Final draft2

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 4.3 CLIMATE-SMART DAIRY shrubs, and foliage into food and fibre. Livestock FEEDING PRACTICES farming contributes between 7% and 18% (PASTURE) of human-induced GHGs, specifically enteric fermentation, manure, feed production and Maximising the use of natural pasture transportation, and land use change. Indeed, feed accounts for 65 to 75% of variable costs The quantity and distribution of rainfall, as well in livestock enterprises, and feed production as seasonal variations in the natural pasture accounts for 47% of GHG emissions from feed base, are all factors that influence veld livestock farming. quality. When grass is scarce, cross-breeds become browsers. Dairy production on natural Strategies that improve forage quality and pasture uses less water than dairy production digestibility can help to mitigate this. Improving on cultivated pastures, lowering the water and forage quality improves digestion and decreases carbon footprints of such products. enteric methane (CH4) excretion, increasing feed efficiency. Climate change puts a strain on dairy production by promoting heat stress, which results in There are three types of enteric CH4 mitigation a variety of behavioural, chemical, physical, interventions in dairy farming: nutritional, physiological, and metabolic 1. Dairy cow feeding and nutrient responses as the animal's physiology tries to management maintain cell integrity in order to survive. 2. The application of rumen modifiers. 3. Management and genetics. 4.4 MITIGATION STRATEGIES TO Research yields technologies that increase REDUCE GHG EMISSIONS production efficiency while consuming less feed and water per unit product. Strong associations between enteric CcHat4tlperofdeudcttieomn paenrdatderyfmoraatgteesr The increase in GHG emissions from human intake (DMI) in activity is raising average temperatures, which may lead to vegetation shifts in which have been reported as early as 1930. nutritious plants are eventually replaced Methane production in cattle fed tropical forage by desert-adapted, woody plants whose diets is higher, especially at higher intake, than stomata remain closed during the day to in cattle fed temperate forages, owing to the reduce evapotranspiration but open at night latter's low digestibility. As a result of improved to collect carbon dioxide s(pCeOc2i)e. s Changes in digestibility, improved forage quality reduces the composition of grass erode the lifetime GHG emissions per unit product. feed base. Its replacement with less digestible forages with a higher methane conversion rate has the potential to increase GHG emissions. Manipulation of rumen fermentation Ruminants, which include livestock such as Feed additive supplementation alters the dairy cows, occupy 45% of the world's ice-free pattern of feed fermentation in the rumen land area due to their ability to convert grass, of the dairy cow and reduces enteric CH4 400

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production reexdcruecteiodn.wWhihleenmeanintetariicniCnHg4 production can be • Some feed additives increase feed dry productivity, more matter intake while decreasing acetate feed energy is partitioned into intermediary production and hydrogen release metabolism for productive purposes, increasing efficiency. Enteric methanogenesis degrades • Ensiling forages at earlier stages of feed efficiency and should be reduced to reduce regrowth improves digestive efficiency and global warming without jeopardising rumen reduces GHG emissions, while grinding and function (see Figure 8): pelleting forages before feeding reduces GHG emissions • Precision nutrition reduces GHG emissions and excreta volume, benefiting both the climate and the environment Figure 8 Effects of increasing feed intake. Source: Lallemand and Nutrition. 401

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production • Gene expression can be controlled by The following are the keys to maximise feed diet at any point along the pathway, from intake: gene packaging and unpacking of DNA to protein processing and degradation, • Regular checking and cleaning of the water using nutrigenomics. This allows for the troughs ensures that fresh, clean water is optimisation of livestock diets in accordance always available. with their genetic potential, physiological and production states • Ensure that feed troughs are not empty before the next feeding session, and that • Climate-smart breeding programs that adequate feed is provided: daily scoring of use heat stress-tolerant genotypes with feed troughs for remaining feed. above-average production efficiency and low carbon and water footprints per unit • Cleaning feed troughs on a regular basis product are also needed (e.g., once a week). EXAMPLE: According to the United States • Remove rotten feed as soon as possible Department of Agriculture, the global number because it will quickly infect new feed and of dairy cows fell from 133 million to 125 million animals will refuse to eat it. between 1997 and 2007, while milk production increased from 377 to 418 million tons. This Efficiency improvements would go a long way represents an 18% increase in milk production toward mitigating the effects of climate change efficiency over a 10-year period. and increasing production of affordable, nutritious livestock products. 402

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 5 ADAPTING DAIRY COWS TO HOT WEATHER 5.1 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES 5.2 METHODS TO COOL THE COWS AND THEIR The physical modification of the environment, ENVIRONMENT the genetic development of less sensitive breeds, and improved nutritional management Cooling fans are the main management strategies that can be proposed as being helpful in alleviating heat The first step in cooling cows is to strategically stress in dairy cows. Mechanical cooling, such as place cooling fans (Figure 9). During stressful forced ventilation, water sprayers, and shading, conditions, air flowing over the animal at a may be used to mitigate the effects of increased velocity of 2-3 m s-1 increases convective heat temperature. These, however, are difficult to loss. Fans should be installed longitudinally in apply to dairy cattle on pasture and provide holding areas and free stall shelters, no more only limited relief in the short term. than 10 times their blade diameter apart. Vertically, they should be just high enough to be out of reach of the cattle while not interfering with alley scraping or bedding operations. Figure 9 Cooling fan. 403

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Sprinkler and fan cooling is combined with forced air movement, the Sprinkler and fan cooling is a popular method loss of body heat increases by a factor of three for cooling dairy cattle due to its low investment or four. This cooling system operates at timed costs and high effectiveness (Figure 10). The air intervals that vary depending on the weather. In is not cooled by a sprinkler system. Instead, hot, humid climates, sprinkler and fan cooling large droplets wet the cow's hair coat and skin, are popular. It should be noted that this system cooling it as the water evaporates. Sprinklers uses a lot of water and leaves a lot of water on alone will not keep cows cool in hot, humid the floor, which can lead to foot problems. weather. However, when the sprinkler system Figure 10 Sprinkler and fan cooling. 404

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 6 CLIMATE-SMART WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN DAIRY FARMING 6.1 WATER HARVESTING FOR of insufficient rains or outside of growing FARM PRODUCTION seasons. • Harvesting water for irrigation improves Water harvesting is the capture of rainwater or production efficiency (output per unit groundwater for crop, livestock, and aquaculture input) and provides crop/fodder all year.. production (see Figure 11): Dam and ponds • Water is usually abundant during the rainy A pond-integrated system begins with the season and scarce during the dry season. catchment for harvesting water, which is typically found along a road or within a farm, • Water is the most constraining factor in followed by the sill trap, screen sill filter, and crop, livestock, fish, and fodder production. excavated pond (see Figure 12). • Water harvesting and irrigation allow crops or fodder to be grown in the face Figure 11 Water harvesting. Figure 12 Pond. 405

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Other strategies 6.2 DAIRY MANURE Zai Pits, retention ditches, and basins can all be MANAGEMENT used. A Zai Pit is a water harvesting method that originated in Kenya. Zai pits are referred to in It is critical to limit direct exposure of dairy English as \"planting pockets,\" \"planting basins,\" manure prior to proper disposal. This is due \"micro-pits,\" and \"small water harvesting pits.\" to the fact that the amount of GHG emissions This entails digging planting pockets of specific from manure a(fCfeHc4t,eNd2Ob, yandtheNHt3efmropmeralitquureid, dimensions to collect surface runoff water. manure) is These pits also attract termites, whose tunnels method, and duration of storage. Some of the help break up the soil even more. After filling key considerations in manure handling that the pits with one to three handfuls of organic affect GHG emission intensity are as follows: material such as manure, compost, or dry • Dairy waste (dung and urine) should be plant biomass, seeds are sown in them. Water collected and stored as soon as possible percolates through these pits, keeping the • Reduced storage duration is critical because plants green for an extended period of time. long-term storage results in higher GHG (Sawadogo, 2011) emissions • The rate of GHG emissions during manure storage is affected by heat levels; at high temperatures, more gases are emitted than at low temperatures Figure 13 Zai Pit. 406

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production • The use of covered storage facilities can and thus protects crops from extreme help to reduce GHG emissions temperatures, shields the soil surface from strong winds and rain, reducing • Composting reduces direct GHG emissions soil erosion and flooding risks. Mulch into the atmosphere. In this case, aids in the infiltration of rainwater the manure will be covered and then and the deeper rooting of crops. It decomposed into less harmful gases also serves as a substrate for soil- dwelling microorganisms, which aids • Improved application techniques, such in the improvement and preservation as rapid incorporation of manure into of water and nutrients in the soil. the soil, are critical to reducing exposure This contributes to the net increase and, as a result, the risk of GHG release in soil organic matter derived from into the atmosphere. Following that, the CplOa2ntsc,atphteurreedsidbuyes photosynthesis in incorporated manure will contribute to the of which are then carbon sequestration process Manure collection transformed and sequestered by soil • The dung pat/fresh manure is swept or biota above and below the soil surface. collected in solid form from the walking area c) Cover crops can be used to suppress and stored directly in the pit or collection weeds and help cropland retain soil point fertility and moisture. They aid in improving soil fertility, allowing farmers • When water is used, the manure is swept to reduce the amount of inorganic off as slurry and directed into a covered fertiliser required for crop production. manure pit. Wherever manure is piled, it During the fallow period, they protect should be covered or kept in the shade. the soil from the effects of rain and the scorching sun. They aid in nutrient 6.3 CLIMATE ADAPTATION mobilization and recycling, particularly PRACTICES phosphorus and potassium. Cover If crops are grown on the farm for feeding to carnodpsthaubssohreblpCtOo2 from the atmosphere dairy animals, the following practices should be fix carbon in the soil, making the ground a carbon sink that followed: aids in the realise of global warming. a) Minimal tillage, which is distinguished by minimal soil disturbance. Tillage avoidance reduces the occurrence of The adaptation and mitigation options for climate annedt COox2ildoastsiodnueotof microbial respiration change discussed below have implications for soil organic matter natural resource management. The proposed while also building soil structure and interventions primarily involve strategies biopores via soil biota and roots. to reduce livestock numbers by increasing b) Mulching, in which crop residuals productivity, as well as land use changes such are left to provide protective cover as incorporating agroforestry and conservation to the soil, helps suppress weeds, agriculture practices into the farming system. reduces soil moisture loss through evaporation, keeps the soil cooler 407

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 7 DAIRY COWS GRAZING MANAGEMENT / PASTURES Certain types of pastures, when properly • Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) in grown, can provide the cheapest form of dry cooler areas matter for dairy cows. Pastures that are well- managed can provide cost-effective protein and • Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) energy for both maintenance and production. • Kikuyu with red and white clover It is necessary to plant pasture species that will • Coast cross II with red and white clover grow well all year, providing sufficient herbage • Perennial ryegrass with red and white clover for the cows during the summer, and to plant • Tall fescue with red and white clover a variety of species to provide for the winter • Red clover in pure stand months. • White clover in pure stand The following pastures are the most popular for 7.1 PASTURE SPECIES AND dairy farming in the spring, autumn, and winter MIXTURES seasons: • Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) The following pastures are the most popular for • Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) forage production during the summer months: • Italian ryegrass with red and white clover • Perennial ryegrass with red and white clover • Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) • Coast cross II, also called K11 (Cynodon species) Figure 14 Pasture for dairy cows. 408

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Summer period Winter period Without the use of concentrate feed, well- The protein and energy content of well- managed kikuyu grass could provide for a cow managed Italian ryegrass/clover is sufficient for producing 14 to 16 litres of milk per day. Cows a Friesland cow to produce at least 18 litres of producing more than 16 litres of milk per day milk per day. Cows producing between 18 and should be fed energy and protein in the form of 25 litres of milk per day should be given energy a concentrate. In this case, however, it is critical in the form of concentrate. It is critical, however, that the dairy cow has access to enough well- that the intake of the ryegrass/clover pasture be managed kikuyu grass for both day and night unrestricted (i.e. there must always be sufficient grazing (see Figure 15). pastures available to the cow). Figure 15 Dairy cows on pasture. EXAMPLE: The following Friesland dairy herd module is assumed when calculating the pasture area required for 120 cows in milk, plus their followers: Class of animal Animal units requiring pasture* 120 cows in milk 120 30 cows, dry 30 30 x 2 yr old heifers 30 30 x 1 yr old heifers 15 30 female calves 0 TOTAL 240 195 * A mature Friesland cow is assumed heavier than 500 kg live mass. 409

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 7.2 PASTURE SYSTEMS SYSTEM 2 60 ha of irrigated Italian ryegrass/clover 38 ha This section of the training manual will review of dryland kikuyu some pasture forage systems that can be used 20 ha of dryland tall fescue/clover 22 ha of in grazing management. dryland kikuyu for foggage Having paddocks separated with fences ensures This system is suitable for the very cold, frosty easy management concerning overgrazing. areas of KwaZulu-Natal (e.g. Bioclimatic Group Ensure enough water at all times, animals wont 4, and parts of 3 and 6). optimally graze if they do not have access to SYSTEM 3 good quality water, placing a water through 50 ha of irrigated Italian ryegrass/clover 38 ha between two fenced paddocks can assist to of dryland kikuyu reduce costs. 20 ha of dryland tall fescue/clover 22 ha of Possible pasture forage systems for the 120 dryland kikuyu for foggage cows in milk dairy module: Feeding costs will be minimized by implementing SYSTEM 1 one of the possible pasture forage systems 150 ha of irrigated perennial ryegrass/clover 20 referred to earlier. ha of dryland kikuyu 20 ha of dryland tall fescue/clover 20 ha of dryland tall fescue/clover for foggage 20 ha of dryland kikuyu for foggage 410

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 8 CLIMATE-SMART PLANTED PASTURE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES When managing grazing dairy cattle, the Lowering manure application rates can following factors must be considered: help to reduce emissions while preserving farm productivity. Incorporate eco-friendly • Agroforestry: On the farm, trees are fertiliser with a low carbon footprint. Spread planted alongside crops. These are trees fertiliser at the best possible time and with that produce or are primarily used for the the most advanced technology available. production of fruit, fodder, or fuel (wood), or • Improved, high-yielding varieties: that provide other benefits such as reducing Purchasing or breeding varieties to improve runoff or erosion, improving soil fertility, and increase yields. providing shade, or providing medicines.. • Stress tolerant varieties: Use of varieties Examples such as Englerophytum natalense, adapted to a specific region's climate Ptaeroxylon obliquum and Millettia grandis challenges, such as drought/flood/saline/ depending on the region. submergence and pest resistant seeds. (Mukolwe, 1999) • Destocking: Reducing the number of livestock as a deliberate decision, rather • Adoption of climate-smart forage than as a result of hardships, to improve (drought and heat tolerant forage variety): resilience and make the herd more Developed specifically to withstand manageable. specific climate-related challenges such • Pasture management: This includes as droughts, floods, saline or acidic soils, rotational grazing and reserving paddocks and pests. Spineless cactus, for example, in the event of a drought. could be used as fodder because it is Climate-Smart Agricultural practices may have drought resistant, but it is also an invasive an expected impact on food security, including plant in South Africa. Before considering milk security. These practices will benefit the replacement plants that are invasive to animals while also increasing productivity and the country or region, thorough research sustainability. Table 1 contains some examples. should be conducted. • Irrigation: Covers all irrigation types and systems from both ground and surface water sources. • Efficient use of fertiliser: Optimise the consumption in relation to the needs. 411

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Table 1 Examples of food security, adaptation and mitigation synergies. Examples of possible Expected impact on Possible impact on Possible impact on climate-smart food (milk) security adaptation mitigation agricultural practices Increased dairy animal Increased system GHG emissions in Improved feeding productivity and milk resilience and reduced dairy farming can be practices such as - production cows vulnerability reduced substantially introducing highly through improvement digestible forages Increased nutrient   of feed quality, animal or treating forage to cycling and plant   health and husbandry, improve digestibility - productivity   more efficient energy making silage Improved fodder use and manure production   management Improved genetics   and reproduction, and   animal health control,   as well as general   improvements in   animal husbandry Reduced forage Improved manure and milk losses and management reduced emissions per More efficient crop unit of milk consumed and grazing land management such as rotational grazing 412

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 9 RAISING CALVES FROM BIRTH TO WEANING 9.1 NEONATAL DEVELOPMENT The calf and the dam will be less stressed if the calf is removed earlier. If the calf is removed According to research, the uterine environment prematurely, it is critical to ensure that the dam of dry cows can indirectly affect the calf fetus's is milked and colostrum is fed to the newborn growth - reduced placenta size and shorter within 6 hours of birth. If the calf is left with gestation length can all contribute to a lower the dam for three days, it must be observed on birth weight of calves and, as a result, a lower a regular basis to ensure that the dam allows wean weight of calves (Gwazdauskas, 1985). the calf to suckle. If the calf is not allowed to The care of the newborn calf begins with proper suckle, it should be removed from the dam and dry cow care. colostrum administered via bottle and teat. 9.2 THE NEW BORN CALF 9.3 HOUSING THE CALF Environmental stressors affect not only animal Proper housing for the new calf comes in second welfare and productivity, but also the financial place to ensuring good quality colostrum. The health of dairy operations, and should be calf should be kept in a warm environment with considered in husbandry practices. Colostrum is adequate bedding. Draughts should be avoided and will always be the most important factor in a in calf houses, but ventilation is essential. In newborn calf's health. The standard practice is to addition to being well-ventilated, the calf house ensure that the calf receives enough colostrum should allow plenty of sunlight to enter. as soon as possible after birth. The newborn Calves raised on commercial farms are calf is typically removed from commercial dairy usually housed individually to prevent disease production enterprises either immediately after transmission, but calves can also be housed in calving or after three days of life. After birth, the groups of about five calves of the same age and dam should be allowed to clean the calf, and size. the calf should only be removed after 2 hours. Figure 16 Calving, cleaning and housing new born calf. 413

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 9.3.1 Critical Temperatures 9.3.2 Lower critical temperatures Thermostasis is the process by which warm- The young calf has less body insulation and blooded animals maintain a constant body higher body surface and body mass ratios, temperature despite changes in environmental resulting in lower coping mechanisms than temperatures. mature animals. Calves are more vulnerable Lower Critical Temperatures, also known as to the effects of cold exposure because their cold stress, occur when temperatures fall below thermal defense and coping mechanisms have the point at which the animal can maintain a not yet fully developed, so it is critical that constant body temperature. calves remain in a thermos-neutral range of Higher critical temperatures, also known as heat temperatures above 10°C. As shown in Table stress, occur when temperatures rise above 2, critical temperatures decrease with calf age, the point at which the animal can maintain a ranging from 10°C in neonatal calves to 0°C in a constant body temperature (Holt, 2014). one-month-old calf. Temperatures are influenced by a variety of 9.3.3 Higher critical temperatures environmental and internal heat from nutrient Elevated ambient temperatures are also metabolism factors. stressors in livestock, particularly calves, Age, breed, body weight, thermal insulation, resulting in health problems or reduced nutrition, time after feeding, behavior, housing, growth. Again, housing is critical in reducing wetness of hair coat, and amount of solar these stressors. During periods of high ambient radiation all influence critical temperatures. temperatures, metal roof structures, shade, Critical temperatures should be avoided as sprinklers, and fans have been used to reduce much as possible; however, it is important to the thermal load of cattle. understand that livestock will compensate for critical temperatures by changing their energy intake, energy loss, or energy stored. Table 2 Critical temperatures at different ages of the young calf. Age of the calf Critical temperature (oC) Neonatal 10 3 Weeks 8 1 Month 0 3 Months -14 414

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production There are well-documented studies that lower temperatures, lowering heat stress, and show that using shade to reduce ambient ultimately improving health and growth. temperatures yields positive results. Calves kept Calves can be grouped together or separately. in hutches exposed to direct sunlight would The industry accepts group housing of receive an additional radiant heat load than approximately five calves of the same age and those kept in shaded areas. The heat load will size. be significantly reduced if the hutch is placed 9.3.4 Alternatives in a shaded area. Any type of shaded structure Another alternative to removing a young calf would have an effect on lowering the higher from the dam is to introduce a Dairy Ranching critical temperatures and could potentially system. This is a practice where the calf stays reduce the heat load by 30-50 percent. with the dam until weaning. Cows are parted Most commercial dairies prefer to use a calf from their calves in the evening and milked hutch; these structures are exposed to direct out in the morning before introducing the calf sunlight and will receive an additional radiant back to the dam for the duration of the day. heat load than in a shaded environment (Bakony These cows are not milked in the evening. It & Jurkovich, 2020) has low production costs with lesser liabilities Increased ambient temperatures during the than intensive milk production systems, which day will cause solar radiation to heat the outer includes relative resilience to rising feed prices. surface of the calf hutch; calves kept in hutches with additional shading will benefit from Figure 17 Calves housed in hutches in direct sunlight opposed to shaded hutches. 415

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT IN DIARY PRODUCTION Temperature rises have resulted in the spread • How do they keep records of their animals? of disease vectors to previously inaccessible • What data do they include in their records? areas (WHO, 2021). Temperature rises have • How do they choose which animals to keep? also resulted in increased heat stress in animals, • Which vaccines and veterinary drugs are leading to an increase in metabolic diseases in these animals (Lees et al, 2019). Flooding has they using? also increased, bringing with it an increase in • Where are they getting the vaccines? vectors such as mosquitoes, which carry not • What infrastructure is available? only animal diseases but also zoonotic diseases. • How much labour is available to the Scientists are constantly looking for ways to combat infectious diseases through prevention farmers? rather than treatment, as this is the most cost- • Equipment that the farmer has. effective way of dealing with disease. What then? Climate-smart pest and disease management Once you understand how the system works, you has the following potential benefits: can create a plan with the farmers' help based on what they see as their biggest problems and • Decrease in mortality rates on disease observation and recording. • Decrease in morbidity rates • An increase in disease reporting 10.2 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK • Increased productivity ANIMAL • An increase in fertility and milk yield. • An increase in income The only way to tell if an animal is sick is to • Lowering of greenhouse gas emissions observe how a healthy animal appears. (FAO, Climate smart pest and disease management 2021). for dairy cattle may be split into three Looking from a distance categories: biological vector control, resistant breed development, vaccination programs, and • The animal should stand straight, with its parasite control (CCARDESA, 2019). feet squared and its head held high. 10.1 WHERE TO START? • It must be constantly alert and aware of its surroundings. • Look at your target farmers and how they are farming. • Animals that separate from the herd and refuse to move are sick. • What are the problems that they think needs the most attention currently? • When walking, animals should distribute their weight evenly across all four legs • What is their main aim with their farming without arching their backs. enterprise? Looking at the head • How are they looking for signs of disease in • The eyes must be bright and alert and not their animals? have any discharge. • The ears should be checked for presence of ticks and any bad smells must be noted. 416

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production • The nose and muzzle must be moist and not Taking the temperature have coloured discharges coming from it. The temperature of any cattle showing signs of illness should be taken, a normal temperature • The mouth must not have excessive saliva for a cow can be anywhere between 38.5- dripping from it. Food falling from the 39.5oC. mouth can be a sign of teeth problems. Looking at the dung of animals In cattle, a normal looking putty consistency • The incisor teeth should be checked for should be looked for, dehydration can cause wearing. firmer dung, and diarrhea can be a sign of infectious disease, worms, or metabolic diseases Looking at the chest like acidosis. When a cow is resting in the shade, she should Looking at the urine be breathing at a rate of 40-50 breaths per Urine should be clear and the animal should minute. The cow's heart can be felt just behind not show signs of pain while urinating. In a bull the elbow on the left side, and the heart rate blood could be a sign of prostatitis. Blood in the should not exceed 60-80 beats per minute. A urine can also be due to disease such as Red lymph node just in front of the shoulder can be water or if severe urinary tract infection exists. felt if it is enlarged, which is a sign of disease. The coat of the animal can be judged on the chest; short haired breeds must have a smooth and shiny coat. Looking at the back 10.3 DISEASE REPORTING The body condition score of an animal can be assessed if looked at from behind and above. One of the most important functions of the Looking at the Abdomen extension officer is to assist in the notification The amount of fill (whether or not the animal of controlled and notifiable diseases to the has eaten) can be seen in the paralumbar fossa authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases (the triangle formed behind the last rib in front Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. of the hind leg). You can also feel if the large Link to the act: stomach is moving or not by placing your and https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ in the paralumbar fossa. When an animal is in Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ pain, it will constantly look and kick at its flank. Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ Looking at the udder or scrotum diseaseact The udder must be checked for signs of mastitis Link to the regulations: such as heat, swelling, pain and inflammation. https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ The thickness and flakes in the milk, as well as StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ the presence of blood, can all be checked. The SubordinateFileDownload/5843 scrotum of a male animal should be examined Additional diseases with trade implications for the same signs of heat, swelling, pain, or are also reported to the OIE through the inflammation, as well as lumps. This can be Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and caused by Orchitis or chronic testicular atrophy. Rural Development (DALRD), as extension officers do not have formal training in these diseases and are not expected to note them. 417

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production According to the Animal diseases, Act 35 of Defining the term vector as per the CCARDESA 1984 the definitions: definition: Vectors are insects, birds or other animals that transmit a disease and/or pest • 'controlled animal disease' means any from one host to another. animal disease in respect of which any 10.3.1 Controlled Animal Diseases general or particular control measure has The controlled animal diseases (in terms of been prescribed, and any animal disease the Animal Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) that which is not indigenous or native to the pertains to cattle are presented in Table 3. Republic. Table 2 of the regulations on the act gives a list of controlled diseases. • 'notifiable animal disease' an animal disease specified in Annexure 3 Table 3 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Disease Clinical signs Vector Anthrax Sudden death with small amount of un-clotted blood No coming out of all openings. Trashing and convulsions, Aujeszky’s disease fever. No (Pseudorabies) Intense pruritus (itchiness) causing the animals to scratch and bite at the affected area. Neurological signs No Bovine contagious will include weakness and bellowing, teeth grinding and pleuropneumonia irregular heart rates. No (CBPP) Adult cattle show signs of pneumonia, standing with No Bovine spongiform elbows out and having chest pains. Calves will show encephalopathy (BSE) signs of arthritis. Rhipicephalus Brucellosis Abnormal behaviour, struggling to walk, weight loss. appendiculatus Lastly decumbency. (brown ear Corridor or Buffalo Abortion, stillborn or weak calves, retained placentas tick) and R. disease (Theilerlosis) and reduced milk yield. Testicular abscesses. Arthritis in zambeziensis chronic infections Rhipicephalus East coast fever Fever, listlessness, enlarged lympnodes, reduced milk appendiculatus yield, discharge from the eyes, difficulty breathing. (brown ear tick) and R. Fever, listlessness, enlarged lympnodes, corneal opacity, zambeziensis nasal discharge, diarrhea, anemia and neurological symptoms 418

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Foot and mouth Blisters in the oral cavity and on the tongue, blisters No disease (FMD) between the toes and above the hooves and on teats. No Johne’s disease Hyper salivation. Chronic diarrhea and weight loss with a normal appetite. Nagana Starts with animal becoming listless, coat becoming Tsetse fly (Trypanosomiasis) roughened, ocular discharge, progressive weakness, No Rabies animal uninterested in surroundings and death. No Sudden behavior changes, incoordination, abnormal No Rinderpest (globally bellowing, excessive salivation, paralysis of the throat eradicated) and a sudden stopping of milk production in dairy cattle. Tuberculosis Fever, diarrhea, discharges from the eyes and nose, Any animal disease or sores in the mouth and death in 10-15 days. infectious agent that Persistent cough, diarrhea, weight loss and abdominal is not known to occur pain. in South Africa. Usually there is a history of an animal being imported or feed that has been imported or taken from ships in the case of these diseases. 10.3.2 Notifiable Animal Diseases Mastitis is one of the most common disease Notifiable animal diseases (in terms of the Animal problems in dairy cattle; by improving udder Diseases act, Act 35 of 1984) that pertains to health, you can increase the amount of milk you cattle are presented in Table 4. get per lactation per cow by up to 20%. (Rajala- Schultz, 1999; Nesamvuni, 2012). 10.3.3 Other common diseases Nutritional diseases such as ketosis and rumen Other diseases will vary depending on your acidosis may occur as a result of heat stress, as well location and circumstances. As animals huddle as dietary changes caused by the unavailability together around scarce food and water resources, of normal feed that animals are adapted to due drought conditions may result in an increase in to droughts. (Lees and colleagues, 2019) plant poisonings and respiratory diseases. Skin It is critical to emphasize the role that subclinical diseases will become more common as one's diseases play in the health and production of immunity deteriorates. dairy cattle because most farmers are unaware Verminosis (worms) is also a major issue, and of the economic impact of these diseases (Vesna weak animals should be targeted for deworming. 2016). There are three types of worms: round worms, Animals will suffer more from diseases such as flat worms, and tape worms. foot rot, mastitis, and eye infections carried by flies during floods and wet conditions. Diseases caused by biting flies will become more common 419

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production (Caminade et al, 2019). With the new grass 10.3.5 Reporting of diseases by farmers growing, nutritional diseases such as prussic Make sure farmers understand their acid poisoning, grass stagers, and fog fever may responsibility to report any animals that show become more problematic. signs of disease to you as the extension officer 10.3.4 Zoonotic diseases or to the animal health technician who will Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Rabies, Salmonella, summon a veterinarian. It's also a good idea Rift Valley fever, Ringworm, and Anthrax are to try to avoid the stigma that comes with examples of diseases that can be transmitted reporting some of these diseases. Keep in mind between animals and humans. that farmers will only share information with you if you have a strong relationship with them. To name a few, raw milk can transmit Bovine According to the Animal Diseases Act, it is also Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Salmonellosis, E.coli, the responsibility of animal owners to report Q-fever, Camphylobacteriosis, and Listeriosis. these diseases, and failure to do so is a violation of the law. If you become ill, please notify your healthcare provider that your job requires you to work with sick animals. Table 4 Notifiable animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Disease Clinical signs Vector Bovine Fever, discharge from the eyes and nose, lesions Wildebeest or sheep malignant in the oral cavity and on the muzzle, opacity of the catarrhal fever corneas, neurological signs like head pressing or Cullicoides (snotsiekte) circling. Suspected biting flies, 3 Bluetongue Fever, ulcerative lesions in the oral cavity, ulcerative species of hard ticks have dermatitis, stiffness, increased salivation, lacrimation. been shown to be able to Lumpy skin Swollen hard nodules on the skin, lymph nodes are transmit the disease. disease enlarged, the nodules can become ulcerated and get Various mosquito species secondary infections, also affects the teats, swelling (Aedes, Anopheles, Rift valley fever of the udder and brisket does also develop. Culex, Eretmapodites, Nasal discharge, excessive salivation, loss of appetite, Mansonia, etc.) weakness and diarrhoea. 420

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10.4 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF 10.5.1 Bio-security VECTORS Good bio-security is the key in keeping these diseases out of your herds. The diseases that are vector-borne will vary depending on the local environment; for • Quarantine all new animals for at least 14 example, heart water is only found in areas days on your farm. where the bont tick is present. Diseases spread by biting flies are most common during the rainy • Separate any sick or dead animal from season, when mosquitoes and biting midges are healthy ones immediately (this includes more plentiful. diseases such as footrot and mastitis). Some ways to control these diseases include: • Do not allow visitors to your herds. • Long fallowing periods are required to • When returning to your farm after a trip, ensure that the vector dies before the introduction of new hosts. make sure to disinfect your footwear. • To prevent transmission, fence off areas or • If you lend someone your equipment or herd animals away from other herds.. • Keeping animals stabled or kraaled away vehicle, make sure to disinfect it. from high-risk areas at specific times of day, • Always start with the healthy animals and such as to avoid the bluetongue virus or to keep animals away from swampy areas at work your way down to the sick animals. dusk to avoid biting midges. • If you don't have any sick animals, go from • Getting rid of vector breeding grounds, such as stagnant water where mosquitoes the youngest to the oldest. breed. • As an extension officer, do not visit multiple • Setting up pest traps, such as tsetse fly traps, is one example (CCARDESA, 2019). farms in the same clothing. • Washing your hands and disinfecting them 10.5 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL before milking a cow. Milking out mastitis cows last. Not all diseases are transmitted by vectors, • Placing calves with scours on a washable some other transmission methods include: surface and disinfecting the surface after the scours has stopped. • Direct contact between sick animals is • Preventing calves from suckling on each prohibited (domestic animals and wildlife). other (Farmers weekly, 2020) 10.5.2 Selecting of resistant breeds • The sick animals' excretions This is covered in more detail by other sections. • Personnel, clothing, and equipment In general, indigenous breeds are more resistant • It is found naturally in soil. to naturally occurring diseases and parasites • Housing was not cleaned after sick animals from that area (Kohler-Rollefson, 2004.). Certain diseases are not endemic to the area were housed in it. though and the belief that indigenous breeds • Feed and water. do not need to be vaccinated should be warned against. The best way to go is to select animals from your herd that are constantly afflicted with a disease condition. Allowing unplanned mating to occur will weaken your herd. 421

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10.5.3 Vaccination campaigns When giving the vaccine: If vaccination campaigns are conducted by • Make sure you know the vaccine's batch extension officers rather than veterinarians, number and expiration date make certain that any other diseases in the • Ascertain that the cold chain was kept intact animals are documented and brought to • Only use the vaccine as directed on the the attention of the veterinarian or animal package health technician to assist with treatment and • If the vaccine label says you can't keep it, veterinary drugs. Many diseases can be avoided don't use it again or the severity of symptoms reduced by using • Check the vaccine dose commercially available vaccines. • Check to see if it's safe to give to pregnant animals When planning a vaccination campaign ensure: • Look for potential risks to vaccine recipients • Arrangement as to the time is made with and make them aware of them the owners of the livestock • Vaccinate only healthy animals • Try to go to the farms rather than gathering • Never guarantee a vaccine's 100 percent the animals from different farms together if success rate to a farmer they do not graze together already • Make arrangements as to how much the The following is an example of a vaccination farmers must pay for the vaccines program from Onderstepoort Biological • Check the availability of handling facilities products: • Check the availability of equipment and https://www.obpvaccines.co.za/resources/ storage to make sure the vaccines stay at documents/Immune-Program.pdf the correct temperature This information can be combined with current • Make sure there are enough trained disease trends in the area to create your own vaccinators practical vaccination list. • Get an approximation of the amount of animals that will need vaccination 10.5.4 IMMUNISATION FOR CATTLE • Make sure that enough vaccines are 10.5.4.1 Animals that have not been ordered and available to do the campaign. immunized before • Make sure that the time of year to do the vaccination is relevant to the disease and to Initial vaccination should be done in accordance when the farmers have time with the farm's management systems and • Ensure that farmers are informed about breeding program. The schedule presented the vaccine's benefits and the need for in Table 5 can be changed to fit the specific revaccination farming conditions. • Ascertain that a method for identifying vaccinated animals exists • Make sure there's a way to keep track of the animals that have been vaccinated, as well as receipts for payment from the farmers • Will the farmers be able to continue receiving these vaccinations? 422

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Table 5 Immunisation schedule for animals that have not been immunized before. Time of Essential vaccines Optional vaccines Dose and route administration Rift Valley fever - 2 mℓ subcutaneously (inactivated) 1mℓ Subcutaneously 6-8 weeks before RVF (live vaccine) OR the breeding Clone 13 Vibriosis (1st inject.) 2 mℓ subcutaneously season - (heifers) Vibriosis (2nd inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously 3-4 weeks before - Escherichia coli (1st (bulls) the breeding inject) 2 mℓ subcutaneously season - Escherichia coli (2nd (heifers) 8 weeks before - inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously calving (heifer) Paratyphoid (1st inj) (live or - (bulls) 2-4 weeks before inactivated vaccine) 2 mℓ subcutaneously calving Heartwater blood (endemic areas) 2 mℓ subcutaneously 7-14 days of age (0-21 days of age) 5 mℓ subcutaneously - (live or inact) - 10 mℓ subcutaneously (inact for cows) - 3 mℓ intravenously Pasteurella (1st inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously C. pyogenes (1st inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously (< ?? months) 10 mℓ subcutaneously (> ?? months) 423

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 3-8 weeks of age Paratyphoid (2nd inject) - 5 mℓ subcutaneously (Inactivated vaccine at (live or inact) 3 weeks of age) Pasteurella (2nd inoc.) 10 mℓ subcutaneously - C. pyogenes (inact for cows) (2nd + 3rd inject) 5 mℓ subcutaneously - 5 mℓ subcutaneously (< 6 months) 10 mℓ subcutaneously (> 6 months) Contagious abortion - 2 mℓ subcutaneously S19 4 months of age (heifers at 4-8 months) - 1 mℓ intramuscularly 5-6 months of age **Gall sickness (3-9 5 mℓ subcutaneously or at weaning months) endemic areas OR Botulism/Blackquarter (1st inject) OR - 5 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism/Gasgangrene 2 mℓ subcutaneously (1st inject) OR Doublesure - 1 mℓ subcutaneously Anthrax Redwater (3-9 months) 1 mℓ intramuscularly (endemic areas) 2 mℓ subcutaneously - 1 mℓ - 1 mℓ Rift Valley fever 5-6 months of age (inactivated vaccine) 5 mℓ subcutaneously or at weaning Clone 13 OR Rift Valley live 5 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism/Blackquarter - 2 mℓ subcutaneously (2nd inject) OR - 5 mℓ subcutaneously Botulism/Gasgangrene - 2 mℓ subcutaneously (2nd inject) OR Doublesure Lumpy-skin disease B. Phemeral (Dairy cattle) ** Gall sickness + Redwater vaccine can be administered together. 424

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10.5.4.2 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle Booster injections can be given once a year or six times a year. Table 6 is a practical example that can be changed to fit the local farming conditions. Table 6 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle. Time of Essential vaccines Optional vaccines Dose and route administration 2 mℓ Three-day stiff sickness - 2mℓ subcutaneously Late winter, Early Lumpy skin disease - 2 mℓ subcutaneously spring (Aug - Sept) Rift Valley fever (Inactivated vaccine) - 1 mℓ Clone 13 1 mℓ Rift Valley (Live) 10 mℓ subcutaneously (<6 months) & - C. pyogenes 5 mℓ subcutaneously (>6 months) - Pasteurella 5 mℓ subcutaneously Blackquarter/Botulism - 5 mℓ subcutaneously OR OR Gasgangrene 5 mℓ subcutaneously 2 mℓ subcutaneously Anthrax - 2 mℓ subcutaneously Autumn or early Botulism – (if winter combinations were not - 10 mℓ subcutaneously (April - June) used) (>6 months) 5 mℓ subcutaneously ± 4 weeks before - C. pyogenes 2 mℓ subcutaneously breeding (heifers) 2-4 weeks before - Pasteurella 5 mℓ subcutaneously calving (bulls) - Vibriosis 2 mℓ subcutaneously - Escherichia coli 425

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 10.5.5 Endo- and ectoparasite control where Acaricide resistance is widespread, Although selecting a resistant animal is still the selecting for animals with greater tick resistance best option, using endoparasites at specific is a better economic and environmental option. times of the year will benefit the animal and help it produce more. When using a product, 10.6 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR check to see if: YOUR AREA • It covers the parasite you wish to control. A combination of all three of the methods listed • It has not expired. above is frequently required to be successful • The dosage at which you should be giving it. in controlling diseases and pests in your area. • IF it is safe to use for e.g. in lactating dairy None of the methods will work unless you have the backing of your local farmers. To obtain this cows. support, a significant amount of education and • The milk and meat withdrawal times. trust-building will be required. Farmers must Acaricides should only be used if ticks are found buy into the program and make it their own in on the animals. Avoid causing product resistance order for it to work. by using the product incorrectly. In South Africa, 426

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production 11 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES Brown DE & Harrison PC (1981). Central sympathetic control of uterine blood flow during acute heat stress. J. Anim. Sci. 52:1114. Caminade C, McIntyre KM, Jones AE (2019). Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1436 (1):157-173. doi:10.1111/nyas.13950. CCARDESA (2019). Knowledge product 18: Climate Smart decision tool for climate smart pest and disease management. https://www.ccardesa.org/knowledge-products/knowledge-product-kp18-decision-tool- climate-smart-pest-disease-management-option. FAO. Manual for the primary animal health care worker. http://www.fao.org/3/t0690e/t0690e04. htm#unit%205:%20appearance%20of%20the%20healthy%20animal. Farmers Weekly (2020). Biosecurity measures on an animal farm. September 23, 2020. Gantner V, Kuterovac K & Potočnik K (2016). Effect of Heat Stress on Metabolic Disorders Prevalence Risk and Milk Production in Holstein Cows in Croatia. Annals of Animal Science. 16 (2). Grobler SM & Scholtz MM (2019. Viability of dairy ranching compared to beef and milk production systems for small-scale farmers in South Africa. SASAS congress. 1 (12): 11-16. Gwazdauskas FC (1985). Effects of climate on reproduction in cattle. J.Dairy. Sci 68:6. Holt SD (2014). Ambient Temperature, Calf Intakes, and Weight Gains on Preweaned Dairy Calves. All Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 2324. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson (Eds.); Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Kohler-Rollefson I (2004). Farm animal genetic resources: Safeguarding national assets for food security and trade. A summary of workshops on FAnGR held in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Eschborn, Germany: GTZ, Rome, Italy: FAO and Wageningen, The Netherlands: CTA. Lallemand Animal Nutrition (2007). Heat Stress In Dairy Cows: Implications And Nutritional Management. Cattle site. Lees AM, Sejian V, Wallage AL, Steel CC, Mader TL, Lees JC & Gaughan JB (2019). The impact of heat load on cattle. Animals. 9: 322; doi:10.3390/ani9060322. Livestock Emergency Guidelines and Standards (2014). Practical Action Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78044- 861-9 E Book. 427

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production Michael O (1999). The potential of Agroforestry in the conservation of high value indigenous tress: a case study of Umzimvubu district, Eastern Cape. Masters programme in environment and development, University of Natal Pietermaritzburg. Muya (2019). ARC-Animal Production Old Olifantsfontein Road, Irene. Nesamvuni E (2012). Effects of climate change on dairy cattle, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research. 7. 10.5897/AJAR11.1468. Rajala-Schultz PJ, Gröhn YT, McCulloch CE & Guard CL. (1999). Effects of clinical mastitis on milk yield in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci. 82 (6): 1213-20. doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(99)75344-0. PMID: 10386307. Rojas-Downing MM, Pouyan Nejadhashemi A, Harrigan T & Woznicki SA (2017). Climate change and livestock: Impacts, adaptation, and mitigation. Climate Risk Management. 16: 145-163. ISSN 2212- 0963, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2017.02.001. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S221209631730027X). Sawadogo H (2011). Using soil and water conservation techniques to rehabilitate degraded lands in northwestern Burkina Faso. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 9 (1): 120-128. Singh S & Newton W (1978). Acclimation of young calves to high temperatures: composition of blood and skin secretions. Medicine. American Journal of veterinary research. Stott GH, Wiersma F, Meneffe BE & Radwanski FR (1976). Influence of environment on passive immunity in calves. Journal of Dairy Sci. 59(7):1306-11. Doi: 10.3168/jds.S002-0302(76)84360-3. Turner SP, Mcllvaney k, Donbavand J & Turner MT (2020). The effect of behavioural indicators of calf discomfort following routine procedures on cow maternal care. Animals (Basel) jan 10 (1): 0. Published online 2020 Jan 6. Doi: 10.3390/ani10010087. PMCID: PMC7022527, PMID 31935788. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 12th and 14th Streets, Independence Avenue and C Street as Taken from Top of Washington Monument. Photograph, circa 1950. USDA History Collection. Special Collections, National Agricultural Library. World Health Organization. Flooding and communicable diseases fact sheet. https://www.who. int/hac/techguidance/ems/flood_cds/en/#:~:text=and%20preventive%20measures-,Risk%20 assessment,fever%2C%20and%20West%20Nile%20Fever. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) (2018). Reactive Gas Bulletin – Highlights from the Global Atmosphere Watch Programme. No.2. Geneva. Yousef MK & Johnson HD (1967). Calorigenesis of dairy cattle as influenced by hydrocortisone and environmental temperature. J. Anita. Sei. 26:1087. For additional resources see: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Resource-Centre?folderId=147&view=gridview&pageSize=10 428

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Dairy production LIST OF FIGURES 392 394 Figure 1 Climate variability and climate change. 395 Figure 2 Dairy breeds found in South Africa. 398 Figure 3 General stress levels at different temperature / humidity indexes. 398 Figure 4 Concentrate mash and pellet. 399 Figure 5 Heifers fed grass / concentrate. 399 Figure 6 Dairy feed ingredients. 401 Figure 7 Mixing feed and feeding using a mixing wagon. 403 Figure 8 Effects of increasing feed intake. 404 Figure 9 Cooling fan. 405 Figure 10 Sprinkler and fan cooling. 405 Figure 11 Water harvesting. 406 Figure 12 Pond. 408 Figure 13 Zai Pit. 409 Figure 14 Pasture for dairy cows. 413 Figure 15 Dairy cows on pasture. 415 Figure 16 Calving, cleaning and housing new born calf. Figure 17 Calves housed in hutches in direct sunlight opposed to shaded hutches. 412 414 LIST OF TABLES 418 420 Table 1 Examples of food security, adaptation and mitigation synergies. 423 Table 2 Critical temperatures at different ages of the young calf. 425 Table 3 Controlled animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Table 4 Notifiable animal diseases that pertains to cattle. Table 5 Immunisation schedule for animals that have not been immunized before. Table 6 Sustained immunization programme for adult cattle. 429

MODULE 10 Pig Production Compiled by Dr Pulane Sebothoma and Dr Magdeleen Wepener ([email protected] & [email protected]) Agricultural Research Council – Animal Production

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION 432 2 HOW CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IMPACT PIG PRODUCTION 434 2.1 IMPACT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURES ON THE PIG PERFORMANCE 434 2.2 IMPORTANCE OF TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN THE FARROWING HOUSE 435 2.3 METHODS OF REGULATING TEMPERATURE IN THE FARROWING HOUSE 436 2.4 INTERVENTIONS FOR ELEVATED TEMPERATURE 438 2.5 IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY ON PIG PRODUCTION 438 3 MANURE MANAGEMENT 440 4 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 441 4.1 INTRODUCTION 441 4.2 WHERE TO START? 441 4.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL? 441 4.4 DISEASE REPORTING 443 4.5 NOTIFIABLE ANIMAL DISEASES 445 4.5.1 Other common diseases 445 4.5.2 Zoonotic diseases 446 4.5.3 Reporting of diseases by farmers. 446 4.6 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 446 4.7 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE CONTROL 446 4.7.1 Biosecurity 446 4.7.2 Selecting of resistant breeds 447 4.7.3 Vaccination campaigns, endo- and ectoparasite control 447 4.7.4 Vaccination and routine treatment program 448 4.8 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR YOUR AREA 448 5 CONCLUSIONS 449 6 REFERENCES AND RESOURCES 450 452 LIST OF FIGURES 452 LIST OF TABLES 431

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 1 INTRODUCTION 21 percent and 11 percent, respectively (see Figure 1). Pig numbers are estimated to have Pork production has evolved from a backyard decreased by 3.79 percent, from 1 453 million operation (keeping a few pigs and feeding them in August 2018 to 1,398 million in August 2019. swill on pasture) to intensive units focused on There are 243 commercial farmers registered, efficient methods of producing pork at a low with 110 400 sows and 19 stud farmers. Figure cost. Commercial pig production is a small 1 depicts the total pig population in South Africa industry with a few modern piggeries that use by province in 2019. (DAFF Commodity profile, good genetic materials. 2019). In South Africa, there are approximately The total number of smallholder farmers is 400 commercial pork producers and 19 stud unknown, but it is estimated to be between 1 breeders. In 2019, the number of pigs was 500 and 3 000; they own an estimated 16 000 estimated to be 1 454 million, with Limpopo or more sows, with an average of five to 50 sow province producing 24 percent of all pork units (Sishuba, 2016). produced in South Africa, followed by North West and Western Cape, which produced Figure 1 Pig production distribution in South Africa. Source: DAFF Commodity Profiles, 2019. 432

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production A successful pig production is dependent on contribute to global warming, with agriculture three fundamental factors: breeding, nutrition, estimated to contribute 18% to 20%. (Rust & and management. The success of a farming Rust, 2013). Animals in developing countries enterprise is heavily influenced by the breed / are more exposed to environmental elements genotype. The breed must be environmentally and thus more sensitive to changes in climatic adaptable and adapted to the current conditions. conditions. Pig farmers face new challenges and With an estimated 450-500 million smallholder opportunities as a result of climate change. They farmers constituting 85 percent of the world's must consider the effects of climate change farmers, smallholder farmers make up a on productivity, businesses, and pig welfare. substantial component of the global farming Pig health and performance (e.g., fertility community. Mostly defined by climate change implications); feed supply security; energy vulnerability, which is caused by a lack of financial affordability and security; and the ability of resources, as well as insufficient institutional buildings to cope with extreme and fluctuating and technology adoption capabilities (Ume et weather that affects the welfare of the pigs are al., 2018a). The effects of climate change vary key concerns for the pig farmer. slightly (depending on genotypes, location, Climate can have an impact on livestock and other factors), but the most commonly both directly and indirectly. Air temperature, reported issues include a lack of portable humidity, wind speed, and other climate factors water for animals, an increase in disease and have direct effects on animal performance, pest incidence, a decrease in feed intake and including growth, milk production, and digestibility, and a decrease in feed utilization reproduction (Houghton, 2001). Changes in efficiency, which can be measured in terms of feed resource availability and prices, as well growth and pork quality. (Ume et al., 2018a). Pigs as changes in livestock diseases and pests, are suffering from heat stress will have increased some of the most visible and significant effects respiration rates and a loss of appetite as a of climate change on livestock production result of rising temperatures caused by climate (Shields & Orme-Evans, 2015). Climate change change. Internal heat production is reduced by is expected to increase the vulnerability of the latter. If heat stress persists, pigs begin to livestock systems while also reinforcing existing drink excessive amounts of water (leading to factors affecting livestock production systems an increase in electrolyte loss) and collect acids (Rust & Rust, 2013).Agriculture is both a produced by the body (resulting in an acid/base contributor to and a victim of climate change, imbalance). In severe circumstances, this might as evidenced by carbon dioxide, methane, and lead to diarrhoea or even death. nitrous oxide emissions. These gases, in turn, 433

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 2 HOW CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IMPACT PIG PRODUCTION 2.1 IMPACT OF ELEVATED the body (resulting in an acid/base imbalance). TEMPERATURES ON THE PIG In severe circumstances, this might lead to PERFORMANCE diarrhoea or even death. According to Pearce et al. (2013), exposure Pigs, like many other animals, have a thermal to 35°C for 24 hours harmed the gut defense comfort zone, which is defined as a range of function and raised plasma endotoxin levels. ambient environmental temperatures that are The scientists explained that when pigs are favourable to physiological functioning (Rojas- subjected to heat stress (even for as little as two Downing et al., 2017). Because pigs are sensitive to six hours), their intestinal defense systems to heat, it's critical to look for strategies to keep are greatly weakened, allowing harmful bacteria them cool during hot weather. Modern pig to enter the body more easily. As a result, if genotypes produce significantly more heat than sanitary conditions are poor, heat stress can their forebears, making them less appropriate lead to secondary infection. for hot regions and opening the door for the use Adult pigs can survive in temperatures ranging of indigenous genotypes. Brown-Brandl et al. from 15°C to 30°C. Heat stress is more common (2003) found that new genetic lines of pigs create in larger (frame size) pigs, and the decline in roughly 20% more heat than their predecessors growth performance is greater than in smaller in the early 1980s in an assessment of pig heat pigs. Exotic high-performance pigs are now and moisture production. This tendency is likely even less suited to hot conditions. to have continued in the years since this study, and heat production could have increased by At what temperature and humidity do pigs get another 10%. heat stressed? Heat stress is exacerbated by ambient Sweating and panting, two of the most temperature (as well as humidity). Pigs can get significant techniques for maintaining body heat stress at significantly lower temperatures temperature and forming an inbuilt evaporative when the humidity is high, depending on their cooling system, are used by most animals to age, breed, housing, and flooring. A heat stress transfer internal heat to the outside of the index chart shown in Figure 2 was developed body. Pigs, on the other hand, do not sweat and by Iowa State University and can be used as a have small lungs. Pigs are prone to heat stress decision tool for implementing management due to these physiological restrictions and techniques to mitigate heat stress (Linden, their comparatively substantial subcutaneous 2014). The graph illustrates that a 30 percent fat. When pigs are exposed to heat stress, average humidity combined with temperatures they exhibit two distinct symptoms: increased above 28°C has a substantial impact on the respiratory rate and loss of appetite. Internal intestinal health and performance of grower- heat production is reduced by the latter. If heat finisher pigs. Breeding herds have a decreased stress persists, pigs begin to drink excessive temperature tolerance. amounts of water (leading to an increase in electrolyte loss) and collect acids produced by 434

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Figure 2 Heat index chart combines the effects of both temperature and relative humidity to provide classification as alert, danger and emergency zones for grower-finisher pigs for heat stress management. Source: Linden, 2014. Environmental factors affecting lactating sows harmed, and milk production is and the piglets diminished • Similarly, if sows are exposed to • Fluctuating farrowing house temperatures. persistently low temperatures, • Failure to determine the best farrowing they will convert feed to heat production rather than milk house temperature production, resulting in piglets with • Draughty creep areas, low creep areas poor weight gain and low weaning weights temperatures ii. Piglets in the farrowing pen should be • Draughts on the sow kept at a temperature between 27°C • Poor water supply and 32°C. However, newborn piglets require a temperature range of 32°C to 2.2 IMPORTANCE OF 37°C. TEMPERATURE REGULATION • Colder temperatures will reduce IN THE FARROWING HOUSE piglets' resistance to disease. Piglets kept at 21°C are five times i. The sow requires a temperature range more likely to suffer from severe of 10 to 22 ° C. for optimal feed intake, diarrhoea than those kept at 35°C sufficient milk production, and healthy • \"Cold\" piglets require more feed physical condition. than \"warm\" piglets; however, they • When sows are exposed to very consume less feed.. high temperatures for an extended period of time, their appetite is 435

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 2.3 METHODS OF REGULATING b. Summer Cooling TEMPERATURE IN THE • Summer cooling necessitates FARROWING HOUSE significantly more air movement than winter cooling. During periods of a. Ventilation extreme heat, the ventilation system • Ventilation is essential in all pig could be supplemented with a fan houses because it removes moisture blowing over the sows and odours in the winter and heat in • Evaporative cooling is effective, and the summer. Adequate air exchange drip irrigation nozzles are used to drip capacity and distribution are critical. water on the sow's shoulder to provide Draughts must be kept to a minimum cooling for small pigs • Mitigation for extensive/outdoor pig • Different ventilation methods are production systems involves wallowing available (see Figure 3): in the mud, which can reduce body o Mechanical ones include using fans temperature by up to 2°C. Pigs to blow air out of the building or wallow for 1.2 percent longer when fans to blow air into the building the temperature rises by one degree o The natural ones involve lowering (Olczak et al., 2015) and closing gaps in the walls with curtains. To reduce draughts and Figure 4 depicts the effect of ambient heat loss during cold weather, temperature on the growth performance of curtains should be opened from various pig classes. the top down and closed on the sides with an overlap Figure 3 Thermal (heat) exchange between a pig and its surroundings with prediction of different cooling strategies as they relate to heat exchange. Source: Mayorga et al., 2018. 436

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Figure 4 Effects of ambient temperature on the average daily gain of grower-finisher pigs. Source: Linden, 2014. Average daily gain begins to decrease when guide for temperature control in different sheds heavier pigs are exposed to temperatures above holding pigs of varied ages. The index shows 23°C, while average daily gain begins to decrease that higher temperatures have a curvilinear when lightest pigs are exposed to temperatures effect on ADG and ADFI, with the effect being above 27°C. This shows the various optimal more pronounced in heavier pigs. The crucial conditions and tolerance levels for the various observation is that pig production performance pig classes. is significantly affected as climatic circumstances Figure 5 depicts critical temperatures for pigs of change, particularly as temperature rises. various body weights; this data can be used as a Figure 5 Pig body weight has a significant effect on the critical temperature for average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily gain (ADG). Source: Linden, 2014. 437

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 2.4 INTERVENTIONS FOR • Designing the piggery to accommodate ELEVATED TEMPERATURE temperature fluctuations, such as locating it where it will be cooler in the summer and Recommended management tools to reduce insulating the house (for both the roof and heat stress side walls especially where corrugated iron is used) To effectively control and manage internal temperature and reduce energy waste, it • Reduce stocking density if possible, to allow is beneficial to improve building insulation air to flow between the pigs to reduce heat loss and limit the effect of environmental temperature. In addition, a • Use hardy breeds that can withstand higher ventilation control system and approved creep temperatures when raising pigs outside. grates were installed in the farrowing house in These pigs should have access to shade and accordance with the welfare code to regulate shelter as well the environment of the piglets and sows. Improving the design and management of • Keep the temperature of the drinking water wallows and shaded areas, investing in water as low as possible (around 10°C is ideal but storage facilities, employing less intensive difficult to achieve) rearing techniques and using less fatty food in animal feed, and efficient manure management • Feeding should be avoided between 10:00 (Ume et al., 2018b). a.m. and 4:00 p.m. (the hottest period of the day) Feeding pigs concentrated feeds in finely ground or pelleted rations could be one strategy for • Electrolytes and antioxidants can be minimising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. supplemented through the water supply. The use of feed additives such as nitric, • Increase dietary energy density fumarate, and sulfate (Ume et al., 2018a) as • Excess non-essential amino acids and well as genetic selection aims at increasing pig productivity by increasing feed intake in order fiber should be avoided (minimising to maintain energy sources associated with intestinal fermentation and therefore heat growth. production) • Increase the availability of antioxidants such • When there is a heat wave, increase as vitamin E and betaine through the diet ventilation and airflow and check that the cooling system is in good working order (for 2.5 IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY example, spray cooling), and spraying of ON PIG PRODUCTION roofs (of pig houses) is advised Water is the most critical nutrient for pig • Construction of pig houses with either development because it is required in the curtains or a ventilation system to allow biggest quantity. Water is necessary for pigs for temperature manipulation in order to a variety of reasons, including: adjust the temperature to meet the needs of breeding pigs and piglets • Metabolism; • Adjustment of body temperature; • Movement of nutrients into the body tissues; • Removal of metabolic waste; • Production of milk; • For growth and reproduction; 438

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production • The maintenance of mineral homeostasis; requirements range from 1.9 liters per pig per • The excretion of the end products of day for newly weaned pigs to more than 5.7 liters per pig per day for grow-finish pigs using metabolism (particularly urea); nipple drinkers. Water needs for breeding • The achievement of satiety (gut fill); and pigs range from 15 liters per day for gestating • Satisfaction of behavioral needs. females to 23 liters per day for lactating swine. Water availability promotes feed intake, and Water makes up 80% of the empty body weight daily drinking water usage can be used to of a newborn pig and roughly 53% of the empty predict swine health over time. body weight of a market pig. An animal can Municipal piped water, bore holes, ponds, lose almost all of its fat and more than half of reservoirs, canals, ditches, streams, and rivers its protein and still live, yet losing a tenth of its are all examples of water sources. Pigs require water causes death. Temperature, feedstuffs, high-quality water for drinking and cleaning stage of production, and health all influence the the pig house on a daily basis. Ground water amount of water required by the pig on a daily accessed via boreholes is generally of high basis. quality, whereas surface water sources such as streams, springs, and dams are unprotected. Grow-finish and gestating pigs need the most Unless treated, water from these unprotected water in the late afternoon of a 24-hour period, sources is unsafe to drink. but breastfeeding females use water more regularly throughout the day. Pigs' daily water Litres pig-1 day-1 0.7-1 Table 1 Water requirements of pigs (litres day-1). 5-10 12-15 Class of Pig 10-18 Nursery pigs (up to 30 kg BW) 18-23 Grower pigs (30 to 50 kg BW) 10-15 Finishing pigs (50 to 125 kg BW) Pregnant sows Lactating sows Boars 439

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 3 MANURE MANAGEMENT To reduce emissions, various housing techniques have been developed. A combination of housing Because manure production is unavoidable and feeding measures appears to be the most in a pig production enterprise, it provides promising for achieving a significant reduction in a potential component for reducing a pig emissions at a low cost (Van der Peet-Schwering enterprise's carbon footprint. The majority of et al., 1999). The adaptation and installation greenhouse gases and ammonia (an indirect of an anaerobic digester to capture GHGs, source of greenhouse gas emissions) emitted by control manure odors, and generate renewable pig production systems come from pig housing energy. Animal waste biogas is widely used as a and slurry storage (Van der Peet-Schwering et renewable biofuel source. This energy source is al., 1999). These emissions can be reduced by regarded as inexpensive and clean, and it is also doing the following: known to produce a residue with a high fertiliser value for crop production (Thien Tu et al., 2012). • Lowering the urea and ammonia concentrations in the slurry • Lowering the slurry's temperature • Reducing the surface area of the emitting source • Reducing the pH of the slurry 440

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 4 PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 WHERE TO START? This module is intended to serve as a reference • Examine your target farmers' farming for extension officers working with small-scale practices and subsistence farmers. In South Africa, there is a growing need to produce pork in a climate- • What are the issues that they believe friendly manner. South Africa consumes 200 require the most attention right now? 000 tons of pork per year, but we only produce 182 000. (Robinson, 2021). This indicates that • What is the primary goal of their farming there is a sizable market for expanding pork business? production. Climate-smart pest and disease management for pigs is a major focus of this • How do they look for disease symptoms in section. their animals? Temperature rises have resulted in the spread of disease vectors to previously inaccessible areas • How do they keep track of their animals' (WHO, 2021). Increased temperatures have whereabouts? also resulted in more heat stress in animals, which has resulted in an increase in metabolic • What information do they keep in their diseases in these animals (Ross et al, 2015). records? Flooding has also increased, bringing with it an increase in vectors such as mosquitoes, which • What criteria do they use to decide which carry not only animal diseases but also zoonotic animals to keep? diseases. Scientists are constantly looking for ways to combat infectious diseases through • What vaccines, veterinary drugs, and feed prevention rather than treatment, as this is the supplements do they use? most cost-effective way of dealing with disease. Climate-smart pest and disease management • Where do they get their vaccines, veterinary has the following potential benefits: medications, and supplements? • Decrease in mortality rates • What kind of infrastructure is there? • Decrease in morbidity rates • How much labor are farmers able to access? • Increase in disease reporting • Farming equipment owned by the farmer. • Increase in productivity • Increase in fertility What then? • Increase in income Once you understand how the system works, you • Decreasing of Greenhouse gas emissions can create a plan with the farmers' help based on what they see as their biggest problems and on disease observation and recording. 4.3 HOW TO IDENTIFY A SICK ANIMAL? The only way to tell if an animal is sick is to observe how a healthy animal appears (FAO, 2021). Climate-smart pest and disease management for • Looking from a distance pigs is divided into three categories: biological The animal should stand straight, with its feet vector control, resistant breed development, squared and its head held high. It must be vaccination campaigns, and parasite control constantly alert and aware of its surroundings. (CCARDESA, 2019). A good overall impression, as well as group 441

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production behavior such as rest or social body care, are minute. The pig's heart can be felt just behind required. Animals who separate from the group the left elbow; a newborn piglet has a heart rate and refuse to eat or move are sick. Animals of up to 250 beats per minute, growing piglets should bear weight evenly on all four legs while have a heart rate of 80-100 beats per minute, standing or moving, without arching their backs, and adult pigs should have a heart rate of no and their hooves should be worn evenly. more than 70-80 beats per minute. A gland just in front of the shoulder can be felt if it is • Listening enlarged, which is a sign of disease. Pigs are very vocal animals, so learning to distinguish between a normal sounding herd • Looking from behind and one in distress is essential. Keep an ear out An animal's body condition score can be for signs of coughing or sneezing. determined by looking at it from behind. Regardless of breed, pigs should always appear • Looking at the skin well-rounded. Pigs' skin is exposed, which can be a good indicator of health. Look for blisters or marks if • Looking at the udder or scrotum the color is not uniform. Symptoms of excessive Mastitis symptoms such as heat, swelling, pain, animal fighting Mosquito bites can be quite and inflammation must be looked for in the noticeable. Sun damage in lighter-colored pigs udder. The udder must also be checked for should be investigated. piglet biting. The milk can also be tested for thickness, flakes, and blood. The scrotum of a • Looking at the head male animal must be examined for the same ◦ The eyes must be bright and clear, signs of heat, swelling, pain, or inflammation, as with no discharge well as lumps. ◦ The ears should be checked for the presence of ticks and any foul smell • Taking the temperature should be noted A temperature should be taken of any animal ◦ The snout must be moist and free of showing signs of illness; a normal temperature any colored discharges for a pig can range between 38.7-40oC. ◦ There should be no excessive saliva dripping from the mouth. Food • Looking at the dung of animals falling from the mouth can be an It is necessary to observe a normal-appearing indication of tooth decay. A pig feacal consistency and color. Furthermore, should not be breathing with its excessive wetness/diarrhea can be caused by mouth open disease such as E.coli, parasites, lawsonia, and ◦ Discolouration in the ears should be so on. Too much dryness can lead to dehydration checked or feed issues. • Looking at the chest • Looking at the urine When resting, a newborn pig should take no Urine should be clear to slightly cloudy, and the more than 50-60 breaths per minute, growing animal should not urinate in pain. The inability piglets should take no more than 40, and adult to urinate is also a problem. pigs should take no more than 18 breaths per 442

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Figure 6 Body condition score of a pig. 4.4 DISEASE REPORTING Additional diseases with trade implications are also reported to the OIE through the One of the most important functions of the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and extension officer is to assist in the notification Rural Development (DALRD), as extension of controlled and notifiable diseases to the officers do not have formal training in these authorities, as regulated by the Animal Diseases diseases and are not expected to note them. Act 35 of 1984 and its associated regulations. According to the Animal diseases, ACT 35 of 1984 the definitions: Link to the act: https://www.dalrrd.gov.za/Branches/ • 'controlled animal disease' means any Agricultural-Production-Health-Food-Safety/ animal disease in respect of which any Animal-Health/importexport/legislation/ general or particular control measure has diseaseact been prescribed, and any animal disease which is not indigenous or native to the Link to the regulations: Republic. Table 2 of the regulations on the https://www.lawexplorer.co.za/ act gives a list of controlled diseases, those StatutoryDatabase/SubordinateFile/ pertaining to pigs are summarized in Table SubordinateFileDownload/5843 2 in this document. • 'notifiable animal disease' an animal disease specified in Annexure 3 of the act. 443

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Defining the term vector as per the CCARDESA definition: Vectors are insects, birds or other animals that transmit a disease and/or pest from one host to another. Table 2 Controlled animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Disease Act, Act 35 of 1984) pertaining to pigs. Disease Clinical signs Vector African swine fever (insects, ticks) (ASF) Anthrax High fever, loss of appetite, Red blotchy Ornithodorus ticks- hut tampan. Aujeszky’s disease skin, vomiting and diarrhoea, coughing Hosts include humans, poultry, (Pseudorabies) and difficulty breathing. Abortions and domestic pigs and warthog. Brucellosis death. Discharges from the eyes. Carriers of ASF is warthog Classical swine fever Sudden death with small amount of NO (CSF) un-clotted blood coming out of all openings. Trashing and convulsions, Foot and mouth fever. disease (FMD) Neurological signs in young piglets. NO Fever, foamy saliva, seizures, paralysis and death. Older pigs shows respiratory signs, coughing, sneezing, abortions might be seen. Infectious disease of the genital organs NO with fertility disorders and possible joint diseases. Abortion, stillborn or weak piglets, return to oestrus if early abortions. Because piglets get eaten abortions are missed and only infertility seen. Similiar to African swine fever NO (ASF), purple discolouration of the extremities. Fever, conjunctivitis, discharge from the eyes, appetite- loss, lethargy, gastro-intestinal signs, abortions. Highly contagious viral disease Blisters NO in the oral cavity and on the tongue, blisters between the toes and above the hooves and on teats. Hyper salivation. 444

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production Porcine reproductive Reproductive failure, abortions, NO and respiratory stillbirths. Respiratory disease, fever, syndrome lethargy, failure to thrive, coughing, NO Rabies sneezing. Sudden behavior changes, NO Swine vesicular incoordination, abnormal bellowing, NO disease convulsive head movements, excessive Tuberculosis salivation, paralysis of the throat. Any animal disease or Vesicles between the hooves and on infectious agent that is the mouth ( looks like FMD) not known to occur in Persistent cough, diarrhea, weight loss South Africa. and abdominal pain. Usually there is a history of an animal being imported or feed that has been imported or taken from ships in the case of these diseases. 4.5 NOTIFIABLE ANIMAL DISEASES and mastitis-metritis-agalactia syndrome in sows (Jang et al, 2017). 4.5.1 Other common diseases Certain diseases, such as Salmonella, will be Other diseases will vary depending on your more prevalent in wet conditions, as will biting location and circumstances. Animals become flies that cause skin irritations. Pigs can be anorexic at higher temperatures because infected with roundworms and tapeworms. pigs are happiest between 18 and 25 degrees Animals will not die from roundworms, but Celsius (Quiniou et al, 1999). Bacterial growth they will gain less weight. Roundworm eggs and survival in the environment are accelerated can survive in the environment for years. To by higher temperatures. Bacteria such as E. hatch, these eggs require warmth and moisture coli live longer in the environment and cause (Ballweber, 2015). Tapeworms do not cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhoea in illness in animals, but they can cause zoonotic piglets, respiratory disease in growing piglets, disease if the meat is consumed raw. Table 3 Notifiable animal diseases (in terms of the Animal Diseases Act, Act 35 of 1984) as pertaining to pigs. Disease Clinical signs Vector Swine erysipelas- Diamond skin disease Sudden death, fever, skin lesions that are diamond shaped, No arthritis. Abortions due to the fever. 445

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 4.5.2 Zoonotic diseases vectors for example stagnant water where The most common of these diseases found mosquitoes breed recently in South Africa are Cysticercosis • Pest traps for e.g. fly traps that is set up. (Taenia solium), E. coli, Swine Flu, Tuberculosis, (CCARDESA, 2019) Brucellosis, Rabies, Salmonella, Anthrax, and Erysipelas. 4.7 OTHER METHODS OF DISEASE If you become ill, please notify your healthcare CONTROL provider that your job requires you to work with sick animals. Not all diseases are transmitted by vectors, some other transmission methods include: 4.5.3 Reporting of diseases by farmers. Educating farmers on their obligation to report • Direct contact between sick animals is any animals that show signs of disease to you prohibited (domestic animals and wildlife). as the extension officer or to the animal health technician who will contact the veterinarian. • The sick animals' excretions It's also a good idea to try to avoid the stigma • Personnel, clothing, and equipment that comes with reporting some of these • It is found naturally in soil diseases. Keep in mind that farmers will only • Housing was not cleaned after sick animals share information with you if you have a strong relationship with them. According to the Animal were housed in it Diseases Act, it is also the responsibility of • Feed and water animal owners to report these diseases, and • Pasture rotation plan to limit parasitic failure to do so is a violation of the law. diseases 4.6 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF VECTORS 4.7.1 Biosecurity Good biosecurity is the key in keeping these In recent investigations, it has been discovered diseases out of your herds. that climate changes and a shift towards more wildlife production have led the control line for • On your farm, quarantine all new animals African Swine fever to shift, and tampans have for at least 14 days been found in warthog burrows in Gauteng. Diseases spread by biting flies are most common • Separate any sick or dead animals from the during the rainy season, when mosquitoes and healthy ones immediately biting midges are more plentiful. Some ways to control these diseases include: • Allow no visitors to your herds • Wash your hands regularly • Long empty period to ensure that the vector • Use Coveralls when working with your dies before new hosts are introduced animals • To prevent transmission, fence off areas or • Take care to disinfect your footwear when herd animals away from other herds coming back to your farm after travelling • Getting rid of breeding areas for the • Make sure you disinfect your equipment and vehicles if you lend them to somebody and at regular intervals • Always move from the healthy animals first to the sick animals last • IF you have no sick animals move from the youngest to the oldest animals. • As an extension officer do not visit multiple farms in the same clothing. 446

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 4.7.2 Selecting of resistant breeds • Check for equipment and storage to ensure Production trainers go over this in further that vaccinations and stock medicines are depth. In general, indigenous breeds are more kept at the proper temperature resistant to diseases that occur naturally in the area. Certain diseases are not endemic to the • Ensure that there are adequate trained area, however, and it is important to avoid the vaccine providers misconception that local breeds do not need to be vaccinated. • Estimate the number of animals that will The best way to go is to choose animals from need to be vaccinated your herd that are constantly afflicted with a disease. Allowing unintentional mating to occur • Verify that sufficient vaccines and stock will damage your herd. medicines have been ordered and are available to carry out the campaign 4.7.3 Vaccination campaigns, endo- and ectoparasite control • Make sure the immunisation is done at a If extension officers are in charge of vaccination period of year that is appropriate for the campaigns rather than veterinarians, make disease and the farmers' schedules sure that any other problems in the animals are documented and brought to the attention • Ensure that farmers are informed about of the veterinarian or animal health technician the vaccine's benefits and the necessity for so that treatment and veterinary drugs can revaccination be provided. Using commercially available vaccines, many diseases can be prevented or • Ascertain that a means for identifying the intensity of symptoms reduced. Farmers vaccinated animals exists might also be provided stock treatments at the same time. • A method of keeping track of the animals When planning a vaccination campaign ensure: that have been vaccinated as well as receipts for payment from the farmers • Arrangement as to the time is made with the owners of the livestock • Will the farmers be able to continue receiving these vaccinations? • Try to visit the pig farms no more than once every three days When giving the vaccine or stock remedies: • Make sure you know the vaccine's batch • Make plans for how much the farmers number and expiration date will have to pay for vaccines and stock • Ascertain that the cold chain was kept intact treatments • Only use the vaccination as directed on the package • Check to see if there are any handling • If the vaccination label says you can't keep facilities available it, don't use it again • Check the vaccination dose • Check to see if it's safe to administer to pregnant animals • Look for potential risks to vaccine recipients and make them aware of them • Vaccinate only healthy animals • Never guarantee a vaccine's 100 percent effectiveness rate to a farmer 447

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 4.7.4 Vaccination and routine treatment program Table 4 Vaccination and routine treatment program (Agricultural Research Council, South Africa, Introduction to pig production manual). Disease Animals to be When to do treated Porcine parvo, Erysipelas, Dry sows 3 Weeks before breeding Leptospira (farrowsure) 6 weeks and 3 weeks before breeding Gilts First time 2 vaccinations 2 weeks apart, then 1 vaccination every 6 months Boars 2 weeks before farrowing 4 weeks and 2 weeks before farrowing E.coli and clostridium (litter Preg sows 3 days old guard) Preg gilts 5 days old Piglets 7 days before farrowing Iron injection Piglets When moving from weaning to growing Coccidia treatment (baycox) Preg sows unit Endo and ectoparasite control Grower pigs 7 days before farrowing (Ivermectin) Tick dip (triatix pig) Preg sow Working with your local veterinarian to expand 4.8 CHOOSING A SOLUTION FOR this list based on diseases seen in animals in YOUR AREA your area is recommended. Fenbendazole (Panacur 4 % ) powder, which can A combination of all three of the strategies be given to pig chow, is another anthelmintic outlined above is frequently required to (dewormer) to consider. effectively control illnesses and pests in your area. If you don't have the backing of your local farmers, none of the strategies will work. A lot of education and trust-building will be required to gain this support. Farmers must buy into the initiative and make it their own in order for it to succeed. 448

Climate-Smart Agriculture _ Training Manual Pig production 5 CONCLUSIONS • Improved housing management is required during extreme weather events Climate change opportunities for pig farmers (EdCliitmora,te20C0ha9n)ge refers to a • Extreme weather occurrences are becoming more unpredictable change in the state of the • Climate change, as well as other market Sa•c(cvelh ii.maFngne.ga,getsbeedystcsihntoaattsthitcsesatinamcarbeeleatlnedoseawttnsee)dcbr/tyoesdrince by-products from systems and products, may have an impact varfioaobdilitaynodf ibtsioc-heatrhacatneroisltpicrsoduction are used. on global feed prices •an Pditghatfelaesdts forratainosexteshndoeudld be planned to peirmiodproofvtiempee, orffoternmdaencacdeews hile reducing waste Adaptation Suggestions for Pig Farmers •pboerr oaIlcnocnaencudsrgsseeeeerads.msCobeilrsyidmsenixaoatotteneuursrnct.ahdalaloinfnoogtrreecrimnnfaiganlsyishing options will • Improve building insulation to better suclohwasesrolcaorncysctlreumctoiodnul,atfiioxne,d equipment, and control internal temperatures and reduce voelcnaneircgeyruepxtpioennss, easn.d chronic energy waste •hu Tmhaenrcehwanilglebseinmaotmreoospphteiorinc s to use renewable • Create ventilation control systems that can c2o0me07np)eo. rsgityio.n or land use (IPCC, adapt to changing weather conditions • To better regulate the environment for Climate change challenges for pig farmers piglets and sows, utilise enclosed creep boxes in farrowing houses Productivity • To avoid soil erosion, choose grass or cover • Heat stress could lead to a drop in crop varieties that can withstand climatic productivity (including fertility problems) change • In some areas, there may be less water • Wallows and shaded places should be available from suppliers or on-farm sources better designed and managed • In hot temperatures, reduced feed intake • Invest in water storage infrastructure, such has a negative impact on performance and as reservoirs on farms output • Use less intensive methods of upbringing, • Increased/different diseases, as well as such as outside (but recognise this impacts higher veterinary and medicine costs on water pollution and soil erosion and take • Persistence and reduced grass cover (in preventative steps to manage these) outdoor systems) • Because pigs enjoy wallowing in the mud or other wet areas, and they usually begin Costs wallowing at temperatures over 12°C, • Increased capital, maintenance, and energy wallowing holes should be given in outdoor expenses for ventilation, cooling, heating, pig production settings. Temperature and and odor and emission control are all humidity have a big impact on roots and possibilities wallowing 449