["St. Denis, patron of the Franks, had become available EUGENIUS OF PALERMO through a codex donated by the Byzantine emperor Mi- chael the Stammerer to Louis the Pious in 827. Through Moran, Dermot. The Philosophy of John Scottus Eriugena: A his reading and translation of Pseudo-Dionysius, Study of Idealism in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge Eriugena was introduced to certain features of Greek University Press, 1990. theology, such as the unfolding of the universe accord- ing to procession and return and the methods of nega- O\u2019Meara, John J., and Ludwig Bieler, eds. The Mind of Eriugena. tive and affirmative theology, which he subsequently Dublin; Irish University Press, 1973. incorporated into his own thinking. He also translated Maximus the Confessor\u2019s Quaestiones ad Thalassium Otten, Willemien. The Anthropology of Johannes Scottus Eri- and Gregory of Nyssa\u2019s De hominis opificio. ugena. Leiden: Brill, 1991. Eriugena\u2019s major intellectual achievement was the Willemien Otten Periphyseon, or On the Division of Nature. This work, written ca. 864\u201366, is the mature product of his reflec- EUGENIUS OF PALERMO tions on Greek theology as well as on the western (c. 1130-c. 1202) tradition of Augustine and Boethius. Its most impres- sive feature is its scope: an inclusive treatment of all of Eugenius of Palermo was a highly placed official, nature, under which he classifies both God and creation. an accomplished poet, and a translator of scientific Structuring the universe along the lines of procession and literary works. He facilitated east-west cultural and return, Eriugena discusses all major theological and transmission in the kingdom of Sicily when it was still philosophical issues of his time in a dialectical fashion. significantly polyglot. The discussion of nature ranges from God (nature that creates but is not created) through a treatment of the Eugenius was a member of the Italian-Greek divine ideas (nature that is created and creates) and nobility that had filled important positions since the of spatiotemporal creations (nature that is created and early days of Norman rule; he was the son, nephew, does not create) back to God (nature that does not cre- and grandson of officials who had attained the rank ate and is not created). In addition, his Expositiones in of admiral, or emir\u2014a title that was not exclusively ierarchiam coelestem (on Pseudo-Dionysius\u2019s Celestial naval\u2014and whose work must have required a knowl- Hierarchy) and his homily Vox spiritualis aquilae have edge of Arabic. From 1174 to 1190, Eugenius served become famous. as master of the duana baronum, a royal financial of- fice, then based in Salerno, for the mainland part of Due to the later association of Eriugena with the the kingdom. Eugenius himself was made an admiral heresy of Amalric of B\u00e8ne, Pope Honorius III in 1225 in 1190 by the newly crowned king, Tancred; he was a ordered that all extant copies of the Periphyseon be major figure at the court in Palermo during the reigns burned. Yet, through direct and indirect influence, of Tancred and Tancred\u2019s immediate successor, Wil- Eriugena\u2019s voice continued to be heard in the medieval liam III. Along with others close to William, Eugenius Christian-Platonic tradition. In connection with idealist was arrested at the end of 1194; he was charged with philosophy and process theology, Eriugena\u2019s ideas also conspiracy against Henry VI and was imprisoned in stimulate modern thinking. southern Germany. By July 1196, however, he was back in the kingdom and was serving, in Apulia and See also Gottschalk without the title of admiral, as a senior subordinate of the imperial legate Conrad of Querfurt. He may also Further Reading have been the Eugenius who was master chamberlain for Apulia and Terra di Lavoro from 1198 to at least Eriugena, Johannes Scottus. Commentaire sur l\u2019\u00e9vangile de Jean, 1202; this is less certain but is usually accepted. The ed. and trans. \u00c9douard Jeauneau. Paris: Cerf, 1972. date of his death is unknown. \u2014\u2014. De divina praedestinatione liber, ed. Goulven Madec. Eugenius\u2019s multilingualism bore considerable fruit. CCCM 50. Turnhout: Brepols, 1978. He is assumed to be the Eugenius who assisted the au- thor of the first Latin translation (c. 1159) of Ptolemy\u2019s \u2014\u2014. Expositiones in ierarchiam coelestem, ed. Jeanne Barbet. Almagest, an astronomical text transmitted in Greek CCCM 31. Turnhout: Brepols, 1975. and Arabic manuscripts; his fluency in all three tongues is noted in the translator\u2019s acknowledgment. His own \u2014\u2014. Periphyseon (De divisione naturae), ed. I.P. Sheldon-Wil- Latin translation of Ptolemy\u2019s Optics from its Arabic liams and Ludwig Bieler. 3 vols. Dublin: Dublin Institute for version (the original Greek is lost), which seems to Advanced Studies, 1968\u201381. have been contemporary with the translation of the Almagest, was used by Roger Bacon in the thirteenth \u2014\u2014. Periphyseon = On the Division of Nature, trans. Myra I. century and survives in more than a dozen manuscripts. Uhlfelder with summaries by Jean A. Potter. Indianapolis: Eugenius\u2019s Latin translation of the cryptic Prophecy Bobbs-Merrill, 1976. of the Erythrean Sibyl from Greek is now known only through its very popular thirteenth-century Joachite re- Marenbon, John. From the Circle of Alcuin to the School of working by John of Parma or an associate, but significant Auxerre: Logic, Theology and Philosophy in the Early Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. 207","EUGENIUS OF PALERMO Critical Studies portions of this apocalyptic text are believed to belong to Billerbeck, Margarethe, and Christian Zubler, eds. and trans. Eugenius\u2019s original. Eugenius also prepared or at least Das Lob der Fliege von Lukian bis L. B. Alberti: Gattungsge- commissioned, probably during his later years at court, schichte, Texte, \u00dcbersetzungen, und Kommentar. Sapheneia: an edition of the Greek \u201cmirror of princes\u201d Stephanites Beitr\u00e4ge zur Klassischen Philologie, 5. Bern: Peter Lang, and Ichnelates, itself a translation of the Arabic Kalila 2000. (See especially pp. 39\u201341, 173\u2013179.) wa-Dimna (selections from the Indian Panchatantra or Fables of Bidpai). Falkenhausen, V. von. \u201cEugenio da Palermo.\u201d In Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, Vol. 43. Rome: Istituto della Enci- Eugenius is the front rank of the Greek poets of clopedia Italiana, 1993, pp. 502\u2013505. medieval Italy. From his larger production, twenty-four poems survive, preserved in a single fourteenth-cen- Gigante, Marcello. \u201cIl tema dell\u2019instabilt\u00e0 della vita nel primo tury manuscript written at the famous monastery of carme di Eugenic di Palermo.\u201d Byzantion, 33, 1963, pp. San Nicola at Casole near Otranto. These poems are 325\u2013356. in metrically careful twelve-syllable iambics; some are epigrams, but most are longer reflections on eth- \u2014\u2014. \u201cLa civilt\u00e0 letteraria.\u201d In I bizantini in Italia, ed. Guglielmo ics and other aspects of the human condition. The two Cavallo et al. Antica Madre, 5. Milan: Scheiwiller, 1982, pp. longest and best-known are the first and last: When he 613\u2013651. (See especially pp. 628\u2013630.) was in prison (number 1, in 207 lines) and To the most renowned and trophy-holding king William (number Jamison, Evelyn. Admiral Eugenius of Sicily: His Life and Work 24, in 102 lines, a panegyric probably addressed to and the Authorship of the Epistola ad Petrum and the Historia William I). Other noteworthy pieces include an elegant Hugonis Falcandi Siculi. London: Oxford University Press description of a locally common water lily (number 10); for the British Academy, 1957. a derogatory rejoinder to the ancient satirist Lucian\u2019s Praise of the Fly (number 15); and the mildly didactic Loud, Graham A. \u201cThe Authorship of the History.\u201d In The His- On kingship, perhaps written for the young William III tory of the Tyrants of Sicily by \u201cHugo Falcandus\u201d 1154\u20131169, (number 21). trans. Graham A. Loud and Thomas Wiedemann. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998, pp. 28\u201342. In the unique copy of Peter of Eboli\u2019s Liber ad honorem Augusti, the caption to a group portrait of the McGinn, Bernard. \u201c Teste David cum Sibylla: The Significance of alleged conspirators of December 1194 names Eugenius, the Sibylline Tradition in the Middle Ages.\u201d In Women of the among others. But more names are listed than there are Medieval World: Essays in Honor of John H. Mundy, ed. Julius faces in the illustration, and it is not clear which if any Kirshner and Suzanne F. Wemple. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985, of those depicted is meant to be Eugenius. Specimens pp. 7\u201335. (Reprint, Apocalypticism in the Western Tradition. of his signature survive in official documents. A modern Aldershot: Variorum, 1994, article 4.) scholarly attribution to Eugenius of the writings of his now anonymous contemporary, called Hugo Falcandus, M\u00e9nager, L\u00e9on-Robert. Amiratus\u2014\u2019A\/\u00e2\/: L\u2019\u00e9mirat et les origi- has found little favor. nes de l\u2019amiraut\u00e9. Paris: SEVPEN, 1960. (See especially pp. 75\u201378.) Further Reading Sj\u00f6berg, Lars-Olof. Stephanites und Ichnelates: \u00dcberliefer- Editions and Translations ungsgeschichte und Text. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Stu- dia Graeca Upsaliensia, 2. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, Gigante, Marcello, ed. and trans. Eugenii Panormitani Versus 1962. (See especially pp. 103\u2013111.) iambici. Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e Neoellenici, Testi, 10. Palermo: Istituto Siciliano di Studi Bizantini e John B. Dillon Neoellenici, 1964. EULOGIUS OF C\u00d3RDOBA Holder-Egger, O., ed. \u201cItalienische Prophetieen des 13 Jahrhun- derts, 1.\u201d Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft f\u00fcr \u00e4ltere deutsche (c. 800\u2013859) Geschichtskunde, 15, 1890, pp. 141\u2013178. (Critical edition of Vaticinium Sibillae Eritheae [sic] and similar texts.) Priest and apologist for the Martyrs of C\u00f3rdoba who died in 859 Eulogius was born (c. 800) into a noble Christian Lejeune, Albert, ed. and trans. L\u2019Optique de Claude Ptol\u00e9m\u00e9e family in C\u00f3rdoba. His parents dedicated him as a child dans la version latine d\u2019apr\u00e8s l\u2019arabe de l\u2019\u00e9mir Eug\u00e8ne de to the Church of St. Zoylus, where he was educated Sicile, augumented ed. Collection de Travaux de l\u2019Acad\u00e9mie and trained for the priesthood by the abbot Speraindeo. Internationale d\u2019Histoire des Sciences, 31. Leiden: Brill, There he met and befriended Paulus Alvarus, later the 1989. author of the Vita Eulogii, upon which much modern knowledge of Eulogius is based. After his ordination McGinn, Bernard, trans. \u201cThe Erythraean Sibyl.\u201d In Visions Eulogius seems to have replaced Speraindeo as the of the End: Apocalyptic Traditions in the Middle Ages. magister responsible for training future priests. Around New York: Columbia University Press, 1979, pp. 122\u2013125, 849 or 850 Eulogius traveled north, visiting Navarrese 312\u2013313. (Annotated selections from the Eugenian portions monasteries and acquiring books. of this text.) Shortly after Eulogius\u2019s return, a monk named Isaac was arrested by the Muslim authorities for blasphem- ing Islam and was executed on 3 June 851. Within two months ten more Christians followed Isaac\u2019s example, launching what has come to be known as the C\u00f3rdoban Martyrs\u2019 Movement. Sometime during that summer Eulogius took it upon himself to begin composing the 208","Memoriale sanctorum, a martyrology containing brief EYVINDR FINNSSON SK\u00c1LDASPILLIR accounts of the passions of the executed Christians. Shortly thereafter the Muslim authorities, looking for cutors of the ancient Roman type and to portray Islam a way to stem the growing tide of dissent, ordered the as a diabolically inspired false prophecy. Eulogius\u2019s arrest of the C\u00f3rdoban clergy. Among those incarcer- apologetic treatises are important, then, not only as ated was Eulogius. During his detention he continued to evidence of the wide spectrum of Christian responses work on the Memoriale sanctorum, to which he added a to life under Muslim rule\u2014from outright rejection to preface designed to convince skeptical members of the almost complete assimilation\u2014but also as one of the C\u00f3rdoban Christian community that the executed Chris- earliest extant sources for Western views of Islam. tians were indeed legitimate martyrs who had suffered as the result of actual persecution. He also wrote the See also Alvarus, Paulus Documentum martyriale, a hortative treatise designed to encourage Flora and Maria, who had been arrested Further Reading for apostasy and blasphemy, respectively, to maintain their resolve to become martyrs. Colbert, E. \u201cThe Martyrs of C\u00f3rdoba (850\u2013859): A Study of the Sources.\u201d Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, Eulogius was released in late November 851, but his 1962. relations with the local authorities, both Muslim and Christian, became increasingly strained. At one point Gil, J. (ed.) Corpus scriptorum muzarabicorum. Vol. 2. Madrid, he contemplated suspending himself from celebrating 1973. 363\u2013503. Mass in order to dramatize his dissatisfaction with the Church authorities who seemed intent on working Wolf, K. Christian Martyrs in Muslim Spain. Cambridge, with the emir to bring the martyrdoms to an end. The 1988. unpopularity of Eulogius\u2019s position seems to have pre- vented him from accepting his nomination to succeed Kenneth B. Wolf Wistremirus as metropolitan of Toledo in early 852. That summer he had to hide to avoid being arrested EYVINDR FINNSSON SK\u00c1LDASPILLIR a second time and was subsequently denounced at an (10th century) episcopal council that had been convened by the emir to deal with the problem of the martyrs. Little is known Eyvindr Finnsson sk\u00e1ldaspillir (\u201cthe plagiarist\u201d?) was about Eulogius\u2019s life over the next five years except a Norwegian poet of the 10th century, a man of noble that he continued to add to the Memoriale sanctorum descent from H\u00e5logaland, whose mother was a descen- as the executions continued. Sometime after March 857 dant of Haraldr h\u00e1rfagri (\u201cfair-hair\u201d) H\u00e1lfdanarson. He he wrote another martyrology, the Liber apologeticus was a skald at the court of H\u00e1kon g\u00f3\u00f0i (\u201cthe good\u201d) martyrum, dedicated to Rudericus and Salomon, who Haraldsson, and closely connected with the party of the were put to death as apostate Muslims at that time. It earls of Hla\u00f0ir, who supported H\u00e1kon against the sons also is known, from an independent source, that in 858 of Eir\u00edkr, who were allied with the Danes. According Eulogius met with the monks Usuard and Odilard, who to Heimskringla, Eyvindr seems to have been in a po- had come from Paris to Zaragoza in search of relics and sition of trust at the king\u2019s court. After H\u00e1kon\u2019s death, had been referred to C\u00f3rdoba. In the late winter of 859 he was probably among the enemies of the new king, Eulogius was arrested for harboring a fugitive apostate Haraldr gr\u00e1feldr (\u201cgrey-cloak\u201d) Eir\u00edksson. Nevertheless, named Leocritia. He defended himself by claiming that in the end, he became a skald at Haraldr\u2019s court, but as a priest he was bound to instruct anyone seeking the peaceful relations between them seem not to have knowledge of the faith. When the judge ordered him lasted long, as his lausav\u00edsur make plain. The poem whipped, Eulogius responded by denouncing Islam and H\u00e1leygjatal shows him at the end of his life at the court was executed for blasphemy on 11 March 859. of the victorious and powerful Earl H\u00e1kon Sigur\u00f0arson of the Hla\u00f0ir family. Most assume that Eulogius\u2019s role vis-\u00e0-vis the martyrdoms was that of an orchestrator of a martyrs\u2019 Two poems by Eyvindr, H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l and H\u00e1leyg- movement. Yet a close look at the sources reveals that jatal, and fourteen lausav\u00edsur (single stanzas) have been he had personal contact with only a few of the martyrs. preserved. Nothing remains of a third poem, *\u00cdslend- His self-appointed function seems instead to have been ingadr\u00e1pa, mentioned in Heimskringla. one of promoting their cult when many of the C\u00f3rdoban Christians seemed inclined to reject the wouldbe martyrs The poem H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l is a panegyric on the dead as suicides whose actions jeopardized their day-to- Norwegian king H\u00e1kon g\u00f3\u00f0i (935\u2013961), who was killed day relations with the Muslims. To this end Eulogius in the battle of Stor\u00f0 against the sons of Eir\u00edkr bl\u00f3\u00f0\u00f8x struggled in his writings to cast the Muslims as perse- (\u201cblood-axe\u201d) Haraldsson, his brother and adversary. The poem is contained in the MSS of Heimskringla (J, K, F) and some stanzas of it also appear in Fagrskinna (A, B) and in Snorra Edda. The poem consists of three parts: the battle; the king\u2019s ensuing dialogue with the valkyries who have decided that he is to go to \u00d3\u00f0inn, and the king\u2019s wel- 209","EYVINDR FINNSSON SK\u00c1LDASPILLIR poem, as the opening stanza announces, traces the earl\u2019s ancestors to the gods. Only fragments are left: nine come in Valho\u02dbll and among the gods; and the conclud- complete stanzas and seven half-stanzas are contained ing praise of the greatness and uniqueness of the late in Heimskringla, Snorra Edda, Fagrskinna, and Flatey- king, followed by words of grief over the situation of jarb\u00f3k. A 13th-century Icelandic MS (cf. Storm 1899: the country now enslaved. This three-part structure is 111, Anm. 4), whose author probably used H\u00e1leygjatal also underlined by the meter. The traditional epic meter to enumerate twenty-seven earls of Hla\u00f0ir, permits the fornyr\u00f0islag is used for the battle section; the parts in conjecture that the poem also enumerated twenty-seven which mythical persons are protagonists and the con- ancestors of Earl H\u00e1kon, just as Ynglingatal, which cluding praise use lj\u00f3\u00f0ah\u00e1ttr meter. For that reason, was presumably the model for H\u00e1leygjatal, does for some scholars have assumed that two different poems the Ynglingar. The kvi\u00f0uh\u00e1ttr meter also follows Yn- have been combined in H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l (Sahlgren 1927). glingatal (cf. Storm). The stanzas preserved show that But this change of meter is characteristic of the genre of H\u00e1leygjatal also relates how each of the princes met his \u201ceddic panegyrics,\u201d as well as the epic presentation and death. The burial place of a prince is mentioned in only the use of mythical scenes and motifs for the purpose one case. The first of H\u00e1kon\u2019s ancestors is S\u00e6mingr, of praise. In the battle scenes, however, the poem is the son of \u00d3\u00f0inn and the giantess Ska\u00f0i. The opening influenced to a greater extent by skaldic metaphors and stanzas contain two traditional elements: the request kennings used to create impressive imagery. for silence and the paraphrasing of \u201cpoem\u201d by the myth of \u00d3\u00f0inn\u2019s mead, the drink of poetical inspiration; this As to the themes, the poem is cognate with Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l, pattern shows clearly that the poem was composed as although there are considerable differences. Whereas a panegyric. Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l is confined to a single scene, the entry of the king into Valho\u02dbll, H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l also contains the battle The poem is connected with Ynglingatal by the meter, and the praise of the king. There are also differences in the genealogical content, and the concentration on the religious attitudes, Valho\u02dbll and \u00d3\u00f0inn are presented very deaths of the princes. There are also certain similarities unfavorably. The valkyries, not \u00d3\u00f0inn, choose the hero, between the kennings and other metaphorical phrases and they also determine victory or defeat. Whether be- in the two poems. Therefore, it has been generally cause of his Christian faith or his fear, the king does not supposed that H\u00e1leygjatal was composed for political want to go to \u00d3\u00f0inn. Moreover, the king\u2019s welcome in reasons, following the model of Ynglingatal, in order to Valho\u02dbll is surpassed by his reception among the gods, for prove that the family of the earls of Hla\u00f0ir was just as old whom the poet uses the collective terms characteristic of as the Ynglingar\u2019s, their rivals for the power in Norway, the late-pagan religion of the environment of the earls of and that the earls were also descended from the gods. Hla\u00f0ir (bnd, regin, r\u00f3\u02db \u00f0, hei\u00f0in go\u00f0). Unlike Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l, However, it has sometimes been argued that Ynglingatal the poem reveals intense national feelings. The king is is later than H\u00e1leygjatal (Wadstein 1895). shown as a sovereign defending his kingdom, protect- ing the sanctuaries. His character is praised; there is no The fact that Eyvindr was called \u201csk\u00e1ldaspillir\u201d better king to some after him. And the gods who have plays a certain role in this discussion. The term was invited him to join them are the gods worshiped in the interpreted as \u201cdestroyer of skalds,\u201d and it was thought environment of the earls of Hla\u00f0ir. that this name implied that the poet had imitated older poems, especially their kennings. But since the style of Taking into account the last stanza, where the poet skaldic poetry was highly traditional, we must beware of speaks of the enslaved people, we have to assume that regarding these analogies from a modern point of view the poem was composed for the earls of Hla\u00f0ir after and dismissing them as lacking originality. It would be H\u00e1kon\u2019s death, when Haraldr gr\u00e1feldr\u2019s rule had become better to interpret the name of \u201csk\u00e1ldaspillir\u201d as \u201cwho increasingly oppressive. puts the other skalds in the shade\u201d (Wadstein 1895, M. Olsen 1916). Most scholars accept the statement in Fagrskinna that Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l was the model for H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l. There Eyvindr\u2019s lausav\u00edsur are composed in dr\u00f3ttkv\u00e6tt are some very obvious parallels between the two poems. meter, the ceremonial, courtly style. The first six of them But there have also been voices in favor of the priority have to do with the battle of Fitjar: the first announces of H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l (Wadstein 1895, von See 1963); they the arrival of the enemies\u2019 army to the king, the second argue that the poem\u2019s conception of Valho\u02dbll is more calls the warriors to the battle. Stanzas 3\u20135 focus on one archaic, and its poetic quality greater. Yet, both lines of episode of the battle, the encounter of H\u00e1kon g\u00f3\u00f0i and argument are unconvincing, and it seems more correct Eyvindr skreyja (\u201cbragger\u201d). Stanza 6 is an answer to a to assume that the author of the H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l deliber- well-known poem by Gl\u00famr Geirason, skald of Haraldr ately made his poem different from Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l, and had gr\u00e1feldr, which praised his victory over H\u00e1kon. Eyvindr political motives for surpassing his model (Wolf 1969, answered with a stanza recalling a previous victory of Marold 1972). H\u00e1kon over the sons of Eir\u00edkr. Eyvindr\u2019s H\u00e4leygjatal was composed for Earl H\u00e1kon after his victory over the J\u00f3msv\u00edkingar in 985. This 210","Stanza 7 is a conventional praise of Haraldr gr\u00e1feldr. EZZO In stanza 10, the cool relation between king and skald is obvious. The remaining stanzas could be regarded as Noreen, Erik. \u201cEir\u00edksm\u00e1l och H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l.\u201d Nordisk Tidskrift f\u00f6r reflecting the author\u2019s critical attitude toward Haraldr\u2019s vetenskap konst och industri, udg. av. Letterstedska F\u00f6renin- rule. In stanzas 8 and 9, he complains about the greed gen (1922), 535\u201342. of the king, to whom he must even give his own gold (st. 10). Stanza 12 complains about the bad weather, Sahlgren, J\u00f6ran. Eddica et Scaldica. Fornv\u00e4stnordiska studier 1. for which in the contemporary view the king was re- Nordisk Filologi, 1. Lund: Gleerup, 1927, pp. 40\u2013109. sponsible (cf. the fact that in Vellekla Earl H\u00e1kon was praised for bringing back good harvests). Stanzas 13 and Flornes, H.M, \u201c\u2018Sp\u00e5teme.\u2019 Merknader til ei lausavise av Eyvind 14 may also be read in this light: they deal with fishing Finsson.\u201d Maal og minne (1939), 15\u201316. and buying herring, partly in humorous paraphrases. In exchange for herring, the poet is forced to give a needle, Midtun, S. D. \u201cEn lausav\u00edsa av \u00d8yvind Finsson.\u201d Maal og minne which he had received as a present from the Icelanders. (1940), 143\u20134. Seen in connection with the preceding stanzas, stanzas 13 and 14 could imply that the poet has lost his fortune Olsen, Magnus. \u201cSkaldevers om n\u00f8ds-\u00e5r nordenfjells.\u201d Festskrift as a consequence of his conflict with the king, and is til Konrad Nielsen p\u00e5 70-\u00e5rsdagen 28.8.1945. Studia Septen- forced in bad years to live by fishing for herring and trionalia, 2. Oslo: Br\u00f8gger, 1945, pp. 176\u201392. selling his last possessions. Lie, Hallvard. \u201cEt up\u00e5aktet gammelnorsk ord: hausi og H\u00e1konar- See also H\u00e1kon g\u00f3\u00f0i (the good) Haraldsson m\u00e1l 6.\u201d Arkiv f\u00f6r nordisk filologi 63 (1948), 200\u20133. Further Reading Wolff, Ludvig. \u201cEddische-skaldische Bl\u00fctenlese.\u201d In Edda, Skalden, Saga: Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstag von Felix Editions Genzmer. Ed. Hermann Schneider. Heidelberg: Winter, 1952, pp. 92\u2013107. Finnur J\u00f3nsson, ed. Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning. Vols. 1A\u20132A (tekst efter h\u00e5ndskrifterne) and lB\u20132B(rettet tekst). Holm-Olsen, Ludvig. \u201c\u00d8yvind Skaldaspillir\u201d Edda 53 (1953), Copenhagen and Christiania [Oslo]: Gyldendal, 1912\u201315; 145\u201365; See, Klaus von. \u201cZwei eddische Preislieder: rpt. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger, 1967 (A) and 1973 Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l und H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l.\u201d In Festgabe f\u00fcr Ulrich Pretzel (B), vol. 1A, pp. 64\u201374, vol. 1B, pp. 57\u201365 [H\u00e1konarmal, zum 65. Geburtstag dargebracht von seinen Freunden und H\u00e1leygjatal, lausav\u00edsur]. Sch\u00fclern. Ed. Wemer Simon et al. Berlin: Schmidt, 1963, pp. 107\u201317. Lindquist, Ivar, ed. Norr\u00f6na lovkv\u00e4den fr\u00e5n 800\u2013 och 900\u2013talen. 1. F\u00f6rslag till restituerad t\u00e4xt j\u00e4mte \u00f6vers\u00e4ttning. Lund: Gle- Schier, Kurt. \u201cFreys und Fr\u00f3\u00f0is Bestattung.\u201d In Festschrift f\u00fcr erup, 1929, pp. 10\u20137 [H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l], pp. 74\u20135 [H\u00e1leygjatal Otto H\u00f6fler zum 65. Geburtstag. Ed. Helmut Birkhan et al. 1\u20134]. Vienna: Notring, 1968, pp. 389\u2013409. Kock, Ernst A., ed. Den nossk-isl\u00e4ndska skaldediktningen. 2 vols. Wolf, Alois. \u201cZitat und Polemik in den H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l Eyvinds.\u201d Lund: Gleerup, 1946\u201349, vol. 1, pp. 35\u201340 [H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l, In Germanische Studien. Ed. J. Erben and E. Thurnher. H\u00e1leygjatal, lausav\u00edsur]. Innsbrucker Beitr\u00e4ge zur Kulturwissenschaft, 15. Innsbruck: Institut f\u00fcr Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft der Universit\u00e4t Translations Innsbruck, 1969, pp. 9\u201332. Hollander, Lee M., trans. Old Norse Poems: The Most Important Marold, Edith. \u201cDas Walhallbild in den Eir\u00edksm\u00e1l und den Non-Skaldic Verse Not Included in the Poetic Edda. New H\u00e1konarm\u00e1l.\u201d Mediaeval Scandinavia5 (1972), 19\u201333. York: Columbia University Press, 1936; rpt. Millwood: Kraus, 1973. Schier, Kurt. \u201cH\u00e1leygjatal.\u201d Kindlers Literatur Lexikon 5. Zurich: Kindler, 1970, pp. 1396\u20137; See, Klaus von. Edda, Saga, Skal- Leach, Howard G. A Pageant of Old Scandinavia. Princeton: dendichtung. Heidelberg: Winter, 1981, pp. 522\u20135. Princeton University Press; New York: American-Scandina- vian Foundation, 1946. Edith Marold Literature EZZO (d. after 1065) Wadstein, Elis. \u201cBidrag till tolkning och belysning av skalde- och Presumed author of the Cantilena de miraculis Christi Eddadikter.\u201d Arkiv f\u00f6rnordisk filologi 11 (1895), 64\u201392. (Song on Christ\u2019s Miracles), more commonly known as the Ezzolied (Ezzo\u2019s Song), the first vernacular Ger- Storm, Gustav. \u201cYnglingatal, dels Forfatter og Forfattelsestid.\u201d man work of mature literary quality since the Old High Arkiv f\u00f6r nordisk filologi 15 (1899), 107\u201341. German Christus und die Samariterin (Christ and the Samaritin Woman, ca. 900). The earliest connection Olsen, Magnus. \u201cFortjener H\u00e1konarm\u00e1ls digter tilnavnet \u2018skal- between the name Ezzo and a hymn composed around daspillir?\u201d In Til Gerhard Gran, 9. des. 1916. Kristiania the middle of the eleventh century is found in the Vita [Oslo]: Aschehoug, 1916, pp. 1\u20139. altmanni. The Vita (ca. 1130) describes, among other events from the life of Altmann (d. 1091), a pilgrimage Paasche, Frederik. \u201cH\u00e1konarm\u00e1l.\u201d In Til Gerhard Gran, 9. des. to the Holy Land in which the Passau bishop took part 1916, pp. 10\u20136. in 1064\/1065. Also participating in this pilgrimage, ac- cording to the Vita, was a cleric named Ezzo who wrote Genzmer, Felix. \u201cDas eddische Preislied.\u201d Beitrge zur Geschichte a Cantilena de miraculis Christi in German. That the der deutschen Sprache und Literatur 44 (1919), 138\u201368. cantilena in the vernacular by someone named Ezzo and the Ezzolied are one and the same thing is a virtual Noreen, Erik. \u201cAnm\u00e4rkninger till Eyvinds dikter.\u201d Studier i certainty. fornv\u00e4stnordisk diktning (1921), 45\u201362. The work exists in two redactions, the Strasbourg (Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale et Universitaire, manuscript no. germ. 278, fol. 74v. \u201cS\u201d), and the Vorau (no. 276, 211","EZZO Diemer, Joseph. \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge zur \u00e4lteren deutschen Sprache und Literatur, 22\u201323. Ezzo\u2019s Lied von dem Anegenge aus dem Chorherrenstift, parchment, fol. 128r-129v \u201cV\u201d). The Jahr 1065.\u201d Sitzungsberichte der philosophischhistorischen Strasbourg manuscript contains the older and without Klasse der \u00f6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften doubt more authentic, even if fragmentary version of in Wien 52 (1866): 183\u2013202; 427\u2013469 [notes; first complete the two (only seven strophes are preserved), whereas edition of the Vorau version]. the Vorau redaction contains thirty-four strophes and is clearly a revision intended for a monastic audience. Freytag, Hartmut. \u201cEzzos Gesang. Text und Funktion.\u201d in Geistli- Both are probably revisions of a lost \u201cBamberg Ez- che Denkformen in der Literatur des Mittelalters. Munich: zolied\u201d original. Fink, 1984, pp. 154\u2013170. The hymn presents the immutable lessons of Christi- Gentry, Francis G. Bibliographie zur fr\u00fchmittelhochdeutschen anity beginning with Creation (\u201cS\u201d 2\u20134; \u201cV\u201d 5\u20138), pro- geistlichen Dichtung. Berlin: Schmidt, 1992, pp. 184\u2013191. ceeding to the Fall (\u201cS\u201d 5\u20136; \u201cV\u201d 9\u201310), moving through the Old Testament period, culminating in the mission Maurer, Friedrich, ed. Die religi\u00f6sen Dichtungen des 11. und of John the Baptist (\u201cS\u201d 7; \u201cV\u201d 11\u201313), concentrating 12. Jahrhunderts. Nach ihren Formen besprochen und her- on the birth of Christ and his baptism (\u201cV\u201d 14\u201317), ausgegeben, vol. 1. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1964, pp. 284\u2013303 the miracles done during Christ\u2019s public ministry (\u201cV\u201d [\u201cV,\u201d \u201cS\u201d]. 18\u201319), the crucifixion and its significance, including the Harrowing of Hell (\u201cV\u201d 20\u201330), and concluding Polheim, Karl Konrad, ed. Die deutschen Gedichte der Vorauer with a paean to the Cross (\u201cV\u201d 31\u201334). Handschrift (Kodex 276\/2). Graz: Akademischer Verlag- sanstalt, 1958. The Ezzolied is a joyous celebration of the triumph of Christ over death and Satan. Emphasized is not the Rupp, Heinz. Deutsche Religi\u00f6se Dichtungen des 11. und 12. suffering Christ of later Gothic centuries but, rather, the Jahrhunderts. Untersuchungen und Interpretationen, 2d ed. victorious Christ the King of the Romanesque. Bern: Francke, 1971, pp. 33\u201383. Further Reading Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth. \u201cDie Weltalter in Ezzos Gesang,\u201d in Zeiten und Formen in Sprache und Dichtung: Festschrift f\u00fcr Barack, K. A., ed. Ezzos Gesang von den Wundern Christi und Fritz Tschirch zum 70. Geburtstag, ed. Karl-Heinz Schirmer Nokers \u201cMemento mori\u201d in phototypischen Faksimile der and Bernhard Sowinski. Cologne: B\u00f6hlau, 1972, pp. 42\u201351. Stra\u00dfburger Handschrift. Strasbourg: Trubner, 1879. Schr\u00f6der, Werner, ed. Kleinere deutsche Gedichte des 11. und Barack, K. A. \u201cAlthochdeutsche Funde.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsches 12. Jahrhunderts. Tubingen: Niemeyer, 1972, pp. 10\u201326 Altertum 23 (1879): 210\u2013212 [\u201cS\u201d]. [\u201cV,\u201d \u201cS\u201d]. Vollmann-Profe, Gisela. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von den Anf\u00e4ngen bis zum Beginn der Neuzeit, vol. 1, 2: Wieder- beginn volkssprachiger Schriftlichkeit im hohen Mittelalter, 2d ed. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1994, passim. Francis G. Gentry 212","F FAZIO DEGLI UBERTI against Emperor Charles IV of Bohemia (in Di quel possi tu her che bevve Crasso), or laments the demise (c. 1301 or 1305\u2013c. 1367) of Florence (in O sommo bene, o glorioso Iddio), he is an ardent supporter of the empire and of the cultural Bonifazio, or Fazio, degli Uberti was a member of a primacy of Florence. Ghibelline family expelled from Florence in 1267. He was born in Pisa and never lived in Florence, the city Fazio\u2019s greatest achievement was Il dittamondo (Dic- of his ancestors, from which he considered himself ta mundi), which recounts the poet\u2019s fictional journey an exile. Fazio was a court intellectual and a poet; his around the world. This poem is divided into six books most important work is an encyclopedic poem called Il and is written, in terza rima. In Book 1, Fazio states his dittamondo. In 1336, he was in the service of Mastino wish to acquire fame by reporting the marvels he will II della Scala of Verona; in 1346, he was at the court of see on his journey. Yet the poet-pilgrim loses his way Luchino Visconti; and in 1358, he was in Bologna at the shortly after setting out. The first night he dreams that court of Giovanni Visconti d\u2019Oleggio. Fazio\u2019s adopted Dame Virtue invites him to follow the path of salvation. city was Verona, a bastion of Ghibelline and imperial He then meets the ancient astronomer Ptolemy and, later, ideals, where he probably died. the third-century geographer Solinus, who becomes his guide. Together, Fazio and Solinus visit Rome, which Fazio\u2019s thirty-five poems include canzoni, sonnets, appears to them as a weeping, disheveled woman. In and frottole dealing with love, religion, politics, and Books 1 and 2, Rome narrates her history, from the ethics. He composed seven canzoni and one sonnet time of Julius Caesar to that of Charles of Bohemia. In for his mistress, Ghidola (or Ghida), the daughter of Book 3, the pilgrims\u2019 quest for knowledge takes them Spinetto Malaspina, lord of Lunigiana. Among these, to Greece, where Fazio reflects on the Hellenistic legacy three canzoni\u2014Nel tempo che s\u2019infiora e cuopre d\u2019erba, of Italy. In Book 4, the poet and Solinus visit Asia Mi- Io guardo i crespi e i biondi capelli, and I\u2019 guardo in nor, Scandinavia, England, France, and Spain. In Book fra l\u2019erbette per li prati\u2014are picturesque representa- 5, they travel by ship to Africa; there they meet Pliny, tions of love and nature in the springtime that recall the who speaks to them of astrology and the heavens. After Proven\u00e7al poets and Dante. In all his poems to Ghida, visiting several regions of Africa, they travel to Egypt; Fazio underscores the emotional and physical effects from there, Fazio and Solinus go to Palestine\u2014in Book of love rather than its spiritual or symbolic meaning. 6\u2014in order to see the Holy Sepulcher. There they meet There is a \u201cfresh sensuality\u201d (Corsi 1969, 226, 238) in another pilgrim, who narrates important episodes from his love poems that is mirrored in his joyous celebration the Bible. of the beauty and pleasures of nature. Contrary to the observations of many critics, therefore, Fazio was not Dittamondo is often compared to Dante\u2019s Divine a follower of Dante or of Petrarch. Comedy, but these two works are very different from each other. For Dante, knowledge of the real world is Fazio\u2019s poetry shows that he never wavered from an important means of spiritual salvation, whereas for his political and cultural ideals. The political rime are Fazio knowledge is the aim of his quest. Dittamondo characterized by aristocratic dignity. When Fazio praises is based on contemporary chronicles and medieval Ludwig of Bavaria\u2019s Italian campaign of 1327\u20131329 (in encyclopedias, including Brunetto Latini\u2019s Tresor and Tanto son void i ciel di parte in parte), criticizes Flo- rentine politics (in the frottola O tu che leggi), inveighs 213","FAZIO DEGLI UBERTI (modern Valencia de Don Juan) in 1055, although the acts of that meeting show that reform was largely lim- Giovanni De Matociis\u2019s Historiae imperiales. Fazio ited to a new policy of enforcing the traditional canon often revised his poem in order to reflect developments law. However, at some point in the ten years following, in science; this would explain the gaps in the poem and Fernando and Sancha entered into a close relationship the fact that it was unfinished at the time of the author\u2019s with the great Burgundian reform monastery of Cluny, death. Although it is aesthetically uneven, Dittamondo which would endure and grow under their heirs and suc- is an accomplished poem in the passages that evoke the cessors. In return for Cluny\u2019s prayers for the well-being passion and spirit of Fazio\u2019s lyric poetry; an example is of their persons and dynasty, the Leonese monarchs the representation of the Florentine and Italian landscape began an annual subsidy of 1,000 gold dinars, which in Book 3. would do much to support the construction of a new, third monastic church structure at Cluny. Having come of age in the second quarter of the Trecento, Fazio saw the rise of humanism, and he shared The royal couple also exerted themselves to enrich the humanists\u2019 enthusiasm for the classical world. At the and endow the cathedrals and monasteries of their own same time, however, he typified the Ghibelline intellec- realm. In 1063 an expedition to the Muslim .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa (king- tual during the downward spiral of imperial politics. dom) of Seville secured the surrender of the relics of St. Isidore of Seville. These were transported to Le\u00f3n See also Brunetto Latini; Dante Alighieri and installed there in what would later become a major shrine. At the same time other relics were reclaimed Further Reading from the ruins of \u00c1vila and redistributed among the churches of the north. From what can be determined, Editions Fernando and Sancha were comparatively modest in their patronage of Santiago de Compostela, even though Corsi, Giuseppe, ed. Il Dittamondo e le rime, 2 vols. Bari: Lat- the devotion and pilgrimage to the shrine of St. James erza, 1952. was growing substantially during their reign. They were also generous to one of the favorite royal residences, the \u2014\u2014, ed. \u201cFazio degli Uberti.\u201d In Rimatori del Trecento. Turin: monastery of Sahag\u00fan, which was more central to the UTET, 1969, pp. 224\u2013318. kingdom as it was then developing than was Santiago de Compostela. Despite all of this religious activity, Renier, Rodolfo, ed. Liriche edite ed inedite di Fazio degli Uberti. relations between the churches of Le\u00f3n-Castile and the Florence: Sansoni, 1883. papacy at Rome were minimal. Critical Studies In the Christian north of the peninsula, Fernando asserted the hegemony of the new Le\u00f3n-Castile that his Berisso, Marco. \u201cTesto e contesto della frottola O tu che leggi victory in 1037 had established. During the reign of his di Fazio degli Uberti.\u201d Studi di Filologia Italians, 51, 1993, father, lands in the Castilian northeast had been detached pp. 53\u201388. from that county and added to the kingdom of Navarre. That kingdom had been the portion of his older brother, Casali, Marino. La lirica di Fazio degli Uberti. Domodossola: Garc\u00eda IV S\u00e1nchez (r. 1035\u20131054). Following the death Antonioli, 1949. of their father, relations between the brothers gradually worsened. On 15 September 1054, the two met in battle Croce, Benedelto. Poesia popolare e poesia d\u2019arte: Studi sulla at Atapuerca, and Garc\u00eda S\u00e1nchez was defeated and poesia italiana dal Tre al Cinquecento. Bari: Laterza, 1933, killed. The district of the Bureba, northeast of Burgos, pp. 107\u2013132. was reclaimed for Le\u00f3n-Castile, and the kingdom of Navarre became a tributary under Fernando\u2019s nephew, Pellizzari, Achille. Il Dittamondo e la Divina commedia: Saggio Sancho Garc\u00eda IV (r. 1054\u20131076). sulle fonti del \u201cDittamondo\u201d e sulla imitazione dantesca nel secolo XIV. Pisa: Mariotti, 1905. With the leadership of Le\u00f3n-Castille secure in the Christian north, Fernando embarked on an ambitious Tartaro, Achille. \u201cL\u2019esperienza poetica di Fazio degli Uberti.\u201d In series of campaigns against the Muslim .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa kingdoms Il Trecento, Vol. 2(1). Bari: Laterza, 1971, pp. 487\u2013511. of the Iberian Peninsula. Perhaps as early as 1055 he launched his offensive against the Portuguese territories Dario Del Puppo of Muslim Badajoz. On 29 November 1057 his forces took the town of Lamego, one hundred kilometers up- FERNANDO I, KING OF LE\u00d3N river from Christian Oporto. With that victory the val- (1016\/8-1065) ley of the Douro (Duero) River was secured for Le\u00f3n. The next objective was the hill city of Viseu, on the The second son of Sancho III Garc\u00e9s (el Mayor), king of Navarre (r. 1000\u20131035), and the sister of Count Gar- c\u00eda S\u00e1nchez of Castile, Fernando was installed as the count of Castile when Garc\u00eda S\u00e1nchez was murdered in 1029. Subsequently he was married to Sancha, sister of Vermudo III of Le\u00f3n. After his father\u2019s death Fernando defeated and killed his father-in-law at Tamar\u00f3n on 4 September 1037. Vermudo had no direct heirs, so Fer- nando and Sancha were recognized as the monarchs of Le\u00f3n-Castile. The royal couple seems to have faced no serious in- ternal challenge to their rule. They began the reform of the church of the realm with a council held at Coyanza 214","Mondego River to the south. It fell to Fernando\u2019s troops FERNANDO III, KING OF CASTILE on 25 July 1058. Nevertheless, clearing the Mondego valley and plain of Muslims proved to be arduous. The Jackson, G. The Making of Medieval Spain. New York, 1972. key position was occupied by the hilltop fortress city Mackay, A. Spain in the Middle Ages. New York, 1977. of Coimbra, seventy kilometers southwest of Viseu. Reilly, B.F. The Kingdom of Le\u00f3n-Castilla under King Alfonso Not until 25 July 1064, after a six-month siege, did that city surrender to the Leonese. When it did, the northern VI. Princeton, 1988. two-fifths of modem Portugal had been reclaimed from \u2014\u2014. The Kingdom of Le\u00f3n-Castilla under Queen Urraca. the Muslims and could be reorganized as a possession of Le\u00f3n-Castile. Princeton, 1982. More directly to the south of Fernando and Sancho\u2019s Bernard F. Reilly realm lay the .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa of Toledo. It may have been a tributary as early as 1058, for in that year the last known FERNANDO III, KING OF CASTILE Mozarabic bishop of Toledo was consecrated in Le\u00f3n, (1201\u20131252) presumably because of Le\u00f3n\u2019s tributary status. Never- theless, in 1062 Fernando\u2019s army invaded that .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa Fernando, king of Castile (1217\u20131252) and Le\u00f3n took Talamanca, north of Madrid; and laid siege to (1230\u20131252), was the son of Alfonso IX of Le\u00f3n and Alcal\u00e1. The Muslim king, Al-Ma\u2019mu\u00afn, agreed to an- Berenguela, the daughter of Alfonso VII of Castile. He nual parias (tribute payments) to secure Fernando\u2019s was born in June or July 1201. After his parents sepa- withdrawal. During the following year Fernando struck rated in 1204, because of consangunity, he was reared in deep into Muslim Andalucia, ravaging the lands of the his father\u2019s court. His mother, summoned him to Castile .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa of Seville and Badajoz. If those two realms had not following the sudden death of her brother, Enrique I (r. already pledged the payment of parias, they certainly 1214\u20131217). Though she was acknowledged as queen began to do so at this time. of Castile, she bowed to the wishes of the Castilians assembled at Valladolid and transferred her rights to the Prior to his southern campaigns Fernando had moved throne to her son, and Fernando III was then proclaimed against the great .t\u02c9a\u2019ifa of Zaragoza on the Middle king. When Alfonso IX discovered what had happened, Ebro River. The chronology is not clear, but probably he invaded Castile with the intention of uniting it to the in about 1060 he seized the territories on the upper Du- Leonese crown, thereby restoring the unity of the two ero with their strongholds at San Esteban de Gormaz, realms, separated since 1157. Finding little support for Berlanga, and Vadorrey. He also took control of the his cause, he retreated to Le\u00f3n at the end of the summer rolling country to the south of the river about Santiuste, and recognized Fernando as king of Castile in August Huermeces, and Santamara. Most likely Zaragoza paid 1218. Father and son pledged to live peacefully with parias from this time, but in 1064 that kingdom broke off one another and to act in concert against the Moors. payments. The Leonese response involved a victorious Following his mother\u2019s counsel, Fernando III married campaign that carried all the way to the plains around Beatrice, daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor, Philip Valencia on the Mediterranean. That Muslim kingdom of Swabia and granddaughter of Frederick Barbarossa, had joined with Zaragoza in the attack on the Leonese at Burgos in 1219. As a consequence, their firstborn positions on the upper Duero. It seems to have been child, Alfonso X, was later able to put forward claims turned over to Fernando\u2019s ally and tributary, Al-Ma\u2019mu\u00afn to the imperial throne. of Toledo, but Zaragoza itself once again came under Leonese suzerainty. As the Almohad empire that dominated Morocco and Muslim Spain began to disintegrate, Fernando directed Fernando now had reached both the apogee of his his energy to the Reconquest. Seizing Quesada in 1224, reign and the end of it. He died on 27 December, 1065, he also accepted the vassalage of al-Bayasi, the ruler and was buried in the Church of St. Isidore in Le\u00f3n. of Baeza, and his brother, Ab\u00fa Zayd of Valencia, who His wife, Sancha, lived until 27 November 1067. On hoped, with Castilian help, to secure their independence the death of Fernando, the kingdom was divided among of the Almohads. Al-Bayasi collaborated with Fernando his three sons. The oldest, Sancho II (r. 1065\u20141072), in his campaigns against Ja\u00e9n and Granada in the sum- received Castile and the tribute payments of Navarre mer of 1225, and his fellow Muslims, disgusted by his and Seville. submissive attitude, murdered him the next year. Soon afterward the Moors of Spain threw off the last vestiges See also Isidore of Seville, Saint of Almohad authority, but as a result Muslim unity dissolved, thereby giving advantage to the Christian Further Reading rulers. O\u2019Callaghan, J.F. A History of Medieval Spain. Ithaca, NY, While Fernando vainly attempted to besiege Ja\u00e9n, 1975. his father captured M\u00e9rida and Badajoz. His death soon afterward, in September 1230, radically altered Fernando\u2019s fortunes. Although Alfonso IX had never formally determined the succession to the Leonese throne, Fernando claimed it at once and moved swiftly 215","FERNANDO III, KING OF CASTILE Once he had recovered from his illness, Fernando resumed the offensive, taking Arjona and several neigh- to take possession. In order to secure an undisputed title, boring towns in 1244. His next objective was Ja\u00e9n, a he had to persuade Alfonso IX\u2019s two surviving daughters seemingly impregnable fortress. After systematically by his first wife, Teresa of Portugal, to renounce their destroying the crops, the king blockaded the city in rights. The two former queens of Le\u00f3n, Teresa and August 1245. Ibn al-Ah. mar, now the undisputed master Berenguela, negotiated the settlement at Benavente on in Granada, Ja\u00e9n, M\u00e1laga, and Almer\u00eda, was unable to 11 December 1230, which compensated the infantas offer any support to the defenders, who faced the real for their renunciation. Thus the kingdoms of Le\u00f3n and prospect of starvation. Because his hands were tied, Ibn Castile, separated since 1157, were reunited under Fer- al-Ah. mar authorized them to surrender in March 1246. nando, who was able to use their combined resources As the Moors departed, Fernando introduced Christian to prosecute the Reconquest. settlers and converted the mosque into a cathedral. In the hope of preserving himself and his dynasty, Ibn al- Meanwhile, rivalry between Ibn Hkd of Murcia and Ah. mar pledged homage and fealty to Fernando, prom- Ibn al-Ah. mar (1232\u20131273), founder of the Nasrid dy- ising to serve him as a loyal vassal, both in battle and nasty and the kingdom of Granada, benefited Fernando, in his court, and to pay a tribute of 150,000 maravedis who launched a major offensive that resulted in the over a term of twenty years. capture of \u00dabeda in 1232. Elsewhere he laid waste the land around Arjona and Ja\u00e9n, and threatened C\u00f3rdoba Seville, the wealthiest city in all of Spain, a port and Seville. As 1235 drew to a close, a small band on the lower Guadalquivir River with access to both of Castilians, after invading the suburbs of C\u00f3rdoba, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, next attracted Fer- quickly summoned Fernando to come to their aid. nando\u2019s attention. Preliminary operations disrupted Receiving their message at Benavente in the middle of the outer defenses of the city and severed supply lines. January 1236, he rapidly marched south and reached Alcal\u00e1 de Guadaira, Carmona, Constantina, Reina, Lora, C\u00f3rdoba on 7 February. In the weeks that followed, the Cantillana, Guillena, Gerena, Alcal\u00e1 del R\u00edo, and other bulk of his army tightened the siege of the city. When adjacent towns capitulated in 1246\u20131247. A formal siege it became apparent that they could expect no help from of Seville was established in July 1247. their correligionists, the defenders surrendered on 29 June 1236. Those who wished to do so were permitted The blockade of Seville was completed when Ram\u00f3n to leave, taking whatever they could carry, those who Bonifaz of Burgos, acting on the king\u2019s orders, orga- chose to remain were assured of religious liberty. The nized a fleet in the ports on the Bay of C\u00e1diz and entered mosque of C\u00f3rdoba was consecrated as a cathedral for the mouth of the Guadalquivir. Repelling enemy ships, the newly established Christian bishopric. The bells of he made his way upriver and broke the bridge of boats Santiago de Compostela, which the Moorish ruler Al- connecting Seville and Triana. Their supplies steadily Mans. u\u02c9 r, had carried off in 997 and hung in the mosque, dwindling, the defenders appealed to the Almohads in were returned to the Christian shrine in Galicia. North Africa for help, but in vain. In the years immediately following the conquest of Isolated, with no expectation of relief, the defenders C\u00f3rdoba, many dependent towns and fortresses in the of Seville surrendered on 23 November 1248. Fernando Guadalquivir valley submitted to Fernando. A few years III permitted them to leave, carrying their movable later Murcia, in the southeast, also acknowledged his property, with safe conduct to Jerez or on Castilian ships sovereignty. The assassination in 1238 of Ibn Hu\u02c9 d, who to Ceuta, in Morocco. The Moors were given a month ruled Murcia, opened the possibility that the area might to settle their affairs before departure, and a Castilian fall under the domination of Ibn al-Ah. mar, the emir of garrison immediately occupied the alc\u00e1zar fortness Tunis. To avert that, Ibn Hu\u02c9 d\u2019s family proposed to submit Fernando entered the city in triumph on 22 December to Fernando as their suzerain and protector. Because he 1248. An archbishopric was established in Seville, and was ill, he sent his oldest son, Alfonso, to receive the the king dedicated the remaining years of his reign to the homage of the Murcian towns. The Banu\u02c9 Hu\u02c9 d received colonization of Seville and the surrounding region, dis- him at Murcia in April 1243, and Lorca, Cartagena, and tributing houses and lands to those who had participated other towns, after a show of resistance, also submitted. in the conquest or who were willing to settle there. As vassals of Fernando, the Murcian lords pledged an annual tribute of half their revenues, but otherwise Fernando achieved the greatest success of all the Cas- they continued to rule as before. When Alfonso tried to tilian kings in the Reconquest because the collapse of the seize Alcira and J\u00e1tiva, towns reserved for Arag\u00f3n (ac- Almohad Empire disrupted the unity of Muslim Spain. cording to the Treaty of Cazola, 1179), he encountered Taking advantage of the jealousies of rival Moorish lead- opposition from Jaime I of Arag\u00f3n. After negotiations ers, he gained control of the valley of the Guadalquivir they concluded the Treaty of Almizra on 26 March from \u00dabeda to Seville and reduced the Moors of Murcia 1244, establishing the boundaries between Castilian and Granada to the tributary status of vassals. and Arag\u00f3nese conquests in that part of the peninsula. Aside from his efforts to eradicate Muslim rule in 216","Spain, Fernando gave impetus to the development of FERRER, VICENTE, SAINT the institutions and culture of his realm. He tried to reinvigorate the universities of Salamanca and Palencia, even reached Flanders; after this date his missionary and welcomed scholars to his court. In the course of his endeavors were intensified and his attention seemed reign, Castilian supplanted Latin as the official language to be directed primarily at the conversion of the Jews of government and administration. His son, Alfonso and Moors who were obliged to listen to his sermons. X, eventually brought to fruition Fernando\u2019s plan to These occasions, like others from over a century earlier, develop a uniform code of law for the kingdom. The frequently provoked the people to fervent expressions cortes, in process of growth for a half-century, appeared of faith and violent vituperations against the non- as a fully constituted assembly of prelates, magnates, Christians. and townsmen representing the estates of the realm at Seville in 1250. Some of the sermons that he preached during the latter years of the fourteenth and beginning of the fif- In the expectation of protecting his kingdom against teenth centuries have been preserved, including some any future Almohad intrusion into the peninsula, Fer- forty-three on the subject of Lent, which he preached nando III was planning an invasion of North Africa, but in Valencia, and others he preached on ceremonial oc- death intervened on 30 May 1252. Buried in the cathe- casions, including one on Palm Sunday 1416 in Tou- dral at Seville, he was declared a saint by Pope Clement louse, where he had studied some years earlier. As was X in 1671. By his first wife, Beatrice of Swabia, he had his custom he entered the town triumphantly, riding had ten children including Alfonso X who succeed him. his mule, and preached indefatigably, but bystanders Two years after Beatrice\u2019s death in 1235, he had married noted his sickly countenance, suggesting that by that Jeanne de Ponthieu, by whom he had three children. date Vicente was no longer in good health. It is for his sermons on a wide variety of topics, many of which See also Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and have survived in part if not in their entirety, that he is Le\u00f3n regarded as one of the great Catalan and Latin writers of the late Middle Ages. Studies have been made of his Further Reading use of the artes praedicandi, a use reminiscent of the structure advocated in the treatise of Francesc Eiximenis Gonz\u00e1lez, J. Reinado y diplomas de Fernando III. 3 vols. C\u00f3r- known as the Ars praedicandi populo\u2014a tripartite divi- doba, 1980\u20131986. sion consisting of introduction, theme, and exposition of the theme. The text was usually in Catalan and was Mansilla, D. Iglesia castellano-leonesa y curia romana en los chosen from the Bible, frequently from the Gospel for tiempos del Rey San Fernando. Madrid, 1945. the day, but Vicente would frequently append its Latin equivalent. He then proceeded to enunciate the theme Joseph F. O\u2019Callaghan and explain its significance in contemporary language, often punctuating his expos\u00e9 with exclamations and FERRER, VICENTE, SAINT illustrative stories, miracles, lives of the saints, current (1350\u20131419) events, and the occasional personal anecdote, at times dramatizing the stories or adding a touch of humor. Son of a Girona notary, St. Vicente Ferrer entered the His sources were those of any medieval friar\u2014the Order of Preachers, studied theology, philosophy, and Bible, patristic literature, lives of the saints, books of logic in Barcelona, L\u00e9rida, and Tortosa, having obtained exempla and other similar compendia of useful mate- the degree of master of theology by 1389. rial for preachers\u2014but in his hands they took on a new significance, for they became a means of commentary After his ordination in 1378 he took up residence in on life around him. Valencia, where he remained for some years and was known for his preaching and rivalry with his Franciscan He was a scholar, able to speak to his contemporaries contemporary, Francesc Eiximenis. using vocabulary and images they could understand and indicating to them the corruption he saw in all aspects A lector in theology in the cathedral of Valencia of life. He criticized many of the daily customs and protected by the royal family and confessor to the heir popular beliefs, bewailed the moral depravity seen in to the throne Juan and his French wife, Violante, he the behavior of his contemporaries\u2014lay and clerical was a strong supporter of Pope Clement VII in Avi- alike\u2014regarding the disintegration of society and the gnon and later confessor to Benedict XIII. Called upon confusion that beset the church, characteristic of the late to form part of the junta to settle the question of the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, as signs that papal schism, he was also among those who supported the end of the world was near. He is remembered for Fernando de Antequera in the Compromise of Caspe in the sermons he preached in an attempt to make society 1412, subsequently enjoying good relations with him aware of the problems and redress them before it was and acting as his constant adviser. too late, and for the active role he played in resolving the Between 1399 and 1412 Vicente traveled exten- sively throughout the Crown of Arag\u00f3n, Castile, and 217","FERRER, VICENTE, SAINT include two sentimental romances, Grisel y Mirabella and Grimalte y Gradisa, and an allegorical vision narra- questions of the Papal Schism and the royal succession tive, Triunfo de Amor, recovered in 1976. All probably to the Crown of Arag\u00f3n, but most of all, perhaps, it is were written between 1470 and 1477, the period of his contribution to Catalan language and literature that Flores\u2019s affiliation with the first duke of Alba. Of the have ensured him a place in history. three works, Grisel experienced the greatest commercial success, especially in the sixteenth century, when it was Now regarded as patron of the city of Valencia translated into numerous European languages as (His- and revered as a worker of miracles, his canonization toria de) Aurelio et Isabel. It constitutes an ambiguous process was begun under the Valencian pope, Calixtus response to Pere Torroellas\u2019s Coplas de las calidades III, in 1455, and completed three years later under his de las donas (before 1458), a superficially virulent, but successor, Pius II. arguably only playful, misogynistic poem. Although Grisel implicitly promotes the cause of women by See also Eiximenis, Francesc condemning the egocentric nature of male passion and the political abuses of men, there are ironic indications Further Reading that women lack the virtues they self-righteously claim for themselves. The romance ends with the ritualistic C\u00e1tdera, Pedro M. Serm\u00f3n, sociedad y literatura en la Edad slaughter of Torrellas\u2014a fictional persona of the real-life Media: San Vicente Ferrer en Castilla (1411\u20131414). Sala- poet\u2014by the queen of Scotland and her retinue. Flores manca, 1994. may have intended to point out the equal contribution of both sexes to illicit love, while underscoring the inher- Sanchisi Sivera, J. (ed.) Quaresma de Sant Vicente Ferrer, ently self-destructive nature of passion. Predicada a Val\u00e8ncia l\u2019any 1413. Bercelona 1927. Owing to its emotional intensity and narrative so- Schib, G. \u201cEls Sermons de Saut Vicent Ferrer.\u201d In Actes del Tercer phistication, Grimalte is now generally recognized Col-loqui Internacional de Llengua i Literatures catalanes as Flores\u2019s masterpiece. A continuation and implicit celebrat a Cambridge des gal 14 d\u2019abril de 1973. Oxford, interpretation of the Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta of 1976. 325\u201336. Boccaccio (1313\u20131375), it seeks to reconcile the contra- dictory notions of sexual freedom, devotion, and social Jill R. Webster responsibility as perceived by Fiometa (Fiammetta), her lover P\u00e1nfilo, and their counterparts Gradisa and FLORES, JUAN DE Grimalte. Grimalte\u2019s vain attempts to reunite the Italian (c. 1455\u2013c. 1525) couple ultimately result in Fiometa\u2019s suicide, P\u00e1nfilo\u2019s self-imposed exile, and the breakup of his own unstable A courtier, writer, knight, royal administrator, and dip- relationship with Gradisa. Philosophically complex and lomat, Flores was associated with the court of Garci engaging, Grimalte explores the selfish motivations \u00c1lvarez de Toledo, First Duke of Alba and, eventually, for love and the tragedies that ensue from a one-sided with that of the Catholic Monarchs. Extant documenta- passion. Grimalte became a favorite source of senti- tion suggests that he was the nephew of Pedro \u00c1lvarez mental material for later chivalric romances, including Osorio, third se\u00f1or of Cabrera y Ribera and the first Trist\u00e1n de Leonis (1501) and the Quarta parte de don count of Lemos, and politically allied with the Enr\u00edquez, Clari\u00e1n de Landan\u00eds (1528), which contain substantial Osorio, \u00c1lvarez de Toledo, and Qui\u00f1ones families. plagiarisms. His formative years were probably spent at the ducal palace of Alba (Alba de Tormes), where he enjoyed Though largely addressing the same erotic themes as considerable educational and political advantages, and the romances, Triunfo is more lighthearted. A felicitous in Salamanca, where he appears to have been active in combination of courtly romance, political allegory, and local politics. On 20 May 1476 he was appointed official fictionalized chronicle, it tells the story of Cupid\u2019s cap- chronicler to Fernando and Isabel, and subsequently ture by disgruntled dead lovers seeking redress for their joined the royal entourage. During the civil war of the amorous suffering. Following a trial and death sentence, 1470s, he is known to have participated in attacks against the god of love is rescued, and his supporters receive as the Portuguese and their juanista allies; there is evidence a reward the reversal of the customary courting ritual: that he later joined Fernando in the Granada campaign. men replace women as the custodians of virtue and Documentation also suggests that he received various women importune them for sexual favors. In response to judicial assignments in Castile after 1477, and may have the social turmoil of the period, political issues receive held the title of protonotario de Lucena. The dates of prominent attention, but Flores tends to exploit them as his birth and death are uncertain, but early genealogical a vehicle for exploring the inevitable tension between sources suggest a long life, from about 1455 to 1525. He joyous and tragic love. appears to have married Beatriz de Qui\u00f1ones, a distant relative of Suero de Qui\u00f1ones, and a son named Gaspar was apparently appointed chaplain to Isabel in 1503. The extant works bearing Flores\u2019s name belong to a large body of courtly prose that examines the tragic nature of human passion, devotion, and intimacy. They 218","Three other texts have been attributed to Flores FOLZ, HANS with reasonable certainty: (1) La coronaci\u00f3n de la se\u00f1ora Gracisla, (2) a short epistolary exchange be- Nuremberg, and in a Nuremberg council document of tween Tristan and Isolde, and (3) a fragmentary royal i486 he is referred to as a Meister, a master artisan or chronicle, the Cr\u00f3nica incompleta de los Reyes Cat\u00f3li- craftsman. In his works, Folz demonstrates an unusual cos. Once thought to be artistically flawed, Gracisla is in amount of formal knowledge for an artisan. He shows fact a subtle consolatio written for Leonor de Acu\u00f1a, the a relatively developed understanding of Latin and also eldest daughter of Juan de Acu\u00f1a, the second count of reveals knowledge of academic medicine, alchemy, and Valencia de don Juan, after the failure of her engagement theology in his written work. Folz was one of the most to Pedro \u00c1lvarez Osorio, the third marquis of Astorga multifaceted writers of his time. Scholars identify as his (April 1475). The work\u2019s plot, which relates the experi- extant work approximately one hundred Meisterlieder, ences of Gracisla, a Castilian maiden, at a beauty contest from twelve to thirty-five carnival plays, forty-eight sponsored by the king of France, closely follows that of fabliaux (poems), and two prose works. Grisel, and incorporates a number of allusions to actual events and individuals from the 1470s. Folz published almost all his work on his own print- ing press between 1479 and 1488. Most of the surviving The Cr\u00f3nica incompleta represents Flores\u2019s official prints are accompanied by woodcuts. He was prob- production as chronicler to the Catholic Monarchs. It ably the earliest Meistersinger to print his own songs, is the most important source of information on his life although only ten survive in print; the others exist in and personal attitudes, since it contains circumstantial manuscript. It is possible that Folz intended his press evidence of his activities in support of Isabel, most of as a means to a second income. which take place around Salamanca between 1475 and 1476. The extant text of the chronicle is evidently the Folz\u2019s work varies widely in genre and theme, but copy of a working draft and has numerous gaps and was consistently popular at several levels of Nuremberg inconsistencies. Nonetheless, it contains detailed in- society. Records of personal libraries and Folz\u2019s own formation found in no other contemporary sources and dedications reveal that he aspired to, and achieved, an has attracted the attention of historians. As a literary elite readership in certain works. He addressed other document it has hardly been studied. works directly to lower levels of Nuremberg society. Flores\u2019s works are known for their imagination, viv- Folz was one of the earliest authors in the Nuremberg idness of expression, and narrative complexity. He is a carnival play tradition, writing plays and participating in representative of a class of humanist knights dedicated to their performance. Scholars have described his uniquely the ideals of the chivalric lifestyle, including the pursuit vehement use of carnival obscenity and scatological of literature as entertainment for the social elite. He is themes, and have described how Folz used the carnival indisputably one of late medieval Spain\u2019s most prolific play medium for an anti-Jewish agenda, revealing a and versatile writers. strategic and political mindset that is apparent in much of his work. Further Reading Folz may have chosen the simple fabliau form (a Gwara, J.J. \u201cA Study of the Works of Juan de Flores, with a Criti- rhyme-pair poem of varying length) to express himself cal Edition of La historia de Grisel y Mirabella.\u201d Ph.D. diss., most easily politically, humorously, or didactically. As Westfield College, University of London, 1988. his fabliaux are so varied thematically\u2014they include religious, worldly, political, and traditional themes\u2014one Matulka, B. The Novels of Juan de Flores and Their European may deduce that Folz was giving free range to his every Diffusion: A Study in Comparative Literature. New York, interest in this particular form. 1931. Repr. Geneva, 1974. The Meisterlieder (songs created within a guildlike Joseph J. Gwara group, for which Nuremberg was particularly well known) are primarily on spiritual-religious themes, FOLZ, HANS (ca. 1450\u20131515) especially the Virgin Mary, the Trinity, and the Incarna- tion. Also noteworthy is a series of songs in which Folz Hans Folz is generally known in literary history as a criticizes his fellow Meistersingers. Early scholarship master craftsman, Meistersinger, and carnival play- identifies Folz as the author of a far-reaching Meister- wright, and as Hans Sachs\u2019s predecessor in the Nurem- sangsreform \u201creform\u201d through these songs, but later berg Meistersang and carnival play tradition. scholars deny this and convincingly characterize them simply as complaints against overregulation by the Folz\u2019s first recorded residence was Worms. His Nuremberg Meistersinger society. Other songs form profession as a barber\/wound dresser, or barbierer, is thematic series as well. apparent from the signature, or impressum (hans von wurms bar-wirer), that typically appears in his writ- Folz wrote six texts in his capacity as a wound ings. In 1459 Folz applied for citizenship in the city of dresser. The existence of subsequent editions shows that Folz succeeded in finding a popular audience for these instructional works. 219","FOLZ, HANS No comprehensive edition of Folz\u2019s works exists at present. Separate German edition this Meisterlieder, fabliaux, and carnival plays vary in reliability. Further Reading Folz, Hans, in Fastnachtspiele aus dem f\u00fcnfzehnten Jahr-hundert, ed. Adelbert Keller. 3 vols. Stuttgart: Literarischer Verein, 1853. \u2014\u2014. Die Meisterlieder des Hans Folz aus der M\u00fcnchener Onginalhandschrift und der Weimarer Handsckrift Q. 566, ed. August L. Mayer. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1908. \u2014\u2014. Die Reimpaarspr\u00fcche, ed. Hanns Fischer. Munich: Beck, 1961. Janota, Johannes. \u201cHans Folz in N\u00fcrnberg: ein Autor etabliert sich in einer stadtb\u00fcrgerlichen Gesellschaft,\u201d in Philologie und Geschichtswissenschaft: Demonstrationen literarischer Texte des Mittelalters, ed. Heinz Rupp. Heidelberg: Quelle and Meyer, 1977, pp. 74\u201391. Price, David. \u201cHans Folz\u2019s Anti-Jewish Carnival Plays.\u201d Fifteenth- Century Studies 19 (1992): 209\u2013228. Caroline Huey FOUQUET, JEAN (ca. 1420\u20131481) Jean Fouquet, Saint Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, preaching to the monks (above), Saint Bernard tempted by Satan (below). The most influential painter of the mid-15th century in Heures d\u2019Etienne Chevalier, Suffrage des saints. Ms. 71, fol. France, Jean Fouquet infused elements of Italian Renais- 36. Ca 1445. \u00a9 R\u00e9union des Mus\u00e9es Nationaux\/Art Resource, sance art with his own native French style. He painted a New York. portrait of Pope Eugenius IV (now lost) in Rome before 1447. By 1448, he was working for Charles VII at Tours, FRANCESCO D\u2019ACCORSO (1225\u20131293) and he was appointed as court painter to Louis XI in 1475. He is best known for a book of hours that he il- Francesco d\u2019Accorso was the eldest son of Accursius luminated for \u00c9tienne Chevalier ca. 1452, fragments of and, like Accursius, was a professor of Roman law. In which survive in the Mus\u00e9e Cond\u00e9 at Chantilly. Among fact, Francesco studied under his famous father, the the panel paintings that have been attributed to Fouquet author of the ordinary gloss on the Corpus iuris civilis. are portraits of Charles VII (ca. 1445) and Juvenal des Francesco taught at the university in his native city of Ursins (ca. 1455), both in the Louvre. Recently, it has Bologna from at least 1270 on. In 1274, he was recruited been shown that Fouquet was probably not the head of as a legal adviser by Edward I of England, who was then a large, prolific atelier but worked as an independent returning home from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. artist who contributed sporadically to manuscripts from According to one authority (Panzirolo 1968), the Bolog- a variety of sources. nese threatened to confiscate Francesco\u2019s property if he left the city, and so he attempted\u2014unsuccessfully\u2014to See also Charles VII transfer his possessions to a friend who was in collu- sion with him. Francesco\u2019s eagerness to enter the king\u2019s Further Reading employ and leave Bologna was probably due partly to a desire to avoid the factional struggles between the Bo- Clancy, Stephen. Books of Hours in the Fouquet Style: The Rela- lognese Guelfs and Ghibellines. He was present at legal tionship of Jean Fouquet and the Hours of \u00c9tienne Chevalier proceedings before the king at Limoges in May 1274, to French Manuscript Illumination of the Fifteenth Century. and reportedly participated in a disputation at the law Diss. Cornell University, 1988. [With bibliography.] faculty in Orl\u00e9ans the same year. A report that he also taught at the university of Toulouse probably pertains Reynaud, Nicole. Jean Fouquet. Paris: \u00c9ditions de la Reunion to this period, and it may represent merely a repetition des Muse\u00e9s Nationaux, 1981. Sterling, Charles, and Claude Schaeffer. The Hours of \u00c9tienne Chevalier: Miniatures by Jean Fouquet. New York: Braziller, 1971. Wescher, Paul. Jean Fouquet and His Time. Basel: Pleiades, 1947. Robert G. Calkins 220","of the event at Orl\u00e9ans, attributed to a different city. In FRANCESCO D\u2019ACCORSO any case, Francesco supposedly had to defend some argument against another professor, Jacques de Revigny, gloss. On his return, Francesco, ever \u201cthe true and pious who was disguised as a student. defender of his father\u2019s glosses\u201d (according to Diplo- vatatius), learned of this and insisted on repeating the In England, Francesco was described as the king\u2019s entire lecture in order to defend his father\u2019s teaching. consiliarius, familiaris, secretarius, and clericus. He Francesco\u2019s reputation as a legal scholar must rest for served Edward in various diplomatic and legal capacities the most part on his teaching, since few of his written and attended meetings of the royal council, presumably works survive. Von Savigny (1834\u20141851) held that to advise the councillors on legal matters. In 1274\u20131275, most of the writings attributed to Francesco were in fact Francesco was one of the king\u2019s proctors at a parlement by other authors. Francesco\u2019s most important scholarly of Philip III of France in litigation against a rebel vis- work was a Casus or epitome of the New Digest which count, Gaston VII of B\u00e9arn. In 1276, Edward commis- begins Vlpianus iurisconsultus expositururs; it is avail- sioned Francesco to adjudicate a complaint of extortion able in an early edition (Freiburg im Breisgau, c. 1494) brought by Jews in Oxford against the local sheriff. and was included in the Paris edition of 1536 of the Also in 1276, he attended the Michaelmas parliament. Corpus iuris civilis. Two disputationes by Francesco In 1278, Francesco acted as one of Edward\u2019s procto- are still extant, and some consilia are attributed to him. rial emissaries to the papal curia, where he petitioned Cino noted some of Francesco\u2019s opinions in his own unsuccessfully for the postulation of Robert Burnell works, but he was probably referring to matters heard in (royal chancellor and bishop of Bath and Wells) to the lectures, not to separate publications. The extant portion archbishopric of Canterbury. of Francesco\u2019s oration before Nicholas III (delivered in autumn 1278) has been edited by Haskins and Kanto- Francesco received considerable rewards from the rowicz (1943). king: an annual salary of 200 marks, the custody of the manor and castle of Dunster (May 1280), the manor of A story in Cento novelle antiche tells of Francesco\u2019s Martleigh (June 1280), a lifetime pension of forty marks proverbial avarice. On his return to Bologna, he was said per year (1281), and ultimately a severance payment of to have claimed a share of the profits that his former 400 marks. The grant of the message of Badelkyng by students\u2014now masters themselves\u2014had earned during Andrew de Scaccario (May 1275) was perhaps another his absence, and to have supported his request by citing a mark of royal favor. Perhaps Francesco taught civil law right accorded in Roman law to absent fathers regarding at Oxford, but there is no evidence of this. His only con- their sons\u2019 property! Although this tale, if even partly nections with Oxford were the royal commission regard- genuine, probably recalls some jest, Francesco did find ing the Jews\u2019 complaint, and Edward\u2019s offer of the use it necessary in 1291 to petition Nicholas IV for absolu- of Beaumont Manor (the aula regis, or king\u2019s hall); it is tion from the sin of usury. It seems that both Francesco uncertain for what purpose this offer was made. On one and his father had lent money to students at interest and occasion Francesco petitioned for the king\u2019s favor; he had received bribes from students. asked Edward to pardon a fellow countryman, Simone Spinelli, for the commission of a homicide. Francesco had two wives, Aichina Guezzi and Remgarda di Papazzone Aldighieri. Aichina Guezzi While Francesco was absent in England, he and his probably joined him for some part of his sojourn in brothers\u2014all associated with the Ghibellines\u2014were England, because Edward sent her an invitation to do condemned to banishment by a new government which so at royal expense. Nonetheless, Dante immortalized had come to power in Bologna in June 1274 and which Francesco in the Commedia (Inferno, 15.110) by placing supported the papacy. In 1282, however, Francesco him in the seventh circle of hell among the sodomites. returned to Bologna, where he was allowed to resume No other text suggesting this character trait exists. Kay his teaching post and to reclaim his confiscated property (1978) suggests that Dante did not mean this charge in after swearing loyalty to Pope Martin IV and to the city\u2019s a literal sense but rather was holding Francesco guilty government. Shortly thereafter the Bolognese govern- of \u201cunnatural\u201d opinions: a denial of world rule by the ment passed an edict against the Ghibellines wherein Roman emperor and an exaltation\u2014as evidenced by Francesco was specifically exempted from any penalty. Francesco\u2019s oration\u2014of papal jurisdiction independent In 1286, his full return to public life was signaled by a of the emperor. formal repetition of his oath of loyalty before Bologna\u2019s ruling council. When Francesco died, he was buried next to his father in Bologna. It is said that the two shared an epitaph: At some point in his career Francesco taught law Sepvlchrvm Acvrsi Glosatoris Legvm Francisci Eivs to Cino da Pistoia. There is an anecdote that Dino da Filii, \u201cThe tomb of Accursius, glossator of the law, and Mugello once substituted for Francesco and had the Francis his son.\u201d temerity to criticize some detail in Accursius\u2019s ordinary See also Cino da Pistoia; Dante Alighieri; Edward I; Philip III the Bold 221","FRANCESCO D\u2019ACCORSO (during the 1880s) described Francis as the initiator of the Renaissance. Further Reading There was nothing new in the attention given to Clarence Smith, J. A. Medieval Law Teachers and Writers, Francis during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Civilian and Canonist. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, The artists who were called to Assisi in the century after 1975, p. 53. his death to decorate his burial church are a who\u2019s who of Italian painting: they included, among many others, Diplovatatius, Thomas. De claris iuris consultis: Pars poste- Giunta Pisano, Cimabue, Pietro Cavallini, Giotto, Sim- rior, ed. Fritz Schulz, Hermann Kantorowicz, and Giuseppe one Martini, and Pietro Lorenzetti. The name Francis Rabotti. Studia Gratiana, 10. Bologna: Institutum Gratianum, was often given to boys, in Italy and beyond, during the 1968, pp. 158\u2013161. fourteenth century. Dante devoted a canto of Paradiso to praising Francis. In short, Francis was an extraordinary Emden, A. B. \u201cAccorso, Francesco.\u201d In A Biographical Register of man who has inspired people of very different ways of the University of Oxford to 1500, 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, life and beliefs ever since he walked the roads of Italy 1957, Vol. 1, pp. 9\u201310. in the early thirteenth century. Haskins, George L. \u201cFrancis Accursius: A New Document.\u201d Francis was born in the small Umbrian town of Assisi, Speculum, 13, 1938a, pp. 76\u201377. the son of a prosperous cloth merchant. Almost nothing is known for certain about his youth. Apparently, Fran- \u2014\u2014. \u201cThree English Documents relating to Francis Accursius.\u201d cis was renowned for generosity, even for prodigality; Law Quarterly Review, 54, 1938b, pp. 87\u201394. and he clearly had an interest in chivalry and military affairs. When he was about twenty years old, he fought Haskins, George L, and Ernst H. Kantorowicz. \u201cA Diplomatic in a war between Assisi and its hated neighbor, Perugia. Mission of Francis Accursius and His Oration before Pope Assisi was defeated, and Francis spent some time as a Nicholas III.\u201d English Historical Review, 58, 1943, pp. prisoner of war. Later, he planned to enter the service of 424\u2013447. Walter of Brienne in Apulia against the Hohenstaufen king and to make a name for himself as a knight. Francis Kay, Richard. \u201cFrancesco d\u2019Accorso the Unnatural Lawyer.\u201d In also worked in his father\u2019s cloth business, of which he Dante\u2019s Swift and Strong. Essays on \u201cInferno\u201d XV. Lawrence: was to be the heir. Literally, Francis did not get very far The Regents Press of Kansas, 1978, pp. 39\u201366, 319\u2013332. in his military career\u2014he turned around and returned to Assisi after traveling only a few miles\u2014but he was Panzirolo, Guido. De claris legurn interpretibus. Leipzig: J. learning the cloth business, and he enjoyed the social F. Gleditsch, 1721, pp. 120\u2013121. (Reprint, Farnborough: life of wealthy, popular youth. Gregg, 1968.) When Francis was in his early twenties, he began to Sarti, Mauro, and Mauro Fattorini. De claris Archigymnasii find solace in solitary prayer in the countryside around Bononiensis professoribus a saeculo XI usque ad saeculum Assisi. Soon, he came to believe that God wanted him XIV, 2 vols., ed. C. Albicini and C. Malagola. Bologna: Ex to rebuild churches, both by providing supplies and Officina Regia Fratrum Merlani, 1888\u20131896, Vol. 1, pp. by helping with the reconstruction. Thus far, Francis\u2019s 193\u2013203. father had indulged him, but a crisis came when Francis sold some of his father\u2019s cloth and offered the money to Senior, W. \u201cAccursius and His Son Franciscus.\u201d Law Quarterly the priest of San Damiano, a church in need of repair. Review, 51, 1935, pp. 513\u2013516. The family conflict became a public matter when the bishop was called on to decide between Francis and his von Savigny, Friedrich Karl. Geschichte des romischen Rechts father, and this was also the moment when Francis\u2019s im Mittelaker, 7 vols. Heidelberg: J. C. B. Mohr, 1834\u20131851, life crystallized. Francis stripped himself naked before Vol. 5, pp. 306\u2013322. the bishop and returned every stitch of clothing to his father. He had chosen a new path in life, and there was Weimar, Peter. \u201cDie legistische Literarur der Glossatorenzeit.\u201d In no going back to his father; even after Francis came to Handbuch der Quellen und Literatur der neueren europ\u00e4isch- be famous and revered, he and his father were never en Privatrechtsgeschichte, ed. Helmut Coing. Munich: Beck, reconciled. Francis was to find a different kind of family 1973, Vol. 1, p. 220. and rely on a different kind of wealth. Robert C. Figueira Francis\u2019s dramatic conversion is often represented as a complete repudiation of everything he had been taught, FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT and as a metamorphosis of his own personality and char- (1181 or 1182\u20141226) acter. However, Saint Bonaventure (d. 1274), who may have been Francis\u2019s most sophisticated biographer, did Saint Francis of Assisi (Francesco di Pietro di Bernar- done) was a religious reformer and the founder of the Franciscan order and the Poor Clares. By some estimates, more books have been written about Francis of Assisi than about any other person who ever lived. In the twentieth century, for instance, he was the subject not only of historical and religious works but also of literary fiction, movies, songs, and comic books. Nikos Kazantzakis wrote a novel about Francis, and W. E. B. DuBois once gave a commencement speech in which he urged the graduates to make Francis their model. Hermann Hesse and G. K. Chesterton wrote essays on Francis. Adolf Holl called Francis \u201cthe last Christian,\u201d and the theologian Leonardo Boff described him as the \u201cmodel for human liberation.\u201d In the nine- teenth century, to take just one example, Henry Thode 222","not understand Francis\u2019s conversion in this way. Accord- FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT ing to Bonaventure, Francis remained as impetuous as always, and other elements of his character were altered in Francis that made it difficult to say no to him. For rather than rooted out. Bonaventure describes Francis example, Francis was incapable of duplicity; what he after his conversion as a great merchant because, like said was what he meant, and how he looked reflected the merchant of the gospel, Francis had found the pearl what he really was. of great price and single-mindedly sold everything to obtain it; and as a man seeking knighthood as a loyal Thus the Franciscan order was established and was soldier in the army of the great king, Christ, Bonaventure given the task of preaching penance. In the next decade, describes Francis\u2019s stigmata as the coat of arms of his the order grew from a small group of Umbrians into an new lord; in feudal terms, everyone could see, from the international brother hood. Just as Francis had attracted stigmata, exactly whose man Francis was. followers in and around Assisi, he now\u2014personally or by repute\u2014brought thousands to embrace a hard life of After breaking with his family, Francis lived for a preaching, working, and begging. His words and his ex- while as a hermit and continued to help rebuild churches. ample spoke to many who found themselves conflicted One of these churches, the Portiuncula (or Saint Mary and unfulfilled in a world where trade and personal of the Angels), later became his headquarters when he wealth were growing alongside desperate poverty. With was in Assisi; this church remained his favorite place, Francis as their model and guide, the Franciscans be- and he insisted that he be allowed to return there to die. came a great new army of the church. It was during a mass at the Portiuncula that Francis had the experience which changed the focus of his religious Not long after the meeting with Innocent III, an event vocation: he heard the Gospel in which Jesus tells the as extraordinary as Francis\u2019s own conversion took place; apostles to take nothing with them on their journey. In as a result, the Franciscan order came to have sisters as cities like Assisi, possessions were taking an ever larger well as brothers. A young aristocratic woman of Assisi role in shaping people\u2019s lives and values; and Francis named Clare left her family and joined Francis and his was struck by Jesus\u2019s call to the apostles to do without brothers at the Portiuncula, where Francis tonsured them\u2014even to do without necessities. This deeper her and welcomed her into the band of poor people for poverty would become a cornerstone of Francis\u2019s way Christ. It is worth noting that Clare was hardly a tabula of life. rasa on which Francis wrote. She had an extraordinary mother who traveled as a pilgrim to Jerusalem, and the In Francis\u2019s unlikely story, perhaps nothing is more household in which Clare had been raised was devoted surprising than the fact that he was soon joined by other to prayer and apostolic work. Still, Francis gave Clare a young men from Assisi and its environs. Within about focus for her religious concerns and desires. Clare soon three years after he broke with his father, Francis had went to San Damiano, one of the churches Francis had a new family of some dozen \u201cbrothers\u201d who shared his repaired, where she lived in a cloistered environment work, his prayer, and his poverty; went begging with with other sisters; and she developed a spirituality and him; and with him exhorted all they met to repent. a way of life that constitute one of the grandest state- ments ever made about the Christian life. However, she Bishop Guido of Assisi, among others, was support- always remained devoted to Francis and always turned ive of Francis and his brothers; but certain people were to him for guidance and support. suspicious about these young laymen, who seemed to them very like the Cathars of Umbria and Tuscany\u2014en- When Francis first returned from Rome, he had no emies of the Roman church. Therefore, probably at the clear idea about exactly what he and his brothers would urging of the bishop, Francis and his brothers went to do\u2014whether they would be essentially a contemplative Rome in 1209 or 1210 to seek the support of Pope In- order or would live \u201cin the world.\u201d They decided on an nocent III for their way of life. Another surprising part of active life supported by both prayer and work; later, if Francis\u2019s story is that he was able to see the pope; even not at this moment, they based their decision on the fact more surprising, or shocking, is that Innocent agreed to that Jesus had lived in the world. Thus Christ and the allow the brothers to live by a simple rule, consisting apostles were the models for the Franciscan order. largely of scriptural passages, and to preach. But Inno- cent knew what he was doing. The Cathars and other The Franciscan friars were poor not only as individu- heretical groups were attractive partly because, unlike als but as an institution. In this regard, their order was most of the leaders of the Roman church, they tried to quite different from traditional monasticism, in which live as Jesus and the apostles had lived. Francis and his the individual brothers owned nothing but the monas- band were, then, a potential counterforce; Innocent no tery itself was often quite rich. Francis had originally doubt perceived that Francis combined a zeal for the envisioned the friars as working for their food and apostolic life with a passionate loyalty to the church. other necessities, perhaps as transient laborers or farm Innocent must also have been affected by those qualities workers. They would beg only if they were unable to provide necessities for themselves by manual labor. In no circumstances were they to accept money, because Francis was aware of the problems associated with it. 223","FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT and people who hug trees. However, for Francis the love of creatures was always a consequence of the love of First, money often made people act irrationally; they God and of a desire to experience God through God\u2019s took a sensuous pleasure in counting coins and running creation. Bonaventure writes that \u201cin beautiful things their fingers through coins. Second, some people made Francis saw beauty itself,\u201d and that for Francis God\u2019s the acquisition of money their goal in life. Third, saving works were like footprints one could follow in order to money conduced to laziness: if a brother earned enough get closer to God. In theological terms, Francis had a money for several days\u2019 worth of food, he might decide sacramental understanding of creation. not to work during those days. More philosophically, when Francis stripped himself naked before the bishop, In the years after Innocent III approved the \u201cprimitive he had decided to forgo all security but God\u2019s; and it rule,\u201d the Franciscan brotherhood underwent tremendous would be impossible to depend only on God if there was growth. Eventually, the order had to change because it a possibility of accumulating wealth. Ultimately, Francis was no longer simply a small band of brothers wander- decided to reject in its entirety the money economy that ing the roads of Italy, working in the fields, sleeping in was then developing in Italy. barns, and preaching on street corners. Francis himself had no real plans for this new order. He was intuitive Francis and his band covered great distances, work- rather than analytical, and his charismatic personality ing to support themselves and preaching to anyone who was not very well suited for the head of a large group would listen (although unfortunately we do not have a of men, most of whom he did not know. Thus he asked single sermon of his). Since Francis and most of the the pope for a cardinal protector to be a guide and a brothers were not trained in theology, they focused on liaison with the hierarchy, and he was fortunate in the calling people to penance and on trying to reconcile appointment of Cardinal Ugolino (later Pope Gregory people who were odds with one another. As regards IX), an astute churchman who was deeply moved by penance, this early ministry was a difficult one, because and devoted to Francis. many of the people to whom it was directed felt that they were already followers of Jesus: they had been baptized; However, even with Cardinal Ugolino to help him, they went to mass; they crossed themselves and prayed. Francis was not equipped to handle the tasks of the read- But Francis felt that such people often took Christianity er of an order. Not only was he frustrated; so were many for granted, as a routine, whereas he wanted them to of the newer friars who did not know him personally and experience Christ and seek forgiveness more intensely. had not experiencd his powerful attraction. There were Francis was on fire with the love of Christ and wanted a number of legitimate concerns. For example, could to spread the fire throughout the world. As regards rec- the friars build permanent places to live? Could they onciliation, Francis\u2019s profound desire may have arisen have books?\u2014and if so, would they not need money because he had seen so much divisiveness\u2014in his to buy books and places to keep them? As more priests family, in his town, in the church, and between secular joined the order, where were they to say the mass? How and ecclesiastical authorities. There is evidence that he were they to obtain and keep the vestments and vessels helped bring peace in several divided cities, including necessary for celebrating the sacraments? What was to Arezzo, Siena, Bologna, and Assisi itself. There is a happen to friars who had grown too old to live as tran- popular story, probably apocryphal, that he worked out sients? These were not the sort of questions with which a peace agreement between the people of Gubbio and a Francis had much patience, and he became perplexed wolf which had eaten several of their fellow citizens. and deeply troubled by the growing complexity of his order. Toward the end of his life, there was already a The story of the wolf of Gubbio is, of course, only one distance between friars who saw a need for the order to of many stories about Saint Francis and animals. One of evolve and change and those who regarded any change the most famous concerns a sermon he preached to the from the way Francis lived as a betrayal of their founder. birds at Bevagna, near Assisi. Francis did indeed love Many of these problems were not resolved in Francis\u2019s animals; he also loved plants and even rocks, regarding lifetime or, for that matter, for long afterward. all of creation as his brothers and sisters. He reasoned that God created not just humans but every thing that The \u201cprimitive rule\u201d that Innocent III approved was exists, and that therefore all things had a common par- little more than a collection of passages from scripture, ent and were all part of the same family, with God as and we have no copy of it today. By 1221, Francis had the father. Francis tried to live that belief by treating composed a longer and more complex rule; but many everything with respect and reverence. He is the author friars did not approve of it, and it was never made the of a great song, Canticle of the Creatures, in which he official rule of the order. Finally, in 1223, Pope Honorius sings the praises of Brother Sun, Sister Moon, and his III approved a rule, the Regula bullata, that remains to other siblings, including Sister Death. this day the rule for the Friars Minor (the actual name of the Franciscan order). Francis no doubt had help from It is easy to romanticize Francis\u2019s love of creation and think of him as a precursor of modern conservationists 224","Cardinal Ugolino in its composition, and Francis was FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT always uncomfortable with some of the compromises it contained. present, millions of pilgrims have come there to vener- ate Saint Francis. Early on, Francis had wanted to do missionary work outside the regions where Christianity was dominant; Francis was the founder of a new order and a man and in 1219 he went to the Holy Land and preached to whose personal life became widely known. For many the sultan, after having seen the army of the fifth crusade people, his spirituality, although rooted in tradition, and predicted its failure. Apparently Francis impressed nevertheless revolutionized the practice of Christianity. the sultan, though without converting him to Christian- Francis focused on the humanity of Christ, teaching ity. Francis\u2019s journey established missionary activities that to know Christ one must be with him both at the as a part of the work of the order; for several centuries, incarnation in Bethlehem (Greccio) and at the atone- Francis\u2019s followers would be missionaries in Africa, ment on Calvary (La Verna). Whereas much of Christian Asia, and the Americas. (The city of Los Angeles, for practice in Francis\u2019s day had its origins in monasteries example, is named for Saint Mary of the Angels\u2014the and the feudal aristocracy, Francis and his followers Portiuncola\u2014because Franciscan friars established a were active in cities, seeking to explain and practice the mission of that name there in the eighteenth century.) great truths of the faith in ways that would make sense to urban people. Francis, who started by rebuilding As Francis became ill, and increasingly discouraged churches around Assisi, ultimately rebuilt the Roman about the development of an order that already looked Catholic church itself. very different from the one he had founded, he spent more time in prayer and contemplation. But he never Francis wrote several works, the most famous being lost his zeal for bringing people to closer to Christ. For Canticle of the Creatures (or Canticle of Brother Sun). instance, for a special Christmas mass at Greccio, he The most recent edition in English of Francis\u2019s writings placed a manger with an ox and an ass in the church. is Francis of Assisi: The Saint (1999), the first volume Francis wanted people not just to commemorate the of Francis of Assisi: Early Documents; as of 2002, two birth of Christ but in some real way to experience it. more volumes were projected, to include virtually all the As his first biographer said, \u201cOut of Greccio he made thirteenth-century sources for the life of Francis. Until a new Bethlehem.\u201d this work is completed, readers will still need to consult Saint Francis of Assisi: Writings (1973). In 1224, while he was on an extended retreat at La Verna, a mountain in southern Tuscany, Francis had a See also Bonaventure, Saint; Clare, Saint; vision and received the stigmata, the five wounds of Dante Alighieri, Innocent III, Pope Christ. During the last two years of his life, he tried, with some success, to keep these wounds hidden, but Further Reading news of them spread quickly after his death. People interpreted this \u201cnew and unheard-of miracle\u201d in vari- Writings by Francis ous ways. First, it was taken as evidence that Francis was a mystic, one who experienced union with God in Francis of Assisi: The Saint, ed. Regis Armstrong, A. Wayne some significant, albeit temporary, way while on earth. Hellmann, and William Short. New York: New City, 1999. Second, God\u2019s \u201cseal\u201d\u2014the stigmata\u2014were said to (Vol. 1 of Francis of Assisi: Early Documents.) signify that Francis\u2019s way of life, and by extension the life of the friars, was authentic and worthy of respect Saint Francis of Assisi: Writings and Early Biographies\u2014Eng- and imitation. Third, the stigmata were said to mean that lish Omnibus of the Sources for the Life of Saint Francis, ed. Francis was more than just another holy man: he was a Marion Habig. Chicago, Ill.: Franciscan Herald, 1973. (Later saint among saints and uniquely Christlike. Quincy, Ill.: Franciscan Press.) A little more than two years after receiving the stig- Biographies mata, Francis died at the Portiuncula. He was buried in his former parish church, San Giorgio (which was later Bonaventure. Writings, ed. and trans. Ewert Cousins. Classics incorporated into Santa Chiara); and immediately people of Western Spirituality. New York: Paulist, 1978. (Includes began to report that miracles of healing were taking a translation of Bonaventure\u2019s life of Saint Francis, Legenda place at his tomb. In July 1228, his old friend Cardinal maior.) Ugolino, now Pope Gregory IX, came to Assisi for the official proclamation of Francis\u2019s sainthood. Gregory Chesterton, G. K. Saint Francis of Assisi. Garden City, N.Y.: also laid the cornerstone for a new burial church; by Doubleday, 1957. (Originally published 1924.) 1230, this new church was complete enough for the translation of Francis\u2019s body to it. From then to the Cook, William R. Francis of Assisi: The Way of Poverty and Humility. Vol. 8 of The Way of the Christian Mystics. Wilm- ington, Del.: Michael Glazier, 1989. (Later Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press.) Englebert, Omer. Saint Francis of Assisi: A Biography, trans. Eva Marie Cooper. Chicago, Ill.: Franciscan Herald, 1965. (Later Quincy, Ill.: Franciscan Press.) Fortini, Arnaldo. Francis of Assisi, trans. Helen Moak. NewYork: Crossroad, 1981. (Edited translation of Fortini\u2019s 2,000-page biography of Francis; includes information about Assisi.) 225","FRANCIS OF ASSISI, SAINT monastery, he was a Dominican monk from Zutphen in Holland. This is the more plausible, as his intensely Frugoni, Chiara. Francis of Assisi, trans. John Bowden. New spiritual work differs profoundly from that of Bertram, York: Continuum, 1998. the leading master in Hamburg. Francke\u2019s expres- sive linear style, figure canon, and iconography could Green, Julien. God\u2019s Fool: The Life and Times of Francis of Assisi, derive from the Netherlands and certainly indicate an trans. Peter Heinegg. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986. acquaintance, around 1415, with French work from the Boucicaut and Rohan workshops. Holl, Adolf. The Last Christian: A Biography of Francis of Assisi, trans. Peter Heinegg. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980. Netherlandish influences dominate his double-winged St. Barbara Altarpiece (ca. 1420\u20131425; Kansallismuseo, J\u00f6rgensen, Johannes. Saint Francis of Assisi, a Biography, Helsinki), especially in the realism and dramatic force trans. T. O\u2019Conor Sloane. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, of the male protagonists. The often friezelike arrange- 1955. (Originally published 1932; remains one of the best ment of the figures in the painted martyrdom scenes is accounts.) sculptural in character, and the designs in the carved shrine section have therefore also, controversially, been Robson, Michael. Saint Francis of Assisi: The Legend and the attributed to Francke. Life. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1997. The commission of 1424 is thought to relate to the Sabatier, Paul. Life of Saint Francis of Assisi, trans. Louise Sey- St. Thomas Altarpiece, completed in 1436, of which mour Houghton. New York: Charles Scribner, 1894. (Marks only fragments survive (Kunsthalle, Hamburg). In the the beginning of modern scholarship on Saint Francis.) closed state, the altarpiece originally showed scenes from the childhood of Christ and the martyrdom of Smith, John Holland. Francis of Assisi. New York: Scribner, Saint Thomas; when opened, the drama of the passion 1972. of Christ was revealed. Francke employed steep hillside settings, silhouetted against a starred red ground for the Critical Studies outside scenes, and a gold ground on the festive side. In this altarpiece, certain motives, such as the women under Allen, Paui M., and Joan deRis Allen. Francis of Assisi\u2019s \u201cCan- the cross in the Crucifixion, suggest direct knowledge of ticle of the Creatures\u201d: A Modern Spiritual Path. New York: the courtly art of Conrad von Soest. However, Francke Continuum, 1996. favored poignant drama in contrast to Conrad\u2019s more lyrical mood. Armstrong, Edward A. Saint Francis: Nature Mystic\u2014The Derivation and Significance of the Nature Stories in the Francke\u2019s work found numerous followers in Ger- Franciscan Legend. Berkeley: University of California many, but only in paintings by Rogier van der Weyden Press, 1973. (Addresses both hagiographical literature and do we find a similar emotive use of line. the natural world.) Further Reading Boff, Leonardo. Saint Francis: A Model for Human Liberation, trans. John Diercksmeier. New York: Crossroad, 1982. Corley, Brigitte. Conrad von Soest: Painter among Merchant Princes. London: Harvey Miller, 1997, pp. 152\u2013156. Cook, William R. Images of Saint Francis of Assisi in Painting, Stone, and Glass from the Earliest to c 1320 in Italy: A Cata- Martens, Bella. Meister Francke, 2 vols. Hamburg: Friederichsen, logue. Florence: Leo S. Olschki, 1999. de Gruyter, 1929. Doyle, Eric. Saint Francis and the Song of Brotherhood. New Meister Francke und die Kunst um 1400. Hamburg: Kunsthalle, York: Seabury, 1981. (Reinterpretation of Francis\u2019s \u201cCanticle 1969. of the Creatures\u201d for modern times, by a friar.) Pylkk\u00e4nen, Riitta. Pyh\u00e4n Barbaran legenda. Helsinki: n. p., DuBois, W. E. B. \u201cSaint Francis of Assisi.\u201d In W. E. B. DuBois: 1966. A Reader, ed. Andrew Paschal. New York: Macmillan, 1971, pp. 290\u2013302. Brigitte Corley Frugoni, Chiara. Francesco e l\u2019invenzione delle Stimmate: Una FRAU AVA (fl. first half the 12th c.) storia per parole e immagini fino a Bonaventura e Giotto. Turin: Einaudi, 1993. Author (\u201cLady Ava\u201d) of a series of four religious Middle High German poems, written circa 1120 to 1125, trans- Hesse, Hermann. Francesco d\u2019Assisi, trans. Barbara Griffini. mitted in two versions known as the Vorauer Handschrift Parma: Ugo Guanda, 1989. (manuscript \u201cV\u201d) from the latter half of the twelfth century, and the missing fourteenth-century G\u00f6rlitzer Kazantzakis, Nikos. Saint Francis, trans. P. A. Bien. New York: Handschrift (manuscript \u201cG\u201d). Frau Ava\u2019s work, viewed Simon and Schuster, 1962. as a whole, provides a poetic rendering of the history of salvation. Johannis, the first poem of the series (\u201cG\u201d McMichaels, Susan W. Journey out of the Garden: Saint Francis version only), begins with John the Baptist\u2019s future of Assisi and the Process of Individuation. NewYork: Paulist, 1997. Peterson, Ingrid J. Clare of Assisi: A Biographical Study. Quincy, Ill.: Franciscan Press, 1993. Sorrell, Roger D. Saint Francis of Assisi and Nature: Tradition and Innovation in Western Christian Attitudes toward the Envi- ronment. NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1988. (Perhaps the best scholarly treatment of Francis and nature.) Thode, Henry. Franz von Assisi und die Anf\u00e4nge der Kunst der Renaissance in Italien, 2nd ed. Berlin: G. Grote, 1904. Trexler, Richard C. Naked Before the Father: The Renunciation of Francis of Assisi. New York: Peter Lang, 1989. William R. Cook FRANCKE, MASTER (ca. 1380\u2013ca. 1440) A commission from the confraternity of \u201cEngland- Travellers,\u201d dated 1424, names Master Francke. It has been suggested that, although working in a Hamburg 226","parents, Zacharias and his barren wife, Elizabeth, and FRA AVA Zacharias\u2019s failure to believe in the annunciation of the approaching birth of their son. Zacharias\u2019s lack of the requirements for salvation can no longer be fulfilled faith in the angelic message is punished by muteness. once Christ has returned, Ava advocates repentance and The poem next recounts the annunciation of Jesus to the immediate practice of redeeming virtues, particularly Mary, who in contrast to the doubting Zacharias, ac- applicable to an aristocratic audience: protecting the knowledges her absolute faith in God. After the Baptists poor, ransoming prisoners, holding court without bribe birth and circumcision, and the restoration of speech to taking, showing mercy to those of lesser power, and Zacharias through the intercession of the Holy Spirit, generous giving of alms. After the account of the Last the exemplary character of Johannis highlights the Judgment, the poem commemorates the beginning of need for repentance and vigilance. Johannis\u2019s ascetic the liturgical year at Easter as an appropriate time for discipline stands in opposition to Harod\u2019s lascivious- spiritual reorientation. ness. While the king enslaves himself to erotic passion, Johannis struggles to uphold the rule of reason and to Ava\u2019s poems are the earliest extent work of an identi- bridle the desires of the flesh. The poem underscores the fiable woman author written in German. Little is known Baptist\u2019s role as a helper to all Christians. His spiritual about the author apart from some autobiographical orientation enables him to serve God and humankind, disclosures in her work and from records of her death. to bear witness as a martyr, and to merit the praise of Only in the final poem of the series does Ava tell some- Christendom. The major poem in the series, Das Leben thing about her life. Her sons are likely to have been Jesu (Life of Jesus), recapitulates the annunciation to clerics who advised her on interpreting Scripture and Zacharias, the mission of John the Baptist, and the other religious sources. The record of Ava\u2019s death in the machinations of Herod. After the account of Jesus\u2019 necrology of the Austrian monastery of Melk notes the baptism in the Jordan, Ava tells of his fast in the desert year 1127 and her vocation as religious recluse. and encounter with Satan, his tempter. The defeat of the devil as tempter culminates in his actual subjection Further Reading during Christ\u2019s triumphal Harrowing of Hell. Follow- ing the scenes of Jesus\u2019 temptations in the desert, the de Boor, Helmut. Fr\u00fchmittelhochdeutsche Studien. Zwei Unter- narrative recounts his miracles or healing. The capture, suchungen. Halle\/Saale: Niemeyer, 1926. trial, and crucifixion of Jesus place charity\u2014the central commandment to his disciples\u2014in the context of giving Domitrovic, Martin. \u201cDie Sprache in den Gedichten der Frau Ava, one\u2019s own life for a friend. After depicting the Resurrec- Vokalismus und Konsonantismus.\u201d Ph.D. diss., University of tion and the Ascension, the poem focuses on the arrival Graz, 1950. of the Holy Spirit in the upper room and the recipients\u2019 use of the divine gifts to teach others. The main body of Freytag, Wiebke. \u201cGeistliches Leben und christliche Bildung. Das Leben Jesu ends with Peter winning many converts Hrotsvit und andere Autorinnen des fr\u00fchen Mittelalters.\u201d as bishop in Antioch and Rome. The transitional verses Deutsche Literatur von Frauen, vol. 1. Munich: Beck, 1988, that follow constitute Die Sieben Gaben des Heiligen pp. 65\u201376. Geistes (The Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit) and offer a catalogue of virtues given by Jesus to his disciples. Greinemann, S. Eoliba, OSB. \u201cDie Gedichte der Frau Ava Un- The third work in the series is Der Antichrist. This short tersuchungen zur Quellenfrage.\u201d Ph.D. diss., University of poem of twelve strophes relates how the Antichrist will Freiburg im Breisgau, 1967. take possession of the world and overthrow the existing social order. Ava shows that his qualities are antithetical Heer, Friedrich. Aufgang Europas. Eine Studie zu den Zusammen- to the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Those who lack the h\u00e4ngen zwischen politischer Religiosit\u00e4t, Fr\u00f6m-migkeitsstil und correct orientation to God will succumb to the impos- demWesten Europas im 12. Jahrhundert.Vienna: Europa, 1949. tor\u2019s deception. Although the Antichrists reign will last for four and one-half years and inflict great suffering on Helm, Karl. \u201cUntersuchungen \u00fcber Heinrich Heslers Evangelium all Christians, the sin of pride will eventually lead to his Nicodemi.\u201d Beitr\u00e4ge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache fall and destruction. Das j\u00fcngste Gericht, the final poem und Literatur 24 (1899): 85\u2013187. in the series, previews the fifteen days that precede the Last Judgment and the purification of the world by fire. Henschel, Erich. \u201cZu Ava \u2018Leben Jesu\u2019.\u201d Beitr\u00e4ge zur Geschichte The second half of the poem describes the Parousia, der deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Halle) 78 (1956): the glorious second coming of Christ. Preceded by the 479\u2013484. four evangelists, he awakens the dead to reward the good and punish those who caused him suffering. As Hintz, Ernst Ralf. \u201cFrau Ava,\u201d in Semper idem et novus. Fest- schrift for Frank Banta, ed. Ftancis G. Gentry. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1988, pp. 209\u2013230. \u2014\u2014. \u201cFrau Ava (?\u20131127).\u201d In German Writers and Works of the Early Middle Ages: 800\u20131170, ed. Will Hasty and James Hardin. Detroit: Gale, 1995, pp. 39\u201344. \u2014\u2014. Learning and Persuasion in the German Middle Ages. New Yotk: Garland, 1997, pp. 103\u2013137. Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Heinrich. Fundgruben f\u00fcr Geschichte deutscher Sprache und Literatur. Breslau: Grass, Barth, 1830. [part 1, (\u201cG\u201d) only, Johannis omitted]. Kienast, Richard. \u201cAva-Studien. 1\u20133\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 74 (1937): 1\u201336; 74 (1937): 277\u2013308: 77 (1940): 45\u2013104. Mauter, Friedrich. Die Dichtungen der Frau Ava. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1966. Menhardt, Hermann. \u201cEin fr\u00fcher Teildruck der G\u00f6rlitzer Ava- 227","FRA AVA Often his songs represent traditions common in the first half of the thirteenth century, employing topics such as Handschrift.\u201d Beitr\u00e4ge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache courtly love (minne), nature, and religion. His series und Literatur 81 (1959): 111\u2013115. of songs, especially those on the Virgin Mary and the Piper, Paul. \u201cDie Gedichte der Ava.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Trinity, are thematically and formally more ambitious. Philologie 19 (1887): 129\u2013196, 275\u2013321 [(\u201cV\u201d and \u201cG\u201d)]. Frauenlob combines and refines traditional motives, Schacks, Kurt. Die Dichtungen der Frau Ava. Graz: Wiener often in a particular fashion: cryptic, encoded, aimed Neudrucke, 1986. at a knowledgeable, elite audience. Within his Sprucb- Schr\u00f6der, Edward. \u201cFrau Ava und die Osterfeier.\u201d Zeitschrift dichtung, Frauenlob also expressed his own thoughts on f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 50 (1908): poetry and his own role as a poet. Thus, on the one hand, 312\u2013313. he sees himself as a grateful successor to the great poets \u2014\u2014. \u201cAva und Bettina.\u201d Anzeiger f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum und of the past (he especially honors Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg), deutsche Literatur 42 (1923): 90\u201391. while, on the other hand, he presents himself as their \u2014\u2014. \u201cAus der Gelehrsamkeit der Frau Ava.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr superior: once he remarks, \u00fbz kezzels grunde g\u00e2t m\u00een deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 66 (1929): kunst (from the depth of the caldron emerges my art), 171\u2013172. thereby setting himself apart from other poets. \u2014\u2014. \u201cSpiel und Spielmann.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 74 (1937): 45\u201346. A noteworthy composition is Frauenlob\u2019s \u201cDispute Stein, Peter K. \u201cStil, Struktur, historischer Ort und Funktion. between Minne and the World,\u201d in which both allegori- Literarhistorische Beobachtungen und methodologische cal partners\u2014minne as courtly love personified\u2014argue \u00dcberlegungen zu den Dichtungen Frau Avas,\u201d in Festschrift in learned fashion for their respective relative rank. f\u00fcr Adalbert Schmidt zum 70. Geburtstag. Stuttgart: Heinz, 1976. Frauenlob\u2019s Leiche are undoubtedly achievements of Wesenick, Gertrude. \u201cFr\u00fchmittelhochdeutsche Dichtung des 12. the highest order. He composed praises of the Crucifix, Jahrhunderts aus der Wachau. Frau Avas Gedichte.\u201d Ph.D. of minne, and of the Virgin Mary, and the melodies for diss., University of T\u00fcbingen, 1963. each. It is because of the song to Mary, in praise of the Woelfert, Rosemarie. \u201cWandel der religi\u00f6sen Epik zwischen heavenly woman, that Frauenlob received his nickname, 1100 und 1200 dargestellt an Frau Avas Leben Jesu und der Praise of Women, although his praise of worldly women Kindheit Jesu des Konrad von Fusses-brunnen.\u201d Ph.D. diss., may have also played a role. This song is Frauenlob\u2019s University of T\u00fcbingen, 1963. masterpiece: his theology, pious praise of Mary, and natural philosophy are combined in an immense concept Ernst Ralf Hintz and present a dimension of popular language praise of Mary hitherto unseen in this genre, a dimension that FRAUENLOB (d. November 29, 1318) still today presents critical challenges. The love poem provides an unconventional concept of courtly love: Heinrich von Mei\u00dfen, called Frauenlob (literally, Praise minne is now founded in natural philosophy as a pro- of Women), wrote Middle High German poetry in the ductive force of nature that unites opposites to create late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. He died on nature anew and to perpetuate the process of nature. November 29, 1318, and lies buried in Mainz. There be- The crucifix poem, finally, deals with the theological ing practically no nonliterary traces of his life, nearly all concepts of trinity, incarnation, salvation, and crucifix we know of him derives from his literary production. In worship, at one unique linguistically and from the point later political poems (Sangspruchdichtung), Frauenlob of view of the motif. names a series of historical personalities who provide dates for certain texts and may indicate a degree of Frauenlob marks a literary transition; he looks back mobility (e.g., Duke Heinrich von Breslau, King Eric of on some one hundred years of tradition he knows well; Denmark, among others); living and deceased poets of intellectually he is well trained in many areas; he at- his time are named (e.g., Walther von der Vogelweide, tempts to reapproach the great poetical topics aestheti- Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg, and many others) who offer hints cally and substantively. of a relative chronology. See also Konrad von W\u00fcrzburg; Walther von der Frauenlob\u2019s literary production is broad, but many Vogelweide of the texts are extant in only one copy, thus making editing difficult. For example, numerous poems have Further Reading been distorted by scribal misunderstandings and errors, and present a daunting philological challenge. Equally Bein, Thomas. Studien zu Frauenlobs Minneleich. Frankfurt am problematic is the question of authenticity. Owing Main: Lang, 1988. to questionable reasoning on the part of the scholar Helmuth Thomas, the standard edition of Frauenlob\u2019s Cambridger \u201cFrauenlob\u201d-Kolloquium 1986. Wolfram-Studien poems, edited by Stackmann and Bertau, contains 10, ed. Werner Schr\u00f6der. Berlin: Schmidt, 1988 [collection an incomplete catalogue. To attain the broadest pos- of papers from conference]. sible picture of Frauenlob\u2019s oeuvre, one must consult Ettmullter\u2019s edition of 1843. Ettm\u00fcller, Ludwig, ed. Heinrich von Mei\u00dfen, des Frauenlobs Frauenlob was comfortable composing in all genres: songs, political lyrics, disputes, and narrative poetry. 228","Leiche, Spr\u00fcche, Streitgedichte und Lieder. Quedlinburg: FREDERICK I BARBAROSSA Basse, 1843. Huber, Christoph. Die Aufnahme und Verbreitung des Alanus ab led by Arnold of Brescia. But cordial relations would Insulis in mhd. Dichtungen. Zurich: Artemis and Winkler, not last as both sides railed to adhere to the terms of the 1988. treaty, and advisers for both sides, including Rainald of M\u00e4rz, Christoph. Frauenlobs Marienliech Untersuchungen zur Dassel and Roland Bandinelli, stressed principle over sp\u00e4tmittelalterlichen Monodie. Erlangen: Palm and Enke, compromise. In 1157, the first great conflict erupted at 1987. the imperial court in Besan\u00e7on over Hadrians declara- Stackmann, Karle and Karl Bertau, eds. Frauenlob (Heinrich tion that Barbarossa had received the empire as a ben- von Mei\u00dfen): Leichs, Sangspr\u00fcche, Lieder, 2 vols. Gottingen: eficium, or fief, from the pope. Hadrian would apologize Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1981. for the use of the term, explaining it meant \u201cfavor,\u201d but Steinmetz, Ralf-Henning. Liebe als universales Prinzip bei too late as relations had begun to sour. Frauenlob. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1994. An even greater breach would emerge during the Thomas Bein reign of Alexander III (1159\u20131181), the former Roland Bandinelli. A disputed election in 1159 led to a schism FREDERICK I BARBAROSSA (d. 1190) and the emergence of two popes, Alexander III and Victor IV (1159\u20131164). The prolonged schism made Perhaps the greatest figure of the twelfth century, Fred- Barbarossa\u2019s already complex dealings with Italy more erick I Barbarossa ruled the empire from 1152 until his difficult. The northern Italian cities that had opposed the untimely death while on crusade in 1190. Barbarossa expansion of the emperor\u2019s authority into Italy found was an effective and sometimes brutal ruler whose reign a natural ally in Alexander, who, in turn, found much was marked by his efforts to establish his authority in support from the king of France. Barbarossa\u2019s activities Italy, often stormy relations with the papacy, and equally during the schism had mixed success. In the 1160s he stormy relations with the princes in Germany. His ef- managed to raze the northern Italian power of Milan forts in one area often influenced the course of events and force Alexander out of Italy. He witnessed the in another, and his reign strengthened the place of his succession of a series of imperial antipopes, including family in the empire and laid the foundation for both Paschal III (1164\u20131168), who crowned Barbarossa\u2019s subsequent successes and defeats. wife, Beatrix, empress and who was enthroned in Rome by the emperor. Frederick\u2019s invasions of Italy witnessed According to his biographer Rahewin, Barbarossa victories over his rivals in northern Italy and Rome, and had golden hair, a reddish beard, piercing eyes, and a his efforts to establish a universal power to rival Rome cheerful face. He was also a devout son of the church that had begun in 1157 with the use of the term sacrum who honored the clergy and was a great builder of imperium (holy empire) were continued with his can- palaces and other public buildings. A \u201clover of war- onization of Charlemagne in 1165. But Frederick had fare, but only that peace may be secured thereby,\u201d been excommunicated by Alexander, and support for the Barbarossa, Rahewin tells us further, possessed the pope was too strong throughout western Christendom virtues of an emperor. Indeed, his military prowess and especially in Italy. The northern Italian cities formed and imperial bearing would be of value for Barbarossa a league at Verona that built a castle at Alessandria that when his uncle, Conrad III, chose him as his successor. would be a key stronghold and then rallied around the Barbarossa was chosen because Conrad\u2019s son was still rebuilt city of Milan in the Lombard League. Moreover, a minor and because of Barbarossa\u2019s relations to two although the emperor managed to take the city of Rome of the greatest families in the empire, the Staufen and in 1166, he did so at great cost because many of his the Welfs (Guelfs). troops and key advisers, especially Rainald of Dassel, died from malaria. He never managed to take Alessan- Although he was chosen for his important family dria and was defeated by the league in 1176 at the battle connections in the German lands of the empire, one of of Legnano. A peace conference followed the defeat Barbarossa\u2019s primary concerns was the establishment of and led to the peace of Venice in 1177. The settlement his authority in Italy. Relations with Italy, and especially lifted the excommunication and recognized the imperial with Rome, formed the core of his conception of the bishops appointed by Barbarossa. It also established imperial authority because without formal coronation a permanent peace between emperor and pope and a by the pope, Barbarossa could not claim the imperial fifteen-year truce between emperor and the Lombard title. As a consequence he spent much time in Italy, and cities. Finally, it granted Barbarossa extensive rights in shortly after the death of Conrad, Barbarossa made his the much coveted Mathildine lands of Tuscany. first trip there. His relations began on a promising note as he and Pope Eugenius III (1145\u20131153) agreed to respect Much of the conflict with Rome involved the broader each other\u2019s interests in the Treaty of Constance (March concerns of imperial rights in Italy, and relations with 23, 1153). In 1155, Frederick was crowned emperor by Rome were greatly complicated by Barbarossa\u2019s Italian the English pope, Hadrian IV (1154\u20131159), and restored policies. As emperor, Barbarossa saw control of Italy as Hadrian to the throne in Rome by suppressing a revolt 229","FREDERICK I BARBAROSSA sible. Moreover, his willingness to allow Henry the Lion to fall for failure to attend imperial courts and for abuse essential to his authority, and, consequently, the emperor of power as duke enabled Barbarossa to restructure the spent much time on the peninsula, undertaking a number duchies of the realm, break up the larger duchies of the of campaigns there. His efforts to establish his authority Lion, raise lesser noble families to higher authority, and in Italy were shaped by his appreciation of Roman law establish feudal law in Germany. Finally, Barbarossa and the teachings of the masters at Bologna. The clearest intervened in disputed episcopal elections and made example of the influence of Roman law on Barbarossa greater use of ministeriales (clerics) during his reign to and the desire to establish his rights in Italy can be found make his authority more effective. in the so-called Roncaglia decrees of 1158. The decrees were pronounced during the emperor\u2019s second Italian Barbarossa\u2019s last great act was his participation in expedition and while tensions between Frederick and the Third Crusade. Long a supporter of these holy wars Pope Hadrian remained high. The decrees, the result of a and a participant in the Second Crusade, Frederick council that included a number of jurists from Bologna, took the cross at an assembly at Mainz in 1188. With listed and defined royal rights, (regalia) in Italy. The re- great hope, Barbarossa led a large force toward the galia included, as Rahewin notes, \u201cdukedoms, marches, Holy Lands and enjoyed early success along the way. counties, consulates, mines, market tolls, forage tax, Unfortunately, while crossing the river Saleph on June wagons tolls, transit tolls, mills, fisheries, bridges,\u201d and 10, 1190, Barbarossa drowned. His army fragmented, an annual tax on land arid persons. The decrees also with part returning home and part continuing on. The asserted Frederick\u2019s rights to nominate and confirm the death of the emperor weakened the crusader army and, various magistrates and judges of the cities of northern perhaps, undermined chances for success. Despite his Italy. Finally, the decrees instituted the newly develop- unfortunate end, Barbarossa had made a lasting impact ing law of fiefs in Italy, limiting the rights of alienation on the empire and left it at peace and in the relatively of fiefs and defining more precisely the nature of a fief. capable hands of his son, Henry VI (d. 1197). The promulgation of the Roncaglian decrees was an ef- fort by Frederick to establish himself as the governing See also Gerhoh of Reichersberg; Hadrian IV, authority in Italy, a legal pronouncement followed by Pope; Henry IV, Emperor ruthless enforcement. Although an important step for Barbarossa, the proclamation of the decrees was greatly Further Reading resented by the northern Italian cities and led to much conflict between them and the emperor. In fact, the Benson, Robert L. \u201cPolitical Renovatio: Two Models from Ro- animosity generated by the decrees would complicate man Antiquity,\u201d in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Barbarossa\u2019s efforts in Italy, a controversy that, in some Century, ed. Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable with Carol ways, would not be resolved until the peace of Venice. D. Lanham. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982, pp. 339\u2013386. Frederick\u2019s other great concern was, of course, Germany and his relations with the German princes, Die Urkunden Friedrichs I, ed. Heinrich Appelt. Monumenta especially with the Welf family and its greatest scion, Germaniae historica. Die Urkunden der deut-schen Konige Henry the Lion. To avoid the conflicts of his predeces- und Kaiser 10, 1\u20133. Hannover: Hahn, 1975\u20131979. sor, Barbarossa needed to work at reconciliation with the major families of the realm from the very beginning Fuhrmann, Horst. Germany in the High Middle Ages, trans. Timo- of his reign. To satisfy the Staufen line he made his dis- thy Reuter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. placed cousin and son of Conrad III, the eight-year-old Frederick of Rothenburg, duke of Swabia. He granted Gillingham, J. B. The Kingdom of Germany in the High Middle the Babenberger Henry Jasomirgott the duchy of Austria Ages (900\u20131200). London: Historical Association, 1971. after earlier depriving him of his Bavarian title. But the greatest grants were made to the Welf, Henry, who was Leyser, Karl. \u201cFrederick Barbarossa and the Hohen-staufen granted the duchy of Bavaria and Saxony. And as duke Polity,\u201d in Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: of Saxony, Henry was allowed to expand his authority The Gregorian Revolution and Beyond, ed. Timothy Reuter. in the north by Frederick as a means of maintaining London: Hambledon Press, 1994, pp. 115\u2013142. Henry\u2019s support for the emperor. Having placated the great families, Barbarossa sought to strengthen his posi- \u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013. \u201cFrederick Barbarossa: Court and Country,\u201d in Communica- tion and that of his family. A first step was taken when tions and Power in Medieval Europe: The Gregorian Revolu- Barbarossa married Beatrix, the heiress to the county tion and Beyond, ed. Timothy Reuter. London: Hambledon of Burgundy and parts of Province. Barbarossa sought Press, 1994, pp. 143\u2013155. to expand familial and imperial lands throughout the realm, attaching Staufen territory to himself and also Morena, Otto. Historia Frederici I, ed. Ferdinand G\u00fcterbock. laying claim to possessions of other nobles when pos- Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores rerum germani- carum. Nova series 7. Berlin: Weidmann, 1930. Munz, Peter. Frederick Barbarossa: A Study in Medieval Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1969. Otto of Freising and Rahewin. Gesta Friderici Imperatoris, ed. G. Waitz. Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores rerum germanicarum 46. Hannover: Hahn, 1912. \u2014\u2014, and his Continuator, Rahewin. The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa, trans. Charles Chrisopher Mierow. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. Michael Frassetto 230","FREDERICK II FREDERICK II (December 26, 1194\u2013December 13, 1250) \u201cboy of Apulia\u201d; money and diplomatic support also came from Philip of France. Next Frederick moved King of Sicily, Roman emperor, king of Jerusalem, Fred- north, where he was elected king of the Romans (for the erick was born on December 26, 1194, in Jesi (Ancona), third time) in Frankfurt and crowned in Mainz. During the eldest child of Emperor Henry VI Hohenstaufen and 1213 Frederick solidified his political and military posi- Constance (daughter of Roger II and heiress to Sicily). tion against Otto and confirmed various concessions to Baptized Frederick Roger (after his grandfathers), his the papacy and the German ecclesiastical princes. Otto name signaled his two heritages, namely, rule over the now staked his future chances on an invasion of northern empire and the Italian regno (reign) and their fateful France, but Philip II won a decisive victory over him at fusion. The German princes elected him king of the Bouvines (1214). The chastened Welf withdrew to his Romans (1196), and he was crowned king of Sicily Saxon strongholds, where he died in May 1218. (1198) after his father\u2019s death. North of the Alps, the competing royal elections of Otto (IV) of Brunswick and Now crowned king of the Romans a second time at Frederick\u2019s uncle, Philip of Swabia, plunged Germany Aachen (1215), an enthusiastic Frederick made a fate- into dynastic civil war. Before her own death, Constance ful vow to go on crusade to recover the Holy Places. named Pope Innocent III guardian over the four year old A year later he renewed another commitment by for- and regent of the kingdom. mally promising Pope Innocent that he would turn the government of Sicily over to his young son Henry As the young orphan grew into manhood, political by right after he himself received the imperial crown. disorder engulfed the regno. The child-king became a Innocent\u2019s death in 1216 was followed by the election pawn of feuding native and German aristocratic factions of Honorius III, a decidedly less stern pope. In 1220 while other outside parties pursued their own interest at Frederick engineered Henry VIII\u2019s election as co-king the expense of the royal power. Childhood in cosmo- of the Romans, thus assuring the union of Sicily and the politan Palermo\u2014scene of an intermingling of Arab, empire that Innocent had feared. Frederick disingenu- Norman, Italian, and Greek cultural impulses\u2014favored ously informed Honorius that the election had occurred Frederick\u2019s intellectual alertness, mental and emotional at the wish of the princes; in fact, the purchase price was precocity, and polygon talents. His cheerfulness, ami- not inconsiderable: to secure electoral support from the ability, and calculation were balanced by the capacity ecclesiastical princes Frederick promulgated the Con- for mistrust, coldness, cruelty, misanthropy, a demonic foederatio or Privilegium cum principibus ecclesiasticis, temperament, and a general lack of scruples. which contained the renunciation (at least in theory) of many royal rights in ecclesiastical territories. That In June 1208, the murder of Frederick\u2019s uncle Philip same year Honorius crowned Frederick emperor in St. paved the way for Otto\u2019s accession to royal power in Peter\u2019s basilica. Germany. Six months later Frederick attained his major- ity according to Sicilian law. A marriage was arranged For much of the next decade Frederick maintained by the pope to Constance of Aragon, sister of King Peter his strong political position; despite his prior promises, II; it brought Frederick the Aragonese military support the union of the imperial and Sicilian crowns meant that enabled him to bolster his political position in the a potential encirclement of the papacy. And now his kingdom before new danger arose. In return for various attention could be turned to the regno for a five-year promises, including an undertaking not to interfere in period of consolidation: the strengthening of fortifica- Sicilian affairs, Otto IV secured imperial coronation at tions and harbor facilities, establishment of a large war Pope Innocents hands in 1209. But the new emperor\u2019s fleet and merchant navy, and restriction of the trading repudiation of his promise and his invasion of the king- and extraterritorial privileges hitherto held by Pisan dom triggered excommunication by the pope and papal and Genoese merchants. In 1220 at Capua he promul- support for a Hohenstaufen candidacy for the German gated assizes that included a requirement that all royal and imperial crowns. In 1211 a group of German princes privileges granted since 1189 must be reviewed before opposed to Otto met in Nuremberg and elected Frederick given any further credence. In this manner, Frederick king of the Romans. In early 1212 Frederick decided to could recoup some royal rights and properties lost accept this election. Now he solidified the pope\u2019s support through usurpation or ill-advised concession. He also by confirming his mother\u2019s concessions regarding the suppressed a Muslim revolt in Sicily and resettled many Sicilian church; he also protected the dynasty\u2019s future defeated Saracens in Lucera, where they established a by having his infant son, Henry, crowned co-king of Muslim enclave that in time became a center of royal Sicily. support. To further the training of civil servants for a burgeoning royal bureaucracy, Frederick also founded During Autumn 1212 Frederick embarked on an un- the University of Naples. expected and adventurous trip over the Alps to southwest Germany. Pro-Hohenstaufen princes, bishops, and towns His commitment to depart on crusade was postponed now rallied to the support of the seemingly wondrous repeatedly as Frederick consolidated control over the 231","FREDERICK II tions of Melfi (1231). This work of synthesis organized royal enactments with a view to centralize authority, regno. But it was never forgotten by Honorius and the bureaucratize royal government, and weaken all other papal curia. The pope even helped to arrange Frederick\u2019s non-royal intermediate jurisdictions. marriage in 1225 to the heiress of the kingdom of Jeru- salem, IsabellaYolande of Brienne. Frederick reiterated But trouble now loomed in Germany, where young his crusade obligations: under pain of excommunication King Henry\u2019s weakly executed and unsteady policy of he would depart for the East before August 1227. In a alliance with imperial ministerials, towns, and lesser related matter, Frederick promulgated, in 1226, for the aristocrats provoked opposition and demands from the Teutonic Knights the Golden Bull of Rimini, establish- greater princes. Henry was compelled to issue Statutum ing the foundations of their autonomous state in Prus- in favorem principum (1231), and his father had no sia. That same year the emperor attempted to convoke choice but to confirm the same document a year later. a diet to restore imperial rights in northern Italy, but In constitutional terms the autonomy of the princes his intentions were thwarted by the resistance of the was thereby somewhat strengthened, while restric- reconstituted Lombard League under the leadership of tions on imperial cities were somewhat tightened. In Milan. The death of Honorius III in 1227 led to the elec- 1232, Frederick imposed on his son an oath not to tion of Gregory IX, who as cardinal had been friendly pursue in the future his former policies, but Henry to the emperor. But when plague struck the gathering nonetheless rebelled in 1234, and even allied himself crusaders in Brindisi during late summer 1227, the with the Lombard League. When Frederick himself embarkation became a debacle; the emperor himself journeyed north in 1235, however, all resistance col- sailed but immediately became ill, returning three days lapsed. Henry submitted unconditionally to his father, later and postponing further departure to spring 1228. was stripped of his title and crown, and imprisoned for Yet Gregory, long impatient with the emperor\u2019s past the rest of his life in various castles. He died by suicide excuses, held him strictly to the terms of his promises in 1242. and excommunicated the emperor despite the latters protestations. Frederick now married again, this time to Isabella Plantagenet, sister of Henry III of England. The emperor Frederick nonetheless continued preparations for proceeded to celebrate his triumphs at an imperial diet the voyage east despite the spiritual ban and Empress in Mainz, where he promulgated a peace edict that cre- Yolande\u2019s death shortly after giving birth to Conrad (IV). ated the post of high court judge and proclaimed that In June 1228 the emperor reembarked with a small army all rights of governance originated in the monarchy. and arrived in Acre, where he found little support from Frederick also staged a reconciliation with the Welfs by the local Syrian-Frankish baronage, the ecclesiastical creating the feudal principality of Brunswick-L\u00fcneburg hierarchy, or the military orders. Despite such handicaps, for Otto, nephew of Otto IV. Frederick drew on his knowledge of Arabic and Muslim culture to negotiate a favorable treaty with the Egyptian Frederick returned to Italy, where he waged a military sultan al-Kamil. The emperor next entered the Holy City campaign during 1236 against the Lombards. Winter and crowned himself king of Jerusalem, basing his title brought the emperor north again, this time to depose the on his deceased wife\u2019s claim and on their son Conrad\u2019s outlawed rebel Frederick II of Austria and Styria. The minor status. emperor also arranged that his son Conrad was elected king of the Romans in Vienna (1237). He journeyed The pope\u2019s enmity did not slacken, however. War had back to Italy, where his political fortunes now reached already broken out in Italy. Since any further actions in their zenith; Frederick led his army to victory over the Outremer were doomed to failure, the emperor set sail League of Cortenuova, an alliance between Maitland and returned to Brindisi. Frederick quickly assembled and Lombard. The vanquished Lombards became eager troops and swept the papal invaders back northward, to negotiate peace, but the emperor\u2019s intransigence en- taking care to halt his victorious advance at the border. couraged instead a spirit of desperate resistance among Negotiations during the next year, 1230, culminated a hard core of league members. Six cities chose to fight in the treaties of San Germano and Ceprano. Gregory on. His relations with Pope Gregory also worsened. absolved Frederick from excommunication, the territo- Frederick\u2019s illegitimate son Enzio married at his father\u2019s rial status quo was restored, and the emperor promised urging the heiress to a large portion of Sardinia and, in the Sicilian church freedom of prelatial elections and a calculated affront, immediately styled himself king of other privileges. But otherwise nothing was decided that island, thereby ignoring papal claims to overlord- regarding the threatened encirclement of papal territory, ship. In 1239, the pope excommunicated Frederick a papal doubts regarding the emperor\u2019s stance toward second time, charging that the emperor had oppressed ecclesiastical liberty, and the Lombard\u2019s autonomy. the Sicilian church, impeded crusades, and assisted re- bellious Romans. The real reasons for conflict, namely, A fragile peace now restored, Frederick embarked on the emperor\u2019s ongoing struggle with the Lombards and his most memorable legal project\u2014the codification of royal laws for the regno in Liber Augustalis, or Constitu- 232","his perceived threat to papal autonomy, received no FREDERICK II explicit mention. Under papal pressure in 1246 and 1247, several German The struggle quickly developed its apocalyptic as princes elected in succession antikings Henry Raspe of well as military aspects. Detractors called Frederick An- Thuringia and William of Holland, but neither ultimately tichrist; supporters hailed him as the expected messianic had much effect on Frederick\u2019s position in Germany. ruler of the Last Day. Crucial to Frederick\u2019s propaganda was his minister Petrus de Vinea, the architect of a new More serious, however, were the conspiracies and high rhetorical style that rivaled the fulminations of revolts in Italy. A plot by some Apulian officials and the papal chancery. On the military front the emperor aristocrats was discovered and crushed in 1246. Parma and his subordinate commanders went from strength unexpectedly revolted in 1247 against Frederick and to strength. The disputed territories of Spoleto and the stymied his impending trip to Lyon and to Germany. To March were seized, and Frederick himself conducted an retake Parma the emperor now ordered construction of invasion of papal territories farther north. After a long a new wooden siege town named Vittoria. But a sally siege Faenze surrendered. The emperor even managed by the besieged while Frederick was absent hunting to ruin the pope\u2019s impending Easter 1241 council in scattered imperial forces, destroyed the siege town, and Rome, where Frederick expected further condemna- inflicted heavy casualties in 1248. The emperor had to tions: his Pisan allies won a complete naval victory discontinue the siege and withdraw. His misfortunes near the island of Montecristo over the Genoese fleet continued during 1249. First Frederick narrowly escaped carrying many prelates to Rome. More than a hundred an attempted poisoning by his personal physician. Next prospective council participants were captured and im- he had his close associate, Petrus de Vinea, arrested prisoned under harsh conditions. But this triumph soon under mysterious circumstances as a traitor. Perhaps boomeranged to Frederick\u2019s discredit, for it confirmed Petrus\u2019s actual crime was official corruption; in any the popes characterization of him as an oppressor of event, he died shortly afterward, probably by suicide. the church. Finally, the emperor\u2019s beloved son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese, never to be released until his death The struggle consumed the emperor\u2019s political and two decades later. military energies to such an extent that he played no role in confronting the Mongol storm that since 1273 Despite these setbacks, Frederick\u2019s position in Ger- had swept irresistibly through the Russian principali- many, where Conrad IV defended his interests, was still ties, Poland, Hungary, and into Germany. At Liegnitz strong. And while the emperors political and military in Silesia in 1241, the Mongols annihilated a German- fortunes in northern and central Italy swung back and Polish army, but news of the death of their Great Khan forth, he was still a force to be reckoned with. But a Ogotai and the expectation of a succession struggle led decisive reckoning would not occur. While in Apulia to their withdrawal eastward. Nonetheless, Frederick at the end of November 1250 Frederick became seri- was still castigated by many German subjects for his ously ill, probably with dysentery. He managed to reach inactivity. Castel Fiorentino; there he made his last testament, disposing of titles and territories, received absolution When Gregory IX died in August 1241, the em- and extreme unction at the hands of a loyal bishop, peror prudently awaited further developments. The and died on December 13. Frederick was buried in the election and short pontificate of Celestine IV led to a cathedral of Palermo. nineteen-month interregnum until a sufficient number of cardinals elected Innocent IV in 1243. Negotiations Frederick was an object of wonderment and fear began immediately between Frederick and the new during his life, but his death marked the beginning of pope. The emperor offered several concessions, but the end for the Hohenstaufen dynasty; his sons and Innocent continued to distrust his commitments and to grandson were overwhelmed by premature and often fear his ultimate intentions. For their part, both papal violent deaths. The chronicler Matthew Paris called and imperial partisans occasionally broke the truce. the emperor \u201cwonder and marvelous transformer of Eventually, the pope\u2019s unwillingness to abandon the the world\u201d (stupor mundi et immutator mirabilis). Lombards convinced Frederick to break off negotiations Frederick\u2019s three major constitutional documents for and secure his own safety through flight across the Alps Germany\u2014the Confoederatio cum principibus eccle- to Lyon in 1244. siasticis, the Constitutio in favorem principum, and the Mainz Landfriede\u2014represented not the surrender of To that city Innocent summoned a general council his political position there but, instead, the salvaging to meet the following summer in order to deal with the of royal prerogatives and a sober recognition of what many accusations leveled against Frederick. When the the princes had already achieved. It was Frederick\u2019s synod met, the verdict was a foregone conclusion: the death and the disappearance of his dynasty that created pope solemnly excommunicated the emperor again the interregnum that weakened forever the German and deposed him from his imperial and royal offices. monarchy\u2019s ability to imitate the piecemeal consoli- dations of English and French royal power. In Sicily, 233","FREDERICK II FREDERICK III (1415\u20131493) on the other hand, Frederick and his associates built Because of the early death of his parents, Duke Ernst on the strong royal traditions of the Norman kings of Austria and Cimburgis of Masovia, Frederic III and fashioned a government that rivaled other strong Habsburg (1415\u20131493) became the ward of his uncle contemporary monarchies. Yet even there the time was Duke Frederick IV \u201cwith the Empty Pockets\u201d of the not ripe for a thoroughly bureaucratic centralized state Tyrol. He was able to free himself from the guardian- without autonomous communal, feudal, or ecclesiasti- ship only in 1435 at the late age of twenty, becoming in cal authorities. And whatever skepticism he may have his own right duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. possessed regarding the Catholic faith or religion in His first independent act was a pilgrimage to Jerusa- general, Frederick took great pains to stress his position lem the next year, where he was knighted at the Holy as an orthodox Christian monarch. Sepulchre. When assessing Frederick\u2019s importance for the cul- The unexpected deaths of his uncle Frederick and ture of his time, one must again note the mixed nature cousin King Albrecht II in 1439 improved Frederick\u2019s of his Sicilian milieu. Himself conversant in several situation, since he became the head of the House of languages, the emperor had a cosmopolitan outlook, Habsburg. As leader of the dynasty, he assumed the eclectic tastes, and diverse interests in mathemat- guardianship for younger relatives, reversing the situ- ics, the natural sciences, and philosophy. Frederick ation of his own youth. First, he supervised the Tyrol adopted startling Arab habits such as the harem and for his nephew Sigismund for several years. But the the traveling menagerie. He surrounded himself with Tyrolean and Alsatian possessions drew him into waste- intellectuals such as Petrus de Vinea, Michael Scot, ful, inconclusive wars with the Swiss Confederation. and Leonardo Fibonacci. His Sicilian court witnessed Second, he controlled King Albrecht\u2019s son Ladislaus, the beginnings of literature in Italian volgare (popular born after his father\u2019s death, hence the sobriquet \u201cPost- tongue as opposed to Latin) as Frederick himself and humous.\u201d Ladislaus was not only heir to lands in lower his courtiers participated in a sudden flowering of lyric Austria but also the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. poetry. Architectural projects such as the stark Castel del Monte and the (now lost) Triumphal Gate in Capua Frederick\u2019s preeminent position led the electoral expressed an originality that derived from both classi- princes unanimously to elevate the young duke to king cal and nonclassical sources. His gold coinage\u2014the of the Romans on February 2, 1440. Early in his reign, in augustalis\u2014represented both a pioneering achievement August 1441, he issued a reform proposal for the empire, of medieval European government as well as an endur- indicating the new king\u2019s intention to be an active mon- ing numismatic event. Finally, Frederick himself was a arch. A bad sign, however, was the long delay of more scientific author. His ornithological treatise on hunting than two and a half years until his coronation in Aachen. with birds\u2014the emperor\u2019s favorite sport\u2014stressed the Indeed, from 1444 to 1471 Frederick did not leave his value of observation to correct received authority. hereditary lands. Hence royal influence, especially through the royal court of justice, wasted away while the See also Henry VI; Matthew Paris; Michael Scot; power of the cities and princes grew correspondingly. Otto IV Confined to Austria, Frederick\u2019s court nonetheless at- tracted some of the most important lawyers of the day, Further Reading like Gregory Heimburg and Martin Mair. Frederick also tried to build a court promoting the newest arts and Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. London: humanistic ideas, for a time attracting the support of the Pimlico, 1988. famous humanist Aeneus Silvius Piccolomini, the later Pope Pius II. Frederick\u2019s own interest in numerology, Fleckenstein, Josef, ed: Probleme um Friedrich II. Vortr\u00e4ge und alchemy, and astrology may have prompted his frequent Forschungen 16. Sigmaringen: Thorbecke, 1974. use of the mystical motto AEIOU, which centuries later was interpreted as \u201cAll the world is subject to Austria\u201d Kantorowicz, Ernst. Frederick the Second, 1194\u20131250, trans. E. (Alles Erdreich Ist Oesterrekh Untertan). O. Lorimer. New York: Ungar, 1957. Meanwhile, as leader of the Holy Roman Empire, Schaller, Hans Martin. Kaiser Friedrich II. Verwandler der Welt. Frederick did have some success with the church. At first Pers\u00f6nlichkeit un Geschichte 35. G\u00f6ttingen: Musterschmidr, neutral in the schism caused by the Council of Basel, 1964. he soon leaned toward supporting Rome. He gained lasting success by signing the Concordat of Vienna with Van Cleve, Thomas Curtis. The Emperor Frederick II of Ho- Rome in 1448. Although not quite as advantageous to henstaufen. \u201cImmutator Mundi.\u201d Oxford: Clarendon Press, the monarchy as contemporary agreements in France 1972. or Hungary, it allowed Frederick control of seventeen episcopal sees. That agreement regulated papal-imperial Willemsen, C. A. Bibliographie zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II. und der letzten Staufer. Munich: Monumenta Germaniae Historica, 1986. Wolf, Gunter G., ed. Stupor mundi. Zur Geschichte Friedrichs II. von Hohenstaufen. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buch- gesellschaft, 1966. Robert C. Figueira 234","relations for the rest of the empire\u2019s duration, leading to FRIEDRICK VON HAUSEN the continuing decline of papal influence on episcopal elections. Partially financed with money provided by the thias Corvinus\u2019s death provided the opportunity for pope, Frederick went to Rome, where he was crowned Maximilian to drive the Hungarian forces out of Austria. emperor on March 19, 1452. He was the last emperor Maximilian seemed to be achieving success after suc- to undergo this traditional ceremony there. On a later cess when his father, Frederick, died in Linz on August trip to Rome in 1468, he gained the foundation of the 19, 1493. He was finally interred in a magnificent tomb diocese of Vienna. in St. Stephan\u2019s Cathedral in Vienna years later. Most important for Frederick was his position in his Although Frederick III had the longest reign of any hereditary lands. He promoted its interests, for example, German monarch, many historians have complained by accepting as genuine the forged Privilegium Maius that he accomplished little. He has long been mocked (May Privilege), which claimed broad prerogatives for as the Heiliges R\u00f6misches Reiches Erzschlafm\u00fctze the Habsburgs and Austria. Yet dynastic quarrels with (Holy Roman Empire\u2019s Arch-sleepingcap). Some say his relatives and rebellions by the estates continued to his greatest accomplishment was merely to outlive his squander his resources. On his return from his imperial enemies. Others maintain that while such an attitude coronation in 1452, he found Austria in rebellion. Soon may apply to the empire at large, in his own dynastic besieged in Wiener Neustadt, he had to release Ladis- lands Frederick III was able to build for the future. By laus from his guardianship. Again in 1462 the citizens patiently insisting on his rights, helping to arrange his of Vienna and then his brother Albrecht VI besieged son\u2019s marriage, and insisting on his imperial prestige, Frederick. While Albrecht VI\u2019s unexpected death in Frederick helped to establish the future success of the 1463 quieted the situation, Frederick\u2019s territories re- Habsburgs. mained exhausted. Further Reading And new, more energetic rivals appeared after the death of his nephew Ladislaus Posthumous in 1457. H\u00f6dl, G\u00fcnther. \u201cHabsburg und \u00d6sterreich,\u201d in Gestalten und In Hungary Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458\u20131490) and Gestalt des \u00f6sterreichischen Spatmittelalters. Vienna: B\u00f6hlau in Bohemia George von Podiebrady (r. 1458\u20131471) Verlag, 1988, pp. 173\u2013193. became kings at the head of nationalistic movements. While George\u2019s influence was limited by his closeness Nehring, Karl. Matthias Corvinus, Kaiser Friedrich III., und to the Hussite heresy, Matthias of Hungary became a das Reich: zum hunyadisch-habsburgischen Gegensatz im major force in Central Europe. Frederick at first tried Donauraum. S\u00fcdosteurop\u00e4ische Arbeiten 72. Munich: R. to come to terms with Matthias, selling him back the Oldenbourg, 1975. famed Hungarian national Crown of St. Stephen in 1463. Matthias soon drove George from power in Bohemia. Rill, Bernd. Friedrich III.: Habsburgs europ\u00e4ischer Durchbruch. Then in 1477 Matthias went to war with Frederick by Graz: Verlag Styria, 1987. 1485 conquering Vienna itself. In 1487 Matthias took Wiener Neustadt and lower Austria, forcing the emperor Thomas, Heinz. Deutsche Geschichte des Sp\u00e4tmittelalters. Stutt- to retreat to Linz in Upper Austria. gart: Kohlhammer, 1983. Meanwhile in the west of the empire the dukes of Brian A. Pavlac Burgundy had been expanding what was once a French royal appanage into a vast territorial complex between FRIEDRICH VON HAUSEN France and Germany. Duke Charles the Rash, who (fl. late 12th c.) hoped to transform his possessions into a kingdom, undertook negotiations with. Frederick in Trier during By adopting and adapting the forms and motifs of Oc- 1473. Although the negotiations at first failed, Fred- citan lyrics, melding them with German ones, Friedrich ericks son Maximilian eventually gained the promise von Hausen (present-day Rheinhausen, now a part of of marriage to Charles\u2019s daughter, Mary (although she Mannheim) expanded and modernized German minne- had already been engaged six times). After Charles\u2019s song. Better documented as an historical figure, a min- death at the Battle of Nancy, Maximilian had to defend isteriale (court clerk) of Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa, Mary\u2019s inheritance largely without any help from his than most minnesingers, he witnessed documents from father. Only when Maximilian was captured and held 1171 to shortly before his death as a crusader in Anato- prisoner in Bruges in 1488 did Frederick arrive at the lia in 1190 and was mentioned in many contemporary head of an imperial army and intimidate the city into chronicles. His importance as a minnesinger can be seen freeing his son. in many apparent borrowings from his songs by others. The death of the minnesinger qua singer is lamented, a Slowly Frederick\u2019s position began to improve as generation or so after the fact, in several songs and in Maximilian asserted his own authority. In 1490, Mat- Heinrich von dem T\u00fcrlin\u2019s Cr\u00f4ne. However, his contem- porary fame, as attested, was as a political figure. From the twelfth to the fifteenth century, whenever singers are documented historical figures, their singing is never mentioned in official historical documents, and Hausen is no exception to this rule. 235","FRIEDRICH VON HAUSEN England to become one of the clercs de la chambre of Philippa of Hainaut, wife of Edward III. He remained Hausens love laments exalt the lady as desirable in that service until her death in 1369. His stay in Eng- but unattainable; his general lack of concrete imagery land was interrupted by extensive travels to Scotland, and hypotactic style (employing subordinate clauses) to southern France in the suite of the Black Prince, and adumbrate Reinmar. However, situational references later, in the retinue of Edward\u2019s second son, Lionel, such as those detailing a love reverie while riding, set duke of Clarence (patron and protector of Chaucer), to him apart from the later singer. Though his songs of northern Italy, where Lionel married the daughter of love from afar parallel similar songs by, for instance, the duke of Milan. After the wedding, Froissart trav- the troubadour Jaufr\u00e9 Rudel, they also fit what we know eled to Rome and returned to England via Hainaut and about his history (he was often absent from home in Brabant. These travels doubtless furnished him with the service of his liege lord). Though his praise of a the \u201cpan-European\u201d outlook informing much of his lady and of ladies was part of a broader courtly fiction, Chronicles. The youthful service at the very French there are definite parallels between the love at court he court of Philippa imprinted in him a permanent, ideal- discusses and the life at court he led. He wrote several ized image of a chivalric \u201cparadise lost\u201d so evident in his crusading songs in which, in contrast, for example, to romance Meliador. After the death of Philippa, Froissart Albrecht von Johansdorf, the service of God trumps returned to his native Hainaut in search of new patrons. service of his lady. In his scorn for the slackers who His chief benefactors were Robert de Namur (d. 1392); remained at home (Des Minnesangs Fr\u00fchling [MF], more importantly, Gui II, count of Blois (d. 1397), who song no. 53,21), he both echoes Romance lyric motifs in all probability urged him to work on the Chroniques; and touches on a topic that doubtless resonated with and Wenceslas, duke of Luxembourg and Brabant (d. the actual courtiers of his day. He is the first singer for 1383), who certainly encouraged his poetry, for he was whom a song (MF no. 42,1) is transmitted in three dis- a poet in his own right. We know that Froissart took tinct versions, which examplifies minnesong\u2019s inherent holy orders and that, in 1373, he received a benefice in mutability. His extended monologue in the woman\u2019s Les Estiennes near Mons. In 1384, he became a canon voice (MF no. 54,1, three strophes in C) presents a lady at Chimay. Sometime later, he received another canonry as skilled in lamenting the dilemma her intense love at Lille. He spent the winter of 1388\u201389 in Orthez, at for her worthy suitor causes her as Reinmar\u2019s persona the splendid court of another aristocratic man of letters, is in stating his (MF no. 165,10). This has led various Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix (d. 1391). He traveled scholars (probably incorrectly) to consider as spurious to the Low Countries, and in 1394 he briefly revisited the song\u2019s ascription to Hausen. England. Little is known about Froissart\u2019s declining years. He died some time after 1404. See also Frederick I Barbarossa; Heinrich von dem T\u00fcrlin Froissart\u2019s main achievement is Les chroniques de France, d\u2019Angleterre et de pa\u00efs voisins\u2026, a history of Further Reading almost all of western Europe spanning the years 1327 (the accession of Edward III) and ca. 1400 (the death Bekker, Hugo. Friedrich von Hausen: Inquiries into His Poetry. of Richard II). This history, although providing us with Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977. an enormous wealth of realistic detail, is written from a distinctive point of view. Like so much of Froissart\u2019s po- Moser, Hugo, and Helmut Tervooren, eds. Des Minnesangs etry, it embodies a frank glorification of an aristocratic, Fr\u00fchling. 2 vols., 36th ed. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1977. idealized, \u201cinternational,\u201d chivalric life. Up to 1361, his work is a recasting of Jean le Bel\u2019s (ca. 1290\u20131370) Mowatt, D.G. Friderich von H\u00fbsen: Introduction, Text, Com- Vrayes chroniques, which present the first years of the mentary and Glossary. Cambridge: Cambridge University reign of Edward III and the beginnings of the Hundred Press, 1971. Years\u2019 War. After this date, Froissart follows his own observations, hearsay, and, occasionally, documents. Schweikle, G\u00fcnther, ed. Friedrich von Hausen: Lieder. Stuttgart: He was certainly conscious of partisan points of view Reclam, 1984. in history and took some pains to ascertain the facts, interviewing eyewitnesses and participants in the events Herbert Heinen described. He traveled widely to seek out sources and constantly recast the first two books of his Chroniques FROISSART, JEAN (1337\u2013after 1404) to suit changing political circumstances and the tastes and views of his patrons. The greatest French chronicler, as well as an outstand- ing poet and romancer, Jean Froissart was born the year Froissart\u2019s Chroniques are divided into four books. the Hundred Years\u2019 War began, to a humble bourgeois Book 1 was recast by the chronicler into four redactions. family of Valenciennes, which lay then outside the French kingdom. After a clerical education, he entered the service of the counts of Hainaut. All his life, Frois- sart was a servant of powerful nobles. His ability to please his aristocratic patrons and protectors is his chief characteristic as a man and writer. In 1361, he went to 236","It relates events up to 1369, 1372, or 1377 depending JEAN FROISSART on redactions. After this book, Froissart wrote the independent Chronique de Flandre, which relates the (1,724 lines with five lyric insertions), an allegorical disorders occurring in that country between 1378 and dream vision (in the manner of the first part of the Ro- 1387. This chronicle was later incorporated into Book man de la Rose) in which the poet-lover encounters in 2, which ends with events in 1387; there are two redac- the Garden (Paradise) of Love such traditional figures tions of Book 2. The last two books exist in only one of the God of Love, Plaisance, Hope, Pity, and Sweet redaction. The third relates events to ca. 1390 and the Looks. The protagonist tells the story of his love to the fourth to ca. 1400. God of Love, recites his poems, and meets his ladylove, who makes him a wreath of daisies. To reward her, the Froissart\u2019s Chroniques, an important monument of an poet recites his ballade Sur toutes flours j\u2019aimme la elegant and efficient French prose, enjoyed an instant, margerite. Her touch wakes him from his delightful wide, and lasting success. They were particularly appre- dream. What is important in this dit is Froissart\u2019s explicit ciated in England, not only for their pro-English stance connection between the love-dream and the ability and (inherited, so to speak, from Jean le Bel), but also for capacity for composing lyric poetry. their archaizing, chivalric outlook. The Chroniques are a priceless source for the history of the 14th century, The Orloge amoureus is the only dit written in especially for the reader who understands the aristocratic decasyllabic couplets (unlike the others composed in vantage point from which Froissart viewed it. One octosyllables). Its 1,174 verses describe the workings should not expect to find either penetrating explana- of the clock, then a relatively new invention. In all prob- tions of political history or subtle social commentary. ability, it was the real Parisian clock in the tower of the Froissart\u2019s views were limited by those of his patrons: Palais Royal on the \u00cele de la Cit\u00e9 that Froissart exam- he never understood the aspirations and growing power ined in 1368 during his return trip from Italy. The poet of the bourgeoisie. He had nothing but contempt for systematically compares his love-filled heart with the the peasant revolt of the French Jacquerie of 1358, or \u201csubtlety\u201d of the workings of the clock. Thus, the foliot for its English counterpart led by Wat Tyler in 1381. or bar-balance is Fear, the main weight is Beauty, the His Chroniques give us a vivid mirror of the epoch, mother wheel is Desire, the \u2018scape wheel is Moderation, the distortions of which can be more easily understood the striking wheel is Sweet Talk, and so on. Each part of through the ideology informing his poetry. the mechanism corresponds thus to a \u201cwell-working,\u201d allegorical system of courtly love. The presentation of Froissart wrote lyric verse, narrative-didactic poetry, the workings of the clock is so detailed and exact that and a long, rhymed Arthurian romance. His lyrical out- the Orloge amoureus was cited and partially translated put is considerable: thirteen lais, six chansons royaux, by an English historian of horology. This dit is, like the forty ballades, thirteen virelais, 107 rondeaux, and Chroniques, a monument to Froissart\u2019s unquenchable twenty pastourelles. They come to us in the two manu- curiosity concerning the things of this world. scripts carefully copied under his supervision (B.N. fr. 830 and 831), which also contain his narrative-didactic The Espinette amoureuse (4,198 verses with fourteen poetry. He also wrote several serventois in honor of the lyric insertions) offers first a long pseudo-autobiographi- Virgin. Otherwise, all his lyrical poems, most of which cal introduction describing his childhood and stressing were composed before 1372, celebrate courtly love. In the precocity of his love inclination. Then the poet lyrical as well as narrative-didactic poems, his unavowed presents a dream vision in which he encounters Juno, model was Guillaume de Machaut (ca. 1300\u201377), but Pallas Athene, Mercury, and Venus. Venus makes him a Froissart, as far as we know, composed no music. gift of a \u201c[c]\u0153ur gai, joli et amoureus\u201d (l. 547). The rest of the dit is quite similar to the Paradis. The poet-lover Of special historical interest because of their histori- encounters his ladylove, they exchange poems, they cal realia are Froissart\u2019s pastourelles. The lovestruck dance, but after a while the lady must leave because shepherds sometimes make historical allusions, and she is to marry someone else. The poet becomes ill and under the easily penetrated fictional cover, six of these alternates between hope and despair. pastourelles celebrate public events, such as the arrival in Paris of Queen Isabeau (1385), or the marriage of the The Prison amoureuse (3,895 lines with sixteen elderly John, duke of Berry, to the very young Jeanne de inserted poems and twelve letters in prose) tells, under Boulogne (1389). The pastourelles present real affinities the usual allegorical cover, the real story of Wenceslas between Froissart\u2019s lyric poetry and his Chroniques. of Luxemburg, captured in the Battle of Baesweiler in 1371 and awaiting the ransom money to be paid by Much of Froissart\u2019s lyric poetry exists in two \u201credac- his brother, the emperor Charles IV. The seven letters tions,\u201d for many of the poems were not only grouped written by Rose (=Wenceslas) and five by Flos (=Frois- according to their genre, but also inserted (sometimes sart) present the backbone of the dit. They discuss the slightly modified) in narrative dits (called also ditti\u00e9s subtleties of courtly love. We know that the combina- or tretti\u00e9s). The oldest of them is the Paradis d\u2019Amour tion of letters and verse-narration was made popular by Machaut in his Voir dit (ca. 1362), but whereas Machaut 237","FROISSART, JEAN If in his lyric and lyrico-narrative poetry Froissart adheres closely to the literary canons established by presents a real plot, in Froissart the plot is replaced by Machaut, his verse romance M\u00e9liador is perhaps more two exempla: a pseudomythological love story told by \u201coriginal,\u201d for it is a conscious return to a much earlier Flos and an allegorical vision experienced by Rose, in tradition. Its other claim to originality lies in Froissart\u2019s which we can made out the real story of the imprisoned insertion of seventy-nine lyric poems from the pen Wenceslas. of his patron Wenceslas of Luxembourg. While most 14th-century romances are recastings or continuations, The Joli buisson de Jonece is the longest and most usually in prose, M\u00e9liador\u2019s subject is new, though it ambitious of Froissart\u2019s dits (5,442 lines, with twenty- is composed in the traditional octosyllabic couplets. seven inserted poems). It is a dream vision that Frois- The romance of more than 30,000 lines (unfinished and sart, aged thirty-five, had on November 30, 1373. In with two lacunae) is set in a youthful Arthurian court his dream, populated by mythological and allegorical and could be called the \u201cenfances de la Table Ronde.\u201d figures, Youth leads him to an allegorical Bush. Awak- It depicts the innumerable adventures, chiefly jousting ened, the poet realizes the real danger and turns his and chance armed encounters, of innumerable knights- thoughts toward the Virgin, whom he praises in a lai. errant, but the main plot is easily discernible: Hermione, She becomes \u201cli Buissons resplendissans\u201d (I. 5,402) princess of Scotland, is promised to the knight who and her Son\u201d [e]st li feus plaisans,\/Non ardans,\/Mais proves himself most valiant in a series of tournaments enluminans\u201d (ll. 5,407\u201310). organized by the ladies. M\u00e9liador, son of the duke of Cornwell, is an ideal knight-errant. At the end, he wins Like the Orloge, the Temple d\u2019honneur (1,076 lines) not only Hermione but also the Scottish kingdom, while does not contain any inserted lyrics. In this allegorical his companions win lesser princesses. M\u00e9liador, begun dream, Honor marries his son, Desire, to Lady Plaisance. in the early 1360s and completed only after the death of Froissart calls this poem not a dit amoureus, but tret- Wenceslas in 1383, reflects the geography and ideology ti\u00e9 de moralit\u00e9. Indeed, most of the tretti\u00e9 consists of of Froissart\u2019s early service in Great Britain. As a frank Honor\u2019s long moral sermon on love and marriage. It is glorification of chivalry, with its implied desire to revive quite possible that the Temple is indeed an egithalamium it in Froissart\u2019s own time, M\u00e9liador is a powerful link celebrating a real couple. between his poetry and the greatest accomplishment of his life, his idealizing, and \u201crestoratory\u201d Chroniques. Besides these five dits, Froissart composed six shorter lyrico-narrative poems. The Dit dou bleu chevalier (504 See also Charles IV; Chaucer, Geoffrey; Edward lines) tells, in a complicated metric scheme, the efforts of III; John, Duke of Berry the poet to console a lovesick knight dressed in blue (the color of fidelity). The Joli mois de mai (464 lines with Further Reading three lyric insertions) is a purely lyrical composition in which the poet, addressing a nightingale, extolls the Froissart, Jean. Les \u0153uvres de Froissart\u2014Chroniques, ed. Joseph beauty of his ladylove. Purely lyrical also is the Dit de la M.B.C. Kervyn de Lettenhove. 25 vols. in 26. Vols. 1\u201317, margueritte (192 lines): the poet sings the praise of his Brussels: Devaux, 1867\u201373; Vols. 18\u201325, Brussels: Closson, flower-ladylove. The Plaidoirie de la rose et de la vio- 1874\u201377. [The only complete, but idiosyncratic, edition of lette (342 lines) is a perfect example of Froissart\u2019s ability the chronicles.] to flatter: these two flowers ask the court of France to decide which of them is more worthy of praise. The \u2014\u2014. Chroniques de Jean Froissart. 15 vols. Vols. 1\u20138, part 1, court, presided over by \u201cnoble et haulte Flour de Lys\u201d ed. Sim\u00e9on Luce. Vol. 8, parts 2\u201311, ed. Gaston Raynaud. Vol. (l. 308) and seconded not only by the usual allegorical 12, ed. L\u00e9on Mirot. Vol. 13, ed. L\u00e9on Mirot and Albert Mirot. figures of Prowess, Youth, Sense, Gemerosity, and oth- Vols. 14 and 15, ed. Albert Mirot. Vols. 1\u20134, Paris: Renouard, ers, but also by the dukes of Berry, Burgundy, Eu, and 1869\u201373. Vols. 5\u20137, Paris: Renouard, H. Loones, successeur, La Marche, will some day pronounce a judgment on all 1874\u201378. Vols. 8\u201311, Paris: Renouard, H. Laurens, successeur, flowers, even on Froissart\u2019s flower, the daisy. 1888\u201399. Vol. 12, Paris: Champion, 1931. Vols. 13\u201315. Paris: Klincksieck, 1957\u201375. [Vols. 1\u20138 contain Book 1 with vari- More apparently autobiographical are the last two ants; Vols. 9\u201311, Book 2 with variants; Vols. 12\u201315, most of dits presented without inserted lyrics or mythological Book 3 (up to 1389). This \u201cnational edition,\u201d begun in 1869, allusions. The Debat dou cheval et dou levrier (92 lines) is still \u201cin progress.\u201d] shows Froissart returning from Scotland and overhear- ing a discussion between his horse and his greyhound on \u2014\u2014. Ballades et rondeaux, ed. Rae S. Baudoin. Geneva: Droz, the joys and sorrows of their respective existences. The 1978. Dit dou florin (490 lines) is a debate between Froissart and the last of his coins left from a dissipated fortune. \u2014\u2014. Le paradis d\u2019amour; L\u2019orloge amoureus, ed. Peter F. The poet tells us about the eighty florins that he received Dembowski. Geneva: Droz, 1986. from the count of Foix and, more importantly, informs us that during his stay in Orthez, Froissart read each night, \u2014\u2014. L\u2019espinette amoreuse, ed. Anthime Fourrier. Paris: Klincks- for eleven weeks, a passage of his M\u00e9liador to the count. ieck, 1972. \u2014\u2014. La prison amoureuse, ed. Anthime Fourrier. Paris: Klincks- ieck, 1974. 238","\u2014\u2014. Le joli buisson de Jonece, ed. Anthime Fourrier. Geneva: FRUEAUF, RUELAND Droz, 1975. his initials. Stange sees the influence of the Dutch painter \u2014\u2014. \u201cDits\u201d et \u201cD\u00e9bats\u201d avec en appendice quelques po\u00e8mes de known as the Master of Fl\u00e9malle in Frueauf\u2019s work after Guillame de Machaut, ed. Anthime Fourrier. Geneva: Droz, this date, without proposing that his travels took him all 1979. [Edited here are: Le temple d\u2019honneur, Le joli mois de the way to the Low Countries. By 1490, Frueauf was may, Le dit de la margueritte, Le dit dou bleu chevalier, Le back in Salzburg, working on a major commission. In debat dou cheval et dou levrier, Le dit dou florin, La plaidoirie this year and the following he initialed and dated two of de la rose et de la violette.] eight scenes intended to serve in the wings of an altar- piece. Scenes from the Passion\u2014Christ in the Garden \u2014\u2014. Chroniques: d\u00e9but du premier livre: \u00e9dition du manuscrit of Gethsemane, the Flagellation, the Road to Calvary, de Rome Reg. lat. 869, ed. George T. Diller. Geneva: Droz, and the Crucifixion\u2014were visible at the sides of the 1972. sculptured shrine when the altarpiece was open, while scenes from the life if the Virgin\u2014Annunciation, Nativ- \u2014\u2014. M\u00e9liador. roman comprenant les po\u00e9sies lyriques de ity, Adoration of the Magi, and Assumption\u2014occupied Wenceslas de Boh\u00eame, due de Luxembourg et de Brabant, ed. the out-sides of the wings (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Auguste Longnon. 3 vols. Paris: Didot, 1895\u201399. Museum, nos. 1397\u20131400). \u2014\u2014. The Lyric Poems of Jean Froissart, ed. Rob Roy Mc- In 1497 Frueauf is mentioned again as citizen of Pas- Gregor, Jr. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, sau, as is his son, the painter Rueland Frueauf theYoung- 1975. er. A year later the father\u2019s citizenship was revoked for failure to pay his debts, but it was soon reinstated on the \u2014\u2014. Chronicles, trans. Geoffrey Brereton. Harmondsworth: recommendation of well-placed friends. From the last Penguin, 1968. decade of Frueauf\u2019s life comes the initialed but undated portrait of Jobst Seyfried (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Dembowski, Peter F. Jean Froissart and His M\u00e9liador: Context, Museum), the only preserved evidence of Frueauf\u2019s Craft, and Sense. Lexington: French Forum, 1983. work in this genre. Shears, Frederic Sidney. Froissart: Chronicler and Poet. London: This group of autograph works allows a clear defi- Routledge, 1930. nition of Frueauf\u2019s innovative style. Painted in bright colors with hard outlines, his figures are tall and slim. In- Peter F. Dembowski dividualized facial types convey a variety of expressions, which are heightened by dramatic gestures and lively FRUEAUF, RUELAND, THE ELDER drapery patterns. His figures tend to fill the foreground, (ca. 1440\/1450\u20131507) prohibiting a view into the background, another device for concentrating the emotional impact of the works. On Both documents and signed paintings allow us to trace the basis of similarities to Frueauf\u2019s known paintings, a the career of Rueland Frueauf, who divided his time number of other works have been attributed to him; most between Passau and Salzburg. In the earliest records, common among these are twelve Passion scenes from in the 1470s, he is working for St. Peter\u2019s in Salzburg. an altarpiece, probably from circa 1480 (Regensburg, The modern scholar Alfred Stange assumes that he Historisches Verein), and a large, late panel representing received his training in Salzburg, perhaps with Conrad Christ as Man of Sorrows (Schmerzensmann) (Munich, Laib, but also notes the influence of the anonymous Alte Pinakothek, no. 10681). Bavarian painters known as the Master of 1467 and the Master of the Tegernsee Tabula Magna. In 1480, Freauf See also Pacher, Michael acquired citizenship in Passau, where in the next four years he completed the frescoes in the Rathaus (town Further Reading hall), now lost, that a Master Ruprecht had begun a decade earlier. Baldass, Ludwig von. Conrad Laib und die beiden Rueland Frueauf. Vienna: Schroll, 1946. In May 1484, Frueauf was called back to Salzburg to discuss the altar planned for the Franciscan church, Buchner, Ernst. \u201cEin Schmerzensmann von Rueiand Frueauf d. but in August two donors, offering substantial sums \u00e9.\u201d Pantheon 16 (1943): 73\u201376. for the altar\u2019s execution, managed to direct the com- mission to Michael Pacher. How these events are to be Ring, Grete. \u201cFrueauf, Rueland d. \u00e9.\u201d Allgemeines Lexikon der bil- interpreted is a matter of debate. Stange sees the loss denden K\u00fcnstler von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Ulrich of the commission as a hard blow for Frueauf and the Thieme. Leipzig: Seemann, 1916, vol. 12, pp. 532\u2013534. reason for his disappearance from the written records for three years, and proposes that he spent this time on Stange, Alfred. Deutsche Malerei der Gotik. vol. 10: Salzburg, a study trip, trying to update his style. Another scholar, Bayern und Tirol in der Zeit von 1400 bis 1500. Munich: Grere Ring, by contrast, thinks it unlikely that Frueauf Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1960, pp. 38\u201342. was ever a candidate for the commission and that be- ing asked to deliver an expertise on such an important Joan A. Holladay project was an honor. In any case, we next encounter Frueauf in Nurem- berg, where, in 1487, he dated and signed a panel with 239","FULBERT OF CHARTRES marriage. Like most bishops of his day, Fulbert was both a churchman and a feudal lord, and he knew first-hand FULBERT OF CHARTRES the tension of dual allegiances. In a well-known letter to (ca. 960\u20131028) Duke William V of Aquitaine, his long-time benefactor, Fulbert explains the meaning of the feudal oath. But in Born of humble parents probably in Aquitaine, perhaps another, he is highly critical of ecclesiastics who are Poitou, Fulbert studied at Reims under Gerbert of Auril- intent on bearing arms rather than on keeping the peace lac (later Pope Sylvester II), the outstanding master of of the church. In several letters, he rebukes Foulques III the day. Fulbert became master of the cathedral school Nerra, count of Anjou, for his depredations. at Chartres in the 990s and served as master and chan- cellor before becoming bishop of Chartres in 1006. He Of Fulbert\u2019s sermons, the best known is that com- had a close association with King Robert II the Pious posed for the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, in of France, a schoolmate of Fulbert\u2019s at Reims. Fulbert which he recounts the history of Th\u00e9ophile, a Christian was particularly well versed in law and medicine and who after selling his soul to the Devil was rescued by was familiar with the astronomical works that had been the Virgin. Fulbert\u2019s legend of Th\u00e9ophile is the subject recently translated from the Arabic. Although intellectu- of Rutebeuf\u2019s Miracle de Th\u00e9ophile. An excellent lati- ally conservative (he avoided the new discipline of dia- nist and one of the best writers of his day, Fulbert left lectics), his teaching attracted one of the most dialectical behind a substantial body of correspondence, some thinkers of the time: Berengar of Tours, condemned for 140 letters, with leading churchmen, including abbots his novel eucharistic opinions. Abbo of Fleury, Richard of Saint-Vannes, and Odilo of Cluny. He also wrote several poems and a few other After the cathedral burned in 1020, Fulbert began a miscellaneous works. campaign to rebuild it, a project made possible by the generosity of King Canute of England and Denmark, See also Cnut as well as King Robert of France. The new, spacious crypt constructed by Fulbert remains the largest crypt in Further Reading France and became the basis for all further construction at the site. The new crypt was meant to accommodate Fulbert of Chartres. Opera omnia. PL 141.185\u2013368. the pilgrims who came to venerate the holy relic of the \u2014\u2014. The Letters and Poems of Fulbert of Chartres, ed. and trans. sancta camisia, a garment reputed to have been worn by Mary when she gave birth to Jesus; it was enshrined at Frederick Behrends. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976. Chartres from the 9th century forward and is still pos- MacKinney, Loren Carey. Bishop Fulbert and Education at the sessed by the cathedral. Fulbert was an avid promoter of devotion to the Virgin. School of Chartres. Notre Dame: Mediaeval Institute, Uni- versity of Notre Dame, 1957. Fulbert was also a reformer who campaigned against simony (buying and selling church office\u2019s) and clerical Mark Zier 240","G GADDI, TADDEO Taddeo was influenced by Giotto\u2019s cycle in the Peruzzi Chapel in Santa Croce, he is more fascinated with (fl. mid-1320s, d. 1366) pictorial space, lighting, and lively anecdotal episodes than Giotto, who favored greater psychological subtlety. Taddeo Gaddi was the leading painter of the Florentine As Ladis (1982) has noted, Taddeo\u2019s Marriage of the school after the death of Giotto in 1337, as early sources Virgin seems to refer considerably to the mattinata, the and documents confirm. In the general literature, Giotto shivaree that satirized widowers\u2019 marriages and other continues to overshadow this very capable artist, but unlikely marriages. The imagery is in the spirit of Boc- specialists have long recognized not only Taddeo\u2019s caccio rather than the heavy morality of an Augustinian continuation of Giotto\u2019s monumental style but also his preacher. Taddeo\u2019s innovative use of light to convey innovative, earthy wit; his subtle understanding of light miraculous revelation is exemplified in the Annunciation and color; and his extensive and varied work in fresco, to the Shepherds, where natural light from a window is panel painting, and window design. transformed into a divine light emitted by an angel and falling on the awakened shepherds. About 1330, Taddeo matriculated in the Arte dei Medici e Speziali. Between 1331 and 1337, the account An equally important commission in these earlier books of the Bardi banking company (Ser Miniato di years was a collection of panels (now in the Accademia Ser Biagio Boccadibue, 1322\u20131343, Archivio di Stato, in Florence) devoted to the parallel lives of Christ and Notarile antecosimiano B 1951) note that Taddeo deco- Saint Francis of Assisi. These panels were broken rated Gualterotto di Jacopo de\u2019 Bardi\u2019s chapel of Saint apart in 1810, and scholars have debated both their Louis of Toulouse and Saint Louis of France at Santa original configuration and their attribution. Taddeo Croce in Florence. Nothing of this project remains. is now the undisputed creator of the small quatrefoil The first documented extant painting by Taddeo is images, probably dating from before the frescoes in from 1334: a signed and dated beautiful small, portable the Baroncelli Chapel; but their arrangement as part triptych (now in Berlin, Gemaeldeg. 1079\u20131081). This of a reliquary cabinet remains disputed. The saturated work is in the tradition of Bernardo Daddi and suggests color of the sacristy panels in tempera, combined with Taddeo\u2019s interest in the less monumental form that was the miraculous expressive light, represents an alterna- then gaining popularity. tive to the monumental figures more typical of fresco as a medium and is an important element of Taddeo\u2019s The major extant fresco cycle attributed to Taddeo powerful compositions. from these early years is in the Baroncelli Chapel at Santa Croce. Its chronology is debated by scholars. In the period from Giotto\u2019s death (1337) until the The earlier suggested date, February 1328, is based on onslaught of the Black Plague (1348), Taddeo and his a tomb inscription in the chapel, for members of the shop had many commissions, although the evidence Vanni and Baroncelli families. The later possible date, has been poorly preserved for the best-documented the 1330s, is based on a series of documents associated frescoes, done between 1341 and 1342 in the crypt of with the Augustinian friar Simone Fidati, believed by San Miniato al Monte in Florence. Taddeo\u2019s works for some scholars to have inspired the iconography of the the Gambacorti family in Pisa and subsequently for the cycle. These frescoes\u2014which are devoted to the life of the Virgin\u2014exemplify Taddeo\u2019s early style. Although 241","GADDI, TADDEO flanked by four pictorially framed scenes devoted to saints important to the Franciscan order. Beneath these Strozzi in Florence do not survive, nor does the docu- paintings, spanning the entire width of the wall at the end menting letter itself, apparently the first written by an of the refectory, Taddeo did a fresco of the Last Supper. Italian artist to have been recorded. He depicts a table that gives the illusion of projecting outward, at which sit Christ and the apostles, with Judas Following Meiss\u2019s groundbreaking study (1951) of relegated to the side nearest the friars at their own tables the effect of the plague on the arts of central Italy, crit- in the refectory. This decidedly Franciscan iconography ics argued for a significant stylistic change among the concluded Taddeo\u2019s long devotion to artistic projects new generation of artists, such as the Clone brothers, for the priory and private quarters of the Franciscans in Andrea (known as Orcagna) and Nardo. For many crit- Florence, and it was one of the first of many depictions ics, Taddeo\u2019s own reputation after 1348 is captured in of the Last Supper in refectories of religious houses over Il libro delle trecentonovelle (c. 1390) of Franco Sac- the next two centuries. It also reflects Taddeo\u2019s lifelong chetti. In the pertinent story, Orcagna asks a group of commitment to\u2014and success in handling\u2014problems of friends gathered at San Miniato al Monte to name the pictorial illusionism. best painter after Giotto, but they cannot agree. Taddeo observes that art is in decline, a remark that stops the In 1366, Taddeo Gaddi was recorded in the register of conversation until someone suggests that the cosmet- the Compagnia di San Luca, and that same year his wife ics used by the women of Florence qualify them as the was identified as a widow. Taddeo was buried, as Vasari best artists. Taddeo\u2019s bleak view has, according to some notes, by his sons Angnolo and Giovanni at Santa Croce scholars, obscured his own genuine accomplishment in in the tomb he had made for his father, Gaddo. coming to terms with the aesthetics of the new genera- tion. Certainly, he continued to receive considerable See also Bonaventure, Saint; Giotto di Bondone; commissions that allowed him to live comfortably in the Orcagna, Andrea di Cione Santa Croce quarter, as his tax records indicate. Further Reading The Florentines respected Taddeo\u2019s judgment, how- ever somber, as is indicated by the fact that he served Anonimo Gaddiano. Il codice Magliabechiano, CL.XVII.17, ed. as an adviser to the Opera del Duomo (cathedral works) C. Frey. Berlin: G. Grotesche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1892. between 1355 and 1366. His presence, which is docu- mented\u2014and for which the documentation is augmented Billi, Antonio. Il libro di Antonio Billi, ed. Fabio Benedettucci. by accounts from Antonio Billi, the Anonimo Gaddiano, Anzio (Rome): De Rubeis, 1991. and Giorgio Vasari\u2014led to the idea that Taddeo was also an architect and that in this capacity he finished Giotto\u2019s Borsook, Eve. The Mural Painters of Tuscany from Cimabue to campanile, worked on Or San Michele, and created the Andrea del Sarto. London: Phaidon, 1960. (Rev. ed., Oxford: model and design for the Ponte Vecchio after the flood Clarendon, 1980.) of 1333. Architectural historians remain skeptical about this; but it is clear that in any case, as Ghiberti noted in Cennini, Cennino. Il libro dell\u2019arte, ed. Franco Brunello and I commentarii, Taddeo was very learned. Licisco Magagnato. Vicenza: Neri Pozza, 1971. (Work of c. 1390.) In 1348, Taddeo appeared on a list of painters who were being considered for the completion of Alesso di Cennino d\u2019Andrea Cennini. The Craftsman\u2019s Handbook: The Andrea\u2019s unfinished polyptych of the Virgin and Child Italian Il Libro dell\u2019arte, ed. and trans. David V. Thompson. and Saints for San Giovanni Fuorcivitas in Pistoia. In New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1933; New York: 1353, he was paid for this work, portions of which re- Dover, 1960. main in the church. On 3 April 1353, Taddeo returned ten florins and paid restitution for breaking his contract with Gardner, Julian. \u201cThe Decoration of the Baroncelli Chapel.\u201d the Commune of Florence by failing to paint the tribunal Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Kunstgeschichte, 34, 1971, pp. 89\u2013113. of the mercanzia, the high court of the merchants. That year he also signed a Virgin and Child for Giovanni di Ghiberti, Lorenzo, c. 1450. Lorenzo Ghibertis Denkw\u00fcrdigkeiten Ser Segna for the church of Sail Lucchese, Poggibonsi (I commentarii), 2 vols., ed. Julius von Schlosser. Berlin: J. (it was recorded as being there in seventeenth century Bard, 1912. but is now in the Uffizi in Florence). Hueck, I. \u201cStifter und Patronatsrecht: Dokumente zu zwei Kapel- In this last period Taddeo completed one of this most len der Bardi.\u201d Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes memorable fresco projects, for the refectory of Santa in Florenz, 20, 1976, pp. 263\u2013270. Croce. Vasari claimed that Giotto had created this fresco, but scholars now accept Taddeo as the artist. Although Ladis, Andrew. Taddeo Gaddi. Columbia: University of Missouri the date is still debated, it is increasingly thought to be Press, 1982. c. 1360. This unusual composition includes the a Tree of Life, inspired by Saint Bonaventure\u2019s Lignum vitae, Longhi, R. \u201cQualit\u00e0 e industria in Taddeo Gaddi ed altri.\u201d Para- gone, 1959, 10(109), pp. 31\u201340; 10(111), pp. 3\u201312. Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death: The Arts, Religion, and Society in the Mid-Fourteenth Century. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951. Offner, Richard, and Klara Steinweg. A Critical and Historical Corpus of Florentine Painting. New York: College of Fine Arts, New York University, 1930\u2013. (See suppl., ed. H. B. J. Maginnis, 1981, pp. 67\u201371.) Rave, August. Christiformitas: Studien zur franziskanischen Ikonographie des florentiner Trecento am Beispiel des ehe- 242","maligen Sakristeischrankzyklus von Taddeo Gaddi in Santa GAUTIER D\u2019ARRAS Croce. Worms: Wernersche Verlagsgesellschaft, 1984. Trachtenberg, Marvin. The Campanile of Florence Cathedral ginning of September and was rewarded magnificently \u201cGiotto\u2019s Tower.\u201d New York: New York University Press, by Manuel I with three pensions, the admiralty of India, 1971. and, much later, the countship of Vidigueira. Vasari, Giorgio. Le vite de\u2019 pi\u00f9 eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architettori nelle redazioni del 1550 e 1568, 2 vols., ed. R. In 1502 Gama made his second exploratory expedi- Bettarini and P. Barocchi. Florence: Sansoni, 1966. tion with a fleet of twenty ships that bombarded Calicut and left a five-warship guard at the entrance of the Red Gail L. Geiger Sea to thwart Muslim trading competition. He also cemented an alliance with the more friendly Malabar GAMA, VASCO DA (1460\u20131524) state of Cochin. He returned briefly to India as viceroy of Portuguese India in 1524, dying there at the close Vasco da Gama was born about 1460 in Sines. He was of that year. the son of Estev\u00e3o da Gama, a minor noble who had fought in North Africa and later became admiral of Vasco da Gama\u2019s achievement cannot be overes- Portugal and governor of Sines. timated: he circumnavigated the African continent, directly linking the Indian Ocean with Europe, and he The rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bar- effectively sent into economic and political decline the tolomeu Dias in 1488 had confirmed the existence of powers of the eastern Mediterranean (Venice, Genoa, a sea route from western Europe to Asia; consequently Egypt, and Turkey) so that economic power would shift King Manuel I of Portugal ordered another, larger ex- permanently to the Atlantic. The consequent European pedition and put the young Vasco de Gama in command dominance of western Asiatic waters was to continue of it. His fleet consisted of four ships: two naus, the S\u00e3o until 1941\u20131942, when the Japanese overthrew British, Gabriel, captained by Gama himself, and the S\u00e3o Rafael, French, and Dutch power; thus some Indian historians captained by his brother Paulo; the B\u00e9rrio, a smaller still call the period 1497\u20131941 \u201cthe Vasco de Gama era\u201d ship, probably a caravel, captained by Nicolau Coelho; of Indian history. and a large supply ship captained by Gon\u00e7alo Nunes. The number of sailors and soldiers who took ship on See also Dias, Bartolomeu Gama\u2019s first voyage was between 150 and 200 men. Further Reading Gama sailed out of the Tagus on 8 July 1497. He reprovisioned in the Cape Verde Islands, leaving Jayne, K.G. Vasco da Gama and His Successors: 1460\u20131580. there on 3 August and heading southwest to avoid the London, 1910. doldrums. Like Dias he picked up the westerlies and, turning east, made his first South African landfall at Velho, A., Roteiro da viagem que em descobrimento da India Saint Helena Bay on 7 or 8 November. He rounded the pelo Cabo da Boa Esperan\u00e7a fez dom Vasco da Gama em Cape of Good Hope on 22 November and anchored in 1497\u20131499. 2 vols. Oporto, 1945. Mossel Bay. Having abandoned his supply ship and redistributed its remaining provisions, he sailed on, Robert Oakley reaching the Great Fish River on 16 December. Soon thereafter he was at present-day Natal Point, so named GAUTIER D\u2019ARRAS by Gama because it was sighted on Christmas Day. He reached Quelimane on 24 January 1498, Mozambique A contemporary and rival of Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes, Gautier Island on 2 March, Mombasa on 7 April, and Malindi d\u2019Arras identifies himself in two romances as a writer on 13 April. Favorably received there by the sultan, linked to important political and literary courts: Eracle who liberally resupplied him, Gama set out to cross the was begun for Thibaut V of Blois and his sister-in-law, Indian Ocean on 24 April. He was able to profit from Countess Marie de Champagne, then completed and the southwest summer monsoon wind, which took him dedicated to Baudouin de Hainaut (if Baudouin IV, to India in under a month. By 20 May he was anchored probable dates are 1164\u201371; if Baudouin V, somewhat off the Malabar coast just above Calicut. The samorin later), Ille et Galeron, begun after Eracle but possibly of Calicut received him coldly, and at one point held finished before it (ca. 1167\u201370), praises the empress Gama and his retinue prisoner. By a judicious mixture B\u00e9atrice de Bourgogne (d. 1184), for whom he started of threats and astuteness, Gama extricated his fleet and the romance (Chr\u00e9tien may allude ironically to Gautier\u2019s left India at the end of August 1498. praise in his prologue to the Charrette). The romance was completed for Count Thibaut. The poet may be the The return journey was disastrous: he was obliged to same man as the Gautier d\u2019Arras who was an officer at burn Paulo\u2019s ship for lack of men to sail her, for many the court of Philippe d\u2019Alsace and signed many docu- had died of scurvy and dysentery; Paulo died on Ilha ments between 1160 and 1185. Terceira in the Azores. Gama arrived in Lisbon at the be- Eracle is a hagiographical romance in octosyllabic rhymed couplets that offers a biography of Heraclius, the Roman emperor who recovered from King Cosdroes 243","GAUTIER D\u2019ARRAS source, reveals how Gautier has significantly reworked a short tale into an episodic romance whose two parts of Persia and placed in Jerusalem a piece of the Holy are clearly related through the key event: Ille\u2019s loss Cross. The first half, probably based on oral legends of an eye furnishes a crisis that resembles one of the and popular tales, which Gautier weaves together with love judgments reported in Andreas Capellanus\u2019s De as much coherence and vraisemblance as possible, tells amore: can love survive disfigurement? This event and how Eracle uses his miraculous gifts in the service of the the exploration of Ille\u2019s psychology before and after the Emperor of Rome: Eracle is a perfect judge of jewels, crisis keep the romance plot squarely situated within the horses, and women. When the emperor must go away, realm of the possible. The marvelous death and rebirth he places his young and beautiful wife, Athana\u00efs, in a described in Eliduc are eliminated, as Gautier d\u2019Arras tower under close surveillance. The inevitable happens places his art in the service of mimetic realism. Gautier when she falls in love and manages to start a liaison thus appears as a kind of link between Chr\u00e9tien and Jean with Parid\u00e9s. Eracle informs the emperor and convinces Renart, as Fourrier has suggested. In elaborating the him to unite the two lovers. The second half, based on episodes that fill in Ille\u2019s story, Gautier demonstrates written sources and more historical in orientation, retells his ability to reuse materials from a variety of literary the legend of the cross and St. Cyriacus, to whom is traditions (chansons de geste, saints\u2019 lives, \u00c9n\u00e9as). A dedicated the main church at Provins in Champagne, narrator clearly able to please his audience, Gautier and Eracle\u2019s expedition, after he himself had become d\u2019Arras plays an important role in the development of a emperor, to return the holy relic to Jerusalem. Gautier romance tradition oriented toward realism, psychologi- thus makes available to a courtly public Latin texts and cal interest, and contemporary life. religious legends worked into a narrative whose use of adventure and the marvelous clearly locates it within the See also Andreas Capellanus; Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes; domain of romance, as does the importance given to love Marie de France in the Athena\u00efs episode (4,319 lines out of 6,593). Further Reading Though apparently part of the mati\u00e8re de Bretagne, Ille et Galeron retains the Roman and Byzantine orienta- Gautier d\u2019Arras. Eracle, ed. Guy Raynaud de Lage. Paris: tion of Eracle, as it retells and transforms the familiar Champion, 1976. tale of a man with two wives. Chased out of Brittany, the young llle takes refuge in France. Knighted, he \u2014\u2014. Ille et Galeron, ed. Yves Lef\u00e8vre. Paris: Champion, returns and reconquers his family lands, for which he 1988. pays homage to Conain, count of Brittany. Ille falls in love with Galeron, Conain\u2019s sister. Their love is mutual, Calin, William. \u201cStructure and Meaning in Eracle by Gautier but the difference in their social rank poses an obstacle, d\u2019Arras.\u201d Symposium 16 (1962): 275\u201387. until Ille\u2019s military service elevates him to the post of seneschal and marriage with Galeron. When Ille sub- Fourrier, Antoine. Le courant r\u00e9aliste dans le roman courtois en sequently loses an eye (in a tournament according to France au moyen \u00e2ge. Paris: Nizet, 1960, Vol. 1: Les d\u00e9buts one manuscript, a battle in another), he fears the loss of (XIIe si\u00e8cle). Galeron\u2019s love, steals away, and fights as mercenary for the Emperor of Rome. Given his prowess, Ille quickly Haidu, Peter. \u201cNarrativity and Language in Some Twelfth Century becomes seneschal of Rome and inspires love in Ganor, Romances.\u201d Yale French Studies 51 (1974): 133\u201346. the emperor\u2019s daughter. Galeron, who has searched fruit- lessly for her husband, now lives secretly in Rome in the Nykrog, Per. \u201cTwo Creators of Narrative Form in Twelfth Century greatest misery. When offered Ganor\u2019s hand in marriage, France: Gautier d\u2019Arras and Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes.\u201d Speculum Ille reveals that he is married; only if Galeron cannot 48 (1973): 258\u201376. be found will he marry Ganor. Just as that ceremony is about to be celebrated, Galeron recognizes her husband. Zumthor, Paul. \u201cL\u2019\u00e9criture et la voix: Le roman d\u2019Eracle.\u201d In When Galeron assures Ille of her continuing love, they The Craft of Fiction: Essays on Medieval Poetics, ed. Leigh return to Brittany. Their happy life is interrupted when Arrathoon. Rochester: Solaris, 1984, pp. 161\u2013209. Galeron makes a vow to become a nun, if she survives the difficult birth of a third child. Ille grieves, but is Matilda T. Bruckner called to fulfill his promise to aid Ganor, now empress and under attack by the Emperor of Constantinople. GAUTIER DE COINCI Ille triumphs, he and Ganor are married in Rome and (1177\/78\u20131236) live happily with their own children and those of the first marriage. Gautier entered the Benedictine monastery of Saint- M\u00e9dard in Soissons in 1193, was appointed prior of Comparison with Marie de France\u2019s Eliduc, a lai Vic-sur-Aisne in 1214, and returned to Soissons in 1233 that either furnishes Gautier\u2019s model or has a common as prior of Saint-M\u00e9dard. He was a prolific writer, whose works include religious songs, two sermons, and four saints\u2019 lives, as well as the Miracles de Nostre Dame, for which he is most famous. A series of narrative poems on the birth of Mary, the childhood of Jesus, and the Assumption, and a paraphrase of the Psalm Eructavit, appear in some manuscripts of the Miracles and are 244","GELM\u00cdREZ, DIEGO, ARCHBISHOP OF COMPOSTELA sometimes credited to him. The attribution of the Saint GELM\u00cdREZ, DIEGO, ARCHBISHOP OF dent Nostre Seigneur, a poem about a relic discovered at Soissons, which appears in only two manuscripts, is COMPOSTELA even less certain. (c. 1070-1140) The Miracles (ca. 30,000 lines) are divided into two books organized symmetrically. Each begins with a pro- This most famous and most powerful ordinary of the logue and a series of seven songs in honor of the Virgin. shrine of Santiago de Compostela was a native of Gali- The first book, begun in 1218 and revised four years cia, born about 1070 into a family of the minor nobility later, contains thirty-five miracles and ends with three of that province. He probably was educated in part at the songs in honor of St. Leocadia. The second book, with court of Alfonso VI (1065\u20131109) of Le\u00f3n-Castile and twenty-three miracles, was perhaps written between in part within the clerical community of the cathedral. 1223 and 1227. Gautier, who sought to convert the In 1090, and again in 1096, Gelm\u00edrez was the royal ad- lapsed and strengthen the faith of the believer, intended ministrator for the possessions of the then vacant see of his collection for an unlearned but aristocratic audience, Compostela. In 1094 he had become the notary of Count as he expresses contempt for the vileins. Raymond of Galicia (1090\u20131107), originally from Burgundy, who held the province by virtue of his mar- Gautier found his stories in a collection of Latin Mar- riage to Urraca, daughter of King Alfonso. The choice ian legends in his monastery at Soissons. Although this of both king and count, Gelm\u00edrez was elected bishop manuscript has been lost, enough of its character has of Compostela perhaps as early as 1098, and certainly been established to determine the way Gautier treated by 1100. He was consecrated on 21 April 1101. The his sources. He did not follow his model slavishly but see to which he succeeded had been famous since the sometimes expanded it by resorting to other sources and ninth century as the shrine-church purportedly housing even drew on events of his own life. In most stories, a the relics of the apostle St. James the Great. As the only sinner is saved by a single redeeming virtue, usually site of apostolic remains in the Western world except devotion to the Virgin. The final sections of the stories, Rome, it had long been the destination of pilgrims. In often satirical attacks on all classes of society, are 1095 Pope Urban II had approved the exemption of the original and of great interest to modern readers. Gautier see from its traditional metropolitan, Portuguese Braga, was a skilled versifier who made frequent use of rich and made it directly dependent on Rome. and equivocal rhymes. The reactions of modern critics to this material range from enthusiasm to hostility but Gelm\u00edrez\u2019s major triumph was to secure the transfer depend largely on their appreciation of the genre rather of the former metropolitanate of Visigothic M\u00e9rida to than Gautier\u2019s treatment of it. Compostela by Pope Calixtus II in 1120. As a result Compostela immediately became the metropolitan see The songs that begin each book are important in their for \u00c1vila, Salamanca, and Coimbra, and Gelm\u00edrez, an own right, for they are the best examples of religious archbishop. The suffragan see of Coimbra finally could lyric poetry from the 13th century. Despite his antipathy not be retained, but in the long rivalry for power that to secular literature, Gautier\u2019s lyric poetry was strongly ensued, Compostela ultimately wrested the Galician sees influenced by the secular tradition. If his musical com- of T\u00fay, Lugo, Mondo\u00f1edo, and Orense away from Braga. positions were not of the first rank, he was nevertheless a musician of considerable skill and refinement. In addition Gelm\u00edrez had been named papal legate for the ecclesiastical provinces of both Braga and M\u00e9rida by Further Reading Calixtus II, and used his power for the aggrandizement of his own church. He also hoped to have Compostela Gautier de Coinci. Les miracles de Nostre Dame, ed. V. Frederic replace Toledo as the primatial see of Iberia, but fell Koenig. 4 vols. Geneva: Droz, 1955\u201370. short of his goal. He was also an energetic reformer of the church and cathedral chapter of Santiago de Com- \u2014\u2014. Miracles de Gautier de Coinci: extraits du manuscrit de postela, and carried out much of the construction of a l\u2019Ermitage, ed. Arthur L\u00e5ngfors. Helsinki, 1937. major new Romanesque cathedral there, begun a quarter of a century earlier. Drzewicka, A. \u201cLa fonction des emprunts \u00e0 la po\u00e9sie profane dans les chansons mariates de Gautier de Coinci.\u201d Moyen \u00e2ge 91 Gelm\u00edrez was also a major political figure of the (1985): 33\u201351, 179\u2013200. realm of Le\u00f3n\u2013Castile. He was guardian, along with the Galician magnate Count Pedro of Traba, of the only son Ducrot-Granderye, Arlette. \u00c9tudes sur les Miracles Nostre Dame of Count Raymond and Alfonso VI\u2019s daughter, Urraca. de Gautier de Coinci. Helsinki, 1932. When Urraca succeeded to her father\u2019s realm in 1109 and married King Alfonso I of Arag\u00f3n (r. 1105\u20131134), L\u00e5ngfors, Arthur. \u201cM\u00e9langes de po\u00e9sie lyrique, II, III.\u201d Romania Gelm\u00edrez and Pedro raised a revolt against the royal 53 (1927): 474\u2013538; 56 (1930): 33\u201379. couple in the name of the rights of the future Alfonso VII. The Galician prelate was sometimes the soul of the Lommatzsch, Ernst. Gautier de Coincy als Satiriker. Halle: Niemeyer, 1913. Verrier, Paul. \u201cLa \u2018Chanson de Notre Dame\u2019 de Gautier de Co- inci.\u201d Romania 59 (1933): 497\u2013519; 61 (1935): 97. Maureen B.M. Boulton 245","GELM\u00cdREZ, DIEGO, ARCHBISHOP OF COMPOSTELA opposition to Queen Urraca and sometimes, particularly Further Reading after her separation from Alfonso in 1112, her close collaborator. With the death of Urraca in 1126 and the Briggs, A. G. Diego Gelm\u00edrez, First Archbishop of Compostela. succession of her son as Alfonso VII (r. 1126\u20131157), Washington, D. C., 1949. Gelm\u00edrez initially shared the glory of his former prot\u00e9g\u00e9. At the Council of Le\u00f3n in 1130 he was able to place Falque Rey, E. (ed.) Historia compostelana. Turnhout, 1988. canons of his church in the bishoprics of the royal city Fletcher, R. A. Saint James\u2019s Catapult: The Life and Times of of Le\u00f3n and of Salamanca. Three years later another canon of Compostela became bishop of Orense. Diego Gelm\u00edrez of Santiago de Compostela. Oxford, 1984. But royal favor was inconstant, and as early as 1127 Bernard F. Reilly Gelm\u00edrez found himself the subject of extortion at the hands of a needy Alfonso VII. After 1134 the archbishop GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH was increasingly eclipsed by the rising influence of the (ca. 1100\u20131155) archbishop of Toledo, who placed his own canons as royal chancellor and then in Compostela\u2019s suffragan Author of the highly influential Historia regum Britan- see of Salamanca in 1135. The following year the king niae (History of the Kings of Britain). Probably born collaborated in an attempt to have Gelm\u00edrez removed in Wales and possibly of Breton descent, Geoffrey from his ecclesiastical dignity. At the Council of Burgos lived in Oxford from 1129 to 1151, presumably as a in 1136 the Galician prelate was rescued only by the secular canon at the College of St. George, where he support of the papacy and the ineptitude of the conspira- was engaged in teaching. By 1151 or 1152 he had been tors. Nevertheless, the cost of maintaining his office elected bishop of St. Asaph in northeast Wales, although again came at the price of substantial future subsidies there is no evidence to suggest that he ever visited his to the king. Welsh see. The troubles of the archbishop of Santiago de Com- Geoffrey\u2019s first book, the Prophetiae Merlini, or postela were, in good part, due to his position as one of Prophecies of Merlin (ca. 1135), purports to be a series the great magnates of Galicia as well as a prelate there. of prophecies delivered by Merlin to the 5th-century His office made him the administrator of widespread king Vortigern and translated from British verse into royal lands, and these, combined with the lands of the Latin. The prophecies are retrospective, anticipatory, shrine\u2013church itself, automatically established him as or apocalyptic: that is, some allude to events before the most powerful figure of central Galica. There he Geoffrey\u2019s time; others to events that in 1135 seemed was caught between the ambitions of the Trast\u00e1mara relatively imminent (e.g., the Norman conquest of counts of Traba in the north and of the monarchs Teresa Ireland); and still others to events that might be antici- (r. 1112\u20131128) and Afonso I Enriques (r. 1139\u20131185) pated at the end of the world. Although the Prophecies of Portugal in the south. stems mainly from Geoffrey\u2019s vivid imagination, parts of it betray a debt to native prophetic traditions and By royal grant and policy Gelm\u00edrez was also the to such written sources as Lucan\u2019s Pharsalia and the lessee of the royal mint in Compostela and the city\u2019s Bible. Having circulated independently in a manuscript civil administrator. In the latter capacity he resisted or manuscripts no longer extant, the prophecies were the ambitions of a nascent citizen commune to a share ultimately incorporated into the enormously popular in the goverment of the town, although he did grant a History of the Kings of Britain, a Latin work that was measure of participation to it. The communal movement probably completed in 1138 and survives in over 200 had allies even within the cathedral chapter. When his manuscripts. troubles in the larger political arena became acute, he faced outright revolt in 1117 and again in 1135. Both Geoffrey claims that he translated his history of the began with unsuccessful attempts on his life that failed Britons from the time of Brutus to the reign of Cad- only by the narrowest of margins. In each case the walader from an ancient book in the Breton (or Welsh) crown had initially encouraged Gelm\u00edrez\u2019s enemies, tongue. That which Geoffrey did not simply invent for and repudiated them only when their attempt at assas- the purposes of his history, however, seems to be derived sination had failed. from not one but several sources. Much of his account of the founding of the British nation, for example, derives After 1136 Gelm\u00edrez played only a small part in the from Virgil and from Nennius\u2019s Historia Brittonum. life of the realm, and his activities in the church seem to The history of Britain from its founding by Brutus to have tapered down as well. From 1138 he was probably the reigns of Uther Pendragon and Arthur would seem intermittently ill, and he died on 31 March 1140. to derive largely from Welsh genealogies and legends. Geoffrey concludes his history with an account of the See also Alfonso VI, King of Le\u00f3n-Castile; Urban Saxon conquest that owes much to these same sources II, Pope and to accounts of the conquest found in Gildas and Bede. 246","The impact of the History of the Kings of Britain GERHOH OF REICHERSBERG on later literature has been considerable, for to this work we owe not only the vernacular Bruts of Wace, GERHOH OF REICHERSBERG La3amon, and several Welsh poets but also some of (1093\u20131169) the works of such distinguished writers as Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes, Malory, Spenser, Tennyson, Morris, Twain, Bavarian canon, controversialist reformer, and cor- Swinburne, and E.A. Robinson. Much less influential respondent with emperors and popes, Gerhoh, provost was Geoffrey\u2019s last work, the Vita Merlini, or Life of of Reichersberg, was a prolific writer and an important Merlin (ca. 1150), a Latin poem recounting the story figure in twelfth-century literature and religion. Gerhoh of Merlin\u2019s going mad after a battle and retreating to was a strong advocate of continued reform of the church the forest of Calidon. He is visited there by his sister and was a vocal critic of the worldliness and wealth of Ganieda, the learned bard Taliesin, and the latter\u2019s the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Although critical of eccle- friend Maeldinus. Merlin eventually regains his sanity, siastical abuses, Gerhoh was equally critical of secular whereupon he and his three visitors decide to end their abuses of power and was an important supporter of In- days in the forest, engaging themselves in the pursuit nocent II in the papal schism of 1130 and a supporter, of esoteric knowledge. after initial neutrality, of Alexander III during the schism of that pope\u2019s reign. Gerhoh was also a representative Because the central character of the Life is not the of the new apostolic spirituality and the new urban mi- Merlin Ambrosius of the History but the Celtic Merlin lieu emerging in twelfth-century Europe. A canon and Calidonius (or Silvester), Geoffrey\u2019s tale of Merlin is active preacher, Gerhoh\u2019s teaching offered an ideal of thought to have originated in the Welsh prophetic and radical reform rooted in Gregorian ideals of the world. poetic traditions. Sources for the work, which contains His definition of simony, the selling of indulgences, numerous contemporary political allusions and exten- threatened the prebendary (grant-giving) system of the sive passages of learned or prophetic discourse, include church and opened him to accusations of heresy in the Bede, Isidore of Seville, and material from Geoffrey\u2019s autumn of 1130. He was saved from a heretic\u2019s fate only own Prophecies of Merlin. by the protection of powerful reform-minded members of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. But Gerhoh\u2019s criticism See also Bede the Venerable; Chr\u00e9tien de Troyes; was not limited to the secular and religious elite; it La3amon or Layamon; Malory, Thomas extended to the representatives of the \u201cnew learning\u201d including Peter Abelard, Gilbert de la Por\u00e9e, and Peter Further Reading Lombard. Finally, Gerhoh was a theologian of some note and author of a number of important treatises including Primary Sources Liber de aedificio Dei (On God\u2019s House) and Libellus de ordine donorum Spiritus sancti (On the Order of the Thorpe, Lewis, trans. The History of the Kings of Britain. Har- Gifts of the Holy Spirit). His most interesting theological mondsworth: Penguin, 1966 work, however, can be found in his apocalyptic treatises, De investigatione Antichristi (The Investigation of Anti- Clarke, Basil, ed. and trans. Life of Merlin: Vita Merlini. Cardiff: christ) and De quarta vigilia noctis (The Fourth Watch University of Wales Press, 1973. of the Night). In these works he develops a theology of history that posits the imminent end of time in his Secondary Sources own day. He provides an outline of history based on the church\u2019s successful struggle against various antichrists New CBEL 1:393\u201396, 478 culminating in the age of Pope Gregory VII. It was in Manual 1:41\u201342, 231\u201332; 46, 234\u201335 the years following the reign of Gregory that the times Curley, Michael J. Geoffrey of Monmouth. New York: Twayne, of trouble and turmoil\u2014evident for Gerhoh in the ram- pant simony and worldliness of many clerics and in the 1994 struggles between the pope and the emperor, Frederick Leckie, R. William, Jr. The Passage of Dominion: Geoffrey Barbarossa\u2014preceding the appearance of Antichrist oc- curred. Indeed, Gerhoh\u2019s work suggests that the biblical of Monmouth and the Periodization of Insular History in prophecies forewarning of Antichrist had been fulfilled the Twelfth Century. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, and that his coming was imminent. 1981 Parry, John J., and Robert A. Caldwell. \u201cGeoffrey of Monmouth.\u201d See also Ab\u00e9lard, Peter; Gregory VII, Pope; In Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages: A Collaborative Peter Lombard History, ed, Roger Sherman Loomis. Oxford: Clarendon, 1959, pp. 72\u201393 Further Reading Reiss, Edmund, et al. Arthurian Legend and Literature: An Annotated Bibliography. Vol. 1. New York, Garland, 1984, Classen, Peter. \u201cRes Gestae, Universal History, Apocalypse: Vi- pp. 66\u201368 sions of Past and Future,\u201d in Renaissance and Renewal in the Tatlock, John S.P. The Legendary History of Britain: Geoffrey of Monmouth\u2019s \u201cHistoria Regum Britanniae\u201d and Its Early Vernacular Versions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1950. James Noble 247","GERHOH OF REICHERSBERG bar other possibilities [without seeming to create new law, not found in the Talmud]. It has been remarked that Twelfth Century, ed. Robert L. Benson and Giles Constable. during the following generations these decrees were not Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1991, pp. 387\u2013417. attributed to him but were designated as community or- Meuthen, Erich. Kirche und Heilsgeschichte bei Gerhoh von dinances. Some have deduced from this that he was not Reichersberg. Leiden: Brill, 1959. their author, but that his name was connected with them Morrison, Karl F. \u201cThe Exercise of Thoughtful Minds: The later in order to enhance their authority. Such an explana- Apocalypse in Some German Historical Writings,\u201d in The tion does not seem necessary; the fact that such measures Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, ed. Richard K. Emmerson required the decision of a community does not preclude and Bernard McGinn. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, the fact that Gershom suggested the ordinances and was 1992, pp. 352\u2013373. active in having them accepted. There is therefore no reason to deny him his part in their authorship. It should Michael Frassetto nevertheless be kept in mind that these ordinances were not accepted right away in all communities; the Spanish GERSHOM B. JUDAH (c. 960\u20131028) communities, for example, did not recognize them. It also took some time until they were generally enacted Gershom b. Judah, better known as Rabbenu (\u201cour in northern Europe. Their acceptance was facilitated rabbi\u201d) Gershom, Me\u2019or ha-golah (\u201cthe light of the by the Christian doctrine on monogamy. It would also exile\u201d), is generally recognized as the founding father of seem that very soon the rather extreme nature of these rabbinic studies in northern Europe. [In his responsum ordinances was recognized\u2014that they did not take into dealing with the first ordinance, \u201cRashi\u201d made the state- account some unusual situations that made divorce very ment that Gershom \u201cenlightened the eyes of the exile, difficult, such as mental illness, or disappearance of the and all of us live by his words; and all the children of wife\u2014and therefore sometimes these ordinances were the exile of Germany and Rome [Kiyttiym; cf. \u201cRashi\u201d deferred. Many other ordinances have been attributed on Isa. 23.1] are the students of his students\u201d (Teshuvot to Gershom. The only one that can be so attributed with h. okhmey S.arfat ve-Lotir, Vienna, 1881; No. 21)\u2014ed.]. certainty\u2014it is already quoted in his name by \u201cRashi\u201d He was born ca. 960, probably in Metz (Germany), but \u2014is the one that forbids reminding an apostate who has spent most of his active life in Mainz, which was then made penance and returned to Judaism of his former the most important Jewish community of the Rhineland. condition. The ordinance forbidding the reading of a His greatness was acknowledged at an early stage, and letter sent to someone else without his permission is many students, including the future teachers of \u201cRashi,\u201d much later and cannot be attributed to Gershom. gathered around him and spread his teachings. Thus, Mainz soon became the center of Jewish learning. It Further Reading is not very clear where he himself had studied, but it would seem that he was near scholars who originated Ens.iqlopediah talmudit (Hebrew) (Jerusalem, 1987), Vol. 21, in Italy. There is very little information about his life. 378\u2013454, 757\u201370. He is reported to have died in 1028. Germania Judaica (T\u00fcbingen, 1963), Vol. 2, 189\u201391. His activities were numerous. His teaching of the Grossman, Abraham.H. okhmei Ashkenaz ha-rishonim (Jerusa- Talmud resulted in talmudic commentary, inasmuch as his students very probably summarized his teachings lem, 1981). in their notes. Some of these commentaries have been published in modern times under his name, but it is very Simon Schwarzfuchs doubtful that they originated from him in their present form. Successive generations of students very probably GERSON, JEAN completed, amplified, and occasionally summarized his (Jean Charlier; 1363\u20131429) commentary, while applying their own additions, but it can be admitted that this commentary, probably called Theologian, scholar, teacher, translator, poet, mystic, the Mainz commentary, ultimately was the pathfinder of and humanist, Gerson was one of the most illustrious European talmudic commentaries, later superseded by and prolific writers of the late Middle Ages. One of that of \u201cRashi.\u201d Gershom was also active as a liturgical twelve children, he grew up in a pious household in poet; ten of his seliyh. ot (penitential poems) have been Champagne, the son of an educated artisan. Three of his preserved [legend has it that his son and possibly his wife brothers became monks and another a priest. Although were forcibly baptized\u2014ed.]. However, his reputation to- his sisters did not enter religious orders, they formed day rests more on his public activities than his teachings. among themselves an informal religious group devoted to prayer and spiritual exercises. Gerson entered the His name is connected with a number of bans or University of Paris in 1377 and received an arts degree taqqanot (ordinances) that exerted enormous influence in 1381 from the Coll\u00e8ge de Navarre. Subsequently, he on the evolution of European Jewry. Most important studied theology and obtained the doctorate in 1392. are those dealing with family life. These include the interdiction of polygamy, and against divorce without consent of the wife. These decisions were intended to 248","Tailoring his sermons to his audience, Gerson gained GERTHENER, MADERN fame as an orator who could preach with eloquence to both kings and the laity at large. He succeeded his sur la r\u00e9forme de la facult\u00e9 de th\u00e9ologie, which outlines friend and mentor Pierre d\u2019Ailly as chancellor of the his pedagogy; and informal writings on the spiritual life, university in 1395, taking over the duties in the midst such as the Montague de contemplation. Although it is of the Great Schism (1378\u20131417). Although Gerson often attributed to him, Gerson did not write the Imitatio opposed the withdrawal of French obedience from the Christi. Among his last writings is a defense of Jeanne Avignon pope, Benedict XIII, and worked to restore d\u2019Arc, Puella Aurelianensi (1429). it in 1403, he nevertheless sought a reconciliation be- tween the two contending popes by suggesting that both See also D\u2019ailly, Pierre; Eriugena, Johannes claimants resign. In 1407, the Roman pope, Gregory Scottus; Jeanne d\u2019Arc; Petrarca, Francesco; XII, indicated a willingness to meet with Benedict Wyclif, John and discuss mutual resignation. Gerson was chosen to head the French delegation and facilitate the meeting, Further Reading which was, however, a failure. With the aim of restoring church unity, Gerson supported a move to resolve the Gerson, Jean. \u0152uvres compl\u00e8tes de Jean Gerson, ed. Pal\u00e9mon conflict through a church council. The Council of Pisa, Glorieux. 10 vols. Paris: Descl\u00e9e, 1960\u201373. held in 1409, was not successful. Although it elected a new pope, Alexander V, this strategy served only to Combes, Andr\u00e9. La th\u00e9ologie mystique de Gerson. 2 vols. Rome: introduce a third contender. The Council of Constance Editores Pontificii, 1965. (1415\u201318) finally put an end to the Schism with the election of Martin V. Writing numerous treatises to jus- Delaruelle, \u00c9tienne, L.R. Labande, and Papul Ourliac. L\u2019\u00e9glise tify the work of the council, Gerson was an outspoken au temps du Grand Schisme et de la crise conciliaire (1378\u2013 proponent of conciliarism, setting out the limitations 1449). 2 vols. Paris: Blond et Gay, 1962. of papal authority. Morrall, John B. Gerson and the Great Schism. Manchester: Gerson was also strenuous in efforts to eradicate Manchester University Press, 1960. heresy. Critical of the writings of Wyclif and Hus, Gerson was an adviser to Pierre d\u2019Ailly, who served E. Kay Harris on the commission that condemned Hus to death. Also interested in secular affairs, Gerson openly opposed the GERTHENER, MADERN Burgundian assassination of the duke of Orl\u00e9ans in 1407, (1360\/1370\u20131430) attacking and condemning Jean Petit\u2019s Apologia for favoring tyrannicide in justification of the Burgundian Named with his father, Johann, among the stone ma- deed. His position so angered the duke of Burgundy, sons of Frankfurt in 1387, Gerthener had taken over who had previously been one of Gerson\u2019s strongest his father\u2019s shop by 1391. In 1395 he was taken onto protectors, that he was prevented from returning to Paris the city payroll. In 1415 he calls himself \u201cder stadt after the Council of Constance. Gerson retired to Lyon, frankenfurd werkmeister\u201d (master of the works of the living first at a Celestine monastery where his youngest city of Frankfurt), a position he had probably already brother, also named Jean, who became his copyist and held for some time. Most of his documented career was editor, was prior, and then at the church of Saint-Paul. spent working on the church of St. Bartholomew: he was During his exile, however, Gerson continued to write appointed head of the works in 1408. After finishing the as he had before on such subjects as spiritual renewal, transept here, he designed and, in 1415, began building church reform, Christian education, and the integra- the single tower that stood as a symbol of the city\u2019s in- tion of mystical and speculative theology. His writings dependence. An octagonal story topped by a dome and have not received extensive attention from historians, an elaborate lantern surmounts the two lower stories although they offer insights into the culture of the late on a square plan. The tracery decoration and especially Middle Ages. His work, for example, on the Christian the corner buttresses become increasingly ornate with education of the young provides important information each succeeding story. On the two portals we see the on medieval attitudes on children and childhood. innovative uses of tracery forms, specifically hanging tracery and tracery vaults, that would become hallmarks Gerson was also a Latin poet of notable talent and of Gerthener\u2019s style. skill. Influenced by Petrarch, his eclogue on the Schism is perhaps the first humanist work produced in France. In addition to his work on St. Bartholomew\u2019s, Other works include De vita spirituali animae, in which Gerthener was also involved in other projects in and he locates ecclesiastical authority in church councils around Frankfurt. In 1399 he guaranteed his work on the rather than in the pope; De unitate ecclesiae, one of Alte Br\u00fccke (Old Bridge) across the Main, and in 1411 twenty-seven extant treatises on the church; M\u00e9moire his work on the city wall is documented. Gerthener\u2019s mastery of the forms of late Gothic architecture, plus his visibility as head of the works on the coronation cathedral, drew his work to the attention of other pa- trons, and by the 1410s his reputation reached outside the city. Payments to Gerthener in 1407 from the funds of the so-called Gelnhausen tax, to which only King Ruprecht von der Pfalz (1400\u20131410) had access, may 249","GERTHENER, MADERN Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Kupferstichkabi- nett), whose figures are close in style to those of the have been in compensation for the so-called Ruprechts- Memorienpforte, and a large-scale drawing with the bau (Ruprecht building) at Heidelberg castle and\/or the design for Gerthener\u2019s tower at St. Bartholomew\u2019s sacristy at Speyer Cathedral, begun in 1409. Gerthener\u2019s (Frankfurt, Historisches Museum). Whether these are name appears in 1414\u20131415 in the financial records of works by the master himself or by those who worked the church of St. Katherine in Oppenheim, where he with him closely, Gerthener was an inventive artist of designed the west choir. The variety of the unusually unusual energy and breadth. fanciful tracery patterns in the tall windows and other details recall Gerthener\u2019s work in Frankfurt. In 1419 he Further Reading was called to Strasbourg, where, with other masters, he advised on the continuation of the cathedral facade. Beck, Herbert, Wolfgang Beeh, and Horst Bredekamp. Kunst um 1400 am Mittelrhein: Ein Teil der Wirklichkeit. Frankfurt am Other works sometimes associated with Gerthener Main: Liebieghaus Museum alter Piastik, 1975, pp. 49\u201356. fall into two groups: those on which his participation is assumed on the basis of his city positions and attribu- Haberland, Ernst-Dietrich, and Hans-Otto Schrembs. Madern tions on the basis of stylistic affinities with his secured Gerthener \u201cder Stadt Franckenfurd Werkmeister\u201d: Bau- works. Into the former category fall work on the town meister und Bildbauer der Sp\u00e4tgotik, Frankfurt am Main: hall (the R\u00f6mer), adapted from two patrician houses Knecht, 1992. beginning in 1405, and the trade hall for linen, flax, and hemp products, the Leinwandhaus. Work on the city for- Kniffler, Gisela. Die Grabdenkm\u00e4ler der Mainzer Erzbisch\u00f6fi tification system underway circa 1400 would also have vow. 13. bis zum fr\u00fcben 16. Jahrhundert. Ph.D. diss., Univer- been expected of the city\u2019s Werkmeister. This variety in sity of Mainz, Dissertationen zur Kunstgeschichte 7. Cologne: the production of the medieval builder\/architect\u2014repair B\u00f6hlau, 1978, pp. 51\u2013109. or rebuilding of existing structures, design and erection of both functional buildings, like bridges and fortifica- Ringshausen, Gerhard Johannes. \u201cMadern Gerthener: Leben tion towers, and what we might today think of as \u201chigh\u201d und Werk nach den Urkunden,\u201d Ph.D. diss., University of architecture, seen especially in churches\u2014is typical of Gottingen, 1968. the era. The career of Peter Parler, for example, with whom Gerthener may have worked in Prague during his Joan A. Holladay travels as a journeyman, also exhibits this diversity. GERTRUD VON HELFTA The high quality and use of architectural forms (1256\u20131301\/1302) similar to those at Frankfurt produce general agreement that Gerthener was also at work on the so-called Me- A monastic, mystic author, Gertrud the Great (die moreinpforte (portal to the memorial chapel) at Mainz Gr\u00f6\u00dfe) entered the monastery of Helfta (near Eisleben) Cathedral about 1425. At Frankfurt, work on the church at the age of almost five. Her Vita (Life) presents her of the Virgin (Liebfrauenkirche), that of the Carmelites, as a precocious child keenly interested in studying and and St. Leonhard\u2019s, all dated between 1415 and circa eventually acquiring a comprehensive liberal arts educa- 1430, is sometimes associated with Gerthener on the tion in Helfta. Under its abbess Gertrud von Hackeborn, basis of stylistic similarities to his documented works. the Helfta monastery had developed at that time into a center of culture and learning. Together with her older Three payment records indicate that Gerthener was sisters in community, Mechthild von Hackeborn (the also active as a sculptor. The sweet expressions and abbess\u2019s sister) and the Beguine Mechthild von Mag- smoothed volumes of both the faces and the draper- deburg, Gertrud was instrumental in making Helfta into ies of the two male saints on the cathedral side of the the focal point of thirteenth-century mysticism. Memorienpforte are typically considered to exemplify his style. Other works sometimes assigned to Gerthener Gertrud\u2019s mystical conversion experience happened on stylistic grounds include the tympanum with the when she was twenty-five (on January 27, 1281). From a elaborate, multifigured scene of the Adoration of the lukewarm monastic, avid in the pursuit of secular litera- Magi above the south portal of the Liebfrauenkirche in ture, she was turned into an ardent lover who dedicated Frankfurt (ca. 1425), and the tomb of Anna von Dalberg herself wholeheartedly to a Christ-centered spirituality. (d. 1410) in the church of St. Katherine in Oppenheim. Some eight years later, during Holy Week of 1289, Ger- The art historian Knifner argues that the epitaph of trud suddenly felt \u201cviolently compelled\u201d by the Spirit Siegfried xum Paradies, now in St. Nikolaus in Frankfurt to write the memorial of this pivotal experience (to be (ca. 1420), and that of Johann II von Nassau (d. 1419), found in Book II of the Legatus, \u201cHerald\u201d). archbishop of Mainz, are more likely to be the master\u2019s own work. Gertrud never held an important office in her mon- astery. She spent her life studying theology (influences Somewhat more problematic attributions are a print of Bernard of Clairvaux, William of St. Thierry, Hugh with the depiction of the Holy Grave (Berlin, Staatliche of St. Victor, and others are noticeable) and writing exegetical and spiritual texts in which scriptural and liturgical references abound, and where even nature 250","plays a role. She also collaborated on Mechthild von GIACOMINO DA VERONA Hackeborn\u2019s work, the Liber specialis gratiae (Book of Special Grace). Moreover, Gertrud functioned as a much native indusiveness. The theology of the Sacred Heart sought-after pastoral counselor both of her sisters and is to be credited more to the general Helfta community of lay people. Gertrud died on November 17 at the age than to Gertrud. of forty-five or forty-six, but details of her death are not known. Gertrud von Helfta has been venerated as a saint See also Bernard of Clairvaux; first by the Benedictine Order (since 1674) and since Hugh of Saint-Victor 1734 officially by the entire Roman Catholic Church. She was also made the patron saint of the West Indies. Further Reading Presumably only a portion of Gertrud\u2019s writings Barratt, Alexandra. The Herald of God\u2019s Loving-Kindness by has been preserved. Numerous prayer books that were Gertrud the Great of Helfia, Books One and Two. Kalamazoo, published in many languages since the sixteenth century Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1991. under the names of St. Gertrud and Mechthild (latest English edition, Philadelphia 1955) are not authentic. Bynum, Caroline Walker. Jesus as Mother: Studies in the The Legatus divinae pietatis and her brief Exercitia Spirituality of the High Middle Ages. Berkeley: University spiritualia, consisting of prayerful meditations based on of California Press, 1982, pp. 170\u2013262. Scripture and the liturgy, are commonly listed as Gertrud von Helfta\u2019s works. The Legatus (The Herald of God\u2019s Finnegan, Mary Jeremy. The Women of Helfta: Scholars and Loving-Kindness) consists of five parts: Books 3\u20135, Mystics. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991. roughly based on material provided by Gertrud, were composed by a sister in the Helfta community; Book 1 Hart, Mother Columba, trans. The Exercises of St. Gertrude. constitutes Gertrud\u2019s vita written after her death. Only Westminster, Md.: Newman Press, 1956. Book 2 was written by Gertrud\u2019s own hand. Together with the equally authentic Spiritual Exercises, these two Hourlier, Jacques, et al. eds. Gertrude d\u2019Helfta. Oeuvres spiri- texts are unique jewels of medieval mysticism. tuelles. Sources chr\u00e9tiennes 127, 139, 143, 255, 331. Paris: du Cerf, 1967\u20131986 [bilingual, Latin-French]. Gertrud\u2019s work was composed in Latin. An early fifteenth-century Middle High German translation, Lewis, Gertrud Jaron. Bibliographic zur deutschen Frauen- ein botte der g\u00f6tlichen miltekeit (its oldest mansucript mystik des Mittelalters. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag, 1989, is dated 1448) is a deliberately shortened version of pp.196\u2013223 [comprehensive list of primary and secondary Books 3\u20135 of the Legatus. The manuscript tradition of sources]. Gertrud von Helfta\u2019s work is meager. Of the Legatus, eight complete or partial fifteenth-century manuscripts Lewis, Gertrud Jaron, and Jack Lewis, trans. Gertrud the Great are known. No manuscript is extant of the Spiritual of Helfta: Spiritual Exercises. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Exercises. Its survival was made possible by the first Publications, 1989. publication of Gertrud von Helfta\u2019s Latin work in 1536 by the Carthusian Johannes Lanspergius of Cologne. Shank, Lillian Thomas, and John A. Nichols. Medieval Religious Since then, most early editors and translators found it Women, 2. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1987, necessary to attach to Gertrud\u2019s work an initial apologia pp. 239\u2013273. attesting to the orthodoxy of her writings. Winkworth, Margaret, trans. Gertrude of Helfta: The Herald of To separate Gertrud von Helfta\u2019s specific way of Divine Love. NewYork and Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1993 thinking from the general mystical and intellectual [Books 1 and 2, and partially Book 3]. atmosphere of Helfta, interpretation must focus on the Exercitia and her own Book 2 of the Legatus. Gertrud\u2019s Gertrud Jaron Lewis \u201cconfessions\u201d show her as profoundly humble. Yet si- multaneously she sees all human beings invested with GIACOMINO DA VERONA regal dignity through Christ\u2019s incarnation. Invisibly (13th century) stigmatized and mystically united to Christ through an exchange of hearts, Gertrud encounters the divine as a Giacomino da Verona was a notable figure in both Lom- self-confident woman. Her distinctive characteristic is bard (northern Italian) and Franciscan literature. He is her inner freedom (libertas cordis), which leaves her known for two vernacular poems: one about paradise (in little patience with petty ecclesiastical regulations. The 1,108 verses) and the other about hell (in 1,348 verses). dominant tone of Gertrud von Helfta\u2019s work is that of The verse form is caesured alexandrine (7 + 7 syllables), intense joy, as best expressed in her mystical jubilus arranged in a sequence of monorhymed quatrains; how- (Exercitia). Her God-language is notable for its imagi- ever, the presence of shorter hemistichs often brings the lines near the epic decasyllable of the jongleurs. There are four manuscripts. The one in Venice (V, Marciana Library) and the one in Seville (S, Colombina Library) are closely related and provide the best reading of the poems. They also feature, before each poem, a long title (Latin in V and vernacular in S) in which paradise is called a \u201cheavenly Jerusalem\u201d (De Jerusalem celesti) and hell a \u201chellish Babylon\u201d (De Babilonia infernali). The other two manuscripts are found in Udine (U, Arci- vescovile Library) and Oxford (O, Bodleian); the latter, O, contains only the first poem (Jerusalem). The two poems were initially published only from V by Ozanam (1850) and, more competently, by Mussafia (1864) but 251","GIACOMINO DA VERONA As an urban landscape, Giacomino\u2019s hell in Babi- lonia is the terrifying opposite of his paradise. Bronze, were finally edited from the four extant manuscripts iron, and steel are the metals that make up its walls and (with critical apparatus) by Barana (1921) and again even its sky. The fire is blazing, the stench unbearable. by May (1930). May\u2019s edition includes an ample com- The watchmen perched on the main gate do not let any mentary on Giacomino\u2019s culture and sources. The text inmate escape but are eager to lay hands on newcomers. established by Contini (I960) and R. Broggini was the The reader discovers many of these horrors through the first edition based on a genealogical presentation of tile experience of a newly arrived sinner, and both reader manuscripts and is therefore, strictly speaking, the only and sinner are bound to be appalled by the rigor of critical edition available as of the present writing. divine justice. Swarms of hyperactive, sadistic, raving devils torture the damned with great inventiveness while In De Babilonia infernali (335), the poet clearly making sarcastic comments about the futile laments of identifies himself as \u201cIacomino da Verona\u2014de l\u2019Orden their victims. Two unforgettable highlights are a sinner de Minori.\u201d This poem and De Jerusalem celesti are fol- roasted on a spit by chef Balzab\u00f9 and then presented lowed, in V and S, by five other religious poems. Mus- in spicy sauce to the king of hell, who predictably safia was inclined to attribute these five to Giacomino finds the meat only half-cooked and sends it back to as well, on the basis of linguistic (Old Veronese) and the fire (117\u2013136); and a shocking debate between a cultural (Franciscan), though not metrical, affinities. father and son who fiercely blame each other for their The most relevant of these poems is the one titled Dela damnation. caducit\u00e0 della vita umana, \u201cOn the transience of human life\u201d (Contini 1960, Vol. 1, 653\u2013666). The question Further Reading whether the selection was made to include works of the same author or simply of the same genre cannot Barana, E. La \u201cGerusalemme celeste\u201d e la \u201cBabilonia infernale\u201d be decided. di Giacomino da Verona, secondo la lezione dei quattro codici conosciuti. Verona, 1921. There has been much speculation about Giacomino\u2019s life, but little is known for sure. He was a Franciscan Contini, Gianfranco, ed. Poeti del Duecento. Milan: Ricciardi, friar from Verona who lived in the Veneto, in a city other 1960, Vol. 1, pp. 625\u2013652; Vol. 2, pp. 842\u2013843. than his own (possibly Venice) during the mid-thirteenth century. Judging from the musical expertise he shows De Sanctis, Francesco, and Gerolamo Lazzeri, eds. Storia della in Jerusalem, he might have been a magister cantus in letteratura italiana dai primi secoli agli albori del Trecento. his convent. Milan: Hoepli, 1950, pp. 132\u2013136 and 219\u2013237. Giacomino represents heaven and hell as two cities; Dionisotti, Carlo, and Cecil Grayson, eds. Early Italian Texts, this was a quite common view during the Middle Ages, 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 1965, pp. 153\u2013161. (Originally and it also turns up in the topography of Dante\u2019s Inferno published 1949.) (the city of Dis) and, at feast figuratively (as metaphors and similes), in his Paradiso. In this instance, however, May, Esther Isopel. The \u201cDe Jerusalem Celesti\u201d and the \u201cDe the reference may well be to imperial Rome rather than Babilonia Infernali\u201d of Fra Giacomino da Verona. Florence: to Jerusalem. Drawing mainly on biblical sources, Le Monnier, 1930. Franciscan visions, and the repertoire of preachers, Giacomino produces a vivid, if naive, picture of the Mussafia, A. \u201cMonumenti antichi di dialetti italiani.\u201d Sitzungs- Christian after life; he also resorts to fictitious examples berichte der k. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, and comparisons in order to evoke a sense of marvel in Philologisch-historische Klasse, 46, 1864, pp. 113\u2013235. his readers (Jerusalem, 165\u2013168; Babilonia, 35\u201336). Jerusalem is, as one might expect, more descriptive; Ozanam, Antoine-Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric. Documents in\u00e9dits pour servir \u00e0 Babilonia tends to be more dramatic. In Jerusalem, l\u2019histoire litt\u00e9raire de l\u2019Italie depuis le VIIIe si\u00e8cle jusqu\u2019au crystal, silver, gold, and precious stones are combined XIIIe. Paris: Lecoffre, 1850, pp. 291ff. with the vernal delights of the locus amoenus (pleas- ant place) in order to build up the heavenly city, from Rossi, Aldo. \u201cPoesia didattica e poesia popolare del Nord.\u201d which all earthly miseries and dangers are banned. The In Storia della letteratura italiana. Vol. 1, Le origini e il angels and the blessed, in splendid attire, gather around Duecento, ed. Emilio Cecchi and Natalino Sapegno. Milan: the throne of God (unpretentiously visualized as Jesus Garzanti, 1981, pp. 377\u2013383. Christ) and sing his praise in the most melodious way, while being directed by Jesus himself (170). At the end Schrage, Mark. \u201cGiacomino da Verona: eine \u00dcbersicht zur of the poem, particular attention is given to the glory forschungslage.\u201d Letteratura Italiana Antica, 3, 2002, pp. of Mary: in a courtly vein, she is introduced as a digni- 278\u2013298. fied chatelaine surrounded by her champion knights, to whom she graciously offers fragrant wreaths, dazzling Ruggero Stefanini palfreys, and well-deserved coats of arms (285\u2013316). GIACOMO DA LENTINI (13th century) Little is known about the life of the thirteenth-century poet Giacomo da Lentini. His fame as one of the most important notaries at the court of Frederick II was so firmly established that Dante refers to him simply as the Notaro, and in the codices Giacomo\u2019s name is usually 252","preceded by this title; but there are surprisingly few GIACOMO DA LENTINI documents testifying to his professional career. The year of his birth is unknown; but there is no room for doubt of plagiarizing the Notaro. In the Vatican Codex (Vat. about his birthplace, since in two or three of his poems Lat. 3793), Giacomo is given more prominence than any he describes himself as having been born in Lentino of his contemporaries: his poems are listed first in each (nato da Lentino), a small locality on the eastern coast genre section; and with some forty pieces definitively of Sicily. The documents bearing witness to his juridi- attributed to him, he far outdistances all other Sicilian cal activities date from 1233 and 1240. In 1233, two poets in sheer numbers. privileges were drawn up by the hand of Giacomo da Lentini\u2014per manus Iacobi de Lentino (or Lintin)\u2014the We have little reason to doubt that Giacomo was first one in March at Policoro on the Basilicata coast, and instrumental in choosing an Italian dialect for poetry the second in June in Catania. The formula per manus Ia- composed in the Proven\u00e7al mode in Sicily. He may cobi notarii is encountered in a document from Palermo also have played a decisive role in imposing a very and in a letter from Castrogiovanni (modern-day Enna) narrow thematic orientation on the school, and he is that same year; thus we have enough evidence to show usually credited with being the inventor of the sonnet that the Notaro must have accompanied the emperor form. Except for a single sonnet on friendship, Giacomo on a journey in March\u2013August 1233 from Policoro via wrote solely on amorous themes. Most of his canzoni Messina and Catania to Palermo. A document issued are conventional in theme and style; and his sonnets, in Messina on 5 May 1240 bears the signature Iacobus twenty-one in all, with four more of uncertain attribu- de Lentino domini Imperatoris notarius (Giacomo da tion, show the same adherence to the Proven\u00e7al mode. Lentini, notary of the emperor). Nothing else is known Even at this early stage in its evolution, however, the of the biography of the founder and most famous poet of sonnet tends to become more philosophically oriented, the Sicilian school, and his end is veiled in mystery. serving as a forum for discussions of the nature and power of love. In the poem Amor non vole ch\u2019io clami, Internal evidence is of little help in establishing a Giacomo ridicules the abuse of lovers\u2019 laments, but chronology for Giacomo\u2019s life. In the canzone Ben m\u2019\u00e8 this satirical approach is itself purely conventional and venuto prima al cor doglienza, he compares his lady\u2019s does not reveal any beginnings of disenchantment with arrogance to the pride of Milan over its carroccio and a stereotyped motif. This poem, therefore, is not to be makes a brief reference to a feud between Florence and considered a literary manifesto. Giacomo wrote many Pisa. Sanesi (1899) and Gaspary (1882) assumed that canzoni or canzonette of great technical simplicity, but Giacomo must have written this passage before the battle other poems of his testify to his mastery of some of of Cortenuova in 1237, a battle at which the Milanese the most complex metrical schemes inherited from the suffered a humiliating defeat. Torraca (1902), however, troubadours. opted for 1246\u20131248 as the period when these lines were composed. In 1246, the Guelf Florentines voiced See also Bonagiunta Orbicciani degli Averardi; their dissatisfaction with the podest\u00e0 appointed by the Frederick II emperor, and in 1248 they were defeated by the Ghibel- lines. Zenatti (1896) dated the war between Florence Further Reading and Pisa to 1233 and Santangelo (1959) suggested the summer of 1234, but Langley (1915) considered these Antonelli, Roberto, ed. Giacomo da Lentini: Poesie. Rome: references too vague to be of much use in dating the Bulzoni, 1979. poem. A reference in La \u2019namoranza disiosa to a naval encounter near Syracuse, tentatively dated to 1205 by Apollonio, Mario. Uomini e forme nella cultura italiana delle Cesareo (1924), offers no proof of the composition date, origini. Florence: Sansoni, 1943, pp. 208\u2013217. and it remains highly unlikely that this poem could have been written during the decade 1200\u20131210. The period Cesareo, G. A. Le origini delta poesia lirica e lapoesia siciliana of Giacomo\u2019s most intense poetic activity probably sotto gli Svevi, 2nd ed. Palermo: Sandron, 1924, pp. 124\u2013131, coincided with the years of his documented profes- 332\u2013354. sional duties at the imperial court. The episode involving Bonagiunta da Lucca in Canto 24 of Dante\u2019s Purgatorio Contini, Gianfranco, ed. Poeti del Duecento. Milan and Naples: (verses 55\u201357) confirms Giacomo\u2019s role as the chief Ricciardi, 1960, Vol. 1, pp. 49\u201390. representative of the Sicilian school, and Dante praises the poem Madonna dir vi voglio, though without men- De Lollis, Cesare. \u201cG. A. Cesareo, La poesia siciliana sotto gli tioning the poet by name. Giacomo\u2019s prestige may also Svevi (Catania, 1894).\u201d In Giornale Storico delta Letteratura be in ferred from the poem Di penne di paone e d\u2019altre Italiana, 27, 1896, pp. 112ff. (Review of 1st ed.) assai, in which Chiaro Davanzati accuses Bonagiunta Gaspary, Adolfo. La scuola poetica siciliana del secolo XIII, trans. S. Friedmann. Livorno: Vigo, 1882. Langley, Ernest F., ed. The Poetry of Giacomo da Lentini, Sicilian Poet of the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1915. Pasquini, Emilio, and Antonio Enzo Quaglio. Il Duecento dalle origini a Dante. Bari: Laterza, 1970, pp. 189\u2013203. Sanesi, I. \u201cIl toscaneggiamento della poesia siciliana.\u201d Giornale Storico della Letteratum Italiana, 34, 1899, pp. 354\u2013367. Santangelo, Salvatore. \u201cLa canzone Ben m\u2019\u00e8 venuto e la politica remissiva di Federico II.\u201d In Saggi Critici. Modena: Societ\u00e0 Tipografica Editrice Modenese, 1959, pp. 191\u2013209. 253","GIACOMO DA LENTINI that he presented to Eugenius III, in effect pressuring the pope to declare either Gilbert or Bernard a heretic. Torraca, Francesco. \u201cIl notaro Giacomo da Lentino.\u201d In Studi Eugenius sidestepped the maneuver and made some su la lirica italiana del Duecento, pp. 1\u201388. Bologna: Za- token pronouncements regarding theological language; nichelli, 1902. Gilbert, acquitted of heresy, declared that he \u201cbelieved whatever Eugenius believed\u201d and promised to correct Zenatti, Albino. Arrigo Testa e i primordi della lirica italiana. any offending passages in his writings. No such, \u201ccor- Florence: Sansoni, 1896. rections\u201d were ever made, to Bernard\u2019s chagrin. Frede Jensen See also Anselm of Laon; Bernard of Chartres; Bernard of Clairvaux GILBERT OF POITIERS (Gilbertus, Gislebertus, or Gillibertus Further Reading Porreta or Porretanus; also, less correctly, de la Porr\u00e9e, 1075\/80\u20131154) Gilbert of Poitiers. The Commentaries on Boethius, ed. Nikolaus M. H\u00e4ring. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Stud- Gilbert was born in Poitiers and returned there as bishop ies, 1966. in 1141 or 1142. After studying the liberal arts and phi- losophy with Hilary in Poitiers and Bernard in Chartres, Colish, Marcia L. \u201cEarly Porretan Theology.\u201d Recherches de he immersed himself in the study of the Bible in Laon. th\u00e9ologie ancienne et m\u00e9di\u00e9vale 56 (1989): 59\u201379. As Anselm of Laon\u2019s disciple, Gilbert participated in the great exegetical undertaking that was to culminate Gross-Diaz, Theresa. The Psalms Commentary of Gilbert of in the formation of the Glossa ordinaria in Paris during Poitiers: From lectio divina to the Lecture Room. Leiden: the middle decades of the century. Gilbert\u2019s commentar- Brill. ies on the Psalms (before 1117) and on the Epistles of Paul (perhaps a decade later) owed much to Anselm\u2019s H\u00e4ring, Nikolaus M. \u201cHandschriftliches zu den Werken Gilberts, glosses and to his use of quaestiones and sententiae Bishof von Poitiers.\u201d Revue d\u2019histoire des textes 8 (1978): to explore theological and pastoral topics. In addition, 133\u201394. Gilbert introduced to scriptural exegesis pedagogical techniques, such as the accessus ad auctores, used Maioli, Bruno. Gilberto Porretano: dalla grammatics speculative by grammarians to teach works of profane literature. alla metafisica del concreto. Rome: Bulzoni, 1979. These methods influenced subsequent exegetes: Peter Lombard\u2019s biblical commentaries, for example, rely Nielsen, Lauge Olaf. Theology and Philosophy in the Twelfth heavily on Gilbert\u2019s work. Century: A Study of Gilbert of Porreta\u2019s Thinking and the Theological Expositions of the Doctrine of the Incarnation Gilbert returned to Chartres as a canon and by 1126 During the Period 1130\u20131180. Leiden: Brill, 1982. was chancellor of the cathedral. (There is no evidence to support the claim that he taught in Poitiers.) Though van Elswijk, H.C. Gilbert Poneta: sa vie, son \u0153uvre, sa pens\u00e9e. he certainly taught in Chartres, most contemporary Louvain: Spicilegium Sacrum Lovaniense, 1966. testimony associates Gilbert with Paris, where he is reported teaching grammar, logic, and theology and Theresa Gross-Diaz where he helped promote the biblical glosses that were developing into the Glossa ordinaria. GILES OF ROME (Aegidius Colonna; ca. 1243\u20131316) In his commentaries (ca. 1140) on the Opuscula sacra of Boethius, Gilbert distinguishes between different One of the most outstanding students of Thomas Aqui- aspects of a being: that which a thing is (id, quod est) nas, Giles was born at Rome, perhaps of the Colonna and that by which a thing is what it is (id, quo est). The family. Contrary to his family\u2019s wishes, Giles embraced resulting attempt to differentiate among persons, na- the religious life ca. 1258 at the convent of Santa Maria tures, attributes, and essences, when applied to Trinitar- del Populo of the Hermits of St. Augustine. Arriving at ian issues, led Gilbert to the brink of disaster. In March Paris ca. 1260, he studied and taught there until 1278. He 1148, after the Council of Reims, Gilbert\u2019s orthodoxy heard the lectures of Thomas during the latter\u2019s second was examined on four counts: that God is not \u201cdivinity\u201d period of teaching at Paris (1269\u201371) and strenuously or divine nature; that the Persons of the Trinity are not defended Thomistic teachings against Bishop \u00c9tienne \u201cdivinity\u201d; that God\u2019s properties are not God and are Tempier\u2019s condemnation in 1277. This dispute with not eternal; that the divine nature is not incarnate. The the bishop occasioned Giles\u2019s departure from Paris; the theologians present at the consistory never got a chance bishop\u2019s death helped smooth the way for Giles\u2019s return to debate these propositions fully: when it became clear in 1285 as master of theology and the first Augustinian that the curia sided with Gilbert, Bernard of Clairvaux friar to hold a chair in theology at Paris (1285\u201391). (appointed to the prosecution) drew up a \u201cconfession of faith\u201d of sound spiritual instinct (but loose terminology) King Philip III of France had charged Giles with the education of his son, the future Philip IV the Fair, for whom Giles composed perhaps his best-known work, De regimine principum (1280). By 1282, the work had been translated into French and in the 14th century was translated into Castilian, Portuguese, Catalan, English, 254","German, and Hebrew. The work was an admirable GIOTTO DI BONDONE combination of Aristotelian ethics and Christian moral and spiritual teaching. de th\u00e9ologie ancienne et m\u00e9di\u00e9vale 4 (1932): 34\u201358. Luna, C. \u201cLa lecture de Gilles de Rome sur le quatri\u00e8me livre des Giles maintained good relations with Philip, and in the year following his election to the post of prior- sentences: les extraits du Clm 8005.\u201d Recherches de th\u00e9ologie general of the Augustinians (1292) Philip granted the ancienne et m\u00e9di\u00e9vale 57 (1992): 183\u2013255. order the Grand Convent of the Augustinians in Paris. Nash, P.W. \u201cGiles of Rome: Auditor and Critic of St Thomas.\u201d In 1295, Pope Boniface VIII, with Philip\u2019s consent, Modern Schoolman 28 (1950): 1\u201320. elevated Giles to the archiepiscopal see of Bourges. But \u2014\u2014. \u201cGiles of Rome on Boethius\u2019 Diversum est esse et id quod in the ensuing controversy between Philip and Boniface, est.\u201d Medieval Studies 12 (1950): 57\u201391. Giles sided with Boniface, composing the treatise De \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Accidentally of Esse According to Giles of Rome.\u201d ecclesiastica potestate (1301)\u2014one of the principal Gregorianum 38 (1957): 103\u201315. sources for the papal bull Unam sanctam (1302) and one of the broadest expressions of papal supremacy in Mark Zier the entire controversy. GIOTTO DI BONDONE Following the death of Boniface, Giles returned to (c. 1266\u20131337) his duties in Bourges. He was active in several contro- versies at the time, among them the disputes with the Giotto (Giotto di Bondone), a Florentine painter from Templars and with Peter Olivi. He was active at the Colle di Vespignano, near Florence, was the single most Council of Vienne (1311\u201312) and died a few years later important figure in the redirection of the arts away from in Avignon. medieval stylization to Renaissance naturalism. During his lifetime, Giotto received a level of acclaim accorded As a teacher, Giles lectured according to the pre- to no other medieval artist. The revolutionary aspect scribed course of study, commenting first on the Bible of his accomplishment was already understood by his and on the Sententiae of Peter Lombard; but his greatest contemporaries. By 1316, Dante proclaimed Giotto the love was philosophy. He left commentaries on many of most famous painter of the day in a passage (Purgatorio, Aristotle\u2019s works on logic, physics, and metaphysics, 11.94\u201396) decrying the folly of pride: including the Pseudo-Aristotelian Liber de causis. His works were held in such high esteem that the general Credette Cimabue ne la pittura chapter of his order meeting at Florence in 1287 declared tener lo campo, e ora ha Giotto il grido, that his \u201copinions, positions, and conclusions [senten- si che la fama di colui \u00e8 scura. tiae] both written and yet to be written\u201d were to receive the unqualified assent of all Augustinian teachers and (\u201cOnce, Cimabue thought to hold the field \/ in paint- students. The Franciscan philosopher William of Ock- ing; Giotto\u2019s all the rage today; \/ The other\u2019s fame lies ham went so far as to speak of Giles as the \u201cExpositor\u201d in the dust concealed.\u201d) Boccaccio, in the Decameron of Aristotle\u2019s Physics. (c. 1350), credited Giotto with bringing back to light a true, intellectual art, which had lain in neglect for cen- Giles was an independent thinker, and though he turies. Giotto\u2019s work continued to serve as a model for shared many ideas with Aquinas he disagreed mark- Florentine artists from the Quattrocento to the high Re- edly with him on the relationship between essence and naissance, when the young Michelangelo copied motifs existence. For Giles, these are two separate things, the from the Peruzzi Chapel in Santa Croce in Florence. latter not necessarily implied in the former. In this way, he stressed the contingency of all things on the will of Administrative, legal, and literary documents attest God and enunciated a theme that would become one of to Giotto\u2019s long, prolific, and far-ranging career. Despite the hallmarks of later nominalism. this, little is certainly known or agreed on about the artistic career of this master. Only a select core of work See also Aquinas, Thomas; Boniface VIII, Pope; is today ascribed to Giotto with any consensus. Among Ockham, William of; Peter Lombard these works, the Arena Chapel in Padua, decorated with frescoes as a family chapel or oratory for Enrico Further Reading Scrovegni between 1302 and 1306, serves as the most secure anchor for an understanding of Giotto\u2019s style. Giles of Rome. De ecclesiastica potestate, ed. Richard Scholz. The interior of the Arena Chapel is covered from floor Weimar: B\u00f6hlaus, 1929. to vault with an epic cycle of frescoes illustrating the redemption of humankind, leading from the lives of \u2014\u2014\u2014. Errores philosophorum, ed. Josef Koch, trans. John Joachim and Anna, Mary, and Christ to an enormous Riedl. Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1944. Last Judgment covering the west entrance wall. \u2014\u2014\u2014. Sermons. In Repertorium der lateinischen Sermones des The other major series of undisputed works are the Mittelalters von 1150\u20131350, ed. Johannes-Baptist Schneyer. 6 fresco cycles for two adjacent chapels\u2014those of the vols. M\u00fcnster: Aschendorff, 1969\u201374, Vol. 1, p. 57. Bardi and the Peruzzi\u2014in the Franciscan church of Hocediz, E. \u201cLa condemnation de Gilles de Rome.\u201d Recherches Santa Croce in Florence. The Bardi Chapel, immediately to the right of the high altar, features seven scenes from 255","GIOTTO DI BONDONE Christ crucified in the history of Christian imagery. His Madonna and Child Enthroned, painted for the church the life of Saint Francis; the Peruzzi Chapel, painted in of the Ognissanti in Florence (1306\u20131310; now in the fresco secco and now in poor condition, depicts three Uffizi, Florence), advances this insistent realism even scenes each of the lives of saints John the Evangelist further. Through sheer volume, the Madonna conveys and John the Baptist, themes probably suggested by a commanding physical presence. Great pleats of cloth the patron\u2019s name, Giovanni Peruzzi. These two cycles clearly articulate the massive form of the body beneath are key works in any reconstruction of Giotto\u2019s career, the drapery, and the angels and saints overlap one an- but both lack any documentation whatsoever. The only other in space as they attentively turn their gaze on the certainty is that they postdate the cycle in the Arena mother and child. No longer a miniature adult as in Ci- Chapel and give us our best indication of Giotto\u2019s later mabue\u2019s Santa Trinita Maest\u00e0 (c. 1280, Uffizi, Florence), activity. Most of Giotto\u2019s documented works\u2014 such Giotto\u2019s Christ child has the chubby constitution of a real as his frescoes for the Lateran Palace in Rome, painted infanr. Perhaps most compelling for the viewer\u2019s sense for the jubilee year of 1300; and the Navicella mosaic of communion with the divine, especially in comparison for the facade of old Saint Peter\u2019s in Rome (possibly with the slightly earlier maest\u00e0s of Cimabue or Duccio, 1310), Giotto\u2019s most celebrated composition in his the throne in Giotto\u2019s Madonna and Child Enthroned own day\u2014survive only in much altered fragments. His truly seems to surround and sustain the great bulk of the signed works, such as the Baroncelli Altar-piece (in Madonna, and to project forward believably into space. Santa Croce, Florence; possibly 1328) and the Bolo- A series of steps leads logically up to the Madonna and gna Polyptych (in the Pinacoteca, Bologna; possibly child; the viewer is given the impression of implicit ac- 1332), are manifestly not products of his own hand but cessibility to the divine by this clear path of approach. rather workshop assemblages probably following his In fact, the Ognissanti Madonna and Child Enthroned designs. is ingeniously designed as a participatory work of art, for the Christ child\u2019s blessing is actuated only when Giotto\u2019s great success and fortune in his day is at- viewers stand before the altarpiece, completing the circle tested to by numerous known circumstances: the large of adoration that has been left open in order to include workshop under his training, including such subse- them. No earlier maest\u00e0 had made the presence of the quently successful artists as Bernardo Daddi, Maso di divine so persuasive, and subsequent treatments such as Banco, and Taddeo Gaddi; his numerous land purchases Duccio\u2019s great Maest\u00e0 (1309\u20131311) for the high altar and business transactions, recorded in various archives, of the cathedral in Siena were perhaps influenced by including guarantees of loans and the lease of a loom Giotto\u2019s spatially convincing design. for a considerable sum; and his extensive sojourns in the Italian peninsula and beyond. He went to Rome, Rimini, Besides his volumetric and spatial constructions, Padua, Naples (from 1328 to 1334; there, he was made Giotto man ifested a genius for narrative drama; his first painter to King Robert of Anjou), Milan (where he scenes of the Life of the Virgin and Christ in the Arena was sent by the commune of Florence to work in the Chapel or the Life of Saint Francis in the Bardi Chapel in service of Duke Azzone Sforza in 1336), and possibly Santa Croce display some of the canniest understanding Avignon. Late in life Giotto was honored with appoint- of human nature ever set down in paint. This physical ments as head of works at Santa Reparata, the cathedral and psychological realism is perfectly congruent with of Florence; and as chief engineer to the city of Florence, the evangelical designs of a contemporary movement: in which capacity he designed the campanile, or bell the mendicant orders, such as the Dominicans and above tower, of the cathedral. all the Franciscans, that earnestly sought to educate the public in the message of the faith through empathic The magnitude of Giotto\u2019s accomplishment is still meditation on the lives of the central protagonists of the breathtaking. His works have a physical and psychologi- Christian saga of salvation, especially Mary and Christ. cal naturalism that seems thoroughly removed from me- Giotto\u2019s sponsorship chiefly by Franciscan patronage dieval conventions of stylization and abstraction. When throughout his career was certainly no coincidence, for one compares Cimabue\u2019s Santa Croce Crucifix (1280s, his lifelike rendering of biblical narratives was precisely Museo dell\u2019Opera di Santa Croce, Florence), which was the kind of physical cue the Franciscans sought to effect already quite innovative for the suppleness of its forms, a union between layman and creed. with Giotto\u2019s Santa Maria Novella Cross (1301\u20131302, Santa Maria Novella, Florence), executed only some One of the most intractable problems in art history twenty years later, a vast gulf seems to separate the two. has been unraveling the mystery of Giotto\u2019s beginnings. Cimabue\u2019s gracefully abstracted symbolic presence of To develop his revolution, Giotto clearly had to draw Christ on the cross contrasts with the corpse depicted on extant sources and ideas. Most obvious is his debt by Giotto\u2014the body extended forward in space, the to the sculptors Arnolfo di Cambio, Nicola Pisano, and legs buckled under its weight, the head hanging down, Nicola\u2019s son Giovanni Pisano, whose works of the later and the face in a death grimace. Giotto\u2019s brutal render- ing is, in fact, the first thoroughly realistic portrayal of 256"]
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