Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Looking at the head Looking at the udder or scrotum • The eyes must be bright and alert and not The udder must be examined for signs of mastitis have any discharge such as heat, swelling, pain and inflammation • The ears should be checked for presence of (blue udder). The milk may also be examined for ticks and any bad smells must be noted thickness or flakes in the milk and for blood. In • The nose and muzzle must be moist and not males, the scrotum must be examined for signs have coloured discharges coming from it. of heat, swelling, pain, inflammation, or lumps. • The mouth must not have excessive saliva This may be due to orchitis, epididymitis, or dripping from it. Food falling from the chronic atrophy of the testicles. mouth can be a sign of teeth problems Looking at the feet • The incisor teeth should be checked for Conditions such as overgrown hooves or wearing foot rot could be obvious. The coronary band • The tongue can be checked for ulcers or (the area directly above the hoof) also shows swelling as in blue tongue inflammation in many of these conditions. Taking the temperature Looking at the chest Any animal showing signs of illness should have The respiratory rate of a small ruminant should its temperature taken. A normal temperature not exceed 40 (goats) or 55 (sheep) breaths for a sheep or goat should be in the range of per minute when resting in the shade. The 38.5-40.5°C. heartbeat of the sheep or goat can be felt on Looking at the dung of animals the left side of the animal just behind the elbow For small animals, look for a normal looking and should not exceed 60-80 beats per minute. pellet. Dehydration can cause dry pellets, while There is a lymph node just in front of the diarrhea can be a sign of infectious disease, shoulder that can be palpated. If it is enlarged, worms, or metabolic disease. this is a sign of disease. The animal's wool or Looking at the penis and urine hair can be examined for signs of breakage or The urine should be clear and the animal should friction, which indicate disease and parasites.. show no signs of pain when urinating. In a ram or Looking at the Abdomen buck, blood could be a sign of prostatitis. Blood You can see the amount of stuffing (whether in the urine may also be due to a disease such the animal has eaten or not) in the paralumbar as pizzle rot or a severe urinary tract infection. fossa (the triangle behind the last rib in front Looking at the back of the hind leg). If you place your finger in The body condition score of an animal can be the paralumbar fossa, you can also feel if the determined by palpating the muscle between large stomach is moving or not. An animal with the spinous and transfer processes of the spine, stomach pain will constantly look and kick at its as shown in Figure 7. flank. 500

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Figure 7 Identification of a sick animal by looking at the back. 501

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.3 DISEASE REPORTING According to the Animal diseases, ACT 35 of 1984 the definitions: One of the most important functions of the extension officer is to assist in the notification • 'controlled animal disease' means any of controlled and notifiable diseases to the animal disease in respect of which any authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases general or particular control measure has Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. been prescribed, and any animal disease which is not indigenous or native to the Link to the act: Republic. Table 2 of the regulations on the https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ act gives a list of controlled diseases. Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ • 'notifiable animal disease' an animal diseaseact disease specified in Annexure 3 Link to the regulations: Defining the term vector as per the CCARDESA https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ definition: Vectors are insects, birds or other StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ animals that transmit a disease and/or pest SubordinateFileDownload/5843 from one host to another. 4.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases Additional diseases with trade implications Controlled animal diseases (in terms of the are also reported to the OIE through the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) as Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and pertaining to small ruminants are presented in Rural Development (DALRD), as extension Table 2. officers do not have formal training in these diseases and are not expected to note them. Table 2 Controlled animal diseases as pertaining to small ruminants. Disease Clinical signs Vector Anthrax Sudden death with small amount of un-clotted blood No Aujeszky’s disease coming out of all openings. Trashing and convulsions, fever. No (Pseudorabies) Intense pruritus (itchiness) causing the animals to scratch and bite at the affected area. Neurological signs will include No Brucellosis weakness and bellowing, teeth grinding and irregular heart rates. Rhipicephalus East coast fever Abortion, stillborn or weak lambs, retained placentas and appendiculatus reduced milk yield. Testicular abscesses. Arthritis in chronic (brown ear infections. Orchitis and epididymitis in sheep. tick) and R. Fever, listlessness, enlarged lympnodes, corneal opacity, zambeziensis nasal discharge, diarrhea, anemia and neurological symptoms 502

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Foot and mouth Blisters in the oral cavity and on the tongue, blisters No disease (FMD) between the toes and above the hooves and on teats. Hyper Johne’s disease salivation. No Nagana Chronic diarrhea and weight loss with a normal appetite. Tsetse fly (Trypanosomiasis) Starts with animal becoming listless, coat becoming No Rabies roughened, ocular discharge, progressive weakness, animal uninterested in surroundings and death. No Rinderpest Sudden behavior changes, incoordination, abnormal No Skin conditions bellowing, excessive salivation, paralysis of the throat or No Scrapie limbs. No Sheep scab Fever, diarrhea, discharges from the eyes and nose (crusts), No Tuberculosis sores in the mouth and sudden death in days. Any animal disease Any skin condition in sheep are reportable or infectious agent Neurological , nervousness, weight loss, muscle tremors, that is not known starts to rub on objects. to occur in South Yellow pustules on the skin, crusting and wool falling off. Africa. Intense itchiness of the sheep. Persistent cough, diarrhea, weight loss and abdominal pain. Usually there is a history of an animal being imported or feed that has been imported or taken from ships in the case of these diseases. 4.3.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases Notifiable animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) are presented in Table 3. Table 3 Notifiable animal diseases with reference to small ruminants. Disease Clinical signs Vector Bluetongue Fever, ulcerative lesions in Cullicoides the oral cavity, ulcerative Rift valley fever dermatitis, stiffness, increased Mosquitoes salivation, lacrimation. Nasal discharge, excessive salivation, loss of appetite, weakness and diarrhoea. 503

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.3.3 Other common diseases When there has been flooding, animals are Other diseases will vary depending on your area, more susceptible to diseases caused by flies, and environmental conditions. During drought such as foot rot, mastitis, and eye infections. conditions, animal species may huddle around Biting flies are more likely to transmit diseases limited food and water supplies, resulting in to animals.. more plant poisonings.. With the fresh grass spreading out, nutritional Skin disorders will become increasingly common problems including prussic acid poisoning, as immunity declines. grass stagers, and fog fever may become more In small stock, verminosis (worms) is also a problematic. major issue, and we use the 5-point check to 4.3.4 Zoonotic diseases determine whether or not an animal needs to The most prevalent diseases transferred be dewormed. between animals and humans that have recently Worms in tiny stock develop resistance to been discovered in South Africa are: deworming chemicals too quickly for a single deworming to be effective. • Tuberculosis The Famacha score (mucous membrane color), • Brucellosis signs of bottle jaw, signs of nasal discharge, • Rabies bodily condition score, and DAG score are all • Salmonella part of the 5-point check. • Rift valley fever (Bath et al, 2010) • Cystic echinococcosis Pulpy kidney disease is of mayor concern and • Anthrax infected animals should be treated before they To mention a few, raw milk can spread are dewormed if heavy worm burdens are tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Salmonella, Q-fever, expected. E.coli, Camphylobacteriosis, and Listeriosis. Coccidiosis burdens in animals housed in tight Humans are also highly infectious to the Orf quarters due to feeding needs or huddling due virus in small stock. to extreme weather conditions. If you become unwell, make sure to tell your Blowfly attack is also a seasonal concern in doctor that your employment requires you to several parts of the country. work with sick animals. Heat stress, as well as dietary changes, can 4.3.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers cause nutritional disorders such ketosis and Educating farmers on their obligations, which rumen acidity (especially lack of food). include reporting any animals that show signs of disease to the extension officer or the animal health technician, who will contact a veterinarian. It's also important to address the 504

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production shame that comes with reporting some of these prohibited (domestic animals and wildlife). illnesses. Farmers will only share information • The sick animals' excretions with you if you have a great relationship with • Personnel, clothing, and equipment them. According to the Animal Diseases Act, it • It is found naturally in soil. is also the obligation of animal owners to report • Housing was not cleaned after sick animals disease events, and if they do not follow the rules, they may be breaking the law. were housed in it. • Feed and water. 4.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF 4.5.1 Biosecurity VECTORS Good biosecurity is the key in keeping these diseases out of your herds. Heart water, for example, is only available in locations where the bont tick is found, therefore • Quarantine all new animals for at least 14 the diseases that rely on vectors will change days on your farm. depending on the local conditions. During the rainy season, when mosquitoes and biting • Separate any sick animal from healthy ones midges are in greater numbers, diseases carried immediately. (this includes diseases such as by biting flies are most common. foot rot and mastitis) Controlling these disorders can be done in a • Do not allow visitors to your herds. variety of methods, including: • Wash your hands regularly. • When returning to your farm after a trip, • Long fallowing periods are required to ensure that the vector dies before the make sure to disinfect your footwear. introduction of new hosts. • If you lend someone your equipment or • To prevent transmission, fence off areas or vehicle, make sure to disinfect it. herd animals away from other herds.. • Always start with the healthy animals and • Keeping animals stabled or kraaled away work your way down to the sick animals. from high-risk areas at specific times of day, • If you don't have any sick animals, go from for example, to avoid bluetongue virus, and keeping animals away from swampy areas the youngest to the oldest. at dusk to avoid biting midges. • As an extension officer, do not visit multiple • Getting rid of vector breeding grounds, farms in the same clothing. such as stagnant water where mosquitoes • Washing your hands and disinfecting them breed. before milking an animal. Milking out • Setting up pest traps, such as tsetse fly mastitis sheep last. traps, is one example (CCARDESA, 2019) • Placing lambs with scours on a washable surface and disinfecting the surface after 4.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE the scours has stopped. CONTROL 4.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds Other sections go into greater depth on this Not all diseases are transmitted by vectors, subject. Indigenous breeds are typically more some other transmission methods include: resistant to diseases that occur naturally in a certain geographic area. There should be a • Direct contact between sick animals is disclaimer that certain diseases that are not 505

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production endemic to a region, yet are present in native • Make sure that the time of year to do the breeds, do not require vaccination. Some vaccination is relevant to the disease and to animals have better genetic adaptations to when the farmers have time. climate change than others (Joy et al., 2020). Selecting animals out of your herd that • Ensure that farmers are informed about continuously suffer from a disease condition is the vaccine's benefits and the need for the best option. Do not allow unplanned mating revaccination. to happen as this will weaken your herd. 4.5.3 Vaccination campaigns • Ascertain that a method for identifying If vaccination campaigns are run by extension vaccinated animals exists. officers and not veterinarians, make sure that any other diseases in the animals are • Make sure there's a way to keep track of the recorded and brought under the attention of animals that have been vaccinated, as well the veterinarian or animal health technician to as receipts for payment from the farmers. assist with treatment and veterinary drugs. Many of the diseases can be prevented or the • Will the farmers be able to continue severity of the symptoms lessened by use of receiving these vaccinations? commercially available vaccines. When planning a vaccination campaign ensure: When giving the vaccine: • Make sure of the batch and expiry date of • Arrangement as to the time is made with the vaccine. the owners of the livestock. • Make sure the cold chain was maintained. • Only use the vaccine according to the • Try to go to the farms rather than gathering instructions. the animals from different farms together if • Do not re-use vaccines if the label states they do not graze together already. you cannot keep it. • Check the dose of vaccine. • Make arrangements as to how much the • Check if it can be given to pregnant animals farmers must pay for the vaccines. or not. • Look for the potential dangers to the • Check the availability of handling facilities. vaccinators and make them aware of it. • Check the availability of equipment and • Only vaccinate healthy animals. • Never promise the farmer 100% success storage to make sure the vaccines stay at rate of the vaccine (CCARDESA, 2019) the correct temperature. • Make sure there are enough trained The following is an example of a vaccination vaccinators. program from Onderstepoort Biological • Get an approximation of the amount of products: animals that will need vaccination. https://www.obpvaccines.co.za/resources/ • Make sure that enough vaccines are documents/Immune-Program.pdf. ordered and available to do the campaign. This information can be combined with current disease trends in the area to create your own practical vaccination list. 506

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.5.4 Immunization programme for sheep and goats 4.5.4.1 Sheep that have not been immunized before Initial vaccination must be done according to management and breeding programs on a specific farm. The schedule in Table 4 can be changed to fit specific farm needs. Table 4 Vaccination programme for small ruminants that have not been immunized before. Time of Essential vaccines Additional vaccines Dose and route administration Bluetongue (ewes) - 1 mℓ subcutaneously (ABC 3 weeks apart) 9 weeks before breeding season Just after the breeding Blue Tongue (rams) - 1 mℓ subcutaneously season (ABC vaccines 3 weeks apart) At 6 months Bluetongue - 1 mℓ subcutaneously 4 - 6 weeks before Rift Valley fever (live (ABC vaccines 3 weeks breeding season vaccine) OR Clone 13 apart) 6 - 10 weeks before Chlamysure the lambing season (Chlamydia) - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - - - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Gasgangrene (rams) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Blue udder (1st inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously - Tetanus (1st inject) 1 mℓ subcutaneously 2 - 4 weeks before the - Lamb dysentery 2 mℓ subcutaneously lambing season - (1st inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Blue udder (2nd inject) Tetanus (2nd inject) 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Lamb dysentery 2 mℓ subcutaneously (2nd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously - Escherichia coli 507

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production From 2 weeks of age Heartwater blood (0- 3 mℓ intraveneously 21 days of age) At 4 - 6 weeks of age - Pasteurella (1st inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Before weaning - (4 - 5 months of age) A. pyogenes 2 mℓ subcutaneously - C. ovis (lambs) 4 - 5 months of age - 2 mℓ subcutaneously At 6 months Brucella Rev. 1 (rams) Enterotoxaemia Pasteurella (2nd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously (1st inject) - - 2 mℓ subcutaneously - - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - - Botulism (1st inject) 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Gasgangrene 2 mℓ subcutaneously Enterotoxaemia (1st inject) (2nd Inject) Pasteurella (3rd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Rift Valley fever (live Redgut (1st inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously vaccine) OR Clone 13 Redgut (2nd inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously - - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - - - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Botulism (2nd inject) 1 mℓ subcutaneously Anthrax 1 mℓ subcutaneously 2 mℓ subcutaneously Gasgangrene (2nd Inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously Swelled head (rams) 508

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.5.4.2 Sustained immunization programme for adult sheep Yearly or six monthly booster injections can be given in an annual breeding program. The following table (Table 5) is a practical example and could be changed to fit local circumstances. Table 5 Sustained immunization programme for adult sheep. Time of Essential vaccines Optional vaccines Dose and route administration Bluetongue - 1 mℓ subcutaneously Late winter - Early - (3 vaccines 3 weeks Spring (Aug - Sept) apart) C. ovis 1 mℓ subcutaneously 4 - 6 weeks before Enterotoxaemia (pulpy C. pyogenes stress and risk periods kidney) Rift Valley Fever/Clone 2 mℓ subcutaneously - 13 5 mℓ subcutaneously - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Rift Valley (inactivated) - 1 mℓ subcutaneously Autumn (April - May) Anthrax Botulism 4 - 6 weeks before - Pyogenes 1 mℓ subcutaneously stress and risk periods - Pasteurella 1 mℓ subcutaneously - - 5 mℓ subcutaneously 4 - 6 weeks before the Chlamysure 2 mℓ subcutaneously breeding season (Chlamydia) Blue udder 1 mℓ subcutaneously 2 - 4 weeks before the - Tetanus lambing season Lamb dysentery 2 mℓ subcutaneously - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - 2 mℓ subcutaneously ± 4 weeks before - Escherichia coli 2 mℓ subcutaneously shearing Anthrax - 1 mℓ subcutaneously - Quarter-evil 1 mℓ subcutaneously - C. ovis 2 mℓ subcutaneously 509

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.5.4.3 Vaccination programme for goats A vaccination programme for goats is presented in Table 6. Table 6 Vaccination programme for goats. Source: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Resource-Centre?folderId=147&view=gridview&pageSize=10. Month Animal class Essential vaccines Optional vaccines January Kids Epididymitis (male Quarter evil (4-5 months of age) goats) (1st inoculation) February Weaning (Brucella melitensis) Adult animals Enterotoxaemia (oil Botulism March vaccine) (1st inoculation) April/ May Adult animals Anthrax (in areas (4–6 weeks before Enzootic abortion where the disease breeding season) (Chlamydia) occurred in the last 5 Kids Enterotoxaemia (oil years) (5-6 months old) vaccine) Blue udder Wesselbron disease* From 15 March Rift Valley fever breeding season Rift Valley fever All animals Wesselbron disease* Quarter evil (2nd inoculation) Botulism (2nd inoculation) Anthrax (only if disease occurred in the area for the last 5 years) Botulism Pasteurella Quarter evil 510

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production The vaccination programme in Table 7 can be used as a guide in cases where the goats have not been immunised before. Table 7 Vaccination schedule for goats that have not been immunised before. Month Animal class Essential vaccines Optional vaccines June Adult animals (not Tetanus (if kids are castrated Blue udder (1st immunised before) using rubber ring) inoculation) July (1st inoculation) 6-8 weeks before kidding Vitamins A, D, E Blue udder (2nd August All animals Deworm inoculation) Adult animals Tetanus (if kids are castrated (not immunised before) using rubber ring) Pasteurella (2nd inoculation) Vitamins A, D, E 2-4 weeks before kidding Vitamins A, D, E Heartwater (in Pasteurella heartwater area) Kids Pasteurella ( 2 weeks old) Pasteurella September All animals Enterotoxaemia (alum) Deworm October Kids Deworm (6 weeks old) All animals 511

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 4.5.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control • Know which class the dewormer that you As previously indicated in this module, are using belong to, to avoid buying a deworming the entire flock and deworming product to which resistance is present in on an ad hoc basis has raised major difficulties your farming area. in South Africa, with anthelmintic (dewormer) resistance being a major concern. Before 4.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR deworming animals, perform a 5-point check. YOUR AREA Fecal egg counts can be used to monitor resistance when possible (ACSRPC, 2015). To effectively control dominant diseases and When administering doses, keep the following pests in your area, you may need to use a mix in mind: of all three of the above methods. None of the ideas will work unless local farmers are enlisted • Try to get a weight of the animal before to help. Obtaining that help necessitates a giving the dewormer. significant amount of study and effort. Farmers must buy into the concept and make it their • Do not use expired dewormer. own if it is to be successful. • Do not move an animal to a new camp right after deworming it. • Only change dewormer if resistance to the anthelmintic class is confirmed. 512

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production 5 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Abdurehman A & Ameha N (2018). Prospects of climate change on livestock production. Journal of Science and Innovative Research. 7 (4): 100-105. Storey B (2015). Fecal egg count: Uses and limitations. In: What Works With Worms proceedings of International Congress on Sustainable Parasite Management. American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRPC), pp.1-9. Farm Inn, Pretoria, South Africa, May 2015. Available at: https:// www.wormx.info/whatworkswithworms. Apata TG, Samuel KD & Adeola AO (2009). Analysis of climate change and perception and Adaptation among Arable Food Crops Farmers in South Western Nigeria, Department of Agricultural Economics, Akure, Nigeria. Bath GF, van Wyk JA & Malan FS (2010). Targeted selective treatment of sheep using the Five Point Check. Journal of Commonwealth Veterinary Association. 26: 29-32. Berihulay H, Abied A, He X, Jaing L & Ma Y (2019). Adaptation mechanisms of small ruminants to environmental heat stress. Animals. 9: 75; doi:10.3390/ani9030075. Boadi D, Benchaar C, Chiquette J & Masse D (2004). Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emission from Dairy cows: update review. Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 84: 319-335. Boone RB, Conant RT, Sircely J, Thornton PK & Herrero M (2018). Climate change impacts on selected global rangeland ecosystem services. Global Change Biology. 24 (3): 1382-1393. CCARDESA (2019). Knowledge product 18 - Climate Smart decision tool for climate smart pest and disease management. https://www.ccardesa.org/knowledge-products/knowledge-product-kp18- decision-tool-climate-smart-pest-disease-management-option. Dumont B, Urra DA, Niderkorn V, Lüscher A, Porqueddu C & Picon-Cochard C (2014). Effects of climate change on forage quality of grasslands and their use by grazing animal. hal-01611403. FAO. Manual for the primary animal health care worker. http://www.fao.org/3/t0690e/t0690e04. htm#unit%205:%20appearance%20of%20the%20healthy%20animal. Hirayama T, Oshiro S, Katoh K & Ohta M (2000). Effect of exposure on the rumination and passage rate through digestive tract of sheep. Animal Science Journal. 71: 258-264. Hristov AN, Oh J, Firkins JL, Dijiksta J, Kebreab E, Waghorn G, Makkar HPS, Adesogan AT, Yang W, Lee C, Gerber PJ, Henderson B & Tricarico JM (2013). Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emission from animal operations: I A review of enteric methane mitigation options. American Society of Animal Science. 19. 513

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production ICF International (2013). Greenhouse gas mitigation options and costs for agricultural land and animal production within the United States. <http://www.usda.gov/oce/climate_change/mitigation_ technologies/GHG_mitigation_options.pdf. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2007). Climate change 2007; Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summery for policy makers. Joy A, Dunshea FR, Leury BJ, Clarke IJ, DiGiacomo K & Chauhan SS (2020). Resilience of Small Ruminants to Climate Change and Increased Environmental Temperature: A Review. Animals (Basel). 10 (5):867. doi:10.3390/ani10050867. Kumar D, De K, Seijian V & Naqvi SMK (2017). Impact of climate change on sheep reproduction. In Sejian V, Bhata R, Gaughan J, Malik P, Naqvi S and Lal R (Eds.) sheep production adapting to climate change. Springer, Singapore. Lallo CHO, Facey A, Smalling S & Hughes M (2017). The impact of climate change on small ruminant performance in Caribbean Communities. Lallo CHO, Garcia GW & Neckles FA (1991). Intensive (Zero-grazed) Hair Sheep Production in Trinidad and Tobago: The Sugarcane Feeds Center Approach. In: S. Wildeus (Ed.), Proceedings:Hair Sheep Research Symposium. University of Virgin Islands, Agricultural Experimental Station, St. Croix. Martin C, Morgavi DP & Doreau M (2010). Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale. Animal. 4 (3): 351-365. Nejad JG & Sung K (2017). Behavioral and physiological changes during heat stress in Corriedale ewes exposed to water deprivation. Journal of Animal Science and Technology. 59:13 doi. 10.1186/s40781- 017-0140-x. Polley HW, Briske DD, Morgan JA, Wolter K, Bailey DW & Brown JR (2013). Climate change and North American rangelands: tends, projections and implication. Rangeland Ecology Management. 66: 493- 511. Pragna P, Chauham SS, Seijain V, Leury BJ & Dunshea FR (2018). Climate change and goat production: Enteric methane emission and its mitigate. Animals, 8: 235; doi:10.3390/ani8120235. Rodell M, Velicogna I & Famiglietti JS (2009). Satellite-based estimates of groundwater depletion in India. Nature. 460 (7258): 999-1002. Rojas-Downing MM, Nejadhashemi AP, Harrigan T & Woznicki SA (2017). Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation and mitigation. Climate Risk Management. 16:145-163. Rust JM & Rust T (2013). Climate change and livestock production: A review with emphasis on Africa. South African Journal of Animals Science. 43 (3): 255-267. 514

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production Shah MM, Fischer G & van Velthuizen H (2008). Food security and sustainable agriculture the challenges of climate change in sub-Saharan Africa. Commission on sustainable development (CSD), CSD-16 Review session (5-16 May 2008), United Nations, New York. Shibata M & Mukai A (1979). Effect of heat stress and hay-concentrate ratios on milk production, heat production and some physiological responses of lactating cows. Japanese Journal of Zootechnical- Science. 50 (9): 630-637. Shilja S, Sejian V, Bagath M, Mech A, David CG, Kurien EK, Varma G & Bhatta R (2015). Adaptive capacity as indicated by behavioral and physiological responses, plasma HSP70 level and PBMC HSP70 mRNA expression in Osmanabadi goats subjected to combined (heat and nutritional) stressors. International Journal of Biometeology. DOI 10.1007/s00484-015-1124-5. Silanikove N & Darcan NK (2015). Impact of climate change on the dairy industry in temperate zones: Predictions on the overall negative impacts and on the positive role of dairy goats in adaptation to earth warming. Small Ruminant Research. 123: 27-34. Smith JF & Harner JP (2012). Strategies to reduce the impact of heat and cold stress in dairy cattle facilities. In R. J. Collier and J. L. Collier (Eds.), Environmental physiology of livestock (1st ed.; pp. 267– 288). John Wiley & Son, Inc. doi:10.1002/9781119949091.ch15. Thornton PK, Boone RB & Ramirez-Villegas J (2015). Climate change impacts on livestock. Working Paper No. 120. CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Thornton PK, van de Steeg J, Notenbaert A & Herero M (2009). The impacts of climate change on livestock and livestock systems in developing countries: A reviewe of what we know and what we need to know. Agricultural Systems. 1001:113-127. Tompkins E and Adger W. 2004. Does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? Ecology and Society. 9 (2): 10. [Online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/ iss2/art10. Wadhwani KN, Parnerkar S, Saiyed LH & Patel AM (2010). Feedlot performance of weaner lambs on conventional and nonconventional total mixed ration. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 44 (1): 16-21. World Health Organization. Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet. https://www.who. int/hac/techguidance/ems/flood_cds/en/#:~:text=and%20preventive%20measures-,Risk%20 assessment,fever%2C%20and%20West%20Nile%20Fever. Yadav B, Gynendra S, Verma AK, Dutta N & Sejian V (2013). Impact of heat stress on rumen functions. Veterinary World. 6: 992-996. For additional resources see: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Resource-Centre?folderId=147&view=gridview&pageSize=10. 515

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Small ruminants production LIST OF FIGURES 490 Figure 1 A photo showing the effect of climate change on natural vegetation. Figure 2 Schematic diagram showing the effect of climate change on livestock production. 491 Figure 3 Impacts of climate change on livestock. 492 Figure 4 a) Thermoneutral zones of metabolic regulation related 494 to ambient temperature; b) effect of heat stress on sheep. Figure 5 Effect of heat stress on rumen function of animal. 494 Figure 6 The role of shade during hot day owing to climate change. 498 Figure 7 Identification of a sick animal by looking at the back. 501 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Advantageous characteristics associated with small ruminants 495 (e.g. goat) on surviving harsh climatic condition. Table 2 Controlled animal diseases as pertaining to small ruminants. 502 Table 3 Notifiable animal diseases with reference to small ruminants. 503 Table 4 Vaccination programme for small ruminants that have not been immunized before. 507 Table 5 Sustained immunization programme for adult sheep. 509 Table 6 Vaccination programme for goats. 510 Table 7 Vaccination schedule for goats that have not been immunised before. 511 516

MODULE 13 Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Compiled by Julius Tjelele, Francuois Muller, Gilbert Pule and Lucas Letsoalo ([email protected], [email protected] & [email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Animal Production, Range and Forage Sciences

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 519 2 GRAZING MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 521 2.1 GRAZING SYSTEMS 522 2.1.1 Continuous grazing system 522 2.1.2 Rotational grazing system 523 2.2 HERDING AS PART OF GRAZING MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 524 3 VELD CONDITION ASSESSMENT, STOCKING RATE AND GRAZING CAPACITY DETERMINATION 525 3.1 VELD CONDITION ASSESSMENT 525 3.1.1 Veld Condition Assessment Techniques 526 3.1.2 Developing and implementing a vegetation and grazing improvement plan based on the vegetation condition assessment. 526 3.1.3 Veld Resting 527 4 FODDER FLOW PLANNING 528 4.1 Matching Fodder supply to demand 528 4.2 HOW TO MATCH FODDER SUPPLY TO DEMAND 528 4.3 HOW TO MODIFY FODDER SUPPLY ON FARM 528 4.4 HOW TO MODIFY SEASONAL PATTERNS OF FODDER DEMAND 529 4.5 PROCEDURE FOR MODIFYING SEASONAL FODDER DEMAND 529 5 FODDER FLOW OPTIONS TO COPE WITH SEASONAL FEED SHORTAGES OR DURING DROUGHTS 531 5.1 PLANNING FOR SEASONAL FEED SHORTAGES 533 5.2 INTEGRATION OF CULTIVATED PASTURES AND OTHER FORAGE RESOURCES INTO THE FARMING SYSTEM 534 5.3 SELECTION OF FORAGE SPECIES 537 5.4 FODDER CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION 538 5.4.1 Hay 538 5.4.2 Cultivating Lucerne for hay production 540 5.4.3 Alternative forage production systems that are better adapted for areas with extended drought periods 548 6 CONCLUSION 556 7 REFERENCES 557 LIST OF FIGURES 561 LIST OF TABLES 562 518

VCleimldatMe-aSmnaacChglriatmenAamgtgeereiiCnnchuttahlnetagusenrtaerdtee_fePorTlfsratathonienatinegdMPaasntuualre for Livestock Production climate that can be detected (e.g., by statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or 1 INTRODUCTIONvariability of its characteristics and that lasts for an extended period of time, often decades tNhaetubraaslisvoefldliv(ersatnogpobceerrkollcaocpaennrusgodssedeesrd)s.uCocbalrtyinimeondxanattteeupirnrncaahaSslaltoinufnuogtrreteechrismnnAagaflsfyorricma security under a changing climate (FAO, 2010). and generally provsiudceh aths esollearacsytcelexmpeondusilvateiofne,ed Furthermore, Climate-Smart Agriculture is a source for cattle (Pvaollmcaenric&eruApintisolnies,,a2n0d0c5h)r.onViceld means of identifying which production systems is a South Africanhwumoradn cdheasncgreisbiinngatmthoespnhaetruicral and enabling institutions are best suited to Vveegldetamtiaonnagtheamt eanntc2imo0sm0ya7psl)sto. esgimtriaoszneao/rrbelraonvwdusluneseefro(aIrPbCflCeo,otdo. respond to the challenges of climate change for both climate variability and climate change, specific locations, to maintain and enhance the capacity of agriculture to support food security in a sustainable way (FAO, 2010). mainly because of the fact that rainfall and temperature are key determinants of veld Three keywords are pivotal in the successful productivity. Highinter-annual(viz.year-to-year) implementation of Climate-Smart Agriculture: climate variability creates large fluctuations in forage supply, and thus represents a challenge • productivity that focuses on sustainable for livestock management. In particular, higher increase production and income without temperatures combined with drought have negatively impacting the natural resources, significant forage quality and quantity. In • resilience which reduces exposure of addition to climatic parameters (i.e rainfall and farmers to risks while building capacity to temperature), it is important to note that the adapt to stresses and productivity of veld will also be influenced by • mitigation which will reduce emissions the combined impact of grazing and stocking through decreasing use of fossil fuel, strategies, as well as other decision-making improving productivity and increasing factors that enhances livestock production in a carbon storage through vegetation cover changing climate. and healthy soils (CCARDESA & GIZ, 2019). Climate change is defined as “change of climate Climate-Smart veld management practices are that is attributed directly or indirectly to human based on the adoption of veld management activity, that alters the composition of the global principles as primary tool for managing livestock atmosphere, and that is in addition to natural in a changing, which include: climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (UNFCCC, 1992). Climate • conducting veld condition assessment, variability in turn is the natural fluctuation • determining stocking rate (livestock unit within the climate, including swings above and below the mean state and other parameters, (LSU)/hectare (ha)) and grazing capacity which reflects the different weather conditions determination (Ha/LSU) and over a day, month, season or year (FAO, 2018). • fodder flow planning. Climate-Smart Agriculture is an approach to Carbon sequestration help guide actions to transform and reorient Changes in soil carbon (C) on rangelands can agricultural systems to effectively and occur in response to a wide range of management sustainably support development and food and environmental factors. Although the magnitude of these changes per unit of land area are small in comparison to those reported 519

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production for croplands and improved pastures, increases the form of soil organic matter, which will further in terrestrial C resulting from management or hperelpsemntitilogassteescloimf aCtOe2 to the atmosphere and inputs account for a significant amount of C change while enhancing sequestration and reduction in atmospheric sustainability for future climate change. rceasrobuorncedio(Sxicdhele(sCinOg2e) rg,iv1e9n9t9h;eSscihzenaobfetlhiestlaanld., 2001). An increase in atmospheric CpOo2teanftfeiacltlys For example, restoring grassland to its optimal sapling growth rates and therefore health (Savory Institute, 2015) is an effective influencing tree densities which may reduce the and profitable strategy for boosting soil organic herbaceous layer (Bond & Midgley, 2000). Good carbon, which boosts the grazing system's veld management practices can conserve and resistance to climate variability. enhance carbon storage in the veld, mainly in Figure 1 Well managed rangeland and cattle. Source: Gilbert Pule. 520

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 2 GRAZING MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES Minimizing the negative effects of grazing on Overgrazing can be just as destructive to herbage productivity and species composition biodiversity as undergrazing, and both have is an essential goal in grazing management. This a negative impact on animal weight gain. is accomplished by adhering to the following Undergrazing reduces the stimulation of five principles: 1) balance what's good for the grazing-dependent indigenous grasses and veld with what's good for the animal; 2) use legumes, resulting in their eventual extinction. rotational rest; 3) use fire appropriately, at the Long-term grazing abandonment has been right time, and for the right reasons; 4) make observed to result in the extinction of more sure fences are in the right place and camps are than 60% of grassland species (Peco et al., uniform size; and 5) balance what's good for the 2006). Overgrazing has a negative impact veld with what's good for the animal. on soil parameters, resulting in decreased water infiltration, soil moisture, and fertility. Czeglédi & Radácsi (2005) found that it alters microbiological activity and causes soil erosion. Figure 2 The theoretical relationship between stocking rate and average daily gain and between stocking rate and livemass gain per hectare. Source: Edwards, 1981. 521

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 2.1 GRAZING SYSTEMS Rotational grazing Continuous grazing (Hayes and Hayes 2015) (Robert Virtue 2016) Figure 3 Grazing systems (continuous – no camps; rotational – with camps) and their practical applications. 2.1.1 Continuous grazing system 2.1.1.2 Disadvantages Continuous grazing is characterised as grazing • There is unlimited access to the land/veld a particular pasture or region throughout the throughout the grazing period, which allow year, including the dormant season, without animals to select nutrient rich areas and/ stopping. Stocking rate is critical to the or species at the expense of less nutritious effectiveness of a continuous or season-long areas and species. This could lead to grazing plan; for example, in continuous grazing dominance in increaser grass species. systems, stocking at light rates during the growing season is critical to ensuring adequate • No veld is reserved or rested for grazing forage is left to carry animals through the during periods of feed shortage such as dormant season. after accidental fires, winter or during drought 2.1.1.1 Advantages • Difficult and time-consuming herd • It is the most common grazing management management (record keeping, breeding, practice, especially amongst subsistence calving, weaning etc.), since the animals and smallholder livestock farmers are dispersed in the landscape without permanent control by the herdsman • Less labour is required to manage animals grazing in this type of system • In case stocking rates are over-estimated, the conditions of veld and animals will • Less capital investment associated with deteriorate, especially during years of infrastructure such as fences is required below average rainfall • It allows animals at various physiological stages to select plant species that meet their nutritional requirements 522

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 2.1.1.3 The requirements to effective • Animal (breeding, calving and monitoring, implementation etc.) and veld management (veld grazing, resting and/or burning, etc.) practices are • Optimum stocking rate and assessment carried out efficiently of the carrying capacity for the grazing area or camp, which can be done through • Farmer knows where his/her animals are conducting veld condition assessment grazing at any point in time • Fire belt must be prepared along fences on 2.1.2.2 Disadvantages the borders of the grazing land or camp to prevent accidental fires • Initial labour, maintenance, and capital intensive, especially to erect fences and • Sufficient continuous water points have to watering point be provided • Animals are restricted to grazing within a • Sufficient supplementary feeding troughs at camp, which when natural or veld resources least in each homogenous veld type units. are depleted requires expert to guide animal movement to alternative camps • A well-located kraal and crush pens to ensure proper management of animals • Timeously monitor veld, livestock condition (e.g., dipping, vaccination, weighing, and infrastructure intactness must be done recording, etc.) • Animals are confined to graze on available 2.1.2 Rotational grazing system forages in the camp, irrespective of their This grazing management system requires that preferences the grazing allotted to a group or groups of animals for the entire grazeable period must • In case stocking rates are under-estimated, be subdivided into at least one enclosure more veld and animals condition will deteriorate than the number of animal groups (e.g., one or two pastures are rested the entire year while 2.1.2.3 Requirements to effective the remaining pastures are grazed seasonally, implementation depending on the number of pastures and herds). • At least one extra well-fenced camp or Rotational grazing allows for better matching of grazing area more than each number of the livestock's grazing needs with the availability animal herds kept of fodder resources by adjusting the frequency and timing of grazing needs. • A fire belt bordering each of the camp/s or 2.1.2.1 Advantages grazing area to avoid accidental fires. • The farmer has control over the length of • Water points in each of the camps or time the animals are in the veld and their accessible from each of the camps (e.g., absence. waggon wheel camp system) • The system allows for utilizing the veld • Supplementary feeding troughs in each sparingly to cater for periods of feed grazing area or camp shortage such as winter and/or during drought. • A well-located kraal and crush pens to ensure proper animal management (e.g., dipping, vaccination, weighing and recording) • Stocking rate and carrying capacity in accordance with period of occupation of each camp 523

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 2.2 HERDING AS PART OF on commercial farms in South Africa, but some GRAZING MANAGEMENT communal livestock farming communities use SYSTEMS herders to manage their livestock. Herders can help with the management An effective management plan requires clear and monitoring of the impacts and trends understanding of forage production, realistic of a grazing management plan agreed with production goals, effective grazing strategies stockowners, as well as the registration and and timely response to forage availability and monitoring of animals. In Matatiele, for example, environmental changes. Managing grazing lands herders working as Eco Rangers were significant so that they are productive and persist over time facilitators of communal herd nighttime kraaling requires knowing when to graze certain species, and trampling facilitation (for veld restoration). if they can withstand multiple grazing/cuttings They were also given proper equipment, such within a single year and how much recovery as tents and radios, to help reduce the number time is needed to prevent overgrazing (which is of stock theft incidents (UCP, 2016).Herders. a matter of time not intensity). The use of cattle herdsmen (herders) is not a general practice Figure 4 Cattle Herdsmen in Matatiele, Eastern Cape. Source: UCP, 2016. 524

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 3 VELD CONDITION ASSESSMENT, STOCKING RATE AND GRAZING CAPACITY DETERMINATION South Africa is a semi-arid country characterized relation to its long-term potential for livestock by prolonged periods of drought. During such production. Veld condition assessment should periods, the natural resources are stretched to be done regularly to estimate the productivity their utmost limits as well as the management and grazing potential and the trend of condition skills and livelihoods of the farmers. Detailed change. veld assessment is required in determining the Why does the farmer want to assess his/her status quo of veld, in terms of veld condition, veld condition? grass species prevalence, species composition and prevalence of weeds and invader plants. • To assess the veld and make informed Veld condition is defined as the condition of judgments about stocking rates, camp the veld in relation to its long-term potential for numbers, and water provision (water livestock production. points) 3.1 VELD CONDITION • To check the effect of current management ASSESSMENT on veld (need to reduce or increase animal numbers on a piece of land/veld) Livestock farmers need to use the veld carefully so that it is not damaged and can continue in the • To classify different vegetation types of future to support livestock. A livestock farmer farms and quantify their condition through needs to understand how the veld works so that veld condition assessment he or she can manage it properly. Veld condition assessment is used to describe the vegetation in • To comply with natural resource management acts (e.g., Conservation of Agricultural Resource Act and National Environmental Management Act) Poor condition (onset of soil erosion) Good condition (protected soil) Low cover High cover Figure 5 An example of poor versus good veld condition. 525

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 3.1.1 Veld Condition Assessment Techniques This visual assessment technique requires no Step point, cover abundance, and visual in-depth knowledge of the veld. This method evaluation are just a few of the approaches is, however, very subjective and the accuracy used to assess veld status. The purpose (e.g., depends on the judgment of the operator. mapping vegetation, classifying vegetation types, and/or estimate the potential for 3.1.2 Developing and implementing a livestock production) and technical skill are vegetation and grazing improvement plan the major factors in deciding on a strategy. basedonthe vegetation conditionassessment. Visual condition assessment, which employs certain signs as a basis to determine the veld's The veld may be in poor, moderate to good state, will be employed in this guide. Cover, condition, depending on environmental (e.g., botanical composition vitality, and the state rainfall) and human-induced factors such as of the soil surface are some of these markers. overgrazing / under-grazing (Table 1). These indicators are listed on an evaluation scorecard (i.e., Veld Condition Score), which is Generally, once the condition of the veld is completed by the farmer/ operator while he/ known, the veld can be manipulated in one or a she walk the veld to evaluate its condition. combination of the following ways, depending on the objectives of the farm. Table 1 The relationship between veld condition score and veld condition. Source: Bothma et al., 2004. Veld Condition Score (%) Veld Condition < 40 Poor 40-59 Moderate 60-80 Good > 80 Excellent • Low % means veld is in poor condition that may result in an abundance of increaser grass species, exposed soil, high invader and poisonous plant species; • High % means an increase of decreaser grass species, leading to little or no soil exposure Generally, once the condition of the veld is known, the veld can be managed in one or a combination of the following ways, depending on the objectives of the farm. 526

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Table 2 Veld management options. Veld Cause/s Consequences Management condition Overgrazing Soil erosion Poor Dominance of Summer rest or resting the veld Under-grazing unpalatable species Summer graze and/or Spring burning or use of Good Under-grazing (trees and grasses) high grazing intensity to avoid selective grazing Moribund (fire hazard) Increase stocking density and/or apply spring Moribund (fire burning followed by resting the veld for the hazard) entire growing season. Optimum grazing and/or spring burning Dominance of Increase stocking densities as recommended palatable species following assessment of the veld. Use species (grazers and browse) mix to utilise the grazing land or camp Graze the camp/area leniently to encourage their productivity Rest the camp, especially during growing season 3.1.3 Veld Resting interruption, as well as to allow the feed to Veld resting is intended to provide a period of accumulate for animal production. When the uninterrupted plant development so that the veld is in moderate to poor condition and will plants can complete the processes necessary be used to repair the rangeland/veld, Table 3 is for their survival and continued health without applicable. Table 3 Veld resting options. 1) Spring rest To allow plants to accumulate leaves and to allow the leaves an uninterrupted period of growth (photosynthesis) in order to replace the reserves that were 2) Summer rest utilised at the start of the spring growth period. 3) Autumn rest Primarily aimed at improving seed production 4) Rest for a full season For the formation of carbohydrate, reserves that are used during the winter period for respiration and growth in the ensuing spring period. Particularly ideal for sweet veld areas where erratic rainfall can prevent that the proper results from being obtained within shorter rest times. In places with limited rainfall (less than 500 mm per year), a complete season's rest is very beneficial for improving plant species composition. 527

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 4 FODDER FLOW PLANNING Fodder flow planning is concerned with 4.2 HOW TO MATCH FODDER ensuring an appropriate supply of feed of a SUPPLY TO DEMAND given quality and/or quantity to meet the needs of specific animals. Inadequate planning, which • Conduct a veld condition evaluation or is exacerbated by insufficient management determine available crop residues to techniques, severe meteorological determine the farm's long-term potential circumstances, and unanticipated product for generating fodder such as natural veld, price swings, is most commonly the cause of a planted pasture, and crop residues (kg/ha/ mismatch between herd or flock requirements year) and the provision of proper feed. • Know how many animals are on the farm The goal of fodder flow planning is to match and what stage of development they are in. the farm's feed-producing capabilities to the needs of the animals in order to maximize profit 4.3 HOW TO MODIFY FODDER margins over feed expenses while staying within SUPPLY ON FARM safe natural resource consumption limits. Natural resource constraints, as well as the 4.1 Matching Fodder supply to economic status of each individual farm, may demand even- out feed supplies in one or more of the following ways: The goal of fodder matching is to align the farm's feed production capability to the animal • Selecting of species that will provide a production system so that the livestock firm seasonal spread of forage (this requires makes the most profit over feed costs. The knowledge of grass species, which is a basis veld condition evaluation, grazing capacity, and for veld condition assessment) stocking rate serve as the foundation for fodder flow planning. This procedure includes matching • Conserve forage as hay, silage and/or feed supply and demand, both of which can be foggage changed in practice, at least within practical limits. The farmer must consider the following • Grazing management (i.e., process of things in order for any grazing or pastoral system organising livestock for managing the to succeed: frequency and intensity with which livestock graze the veld) which will affect both quality • The amount, quality and seasonal and quantity of forage produced distribution of the feeds grown • As a last resort to bridge times of need, • The proportion of this feed consumed by purchasing feed may be necessary to the animal supplement quality (e.g., winter licks or feed formulation using available or easily • The efficiency with which the animal uses accessible feed resources), especially with the food it consumes (conversion rate) dairy animals 528

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 4.4 HOW TO MODIFY SEASONAL 4.5 PROCEDURE FOR MODIFYING PATTERNS OF FODDER SEASONAL FODDER DEMAND DEMAND • Establish the current and potential long In cases where beef, sheep and goats or game term sustainable carrying capacity and are the main enterprise, there is considerable stocking rate of the farms scope for seasonal adjustment of fodder demand. The seasonal fodder demand will • The easiest procedure is the one out lined depend on the following factors: above (see veld condition, carrying capacity and stocking rate evaluation) • Age and time of the year at which animals are sold/culled • Identify herd or flock feed requirements • Calving, lambing and kidding date For veld management planning, all animals • Weaning date must be converted to a standard unit, referred • Ratio of dry animals to breeding animals to as an Animal Unit (AU) / Large Stock Unit • Stocking rate and species mixes (LSU). This is an equivalent of a 450 kg animal that consumes 3% of its body weight in kg dry The pattern of fodder demand can be closely feed per day. Thus, dry matter intake (DMI) of a matched to the pattern of fodder supply by bull weighing 580 kg is calculated as: adjusting one or more of these elements. DMI = 3% of 580 kg= 17.4 kg DM/ day Figure 6 An example of a bull estimated to weigh 580 kg. Source: www.google.co.za/images. 529

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Practical activity 1 Exercise and Solution Mr. XXX has a herd consisting of 10 dry cows (420 kg), 20 lactating animals (400 kg), 20 calves (70 kg), 5 heifers (280 kg), and 1 bull (560 kg). Calculate the amount of feed required to feed this herd for a month (i.e., 30 days). NB. In lactating females, make provision of 30 % more feed to allow for additional nutrient requirements for milk production. Solution This requires grouping the animals into age or weight categories, and estimating the number of AU/ LSU equivalents in each class in relation to feed requirements. Table 4 Herd Composition and feed requirement for 30 days (This can be extended to a year feed requirement). Herd No Live Mass LSU Add for DMI DM needed Composition (kg) lactation / 30 days 10 92.8 9.3 (kg) Cows 20 420 89.4 26.8 (89.4 / 11.62 2790 Lactating cows 400 100 x 30) 20 24.2 7512 Calves 5 70 68.4 Heifers 1 280 115.1 2.42 1452 Bull 560 6.84 1026 11.51 350 Total 13130 In case of hay, which has a 90% dry matter, then improving resource management e.g. veld monthly dry matter requirements of the herd management through veld assessment) is also become 13 130 x 100 / 90 = 14 588 kg / month. crucial. It will ensure that both livestock and Although this document served as a guideline for veld/pastures are productive and sustainable. grass- fed animal production system, adaptive management (i.e. a systematic approach for 530

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 5 FODDER FLOW OPTIONS TO COPE WITH SEASONAL FEED SHORTAGES OR DURING DROUGHTS Natural veld in South African is severely has various constraints that affect livestock degraded, with an estimated 60% of the veld output periodically. In South Africa, the extreme in poor condition, 30% in an intermediate/ seasonality in rainfall (Schulze 2007), leads to moderate condition, and only 10% in a good an extreme seasonality in the availability (Figure condition (van de Pol & Jordaan, 2008). In spite 7) and quality (Figure 8) of forages for livestock, of this, many South African livestock farmers are frequently resulting in a feed gap during the dry using the natural veld as their primary source season (Samuels et al. 2016; Müller et al. 2019; of feed for their livestock. Aside from being in Schroeder et al. 2019; DALRRD, 2020). poor to moderate condition, the natural veld Figure 7 Seasonal changes in rangeland vegetation composition. Figure 8 Seasonal changes in crude protein (%) content in different forage types utilised by livestock in the semi-arid rangelands of the Northern Cape. Source: Muller et al., 2019. 531

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Currently, more than 50% of South Africa Additional changes in rangeland plant receives less than 500 mm precipitation, with composition can be generated by droughts only 9% of the country receiving precipitation in (Schroeder et al., 2019), leaving farmers with excess of 800 mm (Schulze & Lynch, 2007) (Figure insufficient feed for their livestock, putting a 9). Also, South Africa experiences recurrent and major strain on broad livestock production cyclic long-term droughts (Weather SA) (Figure systems. 10). Figure 9 Percentage of SA receiving less than threshold values of MAP. Source: Schulze & Lynch, 2007. Figure 10 Annual total rainfall of SA for the period 1904 – 2015. 532

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production To make matters worse, future climate change 5.1 PLANNING FOR SEASONAL predictions for South Africa are expected to FEED SHORTAGES have further negative impacts on the livestock production industry, as bioclimatic conditions When it comes to preparing for seasonal are expected to further deteriorate (Kruger & feed shortages, farmers have a few options. Shongwe, 2004; Benhin, 2008; Maúre et al., Purchasing and stockpiling feed in the form of 2018). hay or silage (see Figure 11), or planting fodder Future bioclimatic conditions in South Africa are reserves that can be used during dry years, are expected to result in hotter and drier conditions, examples of these. with increases in the unpredictability and variability of rainfall (DEA, 2013). As a result, When it comes to feed storage, there are a few significant degradation of the native veld is things to keep in mind. projected, resulting in a higher demand for forages for improved livestock output. • Stockpiled feed needs to be stored in a To address current issues of fodder shortages secure and dry place during dry seasons, as well as the predicted increases in forage shortages under future • If a secure storage facility is available, it is bioclimatic conditions in South Africa, often more feasible to purchase these feeds improved fodder production, conservation, and in bulk during the wet season when prices preservation practices will be needed. In this are generally lower. training, we will focus on planted forages and different ways to produce and conserve these • During periods of drought, feeds become fodders for periods of drought. more scarce and feed prices increase. • It is important to know exactly what the dry season feed requirements are for the livestock herd so that farmers do not purchase excessively Figure 11 Examples of stock piled fodders and feed concentrates. 533

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production • Stockpiling feed is a reoccurring cost to 5.2 INTEGRATION OF CULTIVATED farmers and it is suggested that this cost PASTURES AND OTHER be incorporated in their annual budget FORAGE RESOURCES INTO THE planning to reduce issues of lack of finances FARMING SYSTEM when feed is required, which will lead to loss of livestock productivity Forage production using planted pastures involves the cultivation of improved forage • To fill feed shortfalls, some farmers will species. These include varieties or cultivars purchase concentrates. Concentrates, that are typically higher yielding and contain on the other hand, cannot be used to fill improved traits such as better drought tolerance seasonal feed shortfalls, and it is crucial to and improved diseases resistance compared remember that they are supplementary to their undomesticated counterparts. A large feeds, not staples. number of forages (see Table 5) are commercially available (Bartholomew, 2000; Klug and Arnott, 2000; Palmer and Ainslie, 2006; Dickenson et al., 2010). However, even with this large diversity of forage species, fodder production is primarily achieved through the use of only a few of these species, with even fewer options for cultivation of pastures under dryland conditions (Tainton, 2000; Scholtz et al., 2009; Mapiye et al., 2011; Muller, 2017). Table 5 Improved forage species. Forage group Scientific name Common name Use Grasses Eragrostis tef Teff Grazing/Hay Lolium multiflorum Annual Rye Grass Grazing/Silage Lolium perenne Perennial Rye Grass Grazing/Silage Panicum maximum White Buffalo Grass Grazing/Hay/ Silage Brachiaria brizantha Grazing/Hay/ Silage Brachiaria humidicola Blue Buffalo Grass Grazing/Hay Cenchrus cilliaris Grazing/Hay Cenchrus setigerus Smutsfinger Grass Grazing/Hay Digitaria eriantha Grazing/Hay/ Silage 534

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Forage group Scientific name Common name Use Grasses Chloris gayana Rhodes Grass Grazing/Hay Eragrostis curvula Oulandsgras Grazing/Hay Cereals/grains Paspalum coloratum Bahia Grass Grazing/Hay/Silage Anthrophora pubecens Bottle Brush Grass/Wool Grass Grazing/Hay Legumes Cynodon dactylon Couch Grass/Bermuda Grass Grazing/Hay/ Silage Bromus catharticus Prairie Grass Grazing/Hay/ Silage Festuca arundinacea Tall Fescue Grazing/Hay/ Silage Dactylis glomerata Cocksfoot Grazing/Hay Pennisetum Kikuyu Grazing/Hay/Silage clandestinum Phleum pratense Timothy Hay/Silage Festuca pratensis Measow Fescue Grazing/Hay/Silage Zea mays Corn Silage Avena sativa Oats Grazing/Hay/Silage Sorghum bicolor Forage Sorghum Grazing/Silage Sorghum vulgare Sweet Sorghum Grazing/Silage Pennicetum glaucum Pearl Millet/Babala Grazing/Hay/Silage Echinochloa esculenta Jap Millet Grazing/Silage Triticum aestivum Wheat Grazing/Hay/Silage Secale cereale Rye Grazing/Hay/Silage Triticum aestivum x Triticale Grazing/Hay/Silage Secale cereale (Hybrid) Medicago sativa Lucerne/Alfalfa Grazing/Hay/Silage Medicago truncatulla Barrel Medic Grazing/Hay Medicago polymorpha Burr Medic Grazing/Hay Medicago littoralis Sand Medic Grazing/Hay Medicago lupulina Black Medic Grazing/Hay Medicago scutellata Snail Medic Grazing/Hay 535

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Forage group Scientific name Common name Use Grasses Grazing/Hay/Silage Trifolium vesiculsum Arrowleaf Clover Grazing/Hay Trees Grazing/Hay Trifolium michellianum Balansa Clover Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay Trifolium alexandrinum Berseem/Egyptian Clover Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay/Silage Trifolium incarnatum Crimson Clover Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay Trifolium pratense Red Clover Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay Trifolium hirtum Rose Clover Grazing/Hay/Silage Grazing/Hay Trifolium repens White Clover Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay/Silage Trifolium resupinatum Persian Clover Grazing/Hay/Silage Grazing/Hay/Silage Trifolium subterraneum Subterranean Clover Grazing/Hay/Silage Grazing/Hay/Silage Trifolium fragiferum Strawberry clover Grazing/Hay/Silage Grazing/Hay Trifolium hybridum Aslike Clover Grazing/Silage Grazing/Hay Macrotyloma axillare Grazing/Hay Grazing/Hay Lotus corniculatus Birdsfoot Trefoil Grazing/Hay Grazing/cut and carry Biserrula pelecinus Biserulla Vigna unguiculata Cowpea Securigera varia Crown Vetch Lablab purpureus Lablab/Dolicos bean Vicia faba Paba Bean Vicia vilosa Hairy Vetch Vicia sativa Common vetch Vicia benghalensis Purple Vetch Pisum sativum Forage Peas Sericea lespedeza Lespedeza Melilotus albus Sweet White Clove Ornithopus sativus Pink Serradella Ornithopus compressus Yellow Serradella Cytisus proliferus Tree lucerne/Tagasaste 536

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production It's also worth remembering that veld and 5.3 SELECTION OF FORAGE pastures can play complementary roles in SPECIES providing fodder for livestock (Aucamp 2000); and under future climate change scenarios, the As mentioned above, there are numerous forage inclusion of planted forage reserves into natural species that can be considered for an improved rangelands will become an important means fodder flow program. The best grass, legume, to address feed shortages during periods of or tree species to use as a forage in a specific drought. Before pastures are incorporated into forage production system, can be established any livestock production system, however, an using a variety of factors. Generally the choice assessment should be made to determine the of species is guided by the criteria described in extent to which productivity is likely to increase, Klug & Arnott (2000) as follows: and the financial implications (cultivation, pasture maintenance, implements, labor and • The environmental conditions of the area management expertise costs) associated with (bioclimatic factors, edaphic factors and the incorporating the planted pastures (Aucamp topography) 2000). An initial and complete inventory of the existing • The time of year that the feed is required natural feed base is needed to identify specific and the life span of the pasture gaps that should be addressed in the current fodder flow program. The methods for making • The intended use of the forage species this assessment are described in the veld condition assessment, stocking rate and grazing Knowing the environmental circumstances capacity sections above. of the region where a species will be planted This assessment will help in deciding what type will allow the prompt elimination of species of planted forage species are needed to meet that are not adapted to the current conditions the needs of the fodder flow program (Aucamp, if the environmental needs of that species 2000). In a particular farm, additional or better are recognised. The next step is to determine quality feed resources may only be needed at the desired longevity of the pastures, as this specific times, such as when water is limited. will help to narrow down the list of potential Developing pastures for strategic grazing may species even further. When the pastures are to not be feasible throughout the year for a full be re-established on a yearly basis, only annual herd of cattle, but it is possible for cows and species can be used. If the pastures are to be weaners that were weaned prematurely to used for multiple years without having to re- graze on them. Drought-tolerant legume plants establish from seed each year, only perennial can also be utilised as a high-protein source species are viable candidates. Finally, knowing to round out animals for market or to boost what the pasture's intended use is will narrow protein levels in dry-season diets. the list of potential species even further. For example, if the pasture is to be used for grazing, the list of potential species can be narrowed by considering species with the following characteristics: • Resistance to trampling • Resistance to defoliation • Palatable when green • Leafy in nature 537

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production If the species is for hay production, the list 5.4.1 Hay of potential species can be narrowed by Hay is a whole crop plant material that has been taking into account species with the following harvested and sundried before being baled. Hay characteristics: produced in South Africa typically has a moisture content of between 8% and 15% (Drewes 2000; • Must contain a high percentage of leaf Muller 2017), allowing these forages to be material stored for extended periods of time and used during critical times. • Fine and hollow stems The nutritional quality of the hay produced, on • High yielding the other hand, varies significantly between • Can be harvested multiple times a year forage species and harvesting time (Tainton • Erect growth habit 2000; Muller 2017). Legume hay produced • Forages must be palatable when dried in South Africa is generally of higher quality If the species is for silage production, then in terms of crude protein (CP) content, which the list of potential species can be narrowed ranges between 13% and 21%, whereas grass by choosing species with the desirables and cereal hay range between 4% and 10%. characteristics involving: (Muller, 2017). Hay is primarily produced in • Multiple cuts per year is possible South Africa's winter rainfall zone, specifically • High yields at each cut the Western Cape, from oats, barley, triticale, • High carbohydrate content and, to a lesser extent, seradella, vetch, and • High digestibility lupines (Muller, 2017). Hay is made in summer • High nutritive value rainfall areas from lucerne (Medicago sativa), as well as other grasses such as Eragrostis curvula 5.4 FODDER CONSERVATION AND and Eragrostis tef, and in some cases sorghum PRESERVATION (Dugmore, 1995). Lucerne, on the other hand, remains the premier hay crop in South Africa, Due to the predicted increases in rainfall owing to its high quality, which varies depending variability as a result of climate change, growing on the phenological stage at which the forages improved forages that can be harvested and are harvested, and its ability to withstand stored/preserved for periods of drought, is various stresses such as drought (Scholtz et al., necessary. This is especially true for times when 2009; Theron & Snyman 2015; Muller, 2017). veld conditions have deteriorated to the point where livestock production is detrimentally impacted. There are several ways of achieving this, including using planted pastures, or resting areas of natural veld for use during droughts. The method of preservation chosen will be determined by the species to be planted. This section discusses hay production, with lucerne serving as an example of foggage production. 538

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Table 6 The chemical composition of commonly fed hay and silage forages in South Africa. Source: Muller 2017. Nutritional Quality Parameters Hay DM CP Ca P (%) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) Blue buffalo grass (Cenchrus cilliaris) 90 70 2.5 2.2 Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) Weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula, early harvest) 90 65 3.2 1.3 Weeping lovegrass (Eragrostis curvula, late harvest) Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) 90 90 4 1.6 Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Lupin (Lupinus albus) 90 80 2.5 1.2 Maize (Zea mays L.) Oats (Avena sativa) 90 50 2 1 Panicum (Panicum spp.) Pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoideum) 90 100 15 1.5 Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) Soybean (Glycine max) 90 150 10 2 Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense) Sweet grass (Panicum laevifolium) 90 90 5.5 1.8 Tef grass (Eragrostis tef) Veld grass (Ehrharta calycina, poor quality) 90 100 2.5 1.9 90 50 1.8 2 90 70 3 1.4 90 75 3.2 1.2 90 60 2.5 1.5 90 100 9.8 2 90 90 3.5 1.6 90 60 2.5 1.3 90 80 3.3 1.3 90 40 2.5 0.4 539

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production 5.4.2 Cultivating Lucerne for hay production crop that can be used for direct grazing, hay When included in a fodder flow program, production, or silage production. It has the lucerne is a highly nutritious forage species that potential to increase soil nitrogen and organic can significantly improve animal performance. matter content, as well as improve soil structure It also has a high yield, producing 18 to 30 tons and fertility, due to its nitrogen-fixing abilities in of dry matter per ha per season. symbiosis with its root nodule bacteria. Because lucerne is a perennial crop, it can Requirements for cultivating lucerne produce green feed all year and has a life Although lucerne is widely adapted to a variety expectancy of 5-7 years if properly maintained. of climatic and edaphic conditions, it performs Lucerne is highly adaptable and grows well in best in well-drained soils with a clay content a variety of climatic and edaphic conditions. of less than 35% and a pH range of 6.7 to 7. Lucerne is highly drought resistant due to its (see Figure 12). It is also critical to choose the deep tap root system of up to 6 m, making it best time to plant lucerne. Lucerne requires an ideal crop to consider when the goal is to fairly deep soils of at least 1.2 m depth, which produce feed for periods of drought. will allow the lucerne's deep root system to This is due to lucerne's deep root system, which adequately utilise subsurface water sources. allows it to access water and nutrients that Soil nutrient status must also be considered in have fallen out of the rooting depths of many order to meet the nutritional needs of the plant other forage species. Lucerne is a versatile and ensure optimal yield. Figure 12 The impacts of soil pH on the production potential of Lucerne. 540

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production It is appropriate to conduct a physical and It is important to choose the best cultivar and chemical investigation of the soil and request winter dormancy for your specific needs. Select that the laboratory recommends a lucerne- semi-dormant cultivars with dormancy levels specific fertiliser. The recommended values vary of 5 to 7 under dryland conditions. Winter depending on soil type, cultivation potential, and active cultivars with a dormancy of 8 to 11 can management requirements, so it is necessary be selected under irrigated conditions. These to consult with a specialist about your specific cultivars produce more than the more winter conditions. Once the recommendations have dormant cultivars because they grow all year. A been received, it is best to apply fertilisers as soon significant trade-off to consider is that swards of as possible to allow the fertilisers to break down winter active cultivars do not generally remain and the nutrients to be available to the plants productive as long as swards of more winter when they are planted. There are numerous dormant cultivars. It is of great importance to lucerne cultivars available commercially today, consult a reputable seed distributor in your and these cultivars are further classified into 11 area to determine which cultivar will work best winter dormancy classes (see Figure 13). under your specific agro-ecological conditions and your pasture needs. Figure 13 Winter dormancy in Lucerne. 541

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Planting lucerne Lucerne seed is small and should be planted When planting lucerne, it is essential to use the shallowly, but still covered with soil. Seed proper sowing density as presented in Table should be especially shallowly planted in 7. Lucerne sowing density is dependent on heavy clay soils with a depth of about 5-10 rainfall or irrigation demands. Table 7 provides a mm, while on sandy soils it can be planted at guideline as to sowing densities under different 10-20 mm depth. If soil moisture is sufficient rainfall/irrigation regimes. (or if irrigation is available), deeper planting is The best conditions for lucerne germination unnecessary. Under dryland conditions, seed and establishment are a long growing season, should be planted deeper which will allow the adequate soil moisture, and cool temperatures. seeds access to water over longer periods and At emergence, lucerne is extremely susceptible reduce desiccation if rainfall events are far to cold, and late summer planting is only apart. Soils that tend to form a crust should be successful if soil moisture is adequate for kept wet until the seeds germinate and become sufficient growth to take place before the frosts. established. Planting can be accomplished by If lucerne is to survive the winter, it must grow broadcasting the seeds on the soil surface, then for at least 6 weeks after germination. This covering the seeds and rolling to compact the enables the plant to form a crown and store soil around the seed, or by planting in rows enough root reserves for winter survival. If the using a planter. Fertilisers containing Rhizobium land is known to have a weed problem and bacteria, which allow lucerne to fix nitrogen, effective control is difficult or expensive, it is should be applied immediately after planting recommended that sowing be done in autumn (in liquid form) or with the seeds (if applied (end of March) under irrigation. If a registered as a powder). Following the application of the herbicide is available and affordable in a frost- Rhizobium, the seeds should be immediately free area, any planting time is appropriate. If covered with soil. sowing is to be done in dryland conditions, the soil must be sufficiently moist at planting time. Table 7 Different lucerne sowing densities under different agro-ecological conditions. Annual Rainfall (mm) 350-450 Dryland 600-800 High Rainfall / Irrigated Sowing density (kg/ha) 4-6 450-600 10-12 800+ / Irrigated 15-25 6-8 542

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Harvesting lucerne processes of respiration and fungus growth. The Due to the bloat problem, the use of lucerne lucerne can be baled after 2-4 days, and it must in the form of hay is a common practice in be removed from the lands as soon as possible. South Africa. Unpredictable thunderstorms, Cutting schedules are determined by the particularly in summer rainfall areas, can growth stage, fixed cutting intervals, or the impede the process by reducing the quality of development of regrowth on the crown. the hay. Short-term weather forecasts should Although these different factors increase yield be obtained, and the process can begin if and quality, cuttings determined by the growth sunny weather is predicted for the next 4-5 stage give a more consistent outcome within days. Lucerne hay is cut with a rotary mower each cultivar and across seasons and locations. or a sickle bar mower, usually when it is in its The quality of the lucerne hay is also affected by early flowering stage. The cut material is left when the lucerne is harvested (Figure 14). on the lands to wilt for 3-4 hours before being raked into windrows to dry. This restricts the Figure 14 Quality and yield parameters of Lucerne at different harvesting stages. 543

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Harvesting earlier, for example, in the late aging, and disease. Up until 50% flowering, vegetative or early flowering stages reduces yield the maximum amount of nutrients remains but significantly improves lucerne hay quality. available in drier areas, where leaf diseases are Stem yield increases linearly between the early fewer. vegetative and late flowering stages, while leaf The choice of harvesting schedule depends on yield increases until the early flowering stage. the quality of the feed to be used. Producers At the early flowering stage, the amount of who are interested in higher-quality lucerne stems and leaves is equal, but by late flowering, will opt for shorter stands and lower yields. A 60% of the total yield consists of stems and only harvest schedule takes into account the number 40% of leaves. It is widely accepted that the of cuts, cutting date, stage of maturity, intervals quality of lucerne hay decreases as the plant between cuts, and cutting height. Given the matures, primarily due to an increase in the relationship between the growth stage, yield, plant's stem: leaf ratio, which increases fiber quality, and sustainability, it is no wonder that content. The leaves contain more digestible cutting is often based on the maturity stage nutrients, proteins, fats, potassium, fiber, total (Table 8). non-structural carbohydrates, P, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, After lucern cutting, the energy responsible for Sr, B, Cu, Zn, and Mn than the stems during the regrowth is stored in the form of non-structural early flowering stage. carbohydrates in the roots. The storage and Stems have more sugars, fibre, K and Cl. The usage of non-structural carbohydrate reserves digestibility and protein concentration of stems in the roots follows a cyclic pattern. These are drops more rapidly with maturation than that used during the early stages of regrowth after of the leaves. Nutrient content is usually at winter rest or cutting, then build up again in its highest when lucerne is harvested at an roots and crowns when the plant is mature and immature stage, with the highest concentration in full bloom, but generally peak at the early per leaf area at 10% flowering. During early flowering stage. Carbohydrates accumulate in blooming in moist areas, nutrition, protein, and dormant cultivars in the autumn. minerals drop due to leaf loss due to shading, Table 8 Quality parameters of lucerne harvested at different stages. Stage Leaves Protein Dry Matter (%) (%) (%) Bud > 40 > 19 69 Early Bloom Full Bloom 30-40 16 62 < 30 < 13 55 544

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production This is in response to the reduction in day- at the end of the summer, between February length and temperature. These stored non- and late March. When the leaves start to drop structural carbohydrates are the main source due to a lack of water, the lucerne should be of energy during winter. Frequent harvesting of cut to prevent further loss. If the lucerne must immature lucerne (vegetative or bud stage) or be cut before it has fully flowered due to a lack harvesting in the autumn, prevents sufficient of water, the spring growth should be allowed vegetative regrowth to replace the reserves of to grow out. High carbohydrate levels allow for non-structural carbohydrates and leads to their quick recovery after harvesting or after winter. depletion in the roots. This leads to a decline When the lucerne begins to flower, regrowth of the stand and loss of productivity. Allowing from the second and subsequent cuts may have the last growth of the autumn to develop to already begun. If harvesting is then postponed, full flowering to restore reserves is thus a good the growing points required to produce the next practice, and only cutting again in the spring. If harvest are severed, and regrowth is slowed. it is irrigated, the best time to do so is between Because of its high productivity and nutritional the middle of May and the middle of June. value, lucerne has a high nutrient requirement. Regrowth that is left on the plant over the winter In Table 9, you can find the amount of nutrients protects the crown and growing points from cold it removes from the soil per ton of dry material damage. Dryland lucerne should be matured produced. Table 9 Removal of nutrients and recommended replenishment of nutrients per ton of lucerne hay produced. Nutrient Removal per ton of dry material (kg) P 2.7 K 21 Ca 13 Mg 2.7 S 2.7 B 0.04 Mn 0.05 Fe 0.15 Zn 0.02 Cu 0.004 Mo 0.00009 545

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production These nutrients must be supplemented; Foggage otherwise, the lucerne's production and Farmers frequently lack the equipment nutritional value will decline over time. Trace needed to plant and harvest large areas for elements such as B, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mo are hay production, which could result in feed removed to a lesser extent, but they still play shortages for their livestock under climate an important role, and shortages can result in change scenarios. Foggage production, which significant losses. Since many nutrients removed is also done to a lesser extent in South Africa, originate from the soil, it is not recommended is an alternative to hay production (Figure that a fertilisation program be invented. 15). The foggage or standing hay potential of Preferably, soil analyses should be used as it many grass and legume species in South Africa is a more reliable method for preventing the has already been determined (Drewes, 2000; shortfall of soil nutrients. Under irrigated or Hardy et al., 2000; Muller, 2017) with Digitaria high rainfall conditions, one can expect 6 to 8 eriantha and Pennisetum clandestinum being cuts per growing season, but this can increase the most commonly used species of the to 10 cuts depending on the climate. Under summer growing/winter dormant grasses and ideal conditions and with the right cultivar, 18- Pennisetum maximum, Chloris gayana and 30 tons of dry matter per ha can be expected Acroceras macrum are also regarded as good per growing season. candidates under these conditions. Temperate grasses (such as Festuca arundinacea and Dactylis glomerata, which grow in the spring, winter, and autumn) are also good foggage candidates for South Africa's winter rainfall regions (Hardy et al., 2000; de Villiers et al., 2002; Engelbrecht, 2002; Rautenbach et al., 2008). Figure 15 Cattle grazing grasses conserved as foggage. 546

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Foggage is essentially a section of planted i.e., the number of days required to reach a pasture or even natural veld that has been left specific growth stage. ungrazed during the wet season or the period Kikuyu (P. clandestinum), Smuts finger grass (D. preceding the dry season. This standing forage eriantha), Guinea grass (P. maximum), Rhodes material dries, and the dry pasture/veld is then grass (C. gayana), and Nile grass (A. macrum) grazed during dry periods or droughts. Standing are examples of species suitable for foggage foggage can be used to maintain livestock production in summer growing/winter dormant while the veld recovers in future climate areas. Tall fescue (F. arundinacea), Cocksfoot (D. change scenarios where rainfall variability and glomerata), Annual ryegrass (L. multiflorum), unpredictability may not result in sufficient re- and Perennial ryegrass (L. perenne) are examples growth or re-growth that occurs quickly enough. of species suitable for foggage production Furthermore, foggage promotes good soil during the spring, autumn, and winter growing cover and water retention in veld and pastures, seasons . It is important to note that if ryegrass allowing for better climate change adaptation is to be used, it must be grazed within 3 months planning. The put-up date is the most important of being planted due to significant quality losses management practice influencing the quantity in older plants. and quality of foggage produced. The put- The amount of foggage produced is proportional up date is the date on which the pasture is to (1) the duration of suitable growing closed and allowed to accumulate biomass. It is conditions following set-up and (2) the pasture critical to graze or mow the pasture just before species used. Table 10 compares the quality of putting it up. This ensures that the foggage is Kikuyu and Tall fescue put-up at various dates of comparable age and quality. The best time for foggage production. to plant a pasture will vary depending on the species. It is also necessary to understand the growth requirements of the species planted, Table 10 The effect of put-up date in the biomass production (tons/ha), crude protein (%) and crude fibre (%) content of foggage produced from a subtropical and a temperate pasture species at Cedara. Source: Brockett, 1983. Kikuyu Biomass (tons/ha) January Put-up date March Tall fescue Crude protein (%) 6 1.1 Crude fibre (%) 5.8 February 8.7 Biomass (tons/ha) 4.2 32.5 Crude protein (%) 35.5 6.7 0.6 Crude fibre (%) 3.5 34.5 11.5 7.6 2.5 25.9 32.5 9.6 29.5 547

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production There are several advantages but also numerous Disadvantages of producing foggage include: disadvantages of foggage production. • If there is insufficient rain during the late Advantages of producing foggage include: summer and early autumn, little foggage will accumulate under dryland conditions • With increased rainfall variability and a • Out-of-season or winter rainfall will general reduction in rainfall leading to reduce the quality of foggage produced by the natural veld taking longer to recover, subtropical forage species significantly foggage provides a source of feed for • These dry pastures are extremely vulnerable livestock as natural veld recovers to wildfires • There is no need to harvest the grass, and 5.4.3 Alternative forage production systems the difficulty of drying harvested materials that are better adapted for areas with during the wet season is eliminated extended drought periods • The requirement for storage facilities is also In South Africa, we are increasingly seeing eliminated headlines (see Figure 16) in the news about the effects of prolonged droughts. If we assume that • Livestock can still graze normally and should long-term droughts will become more common be able to be marketed as free range under future bioclimatic conditions, we must begin to plan for such scenarios. Figure 16 The impacts of extended droughts on livestock production. 548

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Veld Management and Planted Pasture for Livestock Production Farmer must plan not only for seasonal feed improved forage trees that can access deeper shortages, but also for instances where droughts sources of ground water may provide farmers may last for 3-5 years. Farmers have few options with feed for longer droughts periods. This can to consider during droughts but that requires be accomplished by planting fodder trees (see advanced planning. Trees and succulents are Figure 17) or by utilizing existing native trees in examples of plants that can withstand prolonged the rangeland (see Figure 18). periods of drought. As a result, agroforestry with Figure 17 Cattle grazing tree Lucerne. Figure 18 Trees scattered throughout the rangelands. 549