module, an extension practitioner should be able to: • Understand South African poultry production and farming systems • Describe climate change • Explain how climate change affects poultry production; and • Describe the role of poultry production in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). • Outline the main climate-smart strategies for poultry production • Determine adaptation and mitigation requirements 455

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 1.1 BROILER PRODUCTION Ross 308 are the primary genetic stocks, but Arbor Acres, Hubbard, and Hybro are also Source: ARC Poultry Production Manual. present. In South Africa, the majority of poultry meat consumed is chicken, with a small amount South African broiler production systems range of imported turkey meat. Because a large from simple subsistence farming to highly proportion of broilers are raised above 1500 technologically advanced integrated businesses m above sea level, ascites is a concern during that compete on a global scale. Cobb 500 and the winter months and must be managed accordingly. Rainbow Limited and Astral are the two largest producers of broiler meat in South Africa, accounting for approximately 46% of the market share in broiler meat production (DAFF, 2019). Figure 1 shows the top seven producers and their percentage share of meat broiler output; it should be noted that there are hundreds of small producers (\"other producers\") with a combined share of 25%. Figure 1 Market shares in the broiler meat industry. Source: Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) from USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. 456

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Production and supply chain Broiler lines and country of origin • “Grandparent” chicks are sourced from Ross United Kingdom (international) suppliers of high-quality genetic lines, reared, laid eggs, and day-old Cobb United States of America “parents” are hatched Hybro Netherlands • Parent chicks are reared, eggs are laid, and day-old chicks hatch Hubbard United States of America • Broiler feeding Arbor Acres United States of America • Feed milling • Meat processing Feed stock • Distribution to customers The profitability of the poultry industry is heavily “As the major producers are starting to focus reliant on the price of chicken feed, which can on the front-end of the supply chain (e.g. value- account for up to 75% of a producer's total costs. adding and distribution), broiler production In turn, chicken feed is reliant on maize, which under contract by smaller producers is on the accounts for more than half (50%) of broiler increase.” (South African Poultry Association feed, and soybean prices. Although there is no (SAPA), 2014). difference between white and yellow maize (other than the colour), yellow maize is typically Suppliers of poultry used as animal feed, whereas white maize is milled into maize meal for human consumption. Breeding for the production of day old chicks Argentina is the primary supplier of soybean in large numbers is an expensive endeavor meal. It is difficult to pass on changes in feed that only large corporations can afford. As a prices to consumers, so producer profitability is result, large breeding companies provide day- volatile. old broiler chicks or layers at the point of lay to farmers. Diseases Genetic material used in breeding programs Despite the emphasis on precautionary is typically imported from other countries measures, the risk of an outbreak is always as grandparent stock. They are the result of present. many years of intensive selection to improve economically important characteristics. Small Consumer demand business owners will find it difficult to breed their own grandparent stock because it is expensive South Africans consume approximately 1.8 and genetic material of the same high quality million tons of broiler meat each year. SA's per- is difficult to obtain. Importing foreign genetic capita consumption in 2014 was (prices as of breeding material into South Africa is subject January 2015): to stringent health requirements and lengthy intensive quarantine periods. • 36kg of broiler meat (R50/kg fresh) • 17kg of beef (R65/kg fresh) • 5kg of pork (R72/kg fresh) • 3kg of mutton (R114/kg fresh) 457

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production In South Africa, the R50/kg price for chicken • However, only 27% was supplied by portions compares to the R11/kg average landed domestic production, while 73% was price for chicken meat in January 2015. This imported. demonstrates the extent to which import tariffs protect the South African chicken industry. • Factors influencing domestic production's Since 1993, South Africans' consumption of competitiveness and sustainability in poultry has more than doubled (Grobbelaar comparison to imported products et al., 2010). Economic growth, interest rates, and inflation rates, among other things, have an • The cost of feed is causing more imports impact on the demand for broiler meat. Lower- rather than domestic production. income groups, in particular, use their extra disposable income to eat healthier. • Leading exporters like Brazil and the United Imports States produce at a lower cost than South Tariffs and anti-dumping duties are the main Africa, owing to lower feed costs. drivers of broiler meat imports into South Africa, due to the large difference between the • Feed costs products imported into South landed price of chicken and the sale price of Africa from these countries face an import domestically produced chickens. tariff. A stronger Rand exchange rate reduces the cost of imports and puts downward pressure • Unfair trade practices by exporting countries on chicken prices. A weaker Rand, on the other have put an undue strain on profitability, hand, protects domestic industry from foreign resulting in limited domestic production competition. While these things are difficult growth. to predict, it appears likely that the Rand's weakness will continue for some time. Even with • Anti-dumping duties of R9.40 per kilogram the weakening of the Rand, the landed price of are levied by South Africa on bone-in imported chicken is significantly lower than the chicken pieces originating in the United price of domestically produced chicken. States. Whilst SA has since liberalisation been a net importer of poultry, since the 2008 financial Reasons for Tariffs crisis imports have increased. The South African Poultry Association cites the following reasons for import tariffs: • From 2010 to 2018, demand increased, production increased, and imports • \"The local poultry industry requires increased. protection to ensure survival.\" • Domestic chicken consumption increased • Avoiding job losses due to import by 380 thousand tonnes between 2008 and competition. 2017. • Ensuring that the region's food security concerns are addressed.” External pressures placed on reducing tariffs • Friendly political alliances must be maintained. A simple examination of the levels of chicken imports from various countries gives the impression that the South African government has more stomach for erecting barriers to those countries with which it does not feel 458

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production politically connected (hence the large hatch. These are the eggs that are referred to as imports from Brazil). However, this ignores \"table eggs\" for human consumption. Breeders Brazil's comparative advantage due to have developed layers that mature at a young lower feed costs – it would be interesting age after many generations of selection. Each to learn how Brazil's feed costs compare to, year, the rate of advancing sexual maturity say, those in the United States. corresponds to a half-day earlier onset. Changes • Maintaining a beneficial trade agreement. in egg weight from hatching to maturity have For example, WTO membership, AGOA, increased by up to 0.35 g year-1. and EU trade agreements (in the 1990s, SA Because eggs are perishable, they cannot be agreed that EU imports of poultry would easily transported over long distances (unlike be duty-free as part of the Trade and broiler meat). The advantage is that production Development Cooperation Agreement). usually follows consumption, so there is less of Exports that dreadful international competition. One of • Chicken exports from South Africa the major challenges is keeping fresh eggs from are increasing, primarily to Botswana, the producer to the consumer. Zimbabwe, and Mozambique. SA Commercial egg production is dominated by producers compete with most international (DAFF, 2019) counterparts and outperform other countries such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, • Nulaid (37%) and Angola, which are even less competitive. • Highveld Cooperative (12%) • Brazil and the United States remain the • Eggbert (7%) leading global exporters producing at a From the Chicken to the Egg lower cost. • Breeders: Import genetic stock (known as 1.2 PRODUCTION OF EGGS grandparents) into South Africa as day old chicks. Hyline and Lohnmann are the two genetic breeds for laying eggs; both are imported: Source: Farming South Africa, 2019. • Lohnmann; both imported: Lohmann is imported by Lohmann SA, which is a joint Unless fertile eggs are desired for hatching, venture between Golden Lay Farms and males are not required in an egg production Pioneer Foods. The grandparents lay eggs, flock. A hen can lay an egg without being mated. which hatch into day old chicks known as While edible, such an egg is infertile and will not \"parents.\" Pioneer Foods sells parent stock through its Nulaid division, and Golden 459 Lay sells it through Avichick. The parents are raised to maturity and produce fertile hatching eggs; the eggs are incubated, and the day-old chicks that hatch are known as pullets.

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production • Hyline SA imports Hyline grandparents, an • Public distribution is primarily handled by American breed, and raises parent stock the five major retailers (PnP, Shoprite, Spar, that produces \"hatching eggs for day old Woolworths, and Massmart), as well as commercial layers.\" Hyline SA sells day-old SMMEs and informal traders pullets to independent rearing farms and does not participate in the rearing of lay • Feed is supplied by Meadow, Epol, and Afgri, hens. which collectively own 75% of the industry Pullets are reared on farms until they are 18 • Avichick, Nulaid, Boskop, and Rossouw weeks old and ready to lay commercial eggs, at Hyline all have hatcheries which point they are referred to as Point of Lay Hens. The first eggs, which are small in size, are Barriers to Entry laid at 21 weeks of age. Some egg producers in • Limited access to finance or working capital South Africa rear their own Point of Lay Hens to purchase inventory and cover overhead because the quality of rearing has a direct costs. impact on the efficiency with which the hen • The inability to grade, package, transport, produces eggs during her laying phase. and bar code eggs. Nulaid, Highveld, and Eggbert eggs are produced • Regional and national supply constraints for at a feed conversion ratio of 2.2 kg per kg of egg. major supermarket chains. Eggs come in a variety of sizes and are graded. • Inadequate training, knowledge, and Point of Lay hens live for about a year before capacity in the management and operation being slaughtered and sold as spent hens (often of the poultry operation. in the rural areas through informal traders). The time span between the grandparent stage and Demand and Supply the killing of the hens is nearly three years. Demand for eggs is primarily driven by There are 3 quality grades for eggs: population growth and real economic growth. The supply is dispersed across the provinces. 1. Grade A – sold at retail markets for Because of the long production cycle, supply household use. These are sized (Jumbo is inelastic in the short term. To manage the are at least 70g, X Large at least 63g, supply-demand imbalance, producers set the Large at least 56g, medium at least 49g, price of eggs weekly, based on the number sold small at least 42g & Pee Wee is less the previous week. than 42g). Astral Foods (ARL), Quantum Foods Holdings Limited (QFH), RCL Foods Limited (RCL), and 2. Grade B – used mostly in bakeries Sovereign Food Investments are among the 3. Grade C – sent to egg breakers for poultry companies listed on the JSE. In terms of supplying chicken feed, AFGRI is a processing major player. • Eggs are also catagorised as Organic Free Range, Omega 3-enriched, Free Range, Barn, Grain fed, and Commercial • Packaging and value addition (liquid egg) – large corporations have subsidiaries that carry this out 460

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 1.3 PURE BRED LINES - DUAL in modern, industrialised (commercial) egg PURPOSE BREEDS production and may have to be destroyed. As a result, female chicks are more expensive. Old Source: Chris Daly. standard breeds such as the Australorp, Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire, and Potchefstroom These are generally heavy pure breeds that were Koekoek are available and sold as dual-purpose previously used for both egg production and breeds in South Africa. Indigenous chickens meat production. These breeds do not produce are more likely to be free-range, with no active eggs and meat at a high enough rate and are cooling or ventilation. inefficient, but they may play an important role Most chickens will scavenge for food rather than in developing countries where resources are being fed, and their growth rates are generally limited (no access to hybrids, high temperature, low when compared to birds on commercial housing, feed supply and feed quality, disease farms. They are also more susceptible to and hygiene). They'll become broody and lay disease, parasites, and predator attacks. In their own eggs. When the eggs hatch, half of contrast to imported breeds, indigenous African them will be males, which can be raised and sold breeds thrive with low input costs. These breeds as meat. Males are usually of no value for meat will perform well in semi-intensive systems, producing a reasonable amount of meat but not as much as commercial broiler or layer lines. Despite the fact that these breeds have limited commercial application due to their slow growth and maturity, their meat texture, flavour, and inherent adaptability are enviable. They play a vital role in climate-smart livestock production, particularly in communal and small- scale farming systems. 461

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR POULTRY HOUSING 2.1 DETERMINANTS OF POULTRY 2.2 HOUSING FARMING The goal is to keep out mice, rats, and birds • Farm location: To determine the location of from eating valuable poultry feed and spreading your farm, you must first determine where disease, as well as to protect birds from dogs, your market is cats, snakes, rats, and other pests and thieves. Basic requirements for the buildings are that • Farm layout: The houses must be properly they should: oriented in order for enough heat and wind to enter the house. The distance between • be rain proof the houses is critical to preventing disease • not be prone to flooding transmission from one to the other • protect poultry from direct sunlight • be wild bird proof (difficult to achieve) • Type and design of housing: The purpose • have enough space of housing is to protect poultry from the • be easy to clean out elements while also providing a comfortable • have a solid door with a lock environment for optimal production • have sufficient lights to support production □ Temperature Housing type can be either naturally ventilated □ Humidity or environmentally controlled as shown in the □ Ventilation examples in Figure 2 and Figure 3. □ Ammonia □ Floors □ Lighting (for commercial set-ups) Figure 2 Photo of environmentally controlled poultry house. Source: ARC Poultry Training manual. 462

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Figure 3 Photo of naturally ventilated poultry house. Source: ARC Poultry Training Manual. Figure 4 Photo of Free-range poultry system. 463

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 3 POULTRY FARMING SYSTEMS Growth rate and egg production are enhanced as a result of enough balanced diet, water, and 3.1 INTENSIVE SYSTEM proper management practices. This system is well suited for niche markets. This system requires a substantial amount of capital (capital intensive). The following are the 3.3 EXTENSIVE SYSTEM (FREE- features of this system: RANGE) • Appropriately designed housing must be This is the oldest system known. The created as part of this system. characteristics of this system involve: • Chickens are housed in crowded conditions. • Kept by people that do not spend money on • To be profitable, only the most productive the chickens. chickens should be retained. • They do not provide the chickens with As a consequence of sufficient balanced feed, housing. water, disease control, and proper management, the development rate and egg production • The chickens are forced to scrounge for becomes outstanding and rewarding for an their own water and food entrepreneur. The growth rate and egg production are both 3.2 SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM very poor as a result of inadequate nutrition and water. Furthermore, nutritional deprivation Capital is needed for this system. The makes chickens more susceptible to illnesses. characteristics of this system include: • Provision of housing (three birds per square meter) and equipment • Provision of supplementary feed • Provision of a safe environment for chickens to freely roam (one square meter per chicken) 464

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 4 CLIMATE CHANGE • Increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, including floods, Sarah Wild and Sipho Kings, 2019. droughts, and storm surges Climate change is a wide term for a variety of According to reports, these changes have global events caused mostly by the burning of resulted in a decrease in poultry output and fossil fuels, which releases heat-trapping gases productivity. Droughts and interruptions in into the atmosphere. These phenomena include water supplies are also a concern since raising not just the rising temperatures associated with and processing chicken consumes a lot of water. global warming, but other changes such as sea- To fulfill hygienic requirements, water quality is level rise. critical in every form of chicken production and The characteristics of climate change include, farming. among others: Due to the increased frequency of extreme events and the unpredictability of weather • Prolonged dry spell (draught) patterns, climate change is already having an • Severe rise and fall of environmental impact on agriculture and food security. This can result in reduced output and revenue, as well temperatures as a rise in food costs. Economic development • Prolonged or shortening of season length and food security will be harmed in the end. • Undesirable variations of rainfall distribution As a result, there is a pressing need to mitigate • Intense wind speed the detrimental impacts of climate change on Climate change continues to have devastating poultry production in order to satisfy rising results for countries all over the world, including meat and egg demand. South Africa. Climate change impacts South Climate change necessitates collaboration Africa in the following ways, and others: and skill upgrades among extension services, • Higher average annual temperature researchers, and trainers in order to stay up • Higher maximum temperatures with rapidly changing industry requirements. • More hot days and more heat waves To achieve better outcomes, services must be • Higher minimum temperatures integrated and involve all stakeholders on a • Fewer cold days and frost days local, national, and worldwide level, including • Reduced average rainfall the public, commercial, and non-profit • Rising sea levels sectors, industry value chains, and educational • Increased fire risks institutions. Because greenhouse gases (GHGs) released in one nation can impact output in another, and over- or underproduction of a commodity in one location influences commodity pricing on the global market, climate change has both local and global effects. 465

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 5 CONTRIBUTION OF POULTRY TO CLIMATE CHANGE • Agriculture's contribution to climate change 5.1 METHANE EMISSIONS is estimated to be between 18% and 20% (Moeletsi & Tongwane, 2015) Enteric methane production is lower in poultry (0.3%). Manure treatment has the biggest • The livestock industry contributes around impact on methane emissions. The amount 5% to 10% of the total agricultural output. mofaCnHag4ermeleenatsedsyisstedmet,ertmheinecdircbuymthsteanmcaens urine Poultry has the least carbon impact per unit which the manure is stored, and the makeup product of all of them of the manure. Methane is mostly produced by liquid-stored manure (anaerobic fermentation • Poultry farming is thought to be by methanogenesis). The intense production environmentally friendly technique, where chickens are confined in doors, produces a lot of methane. The following Figure 5 and Figure 6 indicate the levels of methane and greenhouse emissions, respectively: Figure 5 Methane emission from manure management per animal category. Source: Moeletsi & Tongwane, 2015. Figure 6 Greenhouse emission per kg of meat. Source: Chatham House “changing climate, changing diets”, 2015. 466

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 5.2 NITROUS OXIDE EMISSIONS • Nitrous oxide is produced by dry-stored manure (through aerobic decomposition) • Nitrous oxide is produced in poultry when high-protein diets are fed to chickens. • Poultry manure nitrogen accounts for 8.8% Protein that escapes the ileum is putrefied of nitrous oxide emissions. in the caecum. Toxin metabolites such as ammonia are produced during putrefaction. • The amount of N2O produced and emitted The nitrification and denitrification by manure is determined by: processes convert ammonia to nitrous □ Chicken feed digestibility and oxide. composition □ Manure management practices • In most poultry production systems, □ Environmental conditions manure is handled as solid. □ Duration of waste management • Manure quantities are high during growth phase and winter season Figure 7 Nitrous oxide emission from manure management per animal category. Source: Moeletsi & Tongwane, 2015. 467

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 6 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON POULTRY PRODUCTION Climate change has a negative impact on • Effect of heat stress on reproduction poultry production. Climate-induced heat □ Decreased reproductive efficiency stress is the most prevalent cause of reduction □ Reduced luteinizing hormone in poultry productivity, particularly in tropical □ Decreased donadotropin releasing climates. It has an impact on chicken welfare hormone and production by altering the natural body □ Reduced fertility in cocks temperature of chickens (ranging between 40°C and 42°C). Chickens lack sweat glands. As a • Effect of heat stress on physiology and result, they control their bodies through various immunoglobulin thermoregulatory systems. □ Increased heart and pulse rate □ Low levels of circulation of antibodies • Effect of heat stress on poultry production □ Lymphocytes □ Reduced feed intake and feed □ Low levels of immunoglobulin conversion efficiency □ Suppression of phagocytic activity of □ Reduced egg size and production blood leukocytes □ Sudden rise in poultry mortality • Effect of heat stress on oxidative stress • Effect of heat stress on behavioural □ Increased malondialdehyde levels activities □ Decreased superoxide dismutase □ Spend less time feeding [emaciated] □ Decreased catalase activity □ More time drinking water □ Increased Heat shock protein 70 gene □ More time panting with open mount □ More time flapping wings • Effect of heat stress on carcass □ Less time moving or walking [skeletal characteristics disease] □ Reduced carcass weight □ More time lying down/resting □ Decreased chicken cuts weight □ Increased cannibalism □ Reduction in egg and meat quality Figure 8 Thermoregulatory mechanisms of chickens. Source: https://www.hyline.com/ViewFile?id=ff054c39-aa45-43ae-adbe-1488017266f1. 468

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 7 CLIMATE-SMART POULTRY PRODUCTION Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is sustainable Climate-smart chicken production is sustainable farming that satisfies the demand for safe farming that addresses the demand for food and sufficient food and fiber while conserving security in the face of climate change while the integrity of ecosystems, and it does so by conserving ecological integrity. Climate-smart maximizing the net value to society when all chicken production is governed by the genotype costs and benefits are evaluated (Farmer's of the bird within its habitat, which capitalizes Weekly, 2019). on the bird's innate competitive production Climate-smart chicken production would advantage in the climate. Nutrition, genetics, be governed by the genotype of the bird disease, exposure to parasites, management within its habitat, using the animal's innate techniques, climate, rainfall, humidity, heat competitive production advantage in the and cold stresses, advisory services, and farmer climate. Nutrition, genetics, disease, exposure competence are all variables that impact to parasites, management techniques, climate, production in that ecosystem. rainfall, humidity, heat and cold stresses, There are two different kinds of measures advisory services, and farmer competence that can be used: mitigation and adaptation. are all variables that impact production in Mitigation methods aim to decrease and/or that ecosystem. The phenotype of a bird is eliminate greenhouse gas emissions, whereas influenced by the interaction of its genotype adaptation efforts aim to minimize risk and and environment. susceptibility to the consequences of climate Aims for three objectives of Climate-Smart change. As a result, mitigation targets the Agriculture: causes of climate change, whereas adaptation addresses its consequences. I. To sustainably boost agricultural production to promote fair gains in 7.1 MITIGATION APPROACHES farm incomes, food security, and development; Reducing greenhouse emissions The first strategy is to reduce the regions where II. To adapt and strengthen agricultural the chicken business contributes to climate and food security systems to climate change by emitting greenhouse gases. These change at various levels; and are some examples: III. To contribute to reducing greenhouse • On-farm energy consumption: This gas emissions from agriculture encompasses both direct and indirect energy inputs. Energy is mostly utilised in These objectives are examined at various sizes heating, ventilation, and air conditioning – from farm to landscape – at various levels – systems, but it is also used in on-farm from local to global – and across short and long transportation, feed preparation, cleaning, time horizons, while taking national and local waste-burning, and packing. specificities and priorities into account. 469

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production • Carbon dioxide (sClaOu2)ghteemr iossfiopnosultfrryomin consumption per metric ton of meat slaughtering: The produced, can help minimize enteric abattoirs is more intense than in other fermentation meat industries. Process heat is generated by fossil fuels, while machine operation and Manure management refrigeration are supported by electricity • Changing diets is another mitigation method usage. fboercaumsaentuhree-GreHlGatecodntennotno-CfOm2aneumreisvsaiorniess, depending on diet. In particular, ration • Carbon dioxide emissions from composition and feed additives can impact international trade (transportation): the quantity of N in urine and faeces, as Because of the long distances covered and well as the amount of fermentable organic the refrigeration of vessels, international matter in faeces, resulting in changes in trade in chicken meat has a high carbon manure-based CH4 emissions. footprint. Local transportation, if done • Maure handling mitigation measures in inefficient cars, can also contribute include limiting manure exposure to water to a rise in the sector's greenhouse gas (e.g., dry scraping rather than washing into emissions. With chicken being imported a pond) and transitioning from anaerobic to into South Africa from as far away as the aerobic management. United States, Canada, and Australia, • Good manure management is essential for and both international and domestic limiting ammonia gas plumes generated poultry production rising, transportation by commercial broiler farms. This entails is a significant potential area for lowering cleaning the sheds on a regular basis and greenhouse emissions in the industry. treating dirty bedding to make it more acidic (so reducing how much ammonia is • Greenhouse gas emissions from feed lost to the air). production (indirect contributor): Feed for • Shortening the time of manure storage chicken production is the most expensive and anaerobic digestion are additional input in the poultry industry. As a result, alternatives. it is critical to examine the greenhouse gas emissions caused by feed production. Improving feeding strategies (Applies to both The major greenhouse gases produced by Mitigation and Adaptation) feed pfuroedlsuacrteiounseadretoCOm2ak(perfoedruticliesedr)w, hanend fossil • Several effective dietary solutions have Nitrous Oxide (N2O). been developed to minimize the negative impacts of rising ambient temperatures. Enteric fermentation The goal is to meet the unique demands • Providing higher quality fodder reduces of chickens in hot climates by applying methane emissions because it enhances water, nutrients, electrolytes, vitamins, digestibility and minerals. Management strategies • Increasing feed protein content can such as feed limitation, fat addition, and enhance digestibility and lower total excess protein reduction have been seen to methane emissions per unit of product reduce the negative effects of heat stress • Supplements, such as feed additives like and increase the bird's performance probiotics and prebiotics, which tend to boost weight growth and decrease feed • Fat addition in feed raises the nutritional 470

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production content of other feed components, lowers • As a result, the goal is to increase poultry feed retention time in the digestive system, output while preserving the beneficial and improves nutrient utilization adaptations provided by breeding • During times of acute stress, the meal techniques should be made up of highly digestible nutrients. As a result, the chicken industry • Exploiting the natural competitive has advocated for the use of high-quality advantages of indigenous genotypes as protein and amino acids (methionine sources of genes for hardier breeds that and lysine, for example) to decrease heat might be more robust to weather extremes increase and the harmful effects of high and higher temperatures predicted under temperatures climate change are potential strategies • Heat stress causes minerals (Iron, Zinc, for addressing these risks to the chicken Selenium, and Chromium) and vitamins (A, business C, and E) to be expelled from the chickens' bodies, resulting in mineral and vitamin Environmental strategies deficit. Under severe climatic conditions, • Environmental adjustment is one of the food supplementation of vitamins, minerals, most important elements in reducing the and electrolyte balance has been shown to consequences of heat stress. Environmental reduce mortality and enhance growth rate technical methods, however, cannot reduce of chicken heat stress in a chicken farm if nutritional • Heat stress alters the gut microbiome in programs, disease management, and an unfavorable way. Lactobacillus strains poultry genetic status are not ideal. Stressful derived from probiotics may assist to climatic conditions can be mitigated by regulate the intestinal microbiota of hens employing fundamental design principles suffering from high temperatures to improve chicken farming in hot climates. • Several specific feed additives, including For example, housing form (semi-open as dietary enzymes, baking soda, buildings); ventilation (air flow into and zinc bacitracin, and osmo-protective out of buildings to remove ammonia, supplements, may also be beneficial in carbon dioxide, and moisture) in hot and lowering heat-stress mortality humid climates; natural or artificial shade (surrounding plant and grass cover); and Genetic selection strategies/ altering of breeds water usage (Applies to both Mitigation and Adaptation) • The quality of the roofing is another element that might help prevent heat • Changes in breeding methods can assist buildup. Roofs must be clean, rust-free, animals become more resistant to heat and dust-free. A gleaming surface reflects stress and illnesses, as well as boost more solar radiation than a dark or rusted reproductive and growth development. roof. Roof reflectivity may be enhanced Climate-smart breeding programs that use by using metallic zinc paint or installing an heat stress-tolerant genotypes to achieve aluminum roof. By using circulating fans, above-average production efficiency and proper ventilation may enhance convective minimal carbon and water footprints cooling per unit product. Increasing efficiency is • Heat stress is associated with both heat environmentally responsible production and body heat loss in chickens. 471

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Heat stress should be controlled in poultry Shifting human dietary trends housing to minimize the negative effects • Reducing meat consumption has the on hens. Ventilation technology can help potential to dramatically cut GHG emissions. to reduce stress-related health concerns. Because beef accounts for a big fraction of Ventilation equipment should be properly GHG emissions from the livestock sector installed and serviced on a regular basis. In and is the least resource-efficient animal order to manage an emergency scenario, protein producer, the beef component of additional ventilation fans and generators the livestock sector has a high mitigation should be available potential • It is necessary to install an alarm system that • More research is needed to understand warns to the failure of the ventilation system, why populations feel compelled to increase which may protect hens from unpleasant their consumption of animal protein as they or stressful circumstances, particularly rise above the poverty line, as well as why during hot weather. As a result, emergency those at the top of the economic ladder equipment (fail-safe electric panels) should feel compelled to improve their diets by be built to prevent temperatures in chicken reducing meat consumption and returning housing from reaching more than 5°C over to a more vegetarian diet the outside temperature • Catching and loading chickens should take 7.2 ADAPTATION APPROACHES place first thing in the morning. During the catching and loading processes, ventilation Farmers’ perception and adaptive capacity fans or additional mobile fans should be • One of the issues limiting the success of supplied for the uncaught birds. Water such adjustments is farmers' willingness should be provided to uncaught birds and capacity to acknowledge the problem regularly by lowering the drinkers from time and implement climate change adaptation to time, ensuring enough water supply, and mitigation strategies. It is critical nourishment, and light for the birds. During to collect data on farmers' attitudes on the hot summer months, stocking density mitigation and adaptation strategies. The is one of the most important considerations use of open-ended survey questions or • To minimise heat stress, the number of group discussion at workshops to explore individual birds kept on a farm should individual and group perspectives is one not exceed a specific stocking density. method for gathering information on The number of birds should be changed farmers' perceptions that has been utilised in accordance with the crate design and for mitigation and adaptation research the ambient temperature. Chicken cages • Understanding farmers' perspectives should be placed on the truck to allow for and incorporating them into rural policy enough ventilation. Fixed crates' ventilation formulation increases the likelihood of openings must be opened. Bird boxes achieving food security and environmental and/or completely loaded cars should conservation goals be kept in well-ventilated enclosures. • Education, family farm succession, Evaporative heat dissipation is temperature and social contact among farmers and and humidity-dependent, increasing with agricultural communities can all help to increasing temperature and decreasing improve risk perception in farmer decision- with increasing humidity making 472

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Reducing sensitivity to environmental stress research, and training to constantly learn • Other adaptation techniques include efforts and improve their abilities in order to stay up to modify the environment, as well as with ever-changing sector standards and an nutritional and drinking water manipulation. increasing knowledge base. Collaboration in It would be preferable for poultry to be less service delivery must be holistic and engage sensitive to environmental stressors such all stakeholders at the local, national, and as changes in physical surroundings, social international levels, including the public, context, and human handling commercial, and non-government sectors, • Preparing for high heat and ensuring that government agencies, producers, industrial housing, transportation, and management value chains, and tertiary education institutions. procedures are essential • Poultry farmers should reconsider building Integrated collaborative research design in new builds to more effectively cope Extension, research, and training services work with new climate and weather extremes, together to provide integrated collaborative including the installation of more/new solutions. Learn and improve skills to stay equipment to cope with the heat up with ever-changing industry standards. • Improved house insulation and thermal Mitigation measures and adaptation assistance performance by taking into consideration will be provided through the integrated joint its location in the landscape and the research, extension, and training services, reflectiveness of the roof materials. Good which will include: insulation offers numerous advantages, including decreased heating expenses in the • Creating and sustaining climate-smart winter, buffering excessive outside heat in breeding programs that employ heat stress the summer, and minimising condensation resistant genotypes with above-average and damp-related concerns within the productive efficiencies while emitting low barns GHG • Making use of natural shade from trees may also be beneficial during the hottest • Using nutritional technologies and practices days—this is especially true for free-range to reduce the carbon and water footprints systems where the birds require patches of in poultry production shade to escape to during the day • Allow ventilation air flow in poultry houses • Trying to figure out how climate change and place air intakes for ventilation and affects genotype and adaptation processes cooling in the optimum areas (such as shaded walls) to draw in cool air • Conducting comprehensive research • Developing and using accurate simulation Advisory services Climate change poses severe challenges to models to predict the impact of climate animal agriculture, demanding coordinated change solutions from extension, research, and training • Collaborating within and across disciplines agencies. Climate change is a new phenomena at the local, national, regional, and that requires individuals who work in extension, international levels, as well as offering multifaceted climate change solutions in chicken production 473

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 8 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN POULTRY PRODUCTION Lower temperatures may facilitate the survival Climate smart pest and disease management of several key poultry viruses such as Newcastle for poultry may be split into these categories: disease, Avian influenza, and Gumboro. This biological vector control, resistant breed occurs because chickens like to snuggle closer development, vaccination programs, and together in chilly weather. Increased heat and parasite control (CCARDESA, 2019). humidity will result in an increase in respiratory problems and intestinal parasites. Increased 8.1 WHERE TO START? heat stress also reduces the body's natural immunological defense mechanisms (Mitchell Examine your target farmers' farming practices. A, 2017). Changing weather patterns also What are the issues that they believe require change the migration pathways of wild birds, the most attention right now? What is the potentially leading to larger outbreaks of illness primary goal of their agricultural business? in formerly uninfected areas or an increased How do they check for illness symptoms in risk of disease spillover to free range poultry their animals? How do they keep track of their (Trautmann S, 2018). animals' whereabouts? What information do Because of the greater stocking densities they keep in their records? What criteria do of these animals, climate change will affect they use to decide which animals to keep? What housed poultry less than free range poultry, vaccinations, veterinary medicines, and feed but infrastructure costs will rise and illnesses additives do they use? Where do they obtain will spread more quickly if not controlled with their vaccinations, veterinary medications, adequate biosecurity and vaccination. Although and feed supplements? What infrastructures free range poultry may be more vulnerable to are there? How much labor are farmers able climatic extremes and disease transmission to access? Farming equipment owned by the from wild birds, disease transmission between farmer. them may be less. Scientists are always seeking What then? for newer, better ways to battle these diseases Once you understand how the system works, through prevention rather than therapy, as this you can create a plan with the farmers' help is the most cost-effective approach. based on what they view as their main concerns Climate-smart pest and disease management and on disease monitoring and documentation. has the following potential benefits: 8.2 IDENTIFICATION OF A SICK • Decrease in mortality rates ANIMAL • Decrease in morbidity rates • An increase in illness reporting The only way to tell if an animal is sick is to • Increased productivity observe how a healthy animal appears. (FAO, • An increase in fertility 2021). • An increase in income Looking from a distance • Lowering of greenhouse gas emissions 474

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production If chickens are kept in a chicken house: Looking at the head • Are the hens distributed equally on the • Is the wattle and comb normal in color floor? (mainly red)? • Are they huddling in one corner? • Is there a discharge from the nostrils? • Are they huddling together? • Is the eye colour normal? • Is there evidence of wet litter or diarrhea? Breathing Smell Breathing should be smooth and relaxed, and • Is there a strong smell of ammonia? the mouth should be closed. • Are there any additional noxious odors? On Feet the level of chickens (ammonia is heavier The feet should be correctly positioned, and the than air) animals should not be struggling to carry weight. The hocks should also not be bloated. The legs Sound should not have extensive scaling. Bumble foot Before you enter the house, are the chickens should be examined on the feet. relaxed and making a normal amount of noise? Vents Posture of the chicken Chickens should not be exposed to dry vents if • Is the chicken standing? they have not been traumatised. • Is the neck properly aligned? • Are the wings smooth and relaxed next to the body? Figure 9 Clinical Grade of Bumblefoot Lesion in chickens. 475

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Egg production records Additional diseases with trade implications A commercial layer's regular egg production are also reported to the Office International ranges from one egg per day to one egg every des Epizooties OIE through the Department other day. A decrease in egg production is of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural frequently the first symptom of a sick chicken. Development (DALRD), as extension officers do not have formal training in these diseases and Egg deformities are not expected to note them. The egg should have a regular shape and color. According to the Animal diseases, Act 35 of Abnormally formed eggs might indicate illness 1984 the definitions: or nutrition issues. • 'controlled animal disease' means any 8.3 DISEASE REPORTING animal disease in respect of which any general or particular control measure has One of the most important functions of the been prescribed, and any animal disease extension officer is to assist in the notification which is not indigenous or native to the of controlled and notifiable diseases to the Republic. Table 2 of the regulations on the authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases act gives a list of controlled diseases, those Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. pertaining to poultry are noted in Table 1. Link to the act: • 'notifiable animal disease' an animal https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ disease specified in Annexure 3 Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ According to the Centre for Coordination of diseaseact Agricultural Research and Development for Southern Africa (CCARDESA, vectors are insects, Link to the regulations: birds, or other animals that transfer a disease or https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ pest from one host to another. StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ SubordinateFileDownload/5843 476

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 8.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases Table 1 Controlled animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984). Disease Clinical signs Vector Avian influenza Loss of appetite, drop in egg production, Wild aquatic birds Newcastle disease swelling and blue discolouration of the wattles and combs. Sneezing and Psittacosis coughing. Diarrhoea. Sudden death. Salmonella enteritidis Loss of appetite, coughing, muscle NO tremors, hanging wings, twisting necks, circling, paralysis. Swelling around the eyes and neck area. Green diarrhoea and a drop in egg production and misshapen eggs. Nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, coughing. Wild birds Green diarrhoea. Loss of appetite. Drop in egg production. Depression, Ruffled feathers, closed eyes, Mice, wild birds, Diarrhoea, vent pasting, loss of appetite, cockroaches, flies, fleas, stunting in older birds. ticks, mealworms, litter bugs. Salmonella gallinarum Depression, ruffled feathers, not wanting Mice, wild birds, Salmonella pullorum to move. Yellow diarrhea, loss of appetite. cockroaches, flies, fleas, Any animal disease or ticks, mealworms, litter bugs. infectious agent that is Depression, Ruffled feathers, closed eyes, Mice, wild birds, not known to occur in Diarrhoea, vent pasting, loss of appetite, cockroaches, flies, fleas, South Africa. stunting in older birds. ticks, mealworms, litter bugs. In the case of these illnesses, there is usually a history of an animal being imported or feed being imported or removed from ships. 8.3.2 Other common diseases diseases affected by climate change. Poultry Diseases vary by location, and only a veterinarian housed in cages are more likely to develop is authorized to diagnose and treat diseases metabolic illnesses, such as diseases that impair under the Veterinary and Paraveterinary Act bone density, if the proper diet is not provided. 19 of 1982, but it is vital to have a general Fowl pox is often carried by mosquitoes and can understanding of some of the most prevalent be transmitted from farm to farm if chicken is purchased from one farm to another. The spread 477

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production is aided by wet circumstances. The distribution 8.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF and incidence of internal and external parasites VECTORS alter as well; for example, coccidial illness in chicken becomes more of a concern under The diseases that are vector-borne will vary moist circumstances. Roundworms, tapeworms, according to local conditions; for example, fleas, soft ticks, and mites are among the other diseases carried by biting flies are more common parasites. during the rainy season, when mosquitoes and 8.3.3 Zoonotic diseases biting midges are more prevalent. Controlling These are diseases that are transmitted between these illnesses can be accomplished in a variety animals and people; the most widespread of methods, including: of these diseases that have recently been discovered in South Africa include: • An all-around poultry-raising approach that eliminates litter between batches of • Avian influenza chickens • Salmonellosis • Psittacosis • Fencing in the poultry area to keep other • Campylobacteriosis animals out If you become ill, please notify your healthcare provider that your employment requires you to • Cutting down any trees in the poultry area work with sick animals. that may shelter wild birds 8.3.4 Reporting of diseases by farmers Educating farmers on their obligation to report • Eliminating vector breeding sites, such as any animals that exhibit indications of sickness stagnant water where mosquitoes breed to you as the extension officer or to the animal health technician who will contact the • Do not drink water from an open water veterinarian. It's also a good idea to attempt source where wild ducks are known to to avoid the stigma that comes with disclosing congregate some of these disorders. Keep in mind that farmers will only share information with you • Cleaning up any spilt feed and storing if you have a good relationship with them. feeding bags in rodent-proof containers or According to the Animal Diseases Act, it is also rooms. (South African Poultry Association, the obligation of animal owners to report these 2019) diseases, and failure to do so is a violation of the law. 8.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL Not all diseases are transmitted by vectors, some other transmission methods include: • Direct contact between sick animals • Excretions of the sick animals • People, clothing and equipment • Naturally occurring in soil • Housing not cleaned after sick animals where in them • Feed and water (CCARDESA, 2019) 478

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 8.5.1 Biosecurity 8.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds Other sections go into further depth about • The key to keeping diseases away from your this. In general, indigenous breeds are more animals is good biosecurity. resistant to locally prevalent illnesses. Certain illnesses, however, are not endemic to the area, • Using an all-in-all-out approach for chicken and the idea that local breeds do not need to be rearing. vaccinated should be avoided. If a chicken becomes ill, it is usually culled • Separate any ill or dead animals from rather than treated. This ensures the health of healthy ones as soon as possible. the flock. • Refrain from allowing visitors to your flocks. 8.5.3 Vaccination campaigns • If you must allow people in, keep a diary to Many diseases can be avoided or the intensity of the symptoms reduced by using commercially track illness occurrences and notify anyone available vaccinations. Certain vaccinations, who have come into touch with your flock like as influenza vaccines, are only allowed by if there is an epidemic of a transmissible veterinary services under certain conditions; disease. please see your veterinarian practitioner for • Taking a shower in and out of your poultry more information. unit. Alternatively, ask your employees to shower at home before going to work and When planning a vaccination campaign again after leaving. ensure: • Wearing PPE that isn't taken from the poultry area except to be cleaned. • A schedule is agreed upon with the flock's • Provide footbaths and hand sanitizer at the owners front door of your homes. • Ensure that your equipment and vehicles • Try to visit the farms no more than once a are disinfected on a regular basis. week • Never lend away your equipment. • Always start with the healthy animals and • Determine how much the farmers must pay work your way down to the ill ones. for the vaccinations • If there are no ill birds, go from the youngest to the oldest. • Inquire about the availability of handling • As an extension officer, avoid visiting many facilities farms in a row; instead, wait at least a week between trips. • Verify the availability of equipment and • Between batches of chickens, clean and storage to ensure that vaccinations are kept disinfect your poultry buildings. at the proper temperature • Do not leave any unneeded items lying about that might serve as a breeding • Ensure that there are sufficient trained ground for vermin vaccinators For a more in-depth biosecurity program you • Estimate the number of animals that will can find “A quick guide to the application of require immunization Biosecurity on a Poultry farm” on the website http://www.sapoultry.co.za/home/training- • Ensure that adequate vaccinations have notes.php been ordered and are available to carry out the campaign 479

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production • Ensure that the vaccine is done at the • Verify the vaccination dosage appropriate time of year for the illness and • Look for potential risks to vaccinators and when the farmers have time make them aware of them • Essential to ensure that farmers are • Vaccinate only healthy animals informed about the benefits of the vaccine • Never guarantee the farmer that the and the necessity for revaccination vaccination will be 100% effective • Ensure that there is a means to identify • Ensure that the vaccine is done at the vaccinated animals appropriate time of year for the illness and • Maintaining a record of the vaccinated when the farmers have time livestock as well as receipts for payment from farmers The following is an example of a vaccination program from the University of Pretoria • Determine if it is feasible to continue (https://downloads.swappyworld.com/wp- administering these vaccines to farmers content/uploads/2019/03/layers-vaccination- table.pdf). When giving the vaccine: • Check the batch and expiration dates of the This information can be combined with current vaccination before administering it disease trends in the area to create your own • Ensure that the cold chain was kept intact practical vaccination list. • Only use the vaccination in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions • Do not re-use vaccinations if the label says you can't Table 2 Layer vaccination programme. Age Disease Route Day old Mareks Subcutaneous injection Newcastle Disease (NCD) Eye drop / course spray Day 14 Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD or Gumboro) Drinking water Day 18 Newcastle Disease Fine spray (Atomist, Turb-air) Day 20 Infectious Bursal Disease Drinking water 6 Weeks Newcastle Disease Fine spray Infectious Bronchitis 10 Weeks Newcastle Disease Fine spray 12 Weeks Infectious Coryza Subcutaneous injection Fowl Pox Wing web stab Infectious Laryngotracheitis Eyedrop 480

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 13 Weeks Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE) Drinking water 14 Weeks Newcastle Disease Fine spray 16 Weeks Newcastle Disease (NCD) Intramuscular injection Infectious Bronchitis (IB) Egg Drop Syndrome (EDS) Infectious Coryza Newcastle Disease - fine spray every 4-6 weeks during laying period Table 3 Basic Broiler vaccination programme. Age Disease Route Day old Infectious Bronchitis Newcastle Disease Eyedrop or course spray (Usually Day 14 (Avinew/Vitapest) done at hatchery) Day 16 - 18 Infectious Bursal Disease (Gumboro) Day 18 Newcastle Disease (Avinew) Drinking water Day 28 Infectious Bursal Disease Drinking Water Newcastle Disease Drinking water (Lasota type) Fine spray (Only if birds kept longer than 42 days) (Atomist or other) Table 4 Broiler vaccination programme where there is a high risk of Newcastle disease. Age Disease Route Day old Infectious Bronchitis Eye-drop or coarse spray (Usually Newcastle Disease done at hatchery) Day 14 (Avinew or VH) Day 14-16 Infectious Bursal Disease Drinking water Newcastle Disease (Cloned La Sota) Fine Spray (Atomist or other) Day 18 Infectious Bursal Disease Drinking water Day 25 Newcastle Disease Fine spray (La Sota type) (Atomist or other) (Only or if birds kept longer than 42 days) 481

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production Fine spray application of La Sota type vaccines Mercaptothion (Malasol) can be used to treat may cause vaccine reactions in some flocks. A external parasites on chickens as well as in the slight “snick” among the birds is normal 3 to environment, such as mites. Karbadust powder 4 days after spray vaccination. This should be can also be applied to the environment and to monitored and birds treated with an antibiotic birds. through the drinking water if symptoms become In South Africa, piperazine powder is the sole more severe or there is an increase in mortality. licensed dewormer for use in poultry. Off-label use of fenbendazole (panacur Bs) in ostriches 8.5.4 Endo- and ectoparasite control is permitted (Poultrydvm, 2021). Despite the methods. fact that residues in meat and eggs must be Endo- and ectoparasite treatment can be done regarded (European Medicines Agency, 2013). at regular intervals, such as when cleaning out the homes between batches of hens, or when 8.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR issues are noticed. Internal parasites can be YOUR AREA detected by the presence of worms in the faeces of the birds, as well as anaemia (blood loss), Many times, a combination of all three of the poor weight increase, and poor egg production. approaches described above will be required to External parasites can be found while inspecting be effective in managing diseases and pests in birds. Breakages in feathers or scales on the your region. None of the approaches will work legs are also indicators. Severe infestations will unless you have the cooperation of your local result in lost productivity. farmers. It will take a lot of teaching and trust In South Africa, there are relatively few building to gain this support. Farmers must buy products that are registered for use in chickens. into the initiative and make it their own if it is to succeed. 482

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 9 CONCLUSIONS the birds' health. Because of the unique and adaptive characteristics of indigenous hens, Rising temperatures induced by climate change free-range indigenous chicken farming provides can have a negative impact on production, a potential alternative to revitalizing the feed quality, water availability, growth, disease faltering poultry sector. incidence, health, immunological functions, Substantial populations of free-range poultry mortality, and reproduction rates, all of which farming may be preferable than indoor and, in have an impact on productivity. Hotter days particular, cage-rearing. Improving indigenous imply that poultry in climate-controlled units chickens' contribution to food security is will demand more energy (for cooling) during dependent, to some extent, on knowing the the production cycle, raising production costs. influence of climate change on indigenous Without climate-controlled units, small-holder chicken production and productivity. and subsistence poultry farmers may battle to manage and sustain producing chickens at optimum temperatures, thereby compromising 483

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production 10 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES CCARDESA (2019). Knowledge product 18 Climate Smart decision tool for climate smart pest and disease management. https://www.ccardesa.org/knowledge-products/knowledge-product-kp18-decision- tool-climate-smart-pest-disease-management-option. Daly C (no date). Poultry Farming in South Africa. http://southafrica.co.za/poultry-farming-south-africa. html. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) 2014. A profile of the South African broiler market value chain. Pretoria. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) 2019. A profile of the South African egg market value chain. Pretoria. https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/doaDev/sideMenu/Marketing/Annual%20 Publications/Egg%20Market%20Value%20Chain%20Profile%202019.pdf. Europeans Medicines Agency (2013). Fenbendazole: European public maximum-residue-limit assessment report (EPMAR) - CVMP Maximum residue limit assessment reports. FAO (2019). Manual for the primary animal health care worker. http://www.fao.org/3/t0690e/t0690e04. htm#unit%205:%20appearance%20of%20the%20healthy%20animal. Farming South Africa (2019). Best Chicken Layer Breeds in South Africa. https://farmingsouthafrica. co.za/best-chicken-layer-breeds-in-south-africa. Grobbelaar JAN, Sutherland B & Molalakgotla NM (2010). Egg production potentials of certain indigenous chicken breeds from South Africa Animal Genetic Resources. 46: 25-32. Kadzere CT (2018). Environmentally smart animal agriculture and integrated advisory services ameliorate the negative effects of climate change on production. South African Journal of Animal Science. 48:5. Kadzere CT (2019). Towards climate-smart livestock farming. Farmers Weekly, September 17, 2019. https://www.farmersweekly.co.za/opinion/by-invitation/towards-climate-smart-livestock-farming. Mitchell A (2017). https://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/how-will-climate-change-affect-poultry- disease-problems. Moeletsi ME, Tongwane MI. 2004. Methane and Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Manure Management in South Africa. Animals. 2015; 5(2):193-205. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani5020193. South African Poultry Association (2019). Industry profile. 484

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production South African Poultry Association (SAPA) (2012). The South African poultry industry profile 2012. Available: http://www.sapoultry.co.za/ [2016, August 01]. South African Poultry Association (SAPA) (2014). The South African poultry industry profile 2014. Available: http://www.sapoultry.co.za/pdf-docs/sapa-industry-profile.pdf [2016, April 06]. The Poultry Site (2016). Putting Down Perfect Bedding for Your Poultry. https://www.thepoultrysite. com/articles/putting-down-perfect-bedding-for-your-poultry. Trautmann S (2018). Climate Change Impacts on Bird Species. In: Tietze D. (Eds) Bird Species. Fascinating Life Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91689-7_12. For additional resources see: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Resource-Centre?folderId=147&view=gridview&pageSize=10. 485

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Poultry production LIST OF FIGURES 456 462 Figure 1 Market shares in the broiler meat industry. 463 Figure 2 Photo of environmentally controlled poultry house. 463 Figure 3 Photo of naturally ventilated poultry house. 466 Figure 4 Photo of Free-range poultry system. 466 Figure 5 Methane emission from manure management per animal category. 467 Figure 6 Greenhouse emission per kg of meat. 468 Figure 7 Nitrous oxide emission from manure management per animal category. 475 Figure 8 Thermoregulatory mechanisms of chickens. Figure 9 Clinical Grade of Bumblefoot Lesion in chickens. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Controlled animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984). 477 480 Table 2 Layer vaccination programme. 481 481 Table 3 Basic Broiler vaccination programme. Table 4 Broiler vaccination programme where there is a high risk of Newcastle disease. 486

MODULE 12 Small Ruminants Production (Sheep and Goats) Compiled by Dr. TDE Mpanza Agricultural Research Council – Animal Production Institute

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 489 2 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SMALL RUMINANTS 490 2.1 INDIRECT IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SMALL RUMINANTS 490 2.1.1 The effect of carbon dioxide 491 2.1.2 The effect of temperature 492 2.1.3 Effect of precipitation 492 2.2 DIRECT IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SMALL RUMINANTS 493 2.3 EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE ON 493 ENTERIC METHANE EMISSION FROM SMALL RUMINANTS 496 3 MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 496 3.1 FEEDING AND NUTRITION 496 3.1.1 Energy 496 3.1.2 Protein 496 3.1.3 Minerals 497 3.1.4 Vitamins 497 3.1.5 Water shortage and quality 497 3.2 REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION FROM LIVESTOCK 497 3.2.1 Enteric fermentation 498 3.2.2 Manure management 498 3.3 MODIFY THE ENVIRONMENT 499 4 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL RUMINANTS PRODUCTION 499 4.1 WHERE TO START? 499 4.2 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL 502 4.3 DISEASE REPORTING 502 4.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases 503 4.3.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases 504 4.3.3 Other common diseases 504 4.3.4 Zoonotic diseases 504 4.3.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers 505 4.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 505 4.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL 505 4.5.1 Biosecurity 505 4.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds 506 4.5.3 Vaccination campaigns 507 4.5.4 Immunization programme for sheep and goats 512 4.5.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control 512 4.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 513 5 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 516 516 LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES 488

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Climate Change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be detected 1 INTRODUCTION(e.g., by statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or variability of its characteristics Climate change isanadwthoartlldawstsidfeor panheexntoemndeendon, result to catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. As a iwfnlohcoricedhassaeinsddiscnthcoairdrmeancst,cppboeweererrosrihlcsoicoaioeencudsfdghsseoeehmrfds.ebtCoiabaymlryyitmeenlwxee,aatovatateefuedvrtrnceneathantsolals,idnfndoedgtircseesrcauroaimndncusaeghtaglssryhotuasss, result, change of climate is expected to have consequences. Thseusceh aesvseonlatrscyhcalevemoadunlaetgioanti,ve adverse effects on livestock production, hence, effect in livestockvofalcramniicnegruspetciotnosr,. aInnd ochrrdoenricto in this document, we address how changes in understand gtoshmaetas)lel,ch2fo0ufirtem0mu7cpiam)sto.nsicnocitrhariioatninncitmgaoelrpsplylairanoncimadtdtuumpocsoofetirso(tpcIaPnhlniCemCtr(i,acit.toee,. climatic conditions influences small ruminants change on (sheep and goats) production and we provide sheep and mitigation and adaptation options. firstly, define climate change. Climate change is thus a change in the state of the climate that This module is a resource for extension agents can be quantified (statistically) by changes in supporting small and subsistence farmers. the mean and/or variability of its properties, Climate-Smart Agriculture focuses on the three and that persists over an extended period of pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation. time, typically decades or longer (IPCC, 2007). (CCARDESA, 2019). In South Africa, the need to produce more meat Tompkins and Adger (2004), however, argues and milk is continuously increasing. A climate- that changes in climate are likely to manifest smart response means producing more meat in four ways. Hence, definition of climate and milk per animal (increased productivity) change must take cognisance of these ways. to meet the demand for livestock products. Thus, four definitions of climate change are Sick animals cannot produce optimally. To given: 1) the increases of seasonal and inter- ensure that animals remain healthy, we can use annual variability, 2) the gradual changes in resistant animals (adaptation) and help them mean climate conditions, 3) the increases in the produce more efficiently through vaccination frequency of extreme events (such as drought and parasite control (mitigation). or floods) and 4) the rapid climatic changes that 489

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 2 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SMALL RUMINANTS The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change between an animal and the environment (Rust (IPCC) predicted that the increasing frequency & Rust 2013). of extreme events such as droughts, floods, and heat waves will have negative impacts on 2.1 INDIRECT IMPACT OF natural ecosystems (as illustrated in Figure 1) CLIMATE CHANGE ON SMALL in many parts of the world, including South RUMINANTS Africa. South Africa has experienced extreme weather conditions, with recent drought events Livestock, especially small ruminants, plays a in 2015/2016, 2016/2017 and 2018/2019 crucial role in the livelihood of the people. This highlighting the effects of climate change and is because their products (i.e. milk and meat) its impact on agricultural production. are an important agricultural commodity for The impacts of climate on livestock such global food security, providing about 18% of as small ruminants can be divided into two global kilocalories and 37% of global protein categories, namely indirect and direct impacts, consumption (Poore & Nemecek, 2018). which are shown in Figure 2. Indirect impacts However, climate change will affect livestock of climate change on small ruminants relate production through competition for natural to feed availability and increased susceptibility resources (e.g. grass as the main feed source) as to animal diseases. Direct impacts are those productivity decreases and feed quality declines associated with high temperatures, precipitation (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). and radiation and relate to an exchange of heat Figure 1 A photo showing the effect of climate change on natural vegetation. Source: Google.com. 490

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Figure 2 Schematic diagram showing the effect of climate change on livestock production. The effects of climate change on livestock of plant species. For example, C3 plants may production factors are shown in Figure 3. 5bgbr5eea0ncsaespufeipsstem. fWCr,o3yhmipeenladasCtiunrOircs2ereseinaricnesreqesCuaOsiore2ef,sbmufernootwlrmiekeeCe3nO8C0242t4php%palamnanCnttsod4, Temperature affects most critical factors for 29% are expected for C3 pastures, whereas the livestock production such as water availability, response is small for C3/C4 mixtures (17%) and animal production, reproduction and health. C4 pastures (9%) (Sejian et al., 2012a; Dumont et Forage quantity and quality are affected by a taol.,a2d0e1c4r)e.aHsoewinecvreor,pannitirnocgreeansceoinnteCnOt2bcyanableoaudt combination of temperature increase, carbon 9%, while forage non-structural carbohydrates dioxide (CO2) and rainfall variability. increase by about 30% (Dumont et al., 2014). 2.1.1 The effect of carbon dioxide The effect on the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere depends on the type 491

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 2.1.2 The effect of temperature 2.1.3 Effect of precipitation An increase in temperature can lead to Erratic rainfall exacerbated by extreme lignification of plant tissues, which reduces temperatures is expected to worsen both feed digestibility and contributes to the degradation quantity and quality of forage by increasing of plant species, leading to an increase in the degree of forage lignification, triggering eamftfeeatclh.t,anp2ea0s1(t3Cu)Hr.e4C) cheoammnigspesoisosinitnisotfnerombmypelairvlateetsurtironecgkasn(pPdeocClliOeeys2 chronic nutrient deficiencies in livestock, which competition dynamics due to changes in can be detrimental to production and animal optimal growth rates (Thornton et al., 2015). health (Abdurehman and Ameha, 2018). Due Plant competition is affected by seasonal shifts to climate change (i.e. increasing drought and in water availability (Polley et al., 2013). Primary temperatures), Southern Africa is projected to productivity of pastures may increase due to lose about 20% of pasture production potential changes in species composition as temperature, by 2080 (Shah et al., 2008). This is because an precipitation, and concurrent nitrogen inputs increase in average temperature combined increase (IPCC, 2007). Increased temperatures with a decrease in precipitation leads to high and dry conditions due to fluctuations in evapotranspiration, which in turn reduces soil concentrations of water-soluble carbohydrates moisture content (Rodell et al., 2009). This leads and nitrogen can affect the quality of forage to very low soil moisture and soil dryness, which crops and forages. (Thornton et al., 2009). eventually reduces forage production (Apata et al., 2009). Forage production on rangelands in Africa is sensitive to climate change and this phenomenon will have a significant impact on the livelihoods of more than 180 million people who raise livestock on rangelands (Boone et al., 2018). Figure 3 Impacts of climate change on livestock. Source: Rojas-Downing et al., 2017. 492

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 2.2 DIRECT IMPACT OF CLIMATE In small ruminants, heat stress causes infertility CHANGE ON SMALL due to ovarian dysfunction caused by increased RUMINANTS core body temperature. Direct effects of climate change on small 2.3 EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ruminant production include heat stress. The TEMPERATURE ON ENTERIC susceptibility of livestock to heat stress varies METHANE EMISSION FROM depending on the species, genetic potential, SMALL RUMINANTS stage and nutritional status of the animal. At higher latitudes, rising temperatures tend to The increase in environmental temperature has a have a greater impact on livestock than at lower negative effect on feed intake and its digestibility latitudes, where local livestock breeds are often in small ruminants, thus affecting methane already well acclimated to withstand heat stress p(CeHri4o)deomfispsliaonnt.s It also shortens the growing and drought (Thornton et al., 2009). Under heat as they reach maturity more stress, sheep and goats reduce their activities, quickly. Consequently, the resulting increased including feed intake, resulting in reduced lignification may reduce the digestibility of the body weight and growth. Heat stress results in plants for the animals. The composition of the a 76% reduction in rumination time in sheep forage also affects the fermentation patterns (Hirayama et al., 2000). Meanwhile, goats are in the rumen and methane emissions in the thought to urinate and defecate less under intestine. heat stress conditions due to increased use of respiratory and skin cooling mechanisms, which Among domesticated animals, small ruminants could lead to dehydration (Shilja et al., 2015). In are the most versatile and adapt more readily small ruminants, heat stress leads to infertility to a changing climate than any other ruminants. due to ovarian dysfunction caused by increased In this section, goats are used as an illustrative core body temperature. example. In general, small ruminants are less affected by drought compared to other Figure 4a shows the effects of very high or very ruminants because their browsing habit andthe low ambient temperatures on animal welfare. anatomical advantages of their upper lips allow them to thrive in limited forage supply, Figure 4b and Figure 5 show that heat stress also especially in arid and semi-arid regions (Pragna causes silent heat, early embryonic death and et al., 2018). When forage is scarce, goats may impaired embryonic development (Silanikove reduce their metabolic functions to conserve & Darcan 2015). According to Abdurehaman energy resources (Yadav et al. 2013). Table 1 and Ameha (2018), the effects of heat stress describes the traits that enable goats to survive on livestock can be categorized as feed in harsh climatic conditions. intake, nutrient utilization, animal production, reproduction, health and mortality. 493

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual b Small ruminants production a Figure 4 a) Thermoneutral zones of metabolic regulation related to ambient temperature; b) effect of heat stress on sheep. Source: Silanikove & Darcan, 2015; Kumar et al., 2017. Figure 5 Effect of heat stress on rumen function of animal. Source: Pragna et al., 2018. 494

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Table 1 Advantageous characteristics associated with small ruminants (e.g. goat) on surviving harsh climatic condition. Criteria Special characteristics of small ruminant Adaptability Goats are better adapted to broad environmental conditions ranging from arid dry to cold arid to hot humid. Goats in the tropical warm climate are more or less dwarf and have less body weight, while goats in colder climates have bigger size and more fur growth. Due to their lesser body size, their metabolic requirements are considerably low, they have the ability to reduce their metabolism and their loose skin aids in easy dissipation of body heat. Thermo-tolerance Goats are more thermo-tolerant than all other ruminant species. They possess the ability to survive in different agro-ecological zones. Drought tolerance Goats possess the ability to thrive well in drought prone areas because of reduced water requirement in comparison to sheep and other domestic ruminants. Goats have better water conservation ability than other ruminant animals because of their browse diet. Further, the gut, especially the rumen, acts as a water reservoir during the periods of dehydration. Ability to thrive well on Efficient utilisers of poor quality and a wide range of pastures. Goats low pasture have improved digestibility compared to all other rumen and animals and because the small-sized feed consumption is also low, these factors together favour less CH4 production. Low enteric methane Goats produce less enteric methane compared to sheep and other emission ruminants. Digestibility and feed Increased efficiency to convert feed into milk and meat than all other conversion efficiency domestic ruminants, they can even digest poor quality feed. Goats have less proportion of gut in relation their total body weight, which enables the rapid movement of digesta from the rumen and the entire gastrointestinal tract. Suitable for landless Small area is required to rear goats because of their small size, they require farmers less feed and they can be easily integrated into other farming systems. 495

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 3 MITIGATING THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE. 3.1 FEEDING AND NUTRITION decreases while reproductive failure, mortality, and susceptibility to disease and parasites About 60% of the costs associated with sheep increase. Therefore, to ensure that small and goat production are for feed. To mitigate ruminants are adequately supplied with energy, the effects of climate change, it is important rich feeds are required. Inadequate feed or poor to change ruminant feeds as they contribute quality pasture are the main causes of energy significantly to climate change by increasing deficiency. Small ruminants obtain most of their greenhouse gas emissions. However, before energy from sources such as pastures, shrubs, considering strategies to change feeding, hay and grains. understand the key objectives of feeding animals. 3.1.2 Protein Animals are fed to meet their nutritional needs For small ruminants, the quantity of protein in and maintain an appropriate body weight, the diet is more important than its quality. If depending on the stage of production an protein supplementation is the main objective, animal is in. In terms of profitable production, the cost per kilogram of protein is the most proper feeding (throughout the year) is critical, important factor. If rapid growth and high regardless of the effects of climate change. production are to be achieved, an adequate It is imperative that sheep and goat farmers amount of protein must be fed to the young have a basic understanding of animal nutrition stock. Since excessive feeding is very expensive, and the specific nutritional needs of animals at cheaper and easily accessible alternative different stages of development or production. sources of protein are recommended. For Nutrition programs should support optimal example, the use of agro-industrial by-products production, be economical and efficient, and and locally available legumes, trees and shrubs minimize the risk of nutritional problems. To can be beneficial for smallholder farming. understand the nutrition of small ruminants, we 3.1.3 Minerals must first know what nutrients are necessary Essential minerals for sheep and goats are for growth, production, and reproduction. calcium, phosphorus, and salt. The major These essential nutrients include: sources of these minerals are diet, various mineral supplements, and water supply. • Energy (i.e. fat and carbohydrates) Generally, these minerals are needed only in • Protein small amounts. Minerals such as calcium and • Vitamins phosphorus are interrelated. This means that • Minerals while an adequate supply of both minerals is • Water required, the ratio of calcium to phosphorus 3.1.1 Energy must be in appropriate concentrations. The most common limiting factor in small ruminant diets is energy (calories). When there is a lack of energy in the diet, production 496

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 3.1.4 Vitamins in sheep and other intensive livestock. Mixing Vitamins are compounds necessary for normal total rations (TMR) using locally available growth, health, and reproduction. Small ingredients (e.g. agro-industrial by-products) ruminants need an adequate supply of vitamins, can improve feed costs (Lallo et al., 1991). just like other animals. However, their need for Meeting the nutritional needs of animals at a vitamins is relatively low because of the nature lower cost (Lallo et al., 2017) will mitigate the of the feed they normally consume and the indirect effects of climatic variability leading to synthesis of vitamins in the rumen.. malnutrition (Wadhwani et al., 2010). 3.1.5 Water shortage and quality In feeding animals, it is very important to select The demand for drinking water increases as feed based on the following six steps which are: ambient temperaturesrise, and this is likely to be accompanied by water scarcity due to unstable 1) Calculating total energy and protein rainfall patterns (Abdurehaman & Ameha requirements for each class of animal, 2018). Ingestion of fibrous forage increases fermentative heat and thermoregulatory 2) Assessing how much feed can be demand for potable water (Shibata and Mukai, provided from available sources (e.g., 1979). Berihulay et al. (2019) argue that animals pasture and/or crop residues), exposed to a hot environment require about 2 to 3 times more drinking water due to increased 3) Identifying the cheapest fodder cheapest respiration and sweating rates. Therefore, water in your area, if you choose to purchase plays an important role in animal nutrition and it, a lack of it can alter animal behaviour patterns (Nejad & Sung, 2017). 4) Estimating the cost and quantity of the Water is responsible for the following functions preferred forage, in the animal body: 5) Identifying water requirements, • Helping to digest food 6) Monitor individual mobs and adjust • Regulating the body temperature • Lubricating ration if necessary.. • Transporting waste from the body To combine feed ingredients into the most cost- 3.2 REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS effective but efficient ration, producers must EMISSION FROM LIVESTOCK consider the nutritional needs of each animal at its particular life stage. Rojas-Downing et al. (2017) suggest that Typically, the high proportion of concentrates in various technologies and practices can be used intensive livestock production accounts for more to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in than 60% of total production costs, particularly livestock production. Improved feed quality for livestock and effective manure management are some of the strategies implemented to mitigate the impact of livestock on climate change. 3.2.1 Enteric fermentation Enteric fermentation is the main source of methane (CtoH4t)heemquisasliitoynsof in ruminants and is related the feed the animals eat. Studies have been conducted to 497

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production reduce methane production from ruminants removal is most effective in husbandry systems while improving production. For example, where solids can be easily removed from the increasing the fat content in animal diets has system (Rojas-Dowing et al., 2017). resulted in a decrease of about 5% in methane emissions from the gut (Marttin et al., 2010). 3.3 MODIFY THE ENVIRONMENT Providing higher quality feeds has also led to a reduction in methane emissions due to the When animals are exposed to sunlight, heat higher digestibility of the feed (Hristov et al., stress and skin and core temperatures increase. 2013). Supplementing animals with bovine Shade plays a critical role in reducing more somatotropin and antibiotics also reduces than 30% of the total heat delivered to animals. methane gas fermentation in the gut (Boadi Sheep are particularly sensitive to heat stress. et al., 2004). However, the use of antibiotics Therefore, in hot weather they spend most of for supplementation is prohibited for health their time in the shade, as you can see in Figure reasons. 6. 3.2.2 Manure management Figure 6 shows animals gathered under the Methane is also produced by animal manure, shelter in a grazing area, seeking covering from and proper management of manure helps heat. reduce methane emissions. However, it should Naturally ventilated animal housing systems can be noted that it is difficult to take measures to be constructed in a number of ways to alter the reduce methane emissions, especially on pasture environment. The orientation (positioning and land, because manure is dispersed compared open side) of the structure is a critical factor in to manure stored in an enclosed space such as such modifications. If the building is oriented a kraal. According to ICF International (2013), north-south, it is exposed to more solar radiation most measures to reduce manure emissions than if it is oriented east-west, minimizing the include reducing storage time, using anaerobic effect of solar radiation (Smith & Harner, 2012). digesters, covering storage areas, using solid To further minimize the effect of solar radiation, separators and changing feeding practices. a gable roof should be built and painted white Aerobic digestion and manure storage covers or covered with insulated galvanized sheets. help capture methane gas and produce biogas The dimensions of the house, especially the that can be used for energy (biofuels). Solids width, are also important for air movement. Figure 6 The role of shade during hot day owing to climate change. (ource: Lallo et al 2017. 498

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL RUMINANTS PRODUCTION The rise in temperature has caused certain • How do they look for signs of disease in disease vectors to spread to areas where they their animals? could not before (WHO, 2021). The rise in temperature has also led to more heat stress • How do they keep records of their animals? in animals, increasing metabolic diseases • What data do they include in the records? in these animals. In addition, the quality of • How do they choose which animals to keep? milk is affected, reproduction decreases, • What vaccines and veterinary medicines do and production decreases (Joy et al., 2020). Flooding has also increased, bringing with it a they use? greater number of vectors such as mosquitoes • Where do they get the vaccines? that transmit not only animal diseases but also • What infrastructure is in place? zoonotic diseases. Scientists are constantly • How many workers are available to the looking for ways to combat infectious diseases by preventing diseases rather than treating farmers? them to provide a cost-effective mechanism for • What equipment does the farmer have? disease control. Climate-smart pest and disease management What then? has the following potential benefits: Once you understand how the system works, you can formulate (with the help of farmers) • Decrease in mortality rates an appropriate plan based on the main gaps • Decrease in morbidity rates identified in the observation and information • An increase in disease reporting on diseases. • Increased productivity • An increase in fertility and milk yield 4.2 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK • An increase in income ANIMAL • Lowering of greenhouse gas emissions Climate smart pest and disease management The only way to detect if an animal lies in for small livestock may be split into these knowing how a healthy animal looks (FAO, categories: biological vector control, resistant 2021). breed development, vaccination programs, and parasite control (CCARDESA, 2019). Looking from a distance • An animal should be able to stand up 4.1 WHERE TO START? straight, with its feet squared and its head raised. It must be alert and aware of its • Consider your target farmers and identify surroundings. their agricultural practices. • Animals that are secluded from a group and have limited mobility (do not move) may be • Identify and prioritize the problems that considered sick. need urgent attention. • Animals should distribute their weight evenly on all four legs when walking, • What is their main goal with their farming without arching their back. operation? 499