Key Figures in Medieval Europe - An Encyclopedia

["couplets that refer to the \u201cunveiling\u201d of the \u201csecrets\u201d MASLAMA DE MADRID of Virgil by Servius. It depicts Servius pulling back a curtain to reveal a reclining Virgil; nearby are a knight Brink, Joel. \u201cFrancesco Petrarch and the Problem of Chronology (representing the Aeneid), a farmer (Georgics), and a in the Late Paintings of Simone Martini.\u201d Paragone, 28(331), shepherd (Eclogues). 1977a, pp. 3\u20139. Two lost portraits by Martini probably also date \u2014\u2014. \u201cSimone Martini, Francesco Petrarch and the Humanistic from the Avignon period. The first, made for Petrarch, Program of the Virgil Frontispiece.\u201d Mediaevalia, 3, 1977b, depicted Laura; it is known only through two of the pp. 83\u2013117. poet\u2019s sonnets that refer to it. The second was of Cardi- nal Napoleone Orsini, and to it Martini added verses by Cannon, Joanna. \u201cSimone Martini, the Dominicans, and the Early Petrarch, which appear to come from the sitter\u2019s mouth. Sienese Polyptych.\u201d Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld It was mentioned in a fifteenth-century text. These were Institutes, 45, 1982, pp. 69\u201393. the first-known individual portraits in Italy. Carli, Enzo, ed. Simone Martini: La Maest\u00e0. Milan: Electa, The seven surviving tempera panels of the Antwerp 1996. (Orsini) Polyptych (Antwerp, Mus\u00e9es Royaux des Beaux-Arts; Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Preussischer Contini, Gianfranco, and Maria Cristina Gozzoli. L\u2019opera Kulturbesitz; Paris, Mus\u00e9e du Louvre) are dated by completa di Simone Martini. Milan: Rizzoli, 1970. most scholars to Martini\u2019s years in Avignon. Originally a double-sided work, the polyptych probably folded like Denny, Don. \u201cSimone Martini\u2019s Holy Family.\u201d Journal of the a concertina. The panels portray Gabriel, the Virgin An- Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 30, 1967, pp. 138\u2013149. nunciate, and the Via Crucis (backed by the Orsini arms), Crucifixion, Deposition, and Entombment. One narrative Enaud, Fran\u00e7ois. \u201cLes fr\u00e8sques de Simone Martini en Avignon.\u201d panel and a second set of the family arms are lost. The In Les Monuments Historiques de la France. Paris, 1963, pp. patron, shown in the Deposition, was one of the four 114\u2013180. Orsini brothers, all of whom became cardinals. Most remarkable is the Via Crucis, which includes perturbed Gardner, Julian. \u201cSaint Louis of Toulouse, Robert of Anjou, and children; a rare depiction of Simon of Cyrene bearing Simone Martini.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Kunstgeschichte, 39, 1976, the cross behind Jesus (Matthew 27:32); and a compas- pp. 12\u201333. sionate Saint John already protecting the Virgin, before Jesus asks him to do so from the cross. The polyptych Garzelli, Annarosa. \u201cPeculiarit\u00e0 di Simone Martini ad Assisi: Gli was signed by Martini. affreschi della cappella di San Martino.\u201d In Simone Martini: Atti del convegno: Siena, 27, 28, 29 marzo 1985, ed. Luciano Saint Ladislas (Altomonte, Santa Maria della Con- Bellosi. Florence: Centro Di, 1988, pp. 55\u201365. solazione, Museo), a small devotional panel in tempera known only since 1929, is attributed to Martini on the Hoch, Adrian S. \u201cA New Document for Simone Martini\u2019s Chapel basis of style. It probably was made at Avignon. The of Saint Martin at Assisi.\u201d Gesta, 24, 1985, pp. 141\u2013146. veneration of Ladislas was rare in Italy at this time, and the portrayal of a saint standing in isolation was Hueck, Irene. \u201cDie Kapellen der Basilika San Francesco in Assisi: also unusual. Die Auftraggeber und die Franziskaner.\u201d In Patronage and Public in the Trecento: Proceedings of the Saint Lambrecht Other Lost or Destroyed Works Symposium, Abtei Saint Lambrecht, Styria, 16\u201319 July 1984, ed. Vincent Moleta. Florence: L. S. Olschki, 1986. Account books in Siena mention other works done in the city but no longer extant. In addition, Ghiberti cites Mallory, Michael, and Gordon Moran. \u201cNew Evidence Con- an altarpiece for the cathedral of Siena, now lost, and cerning Guidoriccio.\u201d Burlington Magazine, 128, 1986, pp. frescoes on the facade of the Opera del Duomo and the 250\u2013256. Ospedale della Scala, both destroyed. Finally, Vasari refers to an untraced panel in Santa Maria Novella in Martindale, Andrew. \u201cThe Problem of Guidoriccio.\u201d Burlington Florence. Magazine, 128, 1986, pp. 259\u2013273. See also Duccio di Buoninsegna; Giotto di Bondone; \u2014\u2014. Simone Martini. Oxford: Phaidon, 1988. Petrarca, Francesco; Robert of Anjou Milanesi, Gaetano. Documenti per la storia dell\u2019 arte senese. Further Reading Siena: O. Porri, 1854\u20131856. Paccagnini, Giovanni. Simone Martini. Milan: A. Martello, Borsook, Eve. The Mural Painters of Tuscany, from Cimabue to Andrea del Sarto. London: Phaidon, I960. (Rev. ed. Oxford: 1955. Clarendon, 1980, pp. 19\u201327.) \u2014\u2014. \u201cMartini.\u201d In Encyclopedia of World Art, Vol. 9. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1964, cols. 502\u2013508. Stubblebine, James H. Duccio di Buoninsegna and His School. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979. Vasari, Giorgio. Vite, ed. Gaetano Milanesi. Florence: G. C. Sansoni, 1878\u20131885. (Originally 1550, rev. 1568.) Mary D. Edwards MASLAMA DE MADRID (d. 1007) Abu\u00af-l-Qa\u00afsim Maslama ibn Ah.mad al-Majr\u00af\u0131t.\u00af\u0131, Andalu- sian astronomer and mathematician, was born in Majr\u00af\u0131t. (Madrid). He studied in C\u00f3rdoba and practiced astrol- ogy: interested by the Saturn-Jupiter conjunction that took place in 1007, he predicted a series of catastrophes usually associated with the fall of the caliphate and the period of civil wars (fitna, 1009\u20131031). He is the author of the first documented astronomical observation in al-Andalus (the longitude of Qalb al-Asad, Regulus, 135\u00b0 40' in 977 or 979). He wrote a set of notes on the 457","MASLAMA DE MADRID to Henry V at Utrecht, and crowned at Mainz by Arch- bishop Frederick of Cologne. Henry V then dismissed only trigonometrical tool used in antiquity, Menelaos\u2019 all her English attendants, and the child was taken under theorem (al-shakl al-qat.t.a\u00af\u2018), as well as a commentary, the guardianship of Archbishop Bruno of Trier to learn with frequent original digressions, on Ptolemy\u2019s Plani- the German language and customs. The marriage finally sphaerium, which is the first of the studies dedicated by took place in January 1114 at Worms, the new consort Andalusian astronomers to the astrolabe: its influence now being twelve years old and her husband some thirty is clear in the thirteen-century Latin compilation on years her elder. Henry V had used the years between the the instrument ascribed to Messahalla (Ma\u00afsha\u00af\u2019alla\u00afh, fl. betrothal and marriage to spend Matilda\u2019s enormous Bacra, 762\u2013809) the echoes of which reach the treatises dowry of ten thousand silver marks on a major Roman on the astrolabe written by the collaborators of Alfonso expedition, during which he extracted the short-lived X and by Geoffrey Chaucer (ca. 1340\u20131400). He is the treaty of Ponte Mammolo from Pope Paschal II in hopes creator of an important school of mathematicians and of decisively ending the Investiture Conflict. astronomers, and two of his disciples (Ah.mad ibn al- S.affa\u00afr and Abu\u00af -1-Qa\u00afsim As.bag ibn al-Samh.) collabo- Matilda soon played the crucial roles of patron and rated with him in his revision of the Sindhind z\u0131\u00afj (as- intercessor at court; she appeared on charters in subse- tronomical handbook with tables) of Al-Khwa\u00afrizm\u00af\u0131 quent years as the sponsor of many royal grants, and (fl. 800\u2013847), a work having an Indian pre-Ptolemaic acted as petitioner several times on behalf of nobles or origin, probably known in Al-Andalus since ca. 850. prelates who sought reconciliation with the emperor. Her This revision, extant in a Latin translation by Adelard imperial role expanded when she joined her husband of Bath (fl. 1116\u20131142), adapted certain tables to the on a military campaign in Rome in 1117. The imperial geographical coordinates of C\u00f3rdoba, changed the Per- army occupied the city, and Matilda was crowned with sian calendar used in the original for the Hijra calendar, her husband on Pentecost in St. Peter\u2019s Basilica by the introduced Hispanic and, possibly, Ptolemaic materials archbishop of Braga. Matilda would choose to retain and added a considerable amount of new astrological the imperial dignity even after leaving Germany, at least tables (about one-fifth of the extant set of numerical as a courtesy title. When her husband\u2019s presence was tables), which improve considerably the techniques used required north of the Alps after the coronation, Matilda by Al-Khwa\u00afrizm\u00af\u0131 himself. He also introduced Ptolemaic remained in Italy as imperial regent. She assisted in astronomy in al-Andalus: he studied the Almagest and the administration of imperial territories and presided wrote astrological additions for the Ptolemaic z\u0131\u00afj of over courts such as the session at Rocca Capineta near Al-Batta\u00afn\u00af\u0131 (d. 929). Reggio. She appears to have continued in this capacity during the year 1118, and then rejoined the emperor Further Reading in Lotharingia in 1119. This royal apprenticeship at such a tender age prepared her well for the tumultu- Burnett, C. (ed.) Adelard of Bath: An English Scientist of the ous years ahead. She was with Henry V in Utrecht at Early Twelfth Century. London, 1987. 87\u2013118. his untimely death in 1125, which left her a childless widow in possession of the imperial insignia at the age Mercier, R. Astronomical Tables in the Twelfth Century. London, of twenty-three. 1988. Her husband\u2019s hopes that she would produce an heir Neugebauer, O. The Astronomical Tables of Al-Khwa\u00afrizm\u00af\u0131. Trans. for the Salian line were quickly replaced by her father\u2019s with commentary by H. Suter. Copenhagen, 1962. need for an heir to the Norman dynasty, since Henry I\u2019s only son died in 1120. He therefore recalled her to Sams\u00f3, J. Las Ciencias de los Antiguos en al-Andalus. Madrid, England, and Matilda handed over the imperial insignia 1992. 84\u201398. to Archbishop Adalbert of Mainz before returning to her Anglo-Norman homeland in 1125. After a sixteen\u2013year Suter, H. Die Astonomischen Tafeln des Muh.ammed ibn Mu\u00af sa absence she began yet another new life, with the only al-Khwa\u00afrizm\u00af\u0131 in der Bearbeitung des malama ibn Ahmed tokens of her imperial childhood in Germany being a al-Madjr\u00af\u0131t.\u00af\u0131 und der latein. Uebersetzung des Athelhard von treasure of jewels and personal regalia (most of which Bath. Copenhagen, 1914. she would give to religious houses) and the precious relic of the hand of St. James (which she gave to the family Vernet, J., and M. A. Catal\u00e1. \u201cLas obras matematicas de Maslama abbey at Reading). She was recognized as the legitimate de Madrid.\u201d In Estudios sobre Historia de la Ciencia Medi- heir of Henry I in England and Normandy, and in 1128 eval. Ed. J. Vernet. Barcelona, 1979. 241\u201371. Henry I married her to the unpopular Angevin suitor, Geoffrey Plantagenet. Matilda was the child in her first Julio Sams\u00f3 marriage, but in this second union Geoffrey was the child, being ten years her junior and only fifteen years MATILDA, EMPRESS (1102\u20131167) The daughter of King Henry I of England and his wife, Matilda of Scotland, Matilda became the empress by virtue of her marriage to the Salian emperor, Henry V. Her father accepted the marriage proposal during Whitsuntide of 1109, at which time she was only eight years old. In the spring of 1110 she was sent to Germany under the care of Bishop Burchard of Cambrai, betrothed 458","old. Her second marriage of political expediency was MATTEO DA PERUGIA a rocky one, but it did produce the needed heir in 1133 (Henry II Plantagenet). After her father\u2019s death in 1135 cathedral of Milan (which was then still unfinished), Matilda spent some twenty years asserting her son\u2019s and in 1402 he was appointed to be its first choirmas- claim to the Anglo-Norman throne against her cousin, ter (magister capellae or maestro di cappella). This Stephen of Blois. appointment is thought to reflect the influence of the colorful man who became Matteo\u2019s chief patron, Pietro Once Henry II succeeded Stephen in 1154, Matilda Filargo di Candia (Petros Philargos). Pietro Filargo was lived the remainder of her life in Normandy, and was born a Greek; joined the Roman church; studied and buried at the abbey of Bec upon her death in 1167. She then taught theology at the University of Paris; was an proved to be a valuable and trusted adviser to her royal adviser to Gian Galeazzo Visconti; was made bishop, son. Although she recommended against the appoint- successively, of Piacenza (1386), Vicenza (1387), and ment of Thomas \u00e0 Becker as the archbishop of Canter- Novara (1389); became archbishop of Milan in 1402; bury, Matilda was turned to repeatedly by all sides as a was made a cardinal in 1405; and became the antipope mediator (mediatrix) in the subsequent dispute between Alexander V in 1409. the king and cleric. This remarkable woman\u2019s Anglo- Norman-German life was summed up in the epitaph on Filargo took up his episcopal residence in nearby her tomb: \u201cGreat by birth, greater by marriage, greatest Pavia, where he could teach at its university and hold a by offspring. Here lies the daughter, wife, and mother of lavish court. Matteo, loyally, came to this court to serve Henry.\u201dYet surely the legacy of this indomitable woman Filargo, so annoying his own employers in Milan that he reaches beyond the men whose political needs set the felt compelled to give up his cathedral post in 1407 and boundaries of her life. devote himself fully to Filargo. In 1409, when Filargo was elected as antipope Alexander V by the Council of See also Henry I Pisa, Matteo presumably moved with his master to a new residence in Bologna. It was apparently then that Further Reading Matteo participated in the preparation of one of the most important musical manuscript collections of the Chibnall, Marjorie. The Empress Matilda: Queen, Consort, Queen day (now in the Estense Library in Modena). When Mother and Lady of the English. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Alexander V died in 1410 (by poison), Matteo evidently 1991. stayed on with his successor, John XXIII, until John was assured of deposition by the Council of Constance. In Geldner, Ferdinand. \u201cKaiserin Mathilde, die deutsche K\u00f6nigswahl May 1414, Matteo resumed his post at the cathedral in von 1125 und das Gegenk\u00f6nigtum Konrads III.\u201d Zeitschrift Milan, officially until October 1416. However, but not f\u00fcr bayerische Landesgeschichte 40 (1977): 3\u201322. until January 1418\u2014by which time Matteo himself seems to have died\u2014was his successor given full status Leyser, Karl. \u201cFrederick Barbarossa, Henry II and the hand of St. as maestro di canto. James.\u201d English Historical Review 90 (1975): 481\u2013506; rpt. in Medieval Germany and its Neighbors. London: Hambledon, There is no evidence that Matteo himself ever visited 1980, pp. 215\u201340. France, but French cultural influences had been present in northern Italy for decades, thanks partly to the prox- Pain, Nesta. Matilda: Uncrowned Queen of England. London: imity of the absentee papal court at Avignon. Filargo\u2019s Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978. Francophile tastes, in particular, probably caused Matteo to develop an identification with French rather than Ital- R\u00f6ssler, Oskar. Kaiserin Mathilde, Mutter Heinrichs von Anjou, ian musical styles\u2014whether by imposition or voluntary und das Zeitalter der Anarchie in England. Berlin: E. Ebering, affinity. Matteo\u2019s output of compositions must have been 1897; rpt. Vaduz: Kraus Reprint, 1965. extensive, and what survives of it, though small by some standards, is the largest of any of the Italian ars nova Schnith, Karl. \u201cDomina Anglorum, Zur Bedeuntungsstreite eines composers. Aside from some six Latin liturgical pieces hochmittelalterlichen Herrscherinentitels.\u201d In Grundwis- (two of them complex polytextual motets), the surviving senschaften und Geschichte: Festschrift f\u00fcr Peter Acht, ed. works are secular. Only two ballate are in Italian. The Waldemar Schlogl and Peter Herde. Kallmunz: Lassleben, remainder (four ballades, seven virelais, ten rondeaux, 1976, pp. 101\u2013111. and one canon) are all in French, presumably to suit the Francophile tastes of his patrons. Most of Matteo\u2019s Joseph P. Huffman compositions are for three vocal parts, and in virtually all his work\u2014sacred or secular\u2014he applies the arcane MATTEO DA PERUGIA (d. by 1418) techniques of isorhythmic integration, carrying them to elaborate extremes (disjunct lines, conflicting time Matteo da Perugia (Matheus de Perusia) was born in the signatures, etc.) in the style of the so-called ars subtilior, latter fourteenth century and belongs, officially, to the the \u201cmannerist\u201d school of exaggerated effects, which he third and last generation of Italian ars nova musicians; however, his curious career and his stylistic focus make him almost a French musician. Except for his presumed Perugian origin, we know nothing of Matteo\u2019s early life, although it is apparent that he chose to become a professional musician rather than a priest. At some point, he became a singer at the 459","MATTEO DA PERUGIA and continued work on Rogers Chronica majora, to some extent rewriting but primarily extending and il- seem to have embraced wholeheartedly. Indeed, Matteo, lustrating the text (Cambridge, Corpus Christi College along with Antonello da Caserta, was a leader of this 26 and 16, and BL Royal 14.C.vii, fols. 157\u2013218). He imported stylistic movement. also produced other Latin historical texts generally as- sociated with the Chronicles (Historia Anglorum, BL Beyond his own authenticated compositions, there Royal l4.C.vii, fols. 1\u2013156; Liber additamentorum, BL survive a number of substitute contratenor parts written Cotton Nero D.i; Abbreviatio chronicorum, BL Cotton for music by other composers. If these parts are indeed Claudius D.vi) among others, and four saints\u2019 lives in by Matteo, as is generally believed, they show him at- Anglo-Norman. tempting, through these substitute voices, to update or enhance the work of earlier or contemporaneous masters The great bulk of Matthew\u2019s illustrative work in the (such as Machaut, Bartolino da Padova, and Antonello). historical texts may be characterized as signa, abbrevi- It has been proposed that Matteo\u2019s supposedly \u201cmodern\u201d ated symbols that help readers find their way in the style made him an important shaper of new musical text and signal important events. In addition Matthew directions for the Quattrocento; but there is also an included itineraries, maps, illustrated genealogies, and argument against this idea, buttressed by the fact that the oldest preserved record of heraldic arms. Narrative Matteo\u2019s music survives in only a few manuscripts and illustrations are added to the histories but tend to take a apparently did not circulate widely. For all his fascina- minor part and assume a telegraphic, hurried, yet also tion as a bold compositional personality, Matteo seems vividly dramatic aspect. A few full-page iconic illustra- to have played a less significant role than the more fo- tions (the Virgin and Child, the Veronica head of Christ) cused and disciplined Johannes Ciconia in the transition appended to the Chronicles are the only miniatures that from the age of Machaut to the age of Dufay. could be considered polished works of art. See also Ciconia, Johannes It is in his illustrated saints\u2019 lives that Matthew fully explores the possibilities of narrative and, in the Vie de Further Reading seint Auban in Dublin, produces his most artistically complex work. The Dublin manuscript has been dated Apel, Willi. French Secular Vocal Music of the Late Fourteenth in the 1240s as Matthew\u2019s first attempt to illustrate the Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Mediaeval Academy of America, life of a saint and contains Latin versions of the lives, 1950. liturgical offices, and charters in addition to Matthew\u2019s Anglo-Norman text. The romance text is illustrated by \u2014\u2014, ed. French Secular Compositions of the Fourteenth Century, framed miniatures across the top of the three-column 3 vols. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, 53. Rome: American page, and these continue above the Latin texts, after the Institute of Musicology, 1970\u20131972. romance text has ended, to detail the foundation of the monastery through the efforts of King Offa. Matthew Besseler, Heinrich. \u201cHat Matheus de Perusio Epoche gemacht?\u201d worked in an accomplished but late version of the \u201cStyle Die Musikforschung, 8, 1955, 19\u201323. 1200.\u201d His illustrations for the Dublin manuscript are done in line with some touches of color, primarily green, Fano, Fabio. \u201cOrigini della cappella musicale del Duomo di but also vermilion, blue, and ocher. Notes at the bottom Milano.\u201d Rivista Musicale Italiana, 55, 1953, pp. 1ff. of the pages in Matthew\u2019s hand give evidence that the iconography of the miniatures was carefully planned. \u2014\u2014. La cappella musicale del Duomo di Milano, Vol. 1, Le origini e il primo maestro di cappelia: Matteo da Perugia. It would seem that similar planning would explain Milan: Ricordi, 1956. Matthew\u2019s involvement in the illustration of two other manuscripts of lives of saints. The Life of St. Thomas Gombosi, Otto. \u201cFrench Secular Music of the Fourteenth Cen- of Canterbury in Anglo-Norman (BL Loan 88) and tury.\u201d Musical Quarterly, 36, 1950, pp. 603\u2013610. the Estoire de seint Aedward le rei (CUL Ee.3.59) are executed in a different style from the Dublin manu- G\u00fcnther, Ursula. \u201cDas Manuskript Modena, Biblioteca Estense, script but retain many of the features associated with a M.5.24.\u201d Musica Disciplina, 24, 1970, pp. 17\u201367. Matthew, even compositions and the drawing of such details as ships and horses. All three manuscripts show Korte, Werner. Studien zur Geschichte der Musik in Italien im er- an involvement with contemporary political concerns sten Viertel des 15. Jahrhunderts. Kassel: B\u00e4renreiter, 1933. and were intended for an aristocratic audience: the life of Edward is dedicated to Queen Eleanor, and notes Marrocco, William Thomas, ed. \u201cItalian Secular Music\u201d. In Poly- on the flyleaf of the Dublin manuscript detail its loan phonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, Vol. 10. Monaco: and that of other manuscripts of the lives of saints to \u00c9ditions de Oiseau-Lyre, 1977. aristocratic ladies. Pirrotta, Nino. Il Codice Estense lat. 568 e la musica francese in Italia al principio del 1400. Palermo: Reale Accademia di Scienze, Lettere, e Arti, 1946. Reese, Gustav. Music in the Middle Ages. NewYork: Norton, 1940. Sartori, Claudio. \u201cMatteo da Perugia e Bertrand Feragut.\u201d Acta, 28, 1956, pp. 12\u201327. John W. Barker MATTHEW PARIS (ca. 1199\u20131259) A monk at St. Albans from 1217 until his death in 1259, Matthew inherited the duties of historian from his predecessor in that capacity, Roger of Wendover, 460","Although Matthew made important innovations in MAXIMILIAN format and narrative in illustrated lives of the saints that in turn influenced the illustration of Apocalypses and Battle of Nancy in 1477, the king of France moved to other English manuscripts, in general his work must be seize Mary, who was holding out in Ghent. Maximilian characterized as eccentric and isolated. He apparently sealed their marriage first through procurators in April, worked apart from the scriptorium at St. Albans and and finally concluded it in person when he arrived at produced his manuscripts as virtually a one-man effort, the head of a rescuing army in August. Their marriage even writing his own fair copy. If he did plan the London became a true love match. The emperor enfeoffed his and Cambridge manuscripts, he probably sent them off son with the lands of the late duke of Burgundy. Yet to London or Westminster for execution. Maximilian only truly secured most of the lands in a series of wars with France. His victory at the battle of Matthew received a special commission as historian Guinegate in 1479 guaranteed his possession of the from Henry III and harbored many courtly prejudices, Lowlands and most of Burgundy, some of the richest yet he lived in a monastery away from court and voiced lands in Europe. some remarkably strong antiroyal opinions. Similarly he was a religious man who had little patience with These new lands were not so easy to hold onto, how- the papacy. The unique form and visual content of his ever, since the citizens of the prosperous towns disputed Chronicles, which he surely counted as his greatest the power of the new dynasty. After Mary died from a achievement, had no successor and, as a recent scholar riding accident in 1482, many in the Lowlands openly has lamented, have been little studied. rebelled against Maximilian\u2019s authority. Allied with France, town forces managed to wring from Maximil- Further Reading ian the supervision of his children, Philip and Margaret. Even worse, the city of Bruges took him prisoner for Primary Sources fourteen weeks in 1488. His rather, in a rare but certainly necessary act of support, actually gathered an army that Lowe, W.R.L., and E.F. Jacob, eds. Illustrations to the Life of St. marched on the city, frightening the town into freeing Alban. Intro. M.R. James. Oxford: Clarendon, 1924. Maximilian. Returning at the head of his own army, Maximilian conquered Bruges and many other towns, Paris, Matthew. Chronica majora. Ed. Henry R. Luard. 7 vols. completing their defeat by 1493 in the Treaty of Senlis. Rolls Series. London: Longman, 1872\u201383.Paris, Matthew. La estoire de seint Aedward le rei. Ed. Montague Rhodes James. In the midst of these conflicts Frederick had managed Oxford: Roxburghe Club, 1920 [facsimile]. to get Maximilian elected king of the Romans in Frank- furt on February 16, 1486, and crowned in Aachen on Secondary Sources April 9. For the first time in a century a son had followed as king an imperial father during the father\u2019s lifetime. In Backhouse, Janet, and Christopher de Hamel. The Becket Leaves. 1490 Maximilian replaced his incompetent cousin, Si- London: British Library, 1988. gismund \u201cthe Rich in Coins,\u201d as duke of Tyrol. He made that province, located between Burgundy and Austria Hahn, Cynthia. \u201cAbsent No Longer: The Saint and the Sign in Late on the way to Italy, and its capital, Innsbruck, the center Medieval Pictorial Hagiography.\u201d In Hagiogmphie und Kunst, of his imperial organization. From there to Mecheln in ed. G. Kerscher. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1993, pp. 152\u201375. the Netherlands he established the first regular postal route in Europe. The silver of Tyrol helped to finance the Lewis, Suzanne. The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica ma- reconquest of Austria from Matthias Corvinus, while the jora. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987 [extensive growing business with the Fugger banking family helped bibliography and analysis of Chronicle illustrations]. to underwrite many more imperial schemes. But with interest rates of over 35 percent on loans, Maximilian Morgan, Nigel. Early Gothic Manuscripts 1190\u20131285. 2 vols. A rarely had enough cash to fund all his plans. Survey of Manuscripts Illuminated in the British Isles 4, ed. J.J.G. Alexander. London: Harvey Miller, 1982\u201388. After Mary\u2019s death, Maximilian fathered several illegitimate children, but he knew the importance of po- Vaughan, Richard. Matthew Paris. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- litical marriages. To gain both cash and leverage against versity Press, 1958. France, in 1490 Maximilian arranged his marriage by proxy with the twelve-year-old Anne of Brittany, who Cynthia Habn had just inherited that important province on her father\u2019s death. The next year Charles VIII invaded Brittany, dis- MAXIMILIAN (1459\u20131519) solved his (unconsummated) marriage to Maximilian\u2019s daughter Margaret, and, without returning Margaret Emperor, patron of the arts, \u201cthe last knight,\u201d Maximilian or her dowry of Burgundy, married Anne. Maximilian I Habsburg enjoys a popular modern reputation. As the tried to gather an army to oppose these actions but was son of Emperor Frederick III, Maximilian experienced hopelessly outnumbered by French forces and hampered a youth tarnished by the wars and defeats his father suffered. His first important step into politics came in 1473, when his father negotiated with Duke Charles the Rash of Burgundy for the hand of his daughter, Mary. Although Charles\u2019s original demand of a royal crown was too high, the negotiations continued over the next few years. Then when Charles died unexpectedly at the 461","MAXIMILIAN of Aragon and Isabella of Castille. Philip and Juana had several children. The elder son, Charles V, eventually by his daughter\u2019s hostage status. The Brittany affair inherited both the Spanish and Austrian possessions and gained France a strategic province, earned Maximil- had an empire \u201con which the sun never set.\u201d The second ian frustration and humiliation, and helped engender a double marriage was arranged in 1515, when Maximil- centuries-long rivalry between the Habsburg and Valois ian married his grandson Ferdinand and granddaughter dynasties. In 1497 Maximilian found another marriage Mary to the children of King Ladislaus of Bohemia and partner in Bianca Maria Sforza, sister of Ludovico il Hungary. This arrangement provided the legal claims Moro Sforza, who had usurped control of Milan. She to reunite Hungary and Bohemia with the Habsburg brought a dowry of four hundred thousand gulden lands in 1526. (guilders), or about three times what Maximilian could draw annually from the Habsburg Austrian lands. That But Maximilian\u2019s attempts at building stronger money quickly disappeared also. institutions of rule in his own inherited lands led to increasing opposition, including open rebellion in some Soon after his father\u2019s death in 1493, Maximilian re- territories. Even the citizens of Innsbruck resented the sponded to a call for an imperial reform proposed for the burden of debts run up by the often cash-poor Maximil- Reichstag (imperial council) of Worms in 1495. There ian. At the beginning of 1519 they finally refused to ac- the archbishop of Mainz, Berthold von Henneberg, tried cept his credit, or to find stalls for his horses. In disdain to gain a reform suitable to the princes. At the Reichstag, he left the city for Vienna but sickened along the way and Maximilian agreed to the \u201ceternal territorial peace\u201d died on January 12. As a result, his magnificent tomb (Ewige Landfriede), once and for all, legally forbidding in Innsbruck lies empty; his body is buried in Wiener the many private wars and feuds among nobles that had Neustadt, while his heart lies in Bruges, next to the body disturbed the empire. To keep the peace, the Reichstag of his first wife, Mary. also created the Imperial Chamber Court (Reichskam- mergericht) and established a general tax, the \u201ccommon Maximilian enjoys lasting fame as a well-rounded penny\u201d (gemeine Pfennig). Afterward many princes Renaissance prince. He was a patron of the arts and new wanted further reform and withheld the general tax to sciences at the summit of the German Renaissance. His put pressure on Maximilian. After his defeat in a brief portrait by Albrecht D\u00fcrer is the most famous image of war against the Swiss, the princes temporarily were able the monarch. Skilled and literate in several languages, to further restrict Maximilian\u2019s authority, imposing an he himself helped to produce two autobiographical epic imperial regime (Reichsregiment) at Augsburg in 1500. poems (Tbeuerdank and Weisskunig), a hunting manual, By 1504, however, he had largely defeated the fractious and other works, including the Ambraser Heldenbuch princes. The possibility of a unified, effective imperial (Ambray Book of Heroes, a compilation manuscript of government vanished in these quarrels. courtly literature named after Castle Ambras). Some- times called \u201cthe last knight,\u201d he was a great promoter Maximilian\u2019s involvement in wars on the empire\u2019s of tournaments, drawing on the chivalric traditions of fringes brought mixed results. He encouraged new the court of Burgundy and continuing the Order of the developments in military tactics, like cannon. Or he Golden Fleece. Maximilian\u2019s idea of the Holy Roman increasingly abandoned the cavalry charge of armored Empire of the German nation ended the Middle Ages knights in favor of infantry on foot with sword and pike, and looked forward to the attempt at universal empire his Landsknechte. Maximilian regularly participated in by his successor, his grandson Charles V. the shifting diplomatic alliances, and he managed to maintain a reputation as an able commander. But he lost See also Frederick III; Hartmann von Aue many wars, often through lack of funds. He fought fre- quently in Italy, which had become an open battleground Further Reading since the invasion in 1494 by Charles VII of France. In 1508 Pope Julius II, needing Maximilian\u2019s military sup- Benecke, Gerhard. Maximilian I (1459\u20131519): An Analytical port in the League of Cambrai against Venice, offered to Biography. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982. crown him emperor.Yet Maximilian was unable to fight his way to Rome. So he proclaimed himself \u201celected Wiesflecker, Hermann. Kaiser Maximilian I.: Das Reich, \u00d6ster- emperor of the Romans\u201d on February 4, 1508, in Tri- reich und Europa an der Wende zur Neuzeit. 5 vols. Vienna: ent. Thus, with Julius\u2019s belated acceptance, he became Verlag f\u00fcr Geschichte und Politik, 1971\u20131986. emperor without a papal coronation. Brian A. Pavlac Maximilian gained lasting importance for both his dynasty and European history because of two important MECHTHILD VON HACKEBORN double marriages he arranged. First in 1496 he married (1241\u20131298\/1299) his son Philip \u201cthe Handsome,\u201d and daughter Margaret from his marriage with Mary, to the heirs of Spain, A Cistercian sister of the Helfta community, Mechthild Juana \u201cthe Mad\u201d and Juan, the children of Ferdinand von Hackeborn\u2019s mystical visions were recorded in the 462","Liber specialis gratiae (Book of Special Grace). At MECHTHILD VON MAGDEBURG age seven, Mechthild entered the Rodersdorf cloister, where her sister Gertrud already resided. After the Lewis, Gertrud Jaron. Bibliographie zur deutschen Frauenmystik community had relocated to Helfta, Mechthild served des Mittelalters. Berlin: Schmidt, 1989, pp. 184\u2013195. in the capacities of magistra and cantrix. In 1261 the five-year-old Gertrud von Helfta (die Gro\u00dfe) was given Paquelin, Ludwig, ed. \u201cSanctae Mechthildis Virginis Ordinis into her charge. Bedridden the last eight years of her life, Sancti Benedicti Liber specialis gratiae.\u201d In Revelationes Mechthild revealed her visions at this time to Gertrud Gertrudianae ac Mechthildianae, vol. 2. Poitiers: Oudin, and at least one other sister at Helfta, who recorded them 1877, pp. 1\u2013422. without her knowledge; however, Mechthild did approve portions of the account before her death. Schmidt, Margot. \u201cMechthild von Hackeborn.\u201d In Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, 2d ed., ed. Kurt The original German version of Mechthild\u2019s visions Ruh. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987, vol. 6, cols. 251\u2013260. has not survived. There are more than 250 contempora- neous and subsequent Latin and vernacular manuscript Debra L. Stoudt versions of the Liber specialis gratiae, but only one manuscript contains all seven books. Rich in allegory, MECHTHILD VON MAGDEBURG the seven parts chronicle Mechthild\u2019s life and death, (ca. 1207\u2013ca. 1282) her visions, the special graces she experienced, her teachings concerning the true devotion to God and the Beguine, visionary, and mystic, known to us through her virtuous life, and fragments of a correspondence with sole book, Das flie\u00dfende Licht der Gottheit (The Flow- a female friend. In contrast to the Flie\u00dfendes Licht der ing Light of the Godhead). Biographical information Gottheit (Flowing Light of the Godhead) of Mechthild\u2019s gleaned or inferred from her book and its introductory somewhat older namesake at Helfta, Mechthild von material written in Latin by others indicates that she was Magdeburg, the descriptions and observations found in born to a family of lower nobility near Magdeburg. She the Liber specialis gratiae are based on liturgy, scrip- experienced her first vision at age twelve and left home ture, and the writings of the church fathers; however, about 1230 to take up the life of a Beguine in Magde- like the Flie\u00dfendes Licht, the Liber exhibits original- burg, returning home occasionally perhaps because of ity in imagery, language, and style. Of special note is sickness or troubles caused by her book. Just as she Mechthild\u2019s description of the devotion to the Sacred criticized the deportment of some Beguines, male and Heart of Christ (Herz-Jesu-Verehrung), which she and female religious, clergy, the pope, and others, she, too, Gertrud die Gro\u00dfe promoted at Helfta. was subjected to criticism and even threats. Equally evident, however, is the support she received, especially See also Gertrud von Helfta; Mechthild von from the Dominicans, whose order she praised. Bald- Magdeburg win, her brother, was received into this order, became subprior of the Dominican house in Halle, and was Further Reading esteemed for virtue and learning. Another Dominican, Heinrich von Halle, was her spiritual adviser for many Bynum, Caroline Walker. \u201cWomen Mystics in the Thirteenth years and helped her edit (and, no doubt, circulate) in- Century: The Case of the Nuns of Helfta.\u201d In Jesus as Mother: complete versions of her book. About 1270 she entered Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages. Berkeley: the Cistercian convent at Helfta, renowned, under the University of California Press, 1982, pp. 170\u2013262. leadership of Gertrud von Hackeborn, for its thriving spiritual life and devotion to learning, as witnessed by Finnegan, Jeremy. \u201cSaint Mechtild of Hackeborn: Nemo Com- the writings of Mechthild von Hackeborn and Gertrud munior.\u201d In Medieval Religious Women, vol. 2. Peace Weavers, (the Great) von Helfta. Here Mechthild was sheltered ed. Lillian Thomas Shank and John A. Nichols. Kalamazoo, from the trials of the unprotected life of a Beguine but, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1987, pp. 213\u2013221. if we can believe her, was more revered from a distance than accepted into the community. With her health weak- Finnegan, Mary Jeremy. The Women of Helfta. Athens: Univer- ening and her sight failing, she completed the seventh sity of Georgia Press, 1991 [first published 1962 as Scholars and final section of her book. Her death is described in and Mystics]. Gertrud of Helfta\u2019s Legatus divinae pietatis. Haas, Alois Maria. \u201cMechthild von Hackeborn. Eine Form The original text of her book, written in Middle Low zisterziensischer Frauenfr\u00f6mmigkeit.\u201d In Die Zisterzienser. German with some Middle German characteristics, has Ordensleben zwischen Ideal und Wirklichkeit. Erg\u00e4nzungs- been lost. A Middle High German version of the com- band, ed. Kaspar Elm. Cologne: Rheinland-Verlag, 1982, pp. plete work translated about 1345 under the direction of 221\u2013239; rpt. \u201cThemen und Aspekte der Mystik Mechthilds Heinrich von N\u00f6rdlingen in Basel survives in a manu- von Hackeborn.\u201d In Geistliches Mittelalter, ed. Alois Maria script at Einsiedeln (\u201cE\u201d) and provides the principal Haas. Dokimion 8. Freiburg, Switzerland: Universit\u00e4tsverlag, textual basis for the study of Mechthild. Parts and short 1984), pp. 373\u2013391. fragments have been discovered in other manuscripts. A Latin translation of the first six books of the Middle Halligan, Theresa, ed. The Booke of Gostlye Grace of Mechthild Low German original, probably the work of Dominicans of Hackeborn. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. 1979. 463","MECHTHILD VON MAGDEBURG Scholl, Edith. \u201cTo Be a Full Grown Bride: Mechthild of Magde- burg.\u201d In Medieval Religious Women. vol. 2.: Peace Weavers, in Halle, has come down to us preceded by a lengthy ed. John A. Nichols and Lillian Thomas Shank. Kalamazoo, prologue justifying the book and its author. Mich.: Cistercian, 1987, pp. 223\u2013238. Das flie\u00dfende Licht can be described as confessional, Tax, Petrus. \u201cDie gro\u00dfe Himmelsschau Mechthilds von Magde- visionary-revelatory, mystical, poetic, and devotional. burg und ihre H\u00f6llenvision.\u201d Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum It was written, we are told, by divine command to bear 108 (1979): 112\u2013137. witness to the unusual divine favors bestowed on its author. Mechthild describes her visions, some global Tobin, Frank. Mechthild von Magdeburg\u2014A Medieval Mystic in and some personal in scope, as well as her ecstatic Modern Eyes. Columbia, S.C.: Camden House, 1995. mystical experiences of union. She prophesies, exhorts, criticizes, and teaches, using a rich variety of literary von Balthasar, Hans Urs. \u201cMechthilds kirchlicher Auftrag.\u201d In and nonliterary forms of expression, from highly lyrical Das flie\u00dfende Licht der Gottheit, trans. Margot Schmidt. courtly modes with their concomitant conventions to 1955. 2d ed. Stuttgart-Bad Canstatt: F. Frommann, 1995, didactic expositions of moral and ascetical truths. She pp. 19\u201345. avails herself of prose, verse, and, most distinctively, colon rhyme\u2014a short, verselike unit ending in rhyme or, Frank Tobin more frequently, assonance. Much of this colon rhyme has been lost in the Middle High German version. MEIR B. BARUKH OF ROTHENBURG (ca. 1220 \u2013 1293) Because she knew little or no Latin, Mechthild acquired her knowledge of theology and spiritual tra- Meir b. Barukh, known as \u201cMaHRaM\u2019 (moreinu ha-rav ditions secondhand through instruction and the liturgy. Meir, \u201cour teacher Rabbi Meir\u201d), was born in Worms The theological content of her book gives striking ca. 1220 (not 1215; see Urbach, pp. 407\u20138). His father evidence of the care given religious education by her was a rabbi in Worms and an important scholar, as spiritual teachers and advisers, but more especially to were many other members of his family. Meir\u2019s teach- Mechthild\u2019s own intellectual gifts and intuitive spiritual ers included his father, and in W\u00fcrzburg the renowned receptivity. Among the influences perceptible in her Isaac b. Moses of Vienna, author of the halakhic work book are the Song of Songs, Augustine, Bernard of Or zarua\u2018, and others. He also learned in yeshivot in Clairvaux, Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, and Joachim France, where he copied responsa and talmudic com- of Fiore. More important, however, Mechthild\u2019s book mentaries that he later used in his own work. If the must be seen as unique in its conception, without dis- lamentation Meir wrote about the burning of books cernible predecessors or successors. refers to the burning of the Talmud in Paris in 1242, then he may have been an eyewitness to that event and See also Bernard of Clairvaux; Gertrud von Helfta returned to Germany shortly thereafter. It is uncertain when he went to Rothenburg, the city most connected Further Reading with his name, but probably soon after his return from France. He served also as rabbi in several other com- Bynum, Caroline Walker. \u201cWomen Mystics in the Thirteenth munities. After the death of his father (1276 or 1281), Century: The Case of the Nuns of Helfta.\u201d In Bynum. Jesus Meir went to Worms to replace him there. He had a beit as Mother\u2014Studies in the Spirituality of the High Middle midrash, or yeshivah, attached to his house there, with a Ages. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp. \u201cwinter house\u201d (i.e., heated, apparently) and rooms for 170\u2013262. the students to sleep. According to the information he himself wrote about this, the number of students was Franklin, James C. Mystical Transformations: The Imagery of not large, even though his yeshivah was certainly the Liquids in the Work of Mechthild von Magdeburg. Rutherford, most famous one in Germany. His main students were N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1978. Asher b. Yeh.iel, Mordecai b. Hillel, Samson b. S.addoq, H. ayyim b. Eli\u2018ezer (grandson of Isaac, author of Or Galvani, Christiana Mesch, trans. Flowing Light of the Divinity. zarua\u2018), and others, all outstanding scholars in their New York: Garland, 1991. own right. Haug, Walter. \u201cDas Gespr\u00e4ch mit dem unvergleichlichen Part- Meir was not, as Graetz had assumed, appointed ner: Der mystische Dialog bei Mechthild von Magdeburg als \u201cchief rabbi\u201d of Germany (indeed, no such position Paradigma f\u00fcr eine personale Gespr\u00e4chsstrutkur.\u201d Poetik und existed); however, he was widely regarded as the fore- Hermeneutik 11 (1984): 251\u2013279. most talmudic and legal authority, to whom rabbis not only from Germany but also France and other lands Lewis, Gertrud Jaron. Bibliographie zur deutschen Frauenmystik turned for decisions. Because of the large number of des Mittelalters. Berlin: Schmidt, 1989, pp. 164\u2013183 [bibli- requests received, he even had to write his answers ography]. on the eve of holidays and the eve of Yom Kippur (see Urbach, p. 421). He was independent in his views and Neumann, Hans. \u201cMechthild von Magdeburg.\u201d In Die deutsche did not refrain from strongly disagreeing with those Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon. 2d ed, vol. 6. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987, cols. 260\u2013270. Neumann, Hans, ed. Mechthild von Magdeburg. Das flie\u00dfende Licht der Gottheit. 2 vols. Munich: Artemis, 1990. Schmidt, Margot. \u201cMinne du gewaltige Kellerin: On the Nature of minne in Mechthild of Magdeburg\u2019s fliessendes licht der gottheit.\u201d Vox Benedictina 4 (1987): 100\u2013125. 464","whose position he considered to be wrong (the story MEISTER ECKHART told by Urbach, p. 412, bottom, is not entirely accurate, however; see the text of the respon-sum ed. Bloch, p. them, the aforementioned Samson b. S. addoq, regularly 188, No. 81; it is understandable that the author whom administered to his needs and recorded his customs in Urbach cites thought that the bride\u2019s father was French, a book that he later wrote. Meir continued also to write since the Amsterdam manuscript in fact reads \u201cRoda,\u201d responsa from prison, in spite of his lack of books and probably Dreux in France, cf. Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. even sufficient paper. He died in captivity in 1293. 184, for similar spellings). His works include more than a thousand responsa; He used his authority to forestall enactments (taqqa- aside from the volumes published under his name, many not) that he thought would create a burden on people, are found in the writings of his students and elsewhere, such as the attempt by some communities to allot a por- such as in the responsa of Ibn Adret (She\u2019elot u-teshu- tion of the taxes to property, something that Meir said vot I, Nos. 829\u201378; possibly others there). In addition, had never been done in all the kingdom; rather, taxes he composed tosafot (additional commentaries) on were collected only on buying and selling, and were several tractates; all of those on Yoma in standard edi- not collected at all from the poor (She\u2019elot u-teshuvot, tions of the Talmud are by him. He is known also to ed. Prague, No. 541, second part of the question; cf. have written commentaries on the Talmud (on Yevamot ed. Bloch, p. 209, No. 141, where he advised more was published in 1986), and his commentaries on the cautiously that they investigate the custom throughout mishnayot of Neg\u2018im and Ohalot have been published, Germany and act accordingly, but in general the opinion as well as fragments from commentaries on parts of the agrees with that of the previous question). order of T.ehorot. His customs (minhagiym), chiefly on religious matters and holidays, are found in Se\u00affer ha- The rapidly deteriorating situation of the Jews in Tashbas. of his student Samson b. S.addoq; in a collection Germany in the latter half of the thirteenth century by his student Moses Sheneur, published as \u2018Al ha-kol resulted in many Jews leaving to move to other towns (Berditchev, 1908); in Moses \u201cParnas\u201d of Rothenburg, under different overlords or leaving the empire alto- ha-Parnas (Vilna, 1865); and in a modern edition, Se\u00affer gether. Some followed earlier French rabbis to settle minhagiym de-vei MaHaRaM, ed. S. Elfenbein (New in Palestine. Meir himself finally decided upon this York, 1948). He also wrote some twenty eulogies and plan. Emperor Rudolph issued a decree in December religious poems that have survived. of 1286 prohibiting any Jew from going across the sea without his permission or that of their overlord (text in See also Asher b. Yeh. iel; Ibn Adret, Solomon Guido Kisch, The Jews in Medieval Germany [Chicago, 1949], p. 130, in which book, incidentally, Meir is not Further Reading mentioned). Meir and his entire family also decided to leave for Palestine in spite of the royal decree, but Works by Meir b. Barukh on the way they encountered the bishop of Basel, who had with him an apostate Jew who recognized the rabbi She\u2019elot u-teshuvot (Cremona, 1557\/8). and informed the bishop. Meir was arrested and turned She\u2019elot u-teshuvot (Prague, 1608; revised ed. by Moses Bloch, over to the emperor, who imprisoned him in the castle at Ensisheim. According to Urbach (p. 424), the place Pressburg, 1895, Budapest, 1896). where Meir was caught, in the mountains of Lombard, She\u2019elot u-teshuvot, ed. Raphael N. Rabbinovicz (Lvov, 1860). was a transition point for those going on to Palestine, Se\u00affer sha\u2018arei teshuvot, ed. Moses Bloch (Berlin, 1891); accord- and Meir was arrested not only for transgressing the decree but for leading others seeking to leave. By 1288 ing to mss. (additional responsa were published byY. Kahana the German Jewish communities had raised a substantial in Sinai [1943] and later, and as offprint in a limited edition ransom, which they offered for Meir\u2019s release. Accord- [Jerusalem, 1957]; also in Solomon Wertheimer, Ginzei ing to Solomon Luria (commentary Yam shet Shelomoh Yerushalayim, part 3 [Jerusalem, 1902], and by M. Hirschler on Git.t.in ch. 4. 6), the rabbi refused the ransom, saying in Sinai 55 [1965]: 317\u201322). that a captive should not be redeemed for more than his worth (lest this encourage capturing other Jews). Work on Meir b. Barukh In his \u201cethical testament,\u201d Judah, the son of Asher b. Yeh.iel, relates that the emperor held Asher responsible Urbach, Ephraim E. Ba\u2018aley ha-tosafot (Jerusalem, 1968), ch. for the collection of the ransom money, and when Meir 10. died in prison before the ransom could be paid, Asher decided to flee Germany. From the prison at Ensisheim Norman Roth Meir was apparently moved to the castle at Wasserburg, where his students were able to visit him, and one of MEISTER ECKHART (ca. 1260\u20131327\/1328) Dominican theologian, preacher, administrator, and mystic. The title meister, a corruption of the Latin magister (teacher) refers both to his having received the highest academic degree then attainable and to his professional duties at the University of Paris. He was born in Thuringia, possibly in a village called Hoch- heim, of which there are two, one near Erfurt and one 465","MEISTER ECKHART and German works (spiritual tracts and, especially, ser- mons). Because of Eckhart\u2019s sad fate, his Latin works near Gotha. One document refers to him as de (from, were generally forgotten and only rediscovered in the of) Hochheim, but some scholars consider this a familial late nineteenth century. His German works became rather than a geographical designation and use it to bol- mixed with those of other spiritual authors or were often ster the claim that Eckhart was of noble origin. He most passed on with false or no attribution. As a result, the likely entered the Order of Preachers (Dominicans) at task of creating a reliable critical edition of the German the priory in Erfurt at about the age of fifteen. Possibly works begun by Josef Quint in 1936 is just now nearing he received his early training in the arts at Paris and was completion. Disagreement still remains concerning the witness to Bishop Stephen Tempier\u2019s condemnation authenticity of many German sermons not yet included of 219 articles of theology including several taught by in the critical edition, and discussion of their chronol- Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), the Dominican order\u2019s most ogy has just begun. Eckhart is admired both for the distinguished theologian. At any rate, Eckhart is docu- brilliance of his mystical thought and for his virtuosity mented in Paris lecturing on Peter Lombard\u2019s Sentences in expressing it. The first admirers of Eckhart after his in 1293\u20131294. Prior to this he had absolved the various rediscovery in the nineteenth century, because of their stages of Dominican formation: one year novitiate, two unfamiliarity with medieval philosophy and theology, years studying the order\u2019s constitutions and the divine made uninformed judgments about his originality in office, about five years studying philosophy, with three thought and language. Although scholars still view him additional years devoted to theology. Eckhart was no as an original thinker, he is now recognized as being doubt also among those chosen for further study, very original within the context of the already well-devel- likely at the order\u2019s studium generale (early form of oped system of scholastic thought. His mysticism has university) in Cologne, where he might have had direct been termed speculative to indicate both its imbedded- contact with Albert the Great. After lecturing in Paris ness in scholastic philosophy and theology as well as Eckhart advances rapidly within the order. He is prior the fact that he does not talk about mystical union in in Erfurt 1294\u20131298, professor in Paris 1302\u20131303, terms of personal experience. Rather, he describes the provincial of the newly formed German Dominican metaphysical constitution of both the human soul and province of Saxony 1303\u20131311, and again professor God\u2019s nature that makes union possible. For Eckhart in Paris 1312\u20131313. There followed several years of mystical union between God and the soul rests on preaching in the vernacular, to Beguines and nuns their metaphysical oneness. Eckhart sees creatures as among others, in Strasbourg and then later in Cologne, differing from God, but they differ only through the where he might also have had professorial duties at the nothingness limiting the being that they possess; and studium generale. being is God. Eckhart distinguishes between two kinds of being in creatures: formal or limited being, which In 1325 the first clouds appear when some of Eckhart\u2019s constitutes them in existence separate from God, and teachings are investigated as to their orthodoxy. Eckhart virtual being\u2014the being of creatures in the mind of God is cleared, but the following year Henry of Virneburg, existing from eternity. The virtual being of creatures at archbishop of Cologne, begins inquisitorial proceedings one with God\u2019s being is their more real and vital being. against him. Eckhart responds to lists of suspect theses Their formal being is a mere shadow by comparison. taken from a broad selection of his Latin and German This distinction between formal and virtual being in works and, on January 24, 1327, citing delays and the creatures provides the context for understanding most public scandal the proceedings are causing, appeals to of Eckhart\u2019s characteristic doctrines. Thus, for example, the pope. On February 13 he protests his innocence he urges us to become as poor in spirit as we were (in from the pulpit of the Dominican church in Cologne the mind of God) before we were (formally existing). and soon thereafter travels to Avignon, where a papal In other words, we are to \u201creduce\u201d our existence to commission begins an investigation. On March 27, 1329, existence in God. So, too, in becoming the just man, some time after Eckhart\u2019s death, a papal bull, In agro we do so by uniting completely with justice, which is dominico, definitively ends the investigation. In it sev- identical with God\u2019s being. Through our oneness with enteen articles are condemned as heretical, two of which God\u2019s being the birth of the Son takes place in us, as it Eckhart claimed never to have taught. Eleven others are does in Bethlehem, and united with this divine action judged to be evil sounding but capable of an orthodox we become both the begotten (Son) and the \u201cbegetter\u201d interpretation. The bull states that Eckhart, before his (Father). The human intellect, that faculty most essential death, recanted the articles and anything else that might in establishing our likeness with God, is in its purely have caused error in the minds of his audience quoad spiritual activity the spark of the soul in which we most illum sensum. In other words, he recanted a heretical throw off the confines of our creatureliness and imitate interpretation of his words, not the words themselves. divine activity. And through detachment, a key term in Eckhart\u2019s writings can be divided into Latin works (professional theological treatises, learned commentar- ies on scripture, and some sermons or sermon outlines) 466","Eckhart\u2019s mystical asceticism, the creature frees himself MENA, JUAN DE from his own specific self or formal being, which is in essence the limiting factor separating us from God, to \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe God Beyond God: Theology and Mysticism in the become whole or one with him. Thought of Meister Eckhart.\u201d Journal of Religion 61 (1981): 1\u201319. The startling vigor of Eckhart\u2019s thought is matched by the power and artfulness with which he expresses \u2014\u2014. \u201cMeister Eckhart on God as Absolute Unity.\u201d In Neo- it. Though the Latin works show skillful manipulation platonism and Christian Thought, ed. Dominic J. O\u2019Meara. of language, it is his German works, especially the ser- Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982, pp. mons, that display a rich variety of linguistic artistry, 128\u2013139. some of it best termed rhetorical and some clearly po- etic. Often he overcomes the limitations of the young \u2014\u2014, ed., Meister Eckhart and the Beguine Mystics. New York: vernacular\u2019s ability to express his rarefied mysticism by Continuum, 1994. placing a key term in a variety of juxtaposed contexts in the manner of a leitmotif and thus gradually reveals McGinn, Bernard, Frank Tobin, and Elvira Borgstadt. Meister to his audience the treasures it contains. He employs Eckhart: Teacher and Preacher. New York: Paulist, 1986. such figures as accumulation, antithesis, parallelism, hyperbole, chiasmus, and paradox to great advantage. Meister Eckhart. Die deutschen und lateinischen Werke, ed. Josef Word games and original verbal strategies of other Quint. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1936ff. kinds abound. Ruh, Kurt. Meister Eckhart: Theologe, Prediger, Mystiker. Mu- Eckhart influenced most immediately John Tauler and nich: Beck, 1985. Henry Suso, Dominican mystics of the next generation, and less clearly their Flemish contemporary John (Jan Sch\u00fcrmann, Reiner. Meister Eckhart: Mystic and Philosopher. van) Ruusbroec. From the library of the Swiss cardinal Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1978. Nicholas of Cusa (Cusanus), Latin works by Eckhart have come down to us with comments by the cardinal Smith, Cyprian. Meister Eckhart: The Way of Paradox. London: scribbled in the margins. Cusanus shows much affinity Darton, Longman and Todd, 1987. in thought with Eckhart and defended him against the attacks of the Heidelberg theologian Johannes Wenck. Tobin, Frank. Meister Eckhart: Thought and Language. Phila- The baroque poet Johann Scheffler (Angelus Silesius) delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986. was certainly touched by Eckhartian ideas, but, as in the case of many other authors and works of the refor- Walshe, M. O\u2019C. Meister Eckhart: Sermons and Treatises. Rock- mation period and beyond, whether the influence was port, Me.: Element, 1992. direct or indirect is impossible to tell. In more modern times the philosophers Hegel, Schelling, and Baader Frank Tobin all admired his thought, though until the mid\u2013twentieth century much of this admiration was based on misun- MENA, JUAN DE (1411\u20131456) derstandings arising from ignorance about Eckhart\u2019s own intellectual context. The last forty years have seen Secretary and chronicler of Juan II of Castile and one great progress in understanding this exhilarating mystic, of the outstanding poets of his time. Author of two though much of his uncharted profundity remains to be long narrative poems, La coronaci\u00f3n del marques de explored. Santillana (c.1438), and his masterpiece, El laberinto de Fortuna (1444); an allegorical debate, Coplas de los See also Jan van Ruusbroec; Nicholas of Cusa; pecados mortales (also known as Debate de la Raz\u00f3n Peter Lombard; Seuse, Heinrich contra la Voluntad), left incomplete at his death; and some fifty shorter compositions typical of the courtly Further Reading verse of his day: queries and responses to other poets, occasional pieces, riddles, love poems, and satiric verse. Colledge, Edmund, and Bernard McGinn, trans. Meister Eck- His prose works include a prologue and commentary hart: The Essential Sermons, Commentaries, Treatises, and to his Coronaci\u00f3n; La ll\u00edada en romance, a translation Defense, New York: Paulist, 1981. of the Ilias latina, with prologue (c. 1442); Tratado de amor (c. 1444); Tratado del t\u00edtulo de duque (1445); a Koch, Josef. \u201cZur Analogielehre Meister Eckharts.\u201d 1959; rpt. prologue to Alvaro de Luna\u2019s Libro de las virtuosos e in Josef Koch. Kleine Schriften, vol. 1. Rome: [n.p.], 1973, claras mugeres (c. 1446); and the fragmentary Memo- pp. 367\u2013409. rias de algunos linajes antiquas \u00e9 nobles de Castilla (1448). Largier, Niklaus. Bibliographie zu Meister Eckhart. Freiburg: Universit\u00e4tsverlag, 1989 [bibliography]. Reliable data on Mena\u2019s life is sparse. He was born in late December 1411 in C\u00f3rdoba, and was named alder- McGinn, Bernard. \u201cEckhart\u2019s Condemnation Reconsidered.\u201d man (veinticuatro) there possibly as early as 1435. In Thomist 44 (1980): 390\u2013414. his Memorias he traces the Mena lineage to the valley of Mena in La Monta\u00f1a. Vatican archival documents place him in Florence in 1442\u20131443 at the court of Pope Eugene IV, from whom he unsuccessfully sought ecclesiastical benefices in C\u00f3rdoba. He was appointed secretary for Latin and royal chronicler by King Juan II of Castile probably in the mid-1440s, although the earliest extant document which refers to him with either of these titles is his own Memorias (1448). He married Marina M\u00e9ndez, some twenty years his junior, around 1450. Upon the death of King Juan II in 1454 467","MENA, JUAN DE concept of the three wheels. He knew and utilized Latin epic poets (Virgil, Lucan, Statius) and relied he remained in the service of King Enrique IV; he died heavily on Ovid\u2019s Metamorphoses for Greco-Roman in Torrelaguna in 1456, leaving no descendants. mythology. The poet\u2019s first editor, Hern\u00e1n N\u00fa\u00f1ez, supplies ad- The language of the Laberinto is a language of po- ditional biographical data that cannot be corroborated: etic innovation. It is characterized by an abundance of that he was the son of Pedrarias and of a sister of Ruy neologisms coined from Latin roots, a tendency toward Fern\u00e1ndez de Pe\u00f1alosa, lord of Almenara and veinticu- Latinate morphology and syntax, and the extensive use atro of C\u00f3rdoba; that both parents died when he was of a wide variety of rhetorical devices.Yet the poet does very young; that he began his studies in C\u00f3rdoba and not hesitate to juxtapose a vulgar, archaic vernacular continued them in Salamanca; and that he was married word and an elegant Latinism: \u201cfond\u00f3n del \u00e7il\u00e9nico in C\u00f3rdoba to a sister of Garc\u00eda de Vaca and Lope de \u00e7erco segundo\u201d (at the deepest bottom of the second ce- Vaca. Other early biographical accounts derive from laenic [i.e., Meraniel] circle) (92b) or \u201ccon t\u00farbido velo N\u00fa\u00f1ez, although they differ in some particulars. su mote cubr\u00eda\u201d (with turbid veil covered their riddle 57d). The result is a compendium of tragic, satiric, and Throughout his adult life Mena divided his time comedic styles consistent with principles enunciated between C\u00f3rdoba and the royal court. He was a loyal earlier by the poet (Coronaci\u00f3n, prologue). supporter of King Juan II and an unabashed admirer of Alvaro de Luna; at the same time, his friendship with the La coronaci\u00f3n del marqu\u00e9s de Santillana was com- Marquis of Santillana transcended the political turmoil posed to celebrate Santillana\u2019s victory over the Moors of the time and survived the Marquis\u2019s disaffection with in the Battle of Huelma in 1438. It consists of fifty-one the crown and the condestable. octosyllabic coplas reales, accompanied by the author\u2019s extensive prose commentary in which he explicates El laberinto de Fortuna (popularly called Las each stanza, clarifying classical allusions and glossing trescientas), a narrative poem of 297 arte mayor stan- his neologisms. Mena coined the term calamicleos zas, was presented to King Juan II in February 1444. (from the Latin calamitas and Greek cleos) to describe The poet inveighs against capricious Fortune, and is the work, \u201ca treatise on the misery of evildoers and forthwith transported in a visionary journey to her the glory of the good.\u201d The poet describes his allegori- palace. There he is met by Providence, who will serve cal journey through the valleys of Thessaly, where he as his guide. Providence shows him the three wheels of contemplates the fate of figures from antiquity such as Fortune corresponding to the past, present, and future, Ninus of Babylon (armless in punishment for his failure each with seven circles governed by the seven planets. to raise his arms in defense of his city) and Jason (afire in The wheel of the unknowable future remains veiled, punishment for his lust). He then makes his way through but the poet will be permitted to see those of the past a forest of knowledge and ascends Mt Parnassus, reach- and the present. ing a place reserved for those who have attained fame through their works: Solomon, David, Homer, Lucan, The main body of the poem (stanzas 61\u2013238) re- Virgil, Seneca, and others. Under a canopy, attended counts the histories of exemplary figures (exalted and by the immortal authors and the Muses, is the Marquis condemned) in each of the seven circles. The first four of Santillana; the poet watches as he receives the laurel circles (Diana, Mercury, Venus, and Phoebus) stress crown from four maidens who represent the cardinal figures from the past and ethical concerns, while the last virtues, and exhorts the goddess Fame to spread the three (Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) emphasize the present news of the event worldwide. (and, by extension, the recent past). Here Fortune holds sway; only Alvaro de Luna has been able to conquer her, Stanza 42 and its commentary reveal that Santillana and the king must emulate his example if he is to attain is being recognized for his diligence, loyalty, and valor the greatness foretold for him. in the service of the king against the Muslims rather than for his accomplishments as a writer. By implica- The work concludes with Providence\u2019s prophecy of tion, the poet\u2019s condemnation of those being punished future glory for the king, whose fame will eclipse that for cowardice or irresponsibility could be extended to of his ancestors; the vision fades, however, before the some of his contemporaries; the example of Santillana poet can inquire of his guide as to the particulars of the (like that of Alvaro de Luna in Laberinto) is worthy of king\u2019s future accomplishments. His task is clear: he emulation. must put an end to civil strife (\u201clas guerras que vimos de nuestra Castilla,\u201d 141b) and unite the warring factions in In Coplas de los pecados mortales, the poet invokes a final push to victory over the Muslims (the \u201cvirtuosa, the Christian muse, disavowing the \u201cdul\u00e7ura enponzo- magn\u00edfica guerra\u201d of 152a). \u00f1ada\u201d of his earlier works and ruing time misspent in the study of pagan antiquity. Written in octosyllabic arte Mena drew selectively and deftly from a wide variety menor stanzas and structured as an allegorical debate of sources. His allegorical construct owes much to such works as Anticlaudianus, Roman de la rose, and Dante\u2019s Divine Comedy, though he appears to have made his own contribution to the symbology of Fortune in the 468","between Reason and the Seven Deadly Sins, represented M\u00c9ZI\u00c8RES, PHILIPPE DE as seven faces of Will, the work leaves off at Stanza 106, during the debate between Reason and Anger. An M\u00c9ZI\u00c8RES, PHILIPPE DE (1327\u20131405) indication of the work\u2019s reception in its own time are the continuations of it written by G\u00f3mez Manrique, Pero Born in M\u00e9zi\u00e8res in Picardy, Philippe was a soldier of Guill\u00e9n de Segovia, and Fray Jer\u00f3nimo de Olivares. fortune, then an advocate on the diplomatic and political levels of a crusade to regain Jerusalem for Christendom. Mena\u2019s earliest prose work is probably his com- He founded the chivalric Order of the Passion of Jesus mentary to the Coronaci\u00f3n. There he cultivates sev- Christ, was chancellor of Cyprus under Peter I, was a eral styles, ranging from elaborate Latinate through citizen of Venice, knew popes Urban V and Gregory XI simpler narrative to direct didactic. The Ilias latina is and was a friend of Petrarch, and served as counselor his translation of an abridged version of the Homeric to Charles V of France from 1373 until 1380, when he epic in 1,070 Latin hexameters. Tratado de amor, in withdrew to the convent of the Celestines in Paris. Here, relatively straightforward didactic style, reveals some he wrote the major part of his work, in both French and of the author\u2019s subtle humor as he concentrates on \u201cel Latin prose, remaining at the convent until his death. amor no l\u00ed\u00e7ito e insano\u201d and devotes almost equal atten- His first known work is the Latin vita (1366) of his tion to that which engenders it as to that which repels spiritual adviser, Peter Thomas. He wrote on the feast it. Tratado sobre el t\u00edtulo de duque purports to trace the of Mary\u2019s Presentation at the Temple, achieving celebra- origins, rights, privileges, insignia, and prerogatives of tion in the West of this originally eastern feast. Three dukes but serves as a vehicle for the poet\u2019s praise of the of his treatises depict the order he had founded: Nova duke of Medina Sidonia and count of Niebla, Juan de religio milicie Passionis Jhesu Christi pro acquisicione Guzm\u00e0n, to whom it is dedicated. In his brief prologue sancte civitatis Jherusalem et Terre Sancte, extant in to Alvaro de Luna\u2019s Libro de las virtuosas e claras two versions written in 1368 and 1384, respectively, mugeres, Mena renders thanks at the behest, he says, of but copied together in the only surviving manuscript; many well-born ladies to Alvaro for his defense of their the Sustance de la chevalerie de la Passion de Jhesu honor; finally, the fragmentary Memorias de algunos Crist en fran\u00e7ois (ca. 1389\u201394); and the Chevalerie linages antiguos \u00e9 nobles de Castilla are brief sketches de la Passion de Jhesu Crist, written in 1396 shortly of the historical and geographical origins of fourteen before the Battle of Nicopolis. The Livre sur la vertu lineages, including his own. du sacrement de mariage (1384\u201389) contemplates the mystical union of Christ with the church and the human Mena\u2019s works\u2014particularly the Laberinto\u2014were soul and includes the famous exemplum of \u201cpatient well known to his contemporaries and to posterity. Griselda,\u201d translated by Philippe from the Latin of his He was cited extensively by Elio Antonio de Nebrija friend Petrarch. The Songe du vieil p\u00e8lerin, an allegori- and Juan del Encina, annotated by Hern\u00e1n N\u00fa\u00f1ez and cal pilgrimage finished in 1389, points out the evils of Francisco S\u00e1nchez de las Brozas, and his influence can the world and suggests remedies. His 1395 letter to be found throughout the sixteenth century (in Crist\u00f3bal Richard II of England urges the king to wed Isabella of de Castillejo and Fernando de Herrera, for example), France as a means to European peace. All of Philippe and into the seventeenth (Luis de G\u00f3ngora). The point de M\u00e9zi\u00e8res\u2019 major works urge the social and political of departure for modern Mena scholarship is Lida de stability of Europe necessary for his long-sought but Malkiel\u2019s monumental study (1950). never to be realized crusade. See also Luna, \u00c1lvaro de See also Charles V the Wise; Petrarca, Francesco; Richard II Further Reading Further Reading Deyermond, A. D. \u201cStructure and Style as Instruments of Propa- ganda in Juan de Mena\u2019s Laberinto de Fortuna,\u201d Proceedings M\u00e9zi\u00e8res, Philippe de. Campaign for the Feast of Mary\u2019s Presen- of the Patristic, Medieval, and Renaissance Conference 5 tation, ed. William E. Coleman. Toronto: Pontifical Institute (1980), 159\u201367. of Mediaeval Studies, 1981. Gericke, P. O. \u201cThe Narrative Structure of the Laberinto de For- \u2014\u2014. Letter to King Richard II, ed. and trans. G.W. Coopland. tuna\u201d Romance Philology 21 (1968), 512\u201322. New York: Harper and Row, 1976. Lida de Malkiel, M. R. Juan de Mena, poeta del prerrenaci- \u2014\u2014. Le songe du vieil p\u00e8lerin, ed. G.W. Coopland. 2 vols. miento espa\u00f1ol 2d ed. Mexico City, 1984. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969. Mena, J. de. Obras completas. Ed. M. A. P\u00e9rez Priego. Barce- \u2014\u2014. La sustance de la chevalerie de la Passion de Jhesu Crist lona, 1989. en fran\u00e7ois: Philippe de M\u00e9zi\u00e8res and the New Order of the Passion, ed. Abdel Hamid Hamdy. 3 vols. Alexandria: \u2014\u2014. Tratado sobre el t\u00edtulo de duque. Ed. L. Vasvari Fainberg. Alexandria University Press, 1964\u201365. [Transcription of London, 1976. Ashmole 813.] Philip O. Gericke \u2014\u2014. Vita sancti Petri Thomae, ed. Joachim Smet. Rome: Insti- Colbert I. Nepaulsingh tutum Carmelitanum, 1954. 469","M\u00c9ZI\u00c8RES, PHILIPPE DE ing, though less useful, than its predecessors. The second book, Liber particularis, adds more advanced explana- Iorga, Nicolae. Philippe de M\u00e9zi\u00e8res (1327\u20131405) et la croisade tions, including some given in response to questions au XIVe si\u00e8cle. Paris: Bouillon, 1896. asked by Frederick. The third book, Liber physionomiae, deals with living creatures, notably mankind, and shows Joan B. Williamson especially how human character can be deduced from physical signs. An abridged version of the last book was MICHAEL SCOT immensely popular (it was printed about forty times), but (c. 1175 or 1195\u20131235 or 1236) the rest remains unpublished except for excerpts. Unlike other scholastics, Scot wrote for nonspecialists; he was Though famous as an astrologer and magician, Michael remarkable not so much for his learning as for his will- Scot (or Scott) is chiefly important as a scientific transla- ingness to display and exaggerate it. His contemporaries tor. He was born in Scotland but went to Spain, where were duly impressed and regarded him as a magician, he learned enough Arabic to make Latin translations of but in the next generation, Roger Bacon and Albertus numerous scientific and philosophical works, sometimes Magnus insisted that he was a charlatan, and Dante put with a collaborator. The earliest of these works was al- Scot in hell as a diviner (Inferno, 20.115\u2013117). Bitruji\u2019s defense of the Aristotelian astronomical model (Toledo, 1217), to which Aristotle\u2019s De caelo was a See also Frederick II natural sequel, together with Averro\u00ebs\u2019s major commen- tary on it. Equally important were Scot\u2019s translations Further Reading of Aristotle\u2019s History of Animals and several related biological works. In addition to these major translations, Haskins, Charles Homer. Studies in the History of Mediaeval which undoubtedly are the work of Scot, many others Science, 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, have been attributed to him (Minio-Paluello 1974). Like 1927, pp. 272\u2013298. other Latin translations of Aristotle from Arabic, Scot\u2019s were replaced within a century by better versions from Kay, Richard. \u201cThe Spare Ribs of Dante\u2019s Michael Scot.\u201d Dante the original Greek, but his were the ones from which Studies, 103, 1985, pp. 1\u201314. thirteenth-century scholastics worked. Minio-Paluello, Lorenzo. \u201cMichael Scot.\u201d In Dictionary of Sci- By 1220, Scot had moved to Italy, where he remained entific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillespie. New York: until his death. His success as a translator gained him Scribner, 1974, Vol. 9, 361\u2013365. the patronage of the papacy, through which he secured several ecclesiastical benefices in England and Scotland Thorndike, Lynn. Michael Scot. London: Nelson, 1965. (1224\u20131227); the income from these sinecures, which he never visited, apparently supported him for the rest Richard Kay of his life. From the papal letters of recommendation we learn that Scot was a priest and held a university degree MOLINA, MAR\u00cdA DE (magister). Although some scholars have supposed (c. 1270\u20131321) that he studied and taught at Paris, his association with Bologna is better documented, for he was living there Queen of Castile Mar\u00eda (c. 1270\u20131321) was the wife of in 1220\u20131221 and predicted the future of the Lombard Sancho IV (r.1284\u20131295) and the mother of Fernando League for officials of Bologna in 1231. IV (c.1295\u20131312). As the daughter of Alfonso de Mo- lina and Mayor T\u00e9llez de Meneses, she was a niece of Scot\u2019s most famous patron was Emperor Frederick Fernando III and a first cousin of Alfonso X. In June II. A later generation (e.g., Salimbene, c. 1221\u20131290) 1282 at Toledo she married Infante Sancho, the son and would remember Scot as \u201castrologer to the emperor,\u201d heir of Alfonso X, even though they were related within although it is not clear whether Frederick retained Scot the prohibited degrees of kindred. Threatening them at court or only consulted him occasionally. Certainty with excommunication and interdict, Pope Martin IV Frederick and Scot conversed from time to time, as Scot ordered them to separate in 1283, but they would not repeatedly recalled with pride. In 1232, Scot translated do so. Inasmuch as they lacked a papal dispensation, Avicenna\u2019s treatise on animals for Frederick, who used their enemies regarded the marriage as invalid and their it in his own work on falconry. children as illegitimate. Mar\u00eda was crowned with Sancho IV at Toledo in April 1284. She seems to have been an Scot also dedicated his most ambitious work to active counselor to her husband, but her powerful pres- Frederick. This was an untitled trilogy on astrology to ence in Castilian politics was particularly felt after his which he devoted his last years. The first book, Liber death in 1295. introductorius, is a rambling introduction to astrology that is addressed to amateurs with little background in As guardian of their firstborn, Fernando IV, her re- science. Scot fleshes out the dry bones of professional sponsibility was to protect his person and to repel those astrology with examples, digressions, and encyclopedic who challenged his right to the throne. Her brother-in- information that make this work more lively and engag- law, Infante Juan, denied Fernando IV\u2019s claims on the grounds that he was illegitimate. Alfonso de la Cerda, 470","as the son of Fernando de la Cerda, Alfonso X\u2019s eldest M\u00d6NCH VON SALZBURG, DER son, alleged that he had a better right to rule. She also had to contend with Sancho IV\u2019s uncle, Infante Enrique, Further Reading who, after long years in exile in Italy, returned home and now demanded the right to act as regent for the boy Gaibrois de Ballesteros, M. Do\u00f1a Mar\u00eda de Molina. Madrid, 1936. king. Mar\u00eda skillfully won over the towns of the realm, who formed their hermandades (military and religions Joseph F. O\u2019Callaghan fraternities) in defense of their liberties and the rights of Fernando IV. Through her impassioned appeal the M\u00d6NCH VON SALZBURG, DER cortes (parliament) of Valladolid in 1295 recognized (fl. 2d half of the 14th c.) him as king, giving Mar\u00eda custody of his person and naming Enrique as guardian of the realm. In the turmoil Known variously as Hermann, Johanns, or Hans in the of the next few years she succeeded in keeping her son\u2019s over one hundred manuscripts in which his songs are domestic enemies at bay and eventually made peace transmitted, the Monk of Salzburg was the most prolific with his external enemies, Portugal and Arag\u00f3n. She and popular German singer of the fourteenth century. then arranged his betrothal to Constanza, daughter of His six polyphonic pieces are the earliest surviving part- King Dinis of Portugal. When Fernando came of age in songs in German. His forty-nine secular and fifty-seven 1302 he wished to be free of his mother\u2019s control and so religious songs represent nearly every genre current in there followed a period of estrangement. Though forced fourteenth-century German singing, including the hymn, to withdraw into the background, she later endeavored the sequence, the new year\u2019s song, the alba, the drinking to induce the nobles to abandon their hostility toward song, and the Leich (lay). Virtually nothing is known her son. about his life except that he moved in the courtly circles of the archbishop of Salzburg, Pilgrim II von Puchheim After the sudden death of Fernando IV in 1312 and (r. 1365\u20131396). of Queen Constanza in 1313, Mar\u00eda de Molina emerged once more as a central figure in Castilian politics, His melodies fall between those of two dominant championing the cause of her grandson, Alfonso XI (r. medieval German genres, Spruchdichtung and Meis- 1312\u20131350), then an infant. Summoned to determine tergesang. Some reflect the traditional German e-based who should be regent, the cortes of Palencia in 1313 modalities (phrygian), though many tend toward the were unfortunately divided, some acknowledging her modern major, beginning on E or B-natural and ending on brother-in-law, Infante Juan, while others accepted C. The songs are frequently adorned with richly textured Mar\u00eda and her son, Infante Pedro. After a year of dip- preludes, interludes, and postludes. He sometimes favors lomatic, political, and military maneuvering, Mar\u00eda melissmas at the beginning and end of lines and makes took the lead in persuading the infantes to collaborate. frequent use of refrains. \u201cJosef, liber neve min\u201d (Joseph, The cortes of Burgos in 1315 acknowledged the unified My Dear Nephew), a German Christmas song still sung regency, entrusting Mar\u00eda with custody of the king. She today, is attributed to him in one of the manuscripts. successfully maintained the unity of the regency, despite the tensions between Juan and Pedro, but after both men The monk\u2019s secular poetry combines themes of the died on the plains of Granada in 1319, her skill was courtly lyric and folk songs, earthy but sometimes tried to the utmost. Her son Felipe, Juan\u2019s son Juan, and simple and affecting, with strong reminiscences of the Infante Juan Manuel, the distinguished writer, now all rhetoric of Minnesang and of the Neidhart tradition. His demanded a share in the regency. Insisting that nothing religious songs, some translations of Latin hymns, are could be done without the consent of the cortes, she sum- closely akin to and probably influenced the songs of the moned them to Valladolid in 1321, but she fell gravely Meistersinger in the fifteenth century. The most gifted ill. After making her will on 29 June, she died the next German-language lyric singer of the next generation, day and was buried in the Cistercian nunnery in Val- Oswald von Wolkenstein, was indebted to the monk in ladolid. By her marriage to Sancho IV she had several both text and melody. children: Fernando IV, Alfonso, Enrique, Pedro, Felipe, and Beatriz. A truly remarkable woman, she deserves to See also Neidhart; Oswald von Wolkenstein be ranked among those who most effectively governed medieval Castile. In many respects both Fernando IV Further Reading and Alfonso XI owed their thrones to her. Meyer, Friedrich Arnold, and Heinrich Rietsch. Die Mondsee- See also Alfonso X, El Sabio, King of Castile and Le\u00f3n; Dinis, King of Portugal; Fernando III, King Wiener Liederhandschrift und der M\u00f6nch von Salzburg. of Castile; Juan Manuel Berlin: Mayer and M\u00fcller, 1896 [texts and melodies of the secular songs]. Spechtler, Franz Viktor, ed. Die geistlichen Lieder des M\u00f6nchs von Salzburg. Berlin: de Gruyter, New York, 1972 [texts and melodies of his religious songs]. Wachinger, Burghart. Der M\u00f6nch von Salzburg: Zur \u00dcberlief- erung geistlicher Lieder im sp\u00e4ten Mittelalter. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1989. Peter Frenzel 471","MORTON, ROBERT in southwestern Germany. An inscription dates the work 1431 or 1432\u2014the last digit is hard to read with MORTON, ROBERT (1430?\u20131497?) clarity\u2014and names \u201cLucas Moser, painter from Weil,\u201d a nearby town, as its author. Apart from this brief men- Composer documented as a \u201cchappellain angloix\u201d at tion, nothing is known of the artist\u2019s life or career, and the Burgundian court chapel choir from 1457 to June attempts to link him with documentary mentions of 1475, though until 1471 he occupied the relatively painters named Lucas in this area and with other works humble position of \u201cclerc\u201d within that institution. He have not been widely accepted. Even the attribution of was certainly a priest by 1460; and he was still alive in the Magdalene altar to Moser was disputed in a highly March 1479, when he resigned the parish of Goutswaard controversial book on the altarpiece published by Ger- Koorndijk in the diocese of Utrecht. There seems a hard Piccard in 1969. Considering the inscription as a good case for identifying him with the Robert Morton nineteenth-century forgery, Piccard assigned the work who had studied at Oxford, later becoming master to a follower of the Sienese painter Simone Martini and of the rolls (January 1479) and bishop of Worcester argued that it had been made for the church of the Mag- (1486\u201397), under the patronage of his brother, Cardinal dalene at V\u00e9zelay in Burgundy. Piccard\u2019s book, which John Morton. His Burgundian career coincides with the received much publicity in advance of its publication, years when the family was in political difficulties; his occasioned numerous rebuttals afterward, many of them disappearance from the continental records just precedes based on new art historical or technical work. Current the real political career of Bishop Robert Morton, and consensus holds that the inscription is not modern; that it coincides with a diplomatic visit to Burgundy by the the altarpiece was made for its present position, where newly reestablished John Morton. its unusual shape reflects that of the wall painting un- derneath, which it replaced; and that the coats-of-arms, Twelve songs are ascribed to Morton. Four are of con- which may have been added very slightly later, represent tested authorship. But the other eight, all setting French the patrons of the work, Bernhard von Stein and his wife, rondeau texts, include two of the most widely copied and Agnes (Engelin) Maiser von Berg. quoted songs of their generation: Le souvenir de vous me tue (fourteen sources) and N\u2019aray je jamais mieulx The central part of the altarpiece is occupied by epi- quej\u2019ay (fifteen sources). His Il sera pour vous combatu, sodes from the life of Mary Magdalene as told in the built over the famous L\u2019homme arm\u2013 tune and perhaps Legenda aurea. At the left, the saint and her companions, one of the earliest known settings of it, pokes fun at a set adrift by pagans in a rudderless boat, approach the colleague in the Burgundian choir, Simon Le Breton, coast of Marseille, portrayed here in a recognizable possibly on the occasion of his retirement in 1464. The view. In the center, the saint\u2019s companions are asleep anonymous rondeau La plus grant chiere que jamais below, while in the attic room above, the Magdalene describes a visit to Cambrai by Morton and another appears to the ruler\u2019s wife in her sleep to ask her to famous song composer, Hayne van Ghizeghem. intervene with her husband on behalf of the Christians. In the final scene, angels deliver the saint, clothed only Morton\u2019s music appears in none of the few surviving in her hair after long years in the desert, to a church English song sources, but it is in continental manuscripts where the Bishop Maximinus administers her the last copied as far afield as Florence, Naples, the Loire Valley, rites. In the unusual arched upper panel, the Magdalene and Poland. The theorist Tinctoris praised Morton as one washes the feet of Christ, while bust-length figures of the most famous composers of his day. representing Christ as the Man of Sorrows in the midst of the Wise and Foolish Virgins fill the long, horizontal Further Reading predella below. On feast days the unusually narrow wings would have been opened to reveal the siblings of Primary Sources the Magdalene, Saints Martha and Lazarus, painted on their insides, flanking a sculpted figure of the Magdalene Atlas, Allan, ed. Robert Morton: The Collected Works. Masters (now replaced) at the center of the shrine. and Monuments of the Renaissance 2. New York: Broude, 1981. Moser\u2019s style provides some clues to his early train- ing. His individualized head types, exceptional interest Secondary Sources in detail, and use of disguised symbolism indicate knowledge of Flemish painting. Charles Sterling sees Emden, Alfred B. A Biographical Register of the University of Moser as \u201ca close follower of Robert Campin\u201d and Oxford to A.D. 1500. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957 notes particularly the use of a continuous background across the four scenes of the center of the altarpiece, Fallows, David. \u201cMorton, Robert.\u201d NGD 12:596\u201397. a device the Fleming had used as early as about 1420 (1972: 19\u201322). Sterling also suggests the influence of David Fallows MOSER, LUCAS (fl. ca. 1431\/1432) The reputation of the painter Lucas Moser rests on a single work, the altarpiece with scenes from the life of Mary Magdalene in the former chapel of the Virgin (now the parish church) in Tiefenbroon, near Pforzheim 472","Flemish and Franco-Flemish manuscript illumination MULTSCHER, HANS and the possibility of a trip to Provence. What is clear is that Moser\u2019s only known work is a masterpiece in for the encounter. Essentially the carefully contrived both its style and its virtuoso handling of material and disputation involved an effort by the Dominican spokes- technique. man to prove to the Jews, from materials including both commentary on the Bible and rabbinic dicta, the Further Reading truth of key Christian doctrines, most importantly the Christian claim that the promised Messiah had already Haussherr, Rainer. \u201cDer Magdalenenaltar in Tiefenbronn: Bericht appeared. \u00fcber die wissenschaftliche Tagung am 9. und 10. M\u00e4rz 1971 im Zentralinstitut f\u00fcr Kunstgeschichte in M\u00fcnchen.\u201d Kunst- The role of the Jewish spokesman was to be limited to chronik 24 (1971): 177\u2013212. rebuttal of the Christian use of rabbinic texts only, with no allowance for Jewish negation of Christian teachings. K\u00f6hler, Wilhelm. Review of Gerhard Piccard, Der Magdale- Whether or not the limited parameters of Jewish rebuttal nenaltar des \u2018Lucas Moser\u2019 in Tiefenbronn. Zeitschrift f\u00fcr were in fact rigidly maintained is not altogether certain. Kunstgeschichte 35 (1972): 228\u2013249. In his brilliant narrative account of the disputation, Nah. manides portrays himself as ranging far and wide in Piccard, Gerhard, Der Magdalenenaltar des \u2018Lucas Moser\u2019 in direct attack on central tenets of Christianity and on Tiefenbronn: Ein Beitrag zur europ\u00e4ischen Kunstgeschichte. fundamental characteristics of Christian society. While Wiesbaden: Harrossowitz, 1969. modern researchers have questioned the reliability of these aspects of Nah. manides\u2019 narrative, it is clear that Richter, Ernst-Ludwig. \u201cZur Rekonstruktion des Tiefenbronner the rabbi of Girona composed a captivating account of Magdalenen-Altars.\u201d Pantheon 30 (1972): 33\u201338. his public encounter and, in the process, provided his Jewish readers with appealing argumentation for the Sterling, Charles. \u201cObservations on Moser\u2019s Tiefenbronn Altar- superiority of the Jewish faith. piece.\u201d Pantheon (1972): 19\u201332. The publication of Nah. manides\u2019 narrative aroused Joan A. Holladay the ire of ecclesiastical leadership and produced calls for punishment of the aged rabbi of Girona. The king MOSES BEN NAH. MAN of Arag\u00f3n, who is portrayed most sympathetically in Nah. manides\u2019 narrative, proved an effective supporter, Moses ben Nah. man (Nah. manides), rabbi of the Jewish although by 1267 Nah. manides had made his way to the community of Girona during the middle decades of the Holy Land. It is by no means clear whether this move thirteenth century, was a leader of Iberian Jewry during reflects the pressures brought to bear against him or his lifetime, and one of the most distinguished intel- whether it resulted from his personal religiosity. He ex- lectual and spiritual figures in all of medieval Jewry. ercised leadership briefly within the Jewish community Like so many Iberian Jewish luminaries, Nah. manides of Jerusalem, and died shortly thereafter. is striking for the remarkable range of his intellectual abilities and achievements. He was a master of Jewish See also Jaime (Jaume) I of Arag\u00f3n-Catalonia law, mentoring important students and composing im- portant novellae to major Talmudic tractates. He was, at Further Reading the same time, a keen student of the Bible, composing an extensive commentary on the Pentateuch that is rich Baer, Y. A History of the Jews in Christian Spain. 2 vols. Trans., in exegetical insight and is still widely studied. He was by L. Schoffman et al. Philadelphia, 1961\u201366. one of the leaders in the rapidly developing school of Spanish Jewish mysticism, rather conservative in his Chazan, R. Barcelona and Beyond: The Disputation of 1263 and approach to the explosive issues associated with the Its Aftermath. Berkeley, 1992. new mystical speculation but extremely important for the more traditional prestige and acumen that he brought Twersky, I. (ed.) Rabbi Moses ben Nah. man (Ramban): Explora- to bear on the development of mystical teachings. His tions in His Religious and Literary Virtuosity. Cambridge, remarkable command of the Hebrew language in all its Mass., 1983. styles linked him to earlier tendencies in Iberian Jewry. The account that he composed of his public disputation Wolfson, E. R. \u201c \u2018By Way of Truth\u2019: Aspects of Nahmanides\u2019 with a former Jew, Pablo Christiani, who had become Kabbalistic Hermeneutic.\u201d Association for Jewish Studies a Dominican friar, is a masterpiece of narrative art and Review 14 (1989), 103\u201378. one of the most effective Jewish polemical treatises of the Middle Ages. \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Secret of the Garment in Nah. manides.\u201d Daat 24 (1990), Eng. sec., xxv\u2013xlix. That famous disputation highlights the public career of Nah. manides. Prior to this engagement the rabbi was MULTSCHER, HANS already known to King Jaime I of Arag\u00f3n. In the face of (ca. 1400\u2013before March 13, 1467) the missionizing assault of the Dominicans, Rabbi Mo- ses ben Nah. man was chosen as the Jewish spokesman Working in stone, wood, and metal, Multscher was Ulm\u2019s foremost sculptor during the mid\u2013fifteenth cen- tury. Originally from the countryside near Leutkirch 473","MULTSCHER, HANS to all who enter the cathedral. Its spirit recalls similar Christ figures by both Claus Sluter and the Master of in the Allg\u00e4u, he moved to Ulm by 1427, when he was Fl\u00e9malle. Related to the Man of Sorrows is the slightly accepted as a freeman, married Adelheid Kitzin, daugh- later model for the tomb of Duke Ludwig the Bearded ter of a local sculptor, and became a citizen. Since he of Bavaria (1435, now in the Bayerisches Nationalmu- already owned a house in Ulm, Multscher may have seum, Munich). Employing fine Solnhofen limestone arrived a few years earlier. Where and with whom he rather than the coarser sandstone that he typically used, trained are unknown. Artistic influences in his work Multscher devised a highly detailed scene of Ludwig suggest he traveled to the Rhineland, Burgundy, and kneeling before the Holy Trinity. The tomb, intended the Low Countries during his Wanderjahr (year as a for Ingolstadt, was never executed. journeyman). In the ensuing decades Multscher and his shop Multscher\u2019s large workshop produced both single supplied numerous Madonnas, crucifixions, and other figures and complex retables with painted panels. His religious figures for churches near Ulm. His most name is inscribed on the Karg Altar of 1433 in the ca- notable creations include the tomb effigy of Countess thedral of Ulm, whose statues were destroyed during Mechthild von W\u00fcrttemberg-Urach (1450\u20131455), now the Protestant iconoclasm of 1531. Multscher signed the in the Stiftskirche in T\u00fcbingen; the bronze reliquary painted wings of the large Wurzbach Altar from 1437, bust (ca. 1460) in the Frick Collection in New York; portions of which are in Berlin (Germ\u00e4ldegalerie). This the life-size wooden Palmesel (palm donkey, 1456, Ulm altarpiece may have been executed for the Church of the Museum), which was made initially for the church of Assumption of the Virgin (St. Maria Himmelfahrt) in St. Ulrich and Afra in Augsburg, and the now divided Landsberg am Lech, where the large stone Madonna and Sterzing High Altar. The latter was made in Ulm and Child remains. Between 1456 and 1459 Multscher and then transported to Sterzing, where Multscher and sev- his workshop prepared the high altar of the parish church eral assistants spent about seven months erecting the at Sterzing (Vipiteno) in South Tyrol; the remnants of altarpiece in 1458 and early 1459. this altar, which was dismantled in 1779, are divided among the church and the Museo Multscher in Sterz- See also Sluter, Claus ing, the Ferdinandeum in Innsbruck, the Bayerisches Nationalmuseum in Munich, and a private collection in Further Reading Basel. These works form the basis for other attributions. Although Multscher is often cited as a painter, there is Baxandall, Michael. The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance little evidence that his personal involvement extended Germany. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980, beyond his roles as workshop head, master designer, pp. 12\u201313, 245\u2013247. and sculptor of some of the statues. Beck, Herbert, and Maraike B\u00fcckling. Hans Multscher: Das The artist introduced a greater sense of realism into Frankfurter Trinit\u00e4tsrelief, Ein Zeugnis spekulativer K\u00fcn- southern German art.At a time when the lyrical Soft Style stlerindividualit\u00e4t. Frankfurt: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, with its Beautiful Virgins, gracefully curved poses, and 1988. elongated proportions was popular, Multscher developed solid, more naturalistic figures that display the general Grosshans, Rainald. \u2018\u201cHans Multscher hat das werk gemacht\u2019: influence of Netherlandish post-Sluterian sculpture. The die Flugel des \u2018Wurzachet Altars\u2019 und ihre Restaurierung.\u201d Landsberg Madonna and Child from 1437 still includes Museums Journal (Berlin) 10 (1996): 78\u201380. hints of the Soft Style with its swaying stance, yet her inherent stability, the clear treatment of the deeply cut Reisner, Sabine, and Peter Steckhan. \u201cEin Beitrag zur Grab- drapery folds, and the marvelously animated Christ malvisier Hans Multschers f\u00fcr Herzog Ludwig den B\u00e4rtigen.\u201d Child who squirms in Mary\u2019s grasp reveal Multscher\u2019s In Das geschnitzte und gemalte bild auf den altaren stehen ist new aesthetic sensibilities. Using this and related works, nutzlich und christenlich: Aufs\u00e4tze zur s\u00fcddeutschen Skulptur scholars have attributed to Multscher several slightly und Malerei des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts, ed. Rupert Sch- earlier projects. The most significant of these are the reiber. Messkirch: A. Gmeiner, 1988, pp. 9\u201374. images of Charlemagne and other figures made circa 1427\u20131430 to adorn the eastern window of Ulm\u2019s city Sch\u00e4dler, Alfred. \u201cBronzebildwerke von Hans Multscher.\u201d In In- hall (the originals are now in the Ulmer Museum), the tuition und Kunstwissenschaft: Festschrift Hanns Swarzenski life-size Man of Sorrows from 1429 above the western zum 70. Geburtstag am 30. August 1973, ed. Peter Bloch. entry to the cathedral of Ulm, and the alabaster Trinity Berlin: Gebr\u00fcder Mann, 1973, pp. 391\u2013408. group from circa 1430 in the Liebieghaus in Frankfurt. The half-nude Christ evocatively displays his wounds Theil, Edmund. Der Multscher-Altar in Sterzing. Bozen: Athesia, 1992. Tripps, Manfred. \u201cHans Multscher: Seine Ulmer Schaffenszeit 1427\u20131467.\u201d Dissertatin, Heidelberg University, 1966\u20131967. Weissenhorn: A. H. Konrad, 1969. \u2014\u2014. Hans Multscher: Meister der Sp\u00e4tgotik, sein Werk, seine Schule, seine Zeit. Leutkirch: Heimatpflege Leutkirch, 1993. Jeffrey Chipps Smith 474","N NARDO DI CIONE (died c. 1336) In an altarpiece now in Prague the presence of Saint Ranieri, a patron saint of Pisa, suggests that Nardo may The Florentine painter Nardo di Cione, with his broth- have painted it for a church in that town. ers Andrea (called Orcagna) and Jacopo, dominated painting in Florence in the decades following the black Nardo is credited with about a dozen surviving death of 1348. Nardo\u2019s date of birth is not known. His works comprising frescoes, altarpieces, and small-scale name appears for the first time in 1346\u20131348 in a list devotional panels. In reconstructing an oeuvre for him, of members of the guild of doctors and apothecaries, Offner (I960) relied on stylistic evidence provided by the the guild to which the painters belonged. By then his frescoes in the Strozzi Chapel in Santa Maria Novella reputation was already established, for c. 1348, when (Florence), which Ghiberti, writing in the mid-fifteenth the authorities of Pistoia asked the Florentines for the century, ascribed to Nardo. Here, on three walls, Nardo names of their best painters to execute the high altarpiece represented the Last Judgment with a scene of heaven for Pistoia\u2019s church of San Giovanni Fuorcivitas, Nardo and a hell in which the imagery is derived from Dante\u2019s was recommended along with Orcagna. At this time description in the Inferno. The frescoes are probably the brothers were living in the parish of San Michele contemporary with the altarpiece in the same chapel that Visdomini and may have shared a workshop. In the Orcagna painted between 1354 and 1357. The decora- 1350s and the first half of the 1360s Nardo lived in the tion of the Strozzi Chapel exemplifies the Florentine center of Florence, but not always in the same parish as taste in art after mid-century, a taste that departed in Orcagna, although the two of them may have continued some ways from the more naturalistic style pioneered by to work together. In 1356 Nardo signed a panel of the Giotto. Spatial illusionism is rejected in favor of more Madonna which hung in the offices of the Gabella dei abstract two-dimensional effects. The saints of Nardo\u2019s Contratti but which no longer survives. And in 1363 he Paradise, for example, are stacked up tier on tier, like, as was paid for painting \u201cthe vault and other things\u201d in the one writer said, a football crowd. Medieval conventions oratory of the confraternity of the Bigallo; only frag- of scale, in which a figure\u2019s place in the hierarchy of ments of this work remain. These are the only two works the holy is indicated by his size, are strictly followed. to which his name can positively be attached. Nardo God\u2019s divinity and the otherworldly piety of the saints made his will in 1365, and by May 1366 he had died. tend to be emphasized at the expense of their human- Apart from a bequest to the Bigallo, he left his money ity. The holy figures appear self-absorbed, preserving and possessions to be divided equally among his three their distance from each other and from the spectator. brothers\u2014Andrea, Jacopo, and Matteo. Since no wife or Some of these characteristics may be seen in Nardo\u2019s children are mentioned, Nardo was probably a bachelor. large-scale panel of the Virgin and saints belonging to These few facts are all we have for a working life that the New York Historical Society and his altarpiece with can be documented over some twenty years. Although three saints in the National Gallery, London. most of Nardo\u2019s painting seems to have been for loca- tions in Florence, he may also have worked elsewhere. This reversion to what have been seen as archaizing At an unknown date the Pistoian painter Bartolommeo modes of representation that draw on late thirteenth- Cristiani entered into an agreement whereby whenever century formulas has been explained in terms of the he worked outside Florence, Nardo would help him. unsophisticated and conservative taste of a new bour- geois class in Florentine society (Antal 1948) and the 475","NARDO DI CIONE NEBRIJA, ELIO ANTONIO DE psychological effects of the black death (Meiss 1951). (c. 1441\u20131522), However, Nardo\u2019s art evinces less obviously than Orcag- na\u2019s the somber, pessimistic mood that Meiss identified Spain\u2019s leading pre-Renaissance humanist was born in the art of Florence and Siena after 1348. Nardo\u2019s style Antonio Mart\u00ednez de Cala e Hinojosa in the Andalusian is more lyrical and less austere than that of his brother; town of Lebrija. Opinion is divided concerning the year his color combinations are more harmonious, and the of his birth. In the prologue to his undated Latin-Spanish facial expressions of his saints are less intimidatingly dictionary he gives his age as fifty-one and states that severe. His stylistic origins lie in the decorative taste he was born in the year prior to the battle of Olmedo of Florentine painters such as Bernardo Daddi and the (1444). However, other observations in the same pro- Sienese school as exemplified in the sumptuous work logue concerning the age at which he went to Italy, the of Simone Martini. Bright enamel colors are juxtaposed length of his stay there and of his subsequent service to with opulent brocades and patterned floors, as in the Alonso de Fonseca, archbishop of Seville, have led some polyptych in Prague and the two panels with saints in specialists to place Nebrija\u2019s date of birth in 1441. the Alte Pinakothek in Munich. Nardo\u2019s Madonnas in Prague, Washington, and Minneapolis have a distinc- At the age of nineteen Nebrija left for Italy to study in tive beauty that led Offner to describe him as \u201cthe the Spanish College of San Clemente in the University most romantic artist of his age.\u201d The delicate sfumato of Bologna, where he was exposed to the writings of modeling of pale flesh tones enlivened with rose-pink Lorenzo Valla and to his critiques of the medieval system on the cheeks and lips, and of blond hair draped with of teaching Latin grammar. Nebrija was appalled at the diaphanous veils, is achieved by a patient application of state of Latin instruction in the University of Salamanca, successive layers of semitransparent glazes. The con- by the teaching manuals employed (typified by the summate care that Nardo lavished on his paintings\u2014in highly popular verse Doctrinale of Alexander de Vil- the preparation of the panel, the detailed underdrawing, ladei), which stressed rote memorization of paradigms, the meticulous application of paint and the painstaking and by the lack of attention paid to classical authors. execution of sgraffito and gilded punchwork\u2014make him Nebrija returned to Spain determined to introduce the possibly the finest craftsman among Trecento painters. reforms advocated by Valla. In 1476 he took possession As a result, his works are remarkably well-preserved. of the chair of Latin grammar at Salamanca, where he remained until 1487, when he entered the service of Nardo\u2019s reputation has fared less well. History has his former student Juan de Z\u00fa\u00f1iga, master of the Order been unfair to Nardo. He has suffered from standing in of Alc\u00e1ntara and future cardinal archbishop of Seville. the shadow of his more famous brother, Orcagna. Vasari The years spent with Z\u00fa\u00f1iga were among Nebrija\u2019s most must share some of the responsibility for this: he got the productive. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, artist\u2019s name wrong (calling him Bernardo), relegated Nebrija joined the group headed by Cardinal Cisneros, Nardo to the role of assistant in Orcagna\u2019s workshop, that was preparing the edition of the Biblia Poliglota and credited to Nardo inferior works that were actually at the newly created University of Alcal\u00e1. Nebrija\u2019s by others. Even now, despite Offner\u2019s study, Nardo has insistence on applying strict philological criteria to the yet to receive the attention that is his due. text of the Latin Bible brought him into conflict with the group\u2019s theologians. After Cisneros lent them his See also Daddi, Bernardo; Martini, Simone; support, Nebrija chose to withdraw from the project Orcagna, Andrea di Cione and returned to the University of Salamanca where he held various chairs. In 1513 Nebrija failed in his bid to Further Reading win the chair of prima de gram\u00e1tica. Embittered, he left Salamanca. In 1514 Cisneros granted the ageing Nebrija Antal, Frederick. Florentine Painting and Its Social Background: the chair of rhetoric at Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, which he oc- The Bourgeois Republic before Cosimo de\u2019 Medici\u2019s Advent cupied until his death on 2 July 1522. to Power\u2014 XIV and Early XV Centuries. London: K. Paul, 1948. Nebrija can be described as Spain\u2019s first linguist, perhaps best known today for his studies of Latin, Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Greek, Hebrew, and the Castilian vernacular. Despite Death. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951. his pioneering work on Castilian, Latin seems to have been Nebrija\u2019s primary concern as a linguist. His first Offner, Richard. A Critical and Historical Corpus of Florentine major book was Introductiones Latinae (1481), a direct Painting, Section 4, Vol. 2, Nardo di Cione. NewYork: College result of Nebrija\u2019s concern with the quality of Latin of Fine Arts, New York University, I960. teaching at Salamanca and his belief that grammatica, the acquisition of Latin, was the key to all other scholarly Pitts, Frances Lee. \u201cNardo di Cione and the Strozzi Chapel Frescoes: Iconographic Problems in Mid-Trecento Florentine Painting.\u201d Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1982. Brendan Cassidy 476","disciplines. Introductiones was designed as a clear and NEIDHART systematic pedagogical manual for university students, with which Nebrija sought to reintroduce into Spain lengua castellana, essentially a resume of book 1 of classical models and the premedieval grammatical the Gram\u00e1tica castellana. Nebrija\u2019s Gram\u00e1tica was not theory of Donates and Priscian. This work was an in- reprinted until the eighteenth century and did not seem stant success. It was revised and reedited several times to have much impact on the work of other sixteenth- during Nebrija\u2019s life and frequently reprinted (often and seventeenth-century Spanish grammarians, many under different titles) throughout the sixteenth century in of whom may not even have known this work. Spain and elsewhere. At the insistence of Queen Isabel, Nebrija published around 1488 (apparently reluctantly) In addition to his activities in the realm of language a bilingual Latin and Spanish version of this manual. studies, Nebrija composed Latin verse and prepared in Introductiones became the basic manual for university that language commentaries on Scripture, rhetorical teaching of Latin in Spain and was one of the books most treatises, works of historiography, geography, and cos- often exported to the New World during the colonial mography, as well as editions of and commentaries on period. Throughout his career Nebrija published a series the writings of other humanists. Unfortunately, hardly of Repetitiones, formal university lectures dealing with any of these works is available in a modern edition (for the pronunciation of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. titles, see Odriozola). Within the intellectual framework of late-fifteenth- Further Reading century Spain, Nebrija\u2019s Latin-Spanish (1492) and Spanish-Latin dictionaries (c. 1495) as well as his Braselmann, P. Humanistische Grammatik und Volkssprache. Zur Gram\u00e1tica de la lengua castellana (1492) represent \u201cGram\u00e1tica de la lengua castellana\u201d von Antonio de Nebrija. major innovations. In all likelihood the two dictionaries D\u00fcsseldorf, 1991. were designed to provide access to Latin rather than to constitute repositories of contemporary Spanish. They Garc\u00eda de la Concha, V., ed. Nebrija y la introduction del Re- may well represent the fruits of an announced larger nacimiento en Espa\u00f1a. Salamanca, 1983. \u201cobra de vocablos,\u201d which was to include lexicons of civil law, medicine, and the Scriptures (his Ius Civilis Nebrija, A. de A. Gram\u00e1tica de la lengua castellana. A. Quilis, Lexicon of 1506 and his Lexicon illarum vocum quae 3d ed. Madrid, 1989. Odriozola, Antonio. \u201cLa caracola del ad medicamentariam artem pertinent appended to a bibli\u00f3filo nebrisense,\u201d Revista de bibliograf\u00eda nacional 7 1518 edition of a Latin translation of Dioscorides). The (1946) 3\u2013114. Spanish-Latin dictionary was the first systematic and comprehensive work in which Spanish was the source Rico, F. Nebrija frente a los b\u00e1rbaros. Salamanca, 1978. language. Both dictionaries, in many respects quite modern in their lexicographic principles, were revised Steven N. Dworkin by Nebrija and underwent several editions. The Latin materials served other early sixteenth-century lexi- NEIDHART (fl. ca. 1215\u20131230) cographers in the preparation of bilingual dictionaries involving Catalan, French, and Sicilian. A Middle High German poet of some renown, there is no documentary evidence of Neidhart\u2019s name or of According to its prologue, Nebrija published his his origins. Under the title \u201cLord\u201d (her) nithart, the Gram\u00e1tica de la lengua castellana to fix and stabilize so-called large (\u201cC\u201d) and the small (\u201cA\u201d) Minnesang- the Spanish language in order to prevent its further manuscripts at Heidelberg University Library record the decay, to facilitate the acquisition of Latin grammar, stanzas attributed to him. The singer is apostrophized and to provide a means of learning Spanish for those as der von Riuwental (the one from the Riuew Valley) peoples over whom Spain would one day rule. Within in the Summer Songs (Sommerlieder) and the defiantly a framework of Latin grammatical theory, Nebrija ex- stated \u201cresponse-verses\u201d (Trutzstrophen) of the Winter amines the linguistic facts of Spanish, with emphasis Songs (Winterlieder). This explains the name Neidhart on form rather than on function. The Gram\u00e1tica treats von Reuental, a term especially used by earlier scholars. orthography and pronunciation, prosody, etymology Both names can also be interpreted allegorically (nith- (that is, morphology), the syntax of the ten parts of art is a medieval name for the devil); riuwental taken speech, and closes with an overview of Spanish for the literally reads as \u201cvalley of grief\u201d). The only indication second-language learner. Motivated by the belief that for dating Neidhart\u2019s poems is through an allusion in standardized spelling would contribute to language \u201cWolfram von Eschenbach\u2019s courtly novel Willehalm (l. stability, Nebrija published a second spelling treatise 312,12; written ca. 1215), as well as references to con- in 1517 under the title Reglas de orthograph\u00eda en la temporary political events or personalities in his songs (Archbishop Eberhard II of Salzburg, Duke Friedrich II of Austria). These clues lead to the conclusion that Neidhart may possibly have lived from circa 1190 to 1240. The author\u2019s occupation and social rank are just as unknown, although, like Walter von der Vogelweide, he was probably a professional poet. It is almost certain that Neidhart spent part of his early literary career in the 477","NEIDHART the unsatisfactory position of the singer and the loss of vreude (happiness) in courtly society (demonstrated area of Bavaria\/Salzburg, which he was forced to leave via the theme of Engelmar\u2019s mirror theft). The Winter for some unknown reason\u2014possibly due to losing his Songs, structured by stollen, require an intimate ac- patron and\/or audience, as can perhaps be discerned in quaintance with form and content of \u201cclassical\u201d Min- changes in his literary style. There are no definite clues nesang to be understood, since the patterns of content that Neidhart might have belonged to the Wittelsbach and representation in Minnesang are constantly referred court of Ludwig I the Kelheimer. On the other hand, to in quotations and opposed to the so-called d\u00f6rper, Winter Song No. 37 directly addresses Archbishop or farmer-stanzas. They portray the threat posed to Eberhard II of Salzburg. Later on Neidhart sang in the the singer by rural upstarts, who arrogate aristocratic vicinity of the Babenberg court of Friedrich II the Val- clothing and lifestyles to themselves, and, even though iant (der Streitbare) in Vienna. This may also have been they adopt only the superficial forms of courtly culture, the setting for a literary argument with Walter von der but not its actual contents, alienate the singer from his Vogelweide and his concept of Minnesang (see Song L vrouwe \u201clady\u201d (who turns out to be a \u201cfarmer\u2019s daugh- 64,31). The writers of subsequent generations (Rubin, ter\u201d or, in the so-called werlt-s\u00fceze, or \u201cwordly delight\u201d Der Marner, Hermann Damen) regarded Neidhart as songs, \u201cHure Welt\u201d\/Whore World). In the Schwanklieder a good example and \u201cmaster.\u201d The special form of his the knight Neidhart is promoted to the role of ever- poetry developed into a separate lyrical genre in the late victorious enemy of the physically and intellectually Middle Ages, while the content partly underwent strong inferior peasants. According to massive tradition as well changes. These later poems were passed on under the as extraliterary evidence, the Neidhart-Lieder (songs) name ain nithart (a Neidhart) in the manuscripts (these with their transformations of content enjoyed sustained songs, regarded largely as imitations following the popularity from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. nineteenth-century scholar Moritz Haupt, have come to Only in recent times has research begun to refrain from be put under the term \u201cpseudo-Neidhart\u201d by research- continuing the debate about authenticity and to accept ers). During the last stage of this reception Neidhart instead the genre of the \u201cNeidharts\u201d in the fullness of became the hero of the Schwankroman Neidhart Fuchs its tradition and history. Schwankerz\u00e4hlungen und Lieder (Neidhart Fox\u2019s Comical Tales and Songs, published 1491\/1497, 1537, See also Wolfram von Eschenbach und 1566), and many Neidhart plays, which belong to the oldest existing secular plays written in German. Further Reading Altogether the numerous manuscripts (from the end of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century) record about 140 Bennewitz, Ingrid. Original und Rezeption. Funktionsund \u00fcber- songs under the name of Neidhart, of which, however, lieferungsgeschichtliche Studien zur Neidhart-Sammlung R. only 66 are considered to be authentic. In the field of G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1987. Minnesang, well-preserved songs form the major excep- tion, even though they were recorded mostly only at a Beyschlag, Siegfried, ed. Die Lieder Neidharts. Darmstadt: Wis- later period (about 68 tunes in all). senschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1975. As far as form and content are concerned, Neidhart\u2019s Fritz, Gerd, ed. Abbildungen zur Neidhart-\u00dcberlieferung I. Die songs, often described as \u201crustic\/rural poetry\u201d (d\u00f6r- Berliner Neidhart-Hs. R und die Pergament-Fragmente Cb, perlich), can be divided into Summer Songs and Winter K, O und M. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1973. Songs (according to the varying introductory natural set- tings) and Schwanklieder (comic songs). The Summer Haupt, Moriz, ed. Neidhart von Reuenthal. Leipzig, 1864. 2d ed. Songs, divided into scenes, render simple verse forms Edmund Wie\u00dfner. Leipzig 1923; rpt. ed. Ingrid Bennewitz, Ul- that have been worked out in detail (raien), while their rich M\u00fcller, and Franz V. Spechtler. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1986. content forms a clear contrast to traditional Minnesang. The plot is shifted from the courtly to the rural realm, Herr Neidhart diesen Reihen sang. Die Texte und Melodien der the \u201cKnight,\u201d or Ritter von Riuwental, is exposed to the Neidhartlieder mit \u2018Ubersetzungen und Kommentaren, ed. unconcealed sexual desires of the farmer\u2019s daughters Siegfried Beyschlag and Horst Brunner. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcm- and wives. Whereas the mother, who is the represen- merle, 1968. tative of socially accepted moral conventions, warns her daughter of the consequences of having an affair Holznagel, Franz-Josef. Wege in die Schriftlichkeit. Untersuc- with the impoverished knight\u2014in the so-called Songs hungen und Materialien zur \u00dcberlieferung der mittelhoch- of the Aged (Altenlieder) the positions of mother and deutschen Lyrik. T\u00fcbingen: Francke, 1995. daughter are reverse\u2014the girl struggles to participate in the summer dance and thus also to gain the oppor- J\u00f6st, Erhard, ed. Die Historien des Neithart Fuchs. Nach dem tunity of a rendezvous. In the Sommer Songs, thought Frankfurter Druck von 1566. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1980. by some to be later, there are frequently statements on Margetts, John, ed. Neidhartspiele. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1982. Schweikle, G\u00fcnther. Neidhart. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1990. Simon, Eckehard. Neidhart v. Reuental. Geschichte der Forsc- hung und Bibliographie. The Hague: Mouton, 1968. Wenzel.Edith, ed. Abbildungen zur Neidhart-\u00dcberlieferung II. Die Berliner Neidhart-Hs. c (mgf779). G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcm- merle, 1975. Ingrid Bennewitz 478","NICHOLAS III, POPE NICHOLAS OF CUSA (c. 1225\u20131280, r. 1277\u20131280) a definitive statement on the problem of Franciscan poverty\u2014on which it (unsuccessfully) forbade further Pope Nicholas III (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini) was the discussion. son of Matteo Rosso Orsini, senator in 1244 and 1246. Nicholas had been created cardinal priest of Saint Nicholas began an artistic revival in Rome that was Nicholas in Carcere Tulliano in 1244 and succeeded carried on by his successors. He extended and embel- John XXI as pope in 1277 after a vacancy of seven lished Innocent Ill\u2019s palace on the Vatican, rebuilt the months, in the face of strongly voiced opposition from Sancta Sanctorum chapel (the only part of the medieval Charles of Anjou, then senator of Rome. Charles\u2019s Lateran palace now surviving), and started improve- term as senator expired in September 1278. Nicholas ments at Saint Peter\u2019s and Santa Maria in Aracoeli. prevented its renewal and, in the bull Fundamenta militantis Ecclesie, specified that any emperor, king, See also Dante Alighieri; Ptolemy of Lucca, prince, marquis, duke, or baron could become senator Villani, Giovanni only with express permission from the pope, and never for more than one year; Romans could become senator Further Reading without problems. Nicholas (as an Orsini) was then elected senator himself, but he exercised power through Editions deputies, all Roman nobles. Nicholas III. Les registres, ed. Jules Gay. Paris: A. Fontemoing, Rudolf of Hapsburg was negotiating to come to 1898\u20131938. Italy for his coronation when Nicholas became pope. Nicholas agreed to receive Rudolf in return for the Ptolemy of Lucca. Historia ecclesiastica. In Return Italicarum cession of the Romagna to the papal state (1278). The Scriptores, ed. L. A. Muratori, Vol. 3. Milan: Societatis Pa- province, influenced by the Ghibelline leader Guido latinae, 1723\u20131751. da Montefeltro, proved difficult to pacify, despite con- ciliatory measures including a temporary recall of the Critical Studies exiled Ghibelline faction to Bologna. Nicholas finally requested help from Charles of Anjou but died before Davis, Charles T. \u201cRoman Patriotism and Republican Propa- order was restored in the Romagna. ganda: Ptolemy of Lucca and Pope Nicholas III.\u201d Speculum, 50, 1975, pp. 411\u2013433. Ptolemy of Lucca accused Nicholas of aspiring to establish an Orsini kingdom based on the Romagna. Demski, Augustin. Papst Nikolaus III: Eine monographie. M\u00fcn- This has been seen as either an attempt to counterbalance ster: H. Sch\u00f6ningh, 1903. the Angevin power, which was encircling the papacy, or an Angevin fiction designed to bring Nicholas into L\u00e9onard, \u00c9mile G. Les Angevins de Naples. Paris: Presses Uni- disrepute. Probably it was neither: Charles manifested versitaires de France, 1954. (See especially pp. 124\u2013128.) no intention of attacking the papal state. The coolness between him and Nicholas shown in his opposition to Partner, Peter. The Lands of Saint Peter: The Papal State in Nicholas\u2019s election, in the ending of Charles\u2019s tenure the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance. London: Eyre of the senate, and subsequently in the termination of Methuen, 1972, pp. 268\u2013277. Charles\u2019s papal vicariate in Tuscany has been exagger- ated, notably by Giovanni Villani. Although Charles Sternfeld, Richard. Der Kardinal Johann Gaetan Orsini (Papst probably distrusted the Orsini, he continued to receive Nikolaus III.) 1244\u20131277: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der support from the papacy in the south and sent support r\u00f6mischen Kurie im 13. Jahrhundert. Berlin: E. Ebering, to the pope further north. Dante\u2019s story that Nicholas 1905. was persuaded by Byzantine gold, offered by John of Procida, to transfer Sicily from the Angevins to the Carola M. Small Aragonese seems unfounded. NICHOLAS OF CUSA (1401\u20131464) However, Dante justifiably denounced Nicholas for unprecedented nepotism. Nicholas created three Orsini Most important German thinker of the fifteenth cen- cardinals. One nephew was papal vicar in the Romagna; tury (Latin, Nicolaus Cusanus), ecclesiastical reformer, another nephew was papal legate there; in Tuscany, a administrator, and cardinal. His lifelong effort, as brother was senator twice; and so on. canon law expert at church councils, as legate to Con- stantinople and later to German dioceses and houses Before his election Nicholas had been cardinal pro- of religion, in his own diocese, and even in the papal tector of the Franciscans. As pope, he issued the bull curia was to reform and unite the universal and Ro- Exiit qui seminat, which was based on the Apologia man Church. This active life finds written expression pauperum of Saint Bonaventura and was intended as in several hundred Latin sermons and more theoretical background in his writings on ecclesiology, ecumenism, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. Curious and open-minded, learned and steeped in the Neoplatonic tradition, well aware of both humanist and scholastic learning, yet self-taught in philosophy and theology, Nicholas anticipated many later ideas in mathematics, cosmology, astronomy, and experimental science while constructing his own original version of systematic Neoplatonism. A whole range of earlier medieval writers 479","NICHOLAS OF CUSA maximum and thus inadequate for measuring the infi- nite God. There is no humanly conceivable proportion influenced Nicholas, but his important intellectual roots between God and creatures. Yet for Nicholas, we are are in Proclus and Pseudo-Dionysius. In spite of his supposed to move in ignorance beyond reason\u2019s inad- significance few later thinkers, apart from Giordano equacies in hopes of touching God (incomprehensibiliter Bruno, understood or were influenced by him until the comprehendere) through a kind of intellectual-mystical late nineteenth century. vision wherein all things are one. Since God\u2019s fullness comprises everything, Nicholas invokes the idea of the Born in Kues (between Koblenz and Trier), Nicholas coincidence of opposites (coincidentia oppositorum) studied liberal arts (and perhaps some theology) at Hei- as the ontologicai correlative of learned ignorance. By delberg (1416\u20131417) and canon law at Padua, where he limiting the principle of contradiction to the realm of earned his doctor decretorum (1423) and made initial finite creatures and their differences, we recognize that contacts with Italian humanists and mathematicians. He in divinity all opposites coincide in the transcendent studied and taught canon law at Cologne (1425), where infinite oneness. The lack of resemblance between God Heimericus de Campo introduced him to the ideas of Al- and creatures means that all our knowledge of God must bertus Magnus, Ramon Llull, and Pseudo-Dionysius. He be metaphorical. soon ended his formal schooling and became secretary, then chancellor, to the archbishop of Trier. He refused Nicholas\u2019s later writings propose conjectural meta- chairs of canon law at Louvain in 1428 and 1435, pre- phors for exploring the limits of our knowledge and at ferring administrative work in the church. As an expert the same time seeking the God beyond. Of particular at the Council of Basel (1432\u20131438), he wrote on the import are De coniecturis: On conjectures (ca. 1442), Hussites, papal authority, and reform of the calendar. His where Nicholas proposes a hierarchical Neoplatonic important conciliarist treatise, De concordia catholica ontology as a speculative conjecture (while pointing (On Catholic Harmony, 1433), stressed the principles out that all our conceptual knowledge is provisional or of representation and of consent of the governed and conjectural) and Idiota de mente: The Layman\u2014About embodied his lifelong commitment to bring harmony Mind (1450), which parallels our minds\u2019 creation of a and unity out of conflict and diversity. conceptual universe and the divine mind\u2019s creation of the actual world. In De visione Dei: The Vision of God In 1437 Nicholas changed his support from the (1453), Nicholas proposes an all-seeing icon to hold conciliarists to the pope to better work for unity. He together for imagination and thought how our striving traveled in the delegation to Constantinople seeking to to see God is one with God\u2019s seeing us. reunite Greek and Roman churches. Ordained a priest by 1440, he traveled as legate to Germany for the next De possest: On Actualized Possibility (1460) and De ten years on behalf of the papal cause, and was named li non aliud: On the Not-other (1461\u20131462) work out (1448) and made (1450) cardinal. He was appointed two descriptions, or \u201cnames,\u201d of God. The first stresses bishop of Brixen in Tyrol the same year, but traveled to how in God all possibilities are real or actually exist; thus Germany and the Low Countries to preach the jubilee in God possibility and actuality coincide. The second is year and issue edicts of reform. His efforts to reform his concerned to express how God is and is not present to own diocese led to enmity with the local archduke; twice created things\u2014intimately connected (\u201cnot other than\u201d) Nicholas had to flee to Rome. After 1458 he remained yet never identical with (not \u201cnothing else but\u201d) crea- in the papal curia of Pius II at Rome. Nicholas died in tures in space and time. Each of these metaphors and, 1464 en route to Ancona from Rome. indeed, all of Nicholas\u2019s later writings are calculated to initiate dialectical thinking so that one may move His important masterpiece of 1440, On Learned Ig- from thinking of God and creatures as exclusive and norance (De docta ignorantia), was the foundation for exhaustive alternatives to seeing them as identified, yet his writings over the next quarter century. While fully not identical. God is to be seen as both all and nothing engaged in practical ecclesiastical affairs, Nicholas also of created things; creatures are limited images of the wrote some twenty philosophical\/theological treatises divine infinite oneness that they cannot resemble yet and dialogues, plus ten works on mathematics, focusing for which they ceaselessly strive. on the problem of squaring the circle and on using math- ematics in philosophical theology. The three books of See also Albertus Magnus; Llull, Ram\u00f3n On Learned Ignorance expound his central ideas about God, the universe, and Christ. Nicholas was to extend, Further Reading expand, and modify these speculations in later writings. The Catholic Concordance, trans. Paul E. Sigmund. Cambridge: \u201cLearned ignorance\u201d is so called because it involves Cambridge University Press, 1991. acknowledging the limits of human knowledge when we seek to know what God is (or, indeed, what the exact es- De ludo globi = The Game of Spheres, trans. Pauline Moffitt sence of anything amounts to). Our rational knowledge Watts. New York: Abaris, 1986. is a kind of conceptual measuring designed for the finite realm of more and less, but unable to reach the absolute 480","Duclow, D. F. \u201cNicholas of Cusa.\u201d In Dictionary of Literary NICOLAUS GERHAERT VON LEYDEN Biography: Medieval Philosophers, vol. 115, ed. J. Hackett. Detroit: Bruccoli Clark, 1992. from this area in the second half of the century. As with other Mosan artists, Nicholas was accomplished Flasch, K. Nikolaus von Kues: Geschichte einer Entwicklung. in creating both champlev\u00e9 (decorative enamel filling) Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1998. plaques, such as those found on the Klosterneuburg ambo, and three-dimensional figures, which are found Haubst, R. Streifzuege in die cusanische Theologie. M\u00fcnster: on the Three Kings\u2019 Shrine and that of the Virgin. In Aschendorff, 1991. addition to reflecting Mosan traditions, Nicholas\u2019s work, both two- and three-dimensional, shows a new interest \u2014\u2014 et al., eds. Mitteilungen und Forschungsbeitr\u00e4ge der in the natural proportioning of the human body, the fall Cusanus-Gesellschaft. Mainz: Mattias-Gr\u00fcnewald, 1961 ff. of cloth garments over it, and a type of soft drapery [Cusanus journal, bibliographies in vols. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15]. fold called Muldenfaltenstil (trough fold style), which is smoothly curved and unlike the angular, inorganic Hopkins, Jasper, trans. Nicholas of Cusa on Learned Ignorance. drapery found in Romanesque art. This drapery style, Minneapolis: Banning, 1985. perhaps first appearing in Nicholas\u2019s work, becomes ex- tremely popular in the years around 1200 in a variety of Hopkins, J. A Concise Introduction to the Philosophy of Nicholas other works, including cathedral sculpture, such as that of Cusa, 3d ed. Minneapolis: Banning, 1986. at Bamberg Cathedral, stained glass, and manuscripts. The sources for these components of Nicholas\u2019s art are Idiota de mente = The Layman, about Mind, trans. Clyde Lee a matter of controversy with contemporary Byzantine Miller. New York: Abaris, 1979. art, Ottonian art, early Christian art, and even Roman minor arts cited as possible works Nicholas may have Jacobi, K. ed. Nikolaus von Kues: Einf\u00fchurung in sein philoso- studied to acquire classicizing elements. phisches Denken. Freiburg: Alber, 1979. In spite of great stylistic innovation, there is evidence The Layman on Wisdom and the Mind, trans. M.L. Fuhrer. Ot- that Nicholas had the help of theologians in designing tawa: Dovehouse, 1989. the complex iconographies of his shrines. A plaque of the Mouth of Hell from the Klosterneuburg ambo fea- Li non aliud. English & Latin. Nicholas of Cusa on God as not- tures a sketch of the Three Marys at the Tomb on the other, trans. Jasper Hopkins. 2d ed. Minneapolis: Banning, back. This is believed to represent a trial composition 1983. whose subject was later modified by the theological advisers to better accommodate the typological meaning Nicola de Cusa Opera Omnia, Heidelberg Academy Edition. of the whole ambo. The complex relationships between Lepzig\/Hamburg: Miner, 1932 ff. the Three Magi and contemporary kings implied by the images of the Three Kings\u2019 Shrine are also thought to Nicholas of Cusa\u2019s Metaphysic of Contraction, trans. Jasper reflect the ideas of theologians, in this case persons as- Hopkins. Minneapolis: Banning, 1983. sociated with Cologne Cathedral. Nicholas of Cusa: Selected Spiritual Writings, trans. H. Lawrence Further Reading Bond. New York: Paulist, 1997. Dahm, Frederick. Studien zur Ikonographie des Klosterneuburger Opera. 3 vols., ed. Jacques LeFevre d\u2019Etaples. Paris: J. Blade, Emailwerkes des Nicholaus von Verdun. Vienna: VWGO, 1514; rpt. Frankfurt: Minerva, 1962. 1989. Clyde Lee Miller Ornamenta Ecclesiae: Kunst und K\u00fcnstler der Romanik in K\u00f6ln, ed. Anton Legner. 3 vols. Cologne: Schn\u00fctgen Museum, 1985, NICHOLAS OF VERDUN vol. 2, pp. 216\u2013224, 447\u2013455. (ca. 1150\u2013ca. 1210) Swarzenski, Hans. \u201cThe Style of Nicholas of Verdun: Saint Armand and Reims,\u201d in Gatherings in Honor of Dorothy R. A goldsmith and enamelist active in the late twelfth Miner, ed. U. E. McCracken et al. Baltimore: Walters Art and early thirteenth centuries, Nicholas is known for Gallery, 1974, pp. 111\u2013114. the stylistic originality of his work. Two dated works inscribed with his name exist: the ambo, or pulpit, dated Susan L. Ward 1181 (and remodeled into an altarpiece in 1330), from the Augustinian Abbey of Klosterneuburg near Vienna, NICOLAUS GERHAERT VON LEYDEN and the shrine of the Virgin in Tournai Cathedral, dated (d. 1473) to 1205. The shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral, usually dated to the 1190s, is also partially A sculptor whose few surviving documented works are attributed to Nicholas. This large reliquary was built to dispersed from Trier and Strasbourg to Vienna, Nicolaus house the relics of the Three Magi, which Archbishop Gerhaert von Leyden remains relatively unknown today Rainald von Dassel had received from Emperor Freder- even though his style influenced late Gothic sculpture ick Barbarossa in 1164. After Nicholas\u2019s creation of the shrine, the Magi, as examples of both the first Christian pilgrims and the first Christian kings, became closely associated with theories of German kingship and also with the city of Cologne, their crowns appearing on its coat of arms by the end of the thirteenth century. In technical details and certain stylistic features, Nicholas\u2019s work is related to the general tradition of metalwork in the Rhine and Meuse valleys, a region known in the twelfth century for its sophistication. His work is particularly closely related to the Heribert Shrine, considered the major achievement in metalwork 481","NICOLAUS GERHAERT VON LEYDEN work attributed to Nicolaus is the bust of a Meditating Man in the Strasbourg museum, assumed to be a self- throughout Germany. Of the surviving stone carvings portrait, also from the New Chancellery. The Crucifixion attributed to him or to his school, only five are authen- Altar in N\u00f6rdlingen and the Virgin of Dangolsheim in ticated by documents or signatures. The earliest to Berlin are frequently considered his early work or that display his new inner dynamism and portrait realism is of a sculptor close to him. the signed tomb effigy of Archbishop Jacob von Sierck, dated 1462, now in the Diocesan Museum in Trier. Origi- See also Frederick III, Schongauer, Martin; nally the upper half of a two-tiered tomb with his decay- Sluter, Claus ing corpse below, the deeply cut effigy was undoubtedly made by a mature artist. His stay in Strasbourg, where Further Reading Nicolaus was mentioned frequently in documents from 1463 to 1467 and where he became a citizen in 1464, is M\u00fcller, Theodor. Sculpture in the Netherlands, Germany, France the best-documented and most productive period of his and Spain 1400 to 1500. Pelican History of Art 25. Harmond- life. Here he was commissioned in 1464 to create the sworth: Penguin, 1966, pp. 79\u201387. portal of the Neue Kanzlei (New Chancellery), on which busts appeared as if looking down from a window; only Recht, Roland. \u201cNicolas de Leyde et la sculpture \u00e0 Strasbourg two heads survive: the so-called B\u00e4rbel von Ottenheim (1460\u20131525).\u201d Ph.D. diss., Universit\u00e9 des Sciences Humaines in the Liebieghaus Museum in Frankfurt and Count de Strasbourg, 1978. Strasbourg: Presses Universitaires de Jacob von Hanau-Lichtenberg in the Mus\u00e9e de l\u2019Oeuvre Strasbourg, 1987, pp. 115\u2013151, 341\u2013345. NotreDame in Strasbourg. The Epitaph of Conrad von Busnang in the Chapel of St. John in the cathedral at Marta O. Renger Strasbourg, signed and dated 1464, provides the only comparison for Madonna statues attributed to his circle. NILUS OF ROSSANO In 1465\u20131467 he worked on the carved wood high altar (c. 910\u20131004) for the Constance Minster that was later destroyed. His best-known work, the signed Crucifix for the Old Cem- Nilus of Rossano (Neilos) is perhaps the best-known etery in Baden-Baden, now in the Stiftskirche there, was representative of Greek monasticism in medieval Italy dated 1467. In the same year, in response to the second before the Great Schism. The chief source for his biogra- invitation of Emperor Frederick III, Nicolaus went to phy is an anonymous eleventh-century Life of Saint Nilus Vienna and Wiener Neustadt, where he was responsible the Younger, an impressive document of Italo-Greek for the tomb lid of the Emperor in the Apostle\u2019s Choir monastic ideals; despite the exemplary import of the of St. Stephen in Vienna. Nicolaus died in 1473 and was incidents chosen for narration, it seems in outline to be buried in Wiener Neustadt. There are fewer documents factually accurate. According to this account, Nilus was from these last years, and they provide less certitude in born to an aristocratic family in Rossano, an important regard to the extent of his work. eastern Roman (Byzantine) administrative center in eastern Calabria, received a good religious education, In spite of the widespread destruction of Netherland- and was orphaned at an early age. At the age of thirty, he ish sculpture of the fifteenth century and a lack of study abandoned the world (he had sired a daughter, perhaps of French work of the same time, the stylistic origins out of wedlock) for an ascetic life in the mountainous of Nicolaus are generally agreed to lie in the Flemish- border region of the Mercurion and there came under Burgundian region. The individualism of his portrait the influence of Fantinus the Younger and other holy heads derives from those of Claus Sluter at Dijon, and fathers. To evade a gubernatorial ban on his becoming his knowledge of the late work of Jan van Eyck is also a monk, he took the habit at a Greek monastery in the generally accepted. His busts from the Chancellery at Lombard principality of Salerno. Nilus then returned to Strasbourg are often compared to the earlier figures Fantinus\u2019s lavra (colony of anchorites). Living first there above the entrance to the house of Jacques Coeur in and then in a nearby cave, he learned and later taught Bourges. The new dynamism he infused into his figures calligraphy. During this time he also traveled to Rome together with their physical expressiveness and the drap- to visit the tombs of the apostles and to consult books ery expanding into the surrounding space characterize whose identity, regrettably, is unknown. his contribution to the new style. These characteristics also appear in the works of the Masters E.S. and Martin Arab raids caused Nilus to retreat in the late 940s to Schongauer, both working in the Rhineland at approxi- one of his properties near Rossano, where together with mately the same time as Nicolaus; the engravings of some of his students he founded a monastery of his own. these artists are partly responsible for the rapid spread He resided here as a penitent for the next quarter-century, of his style in the late fifteenth century. achieving more than local repute as a holy man and miracle worker. He is said to have declined being named The most convincing unsigned and undocumented bishop of Rossano and to have obtained from the emir 482","of Palermo the liberation of three of his monks who had NOTKER LABEO been captured and enslaved. Around 980, fleeing further Arab incursions and his own growing fame, Nilus and Manuscripts his comrades left the eastern empire for good and were welcomed in the Latin west by the Lombard prince of Caruso, Stefano. \u201cUn tab\u00f9 etico e filologico: La mutilazione Capua, Pandulf Ironhead. At the behest of Pandulf\u2019s verecundiae gratia del Cryptensis B.b II (B\u00ecos di Nilo da successor Landulf IV, Abbot Aligern of Monte Cassino Rossano).\u201d PAN: Studi dell\u2019Istituto di filologia latina \u201cGiusto installed them in 981 at the abbey\u2019s daughter house at Monaco,\u201d 15\u201316, 1998, pp. 169\u2013193. Vallelucio (now Valleluce), where they participated to a limited extent in the life of the neighboring Benedictine D\u2019Oria, Filippo, \u201cAttivit\u00e0 scrittoria e cultura greca in ambito community. Here Nilus composed an office for Saint longobardo (note e spunti di riflessione).\u201d In Scrittura e pro- Benedict and probably some of his other poetry. duzione documentaria nel Mezzogiorno longobardo: Atti del convegno internazionale di studio (Badia di Cava, 3\u20135 ottobre After Aligern\u2019s death, relations between the two 1990), ed. Giovanni Vitolo and Francesco Mottola. Cava dei groups soured, and in 994 and 995 Nilus founded a new Tirreni: Badia di Cava, 1991, pp. 131\u2013167. (See especially monastery at tiny Serperi (now S\u00e8rapo) in the duchy of pp. 135\u2013144.) Gaeta. From here he made journeys to Rome, where he failed to persuade his fellow Rossanese, John Phila- Gassisi, Sofronio, \u201cI manoscritti autografi di S. Nilo Iuniore, gathus, to renounce the papacy he had assumed in 997 fondatore del monastera di S. M. di Grottaferrata.\u201d Oriens after the ouster from the city of the imperially selected Christianus, 4, 1904, pp. 308\u2013370. incumbent, Gregory V; and where, too, after John had been deposed and later blinded, Nilus attempted in an Critical Studies interview with the emperor Otto III to have the former antipope released to his custody. In 1004, the aged Nilus Atti del Congresso Internazionale su s. Nilo di Rossano (28 left Serperi and, staying at a small Greek monastery in settembre\u20131 ottobre 1986). Rossano and Grottaferrata: n.p., the Alban hills not far from Rome, obtained land for a 1989. new foundation from Gregory I, count of Tusculum. Nilus died there shortly after his monks had arrived at Follieri, Enrica. \u201cPer una nuova edizione della Vita di san Nilo the nearby site and begun work on what would become da Rossano.\u201d Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata, the famous Greek abbey of Grottaferrata. n.s., 51, 1997, pp. 71\u201392. Nilus\u2019s surviving verse, all in his native Greek, is not Luzzatti Lagan\u00e0, Francesca. \u201cCatechesi e spiritualit\u00e0 nella Vita di a large body of work. Specimens of his scribal work and S. Nilo di Rossano: Donne, ebrei e `santa follia.\u2019 \u201d Quaderni that of his students also survive, however. His correspon- Storici, 93, 1996, pp. 709\u2013737. (Year 31, number 3.) dence does not survive, apart from brief summaries and extracts (mostly in the Life, a partly eyewitness account Romano, Roberto. \u201cIl commentario a Ermogne attribuito a S. sometimes ascribed to his companion and successor Nilo di Rossano.\u201d Epeter\u00ecs Hetaire\u00edas Byzantin\u00f4n Spoud\u00f4n, Bartholomew of Grottaferrata). To Nilus himself has 47, 1987\u20131989, pp. 253\u2013269. been ascribed, on very slender grounds, the commentary of Nilus the Monk on the Per\u00ed st\u00e1seon (On Issues) of Rousseau, Olivier. \u201cLa visite de Nil de Rossano au Mont-Cas- the ancient Greek rhetorician Hermogenes. sin.\u201d In La chiesa greca in Italia dall\u2019VII al XVI secolo: Atti del convegno storico interecclesiale (Bari, 30 apr.-4 magg. Further Reading 1969), Vol. 3. Italia Sacra, 20\u201322. Padua: Antenore, 1973, pp. 1111\u20131137. Editions Sansterre, Jean-Marie. \u201cLes coryph\u00e9es des ap\u00f4tres, Rome et la Gassisi, Sofronio, ed. Poesie di San Nilo Iuniore e di Paolo mo- papaut\u00e9 dans les Vies des saints Nil et Barth\u00e9lemy de Grot- naco, abbati di Grottaferrata, nuova edizione con ritocchi taferrata.\u201d Byzantion, 55, 1985, pp. 516\u2013543. ed aggiunte. Innografi Italo-Greci, Fasc. 1. Rome: Tipografia Poliglotta della S. C. de Prop. Fide, 1906. \u2014\u2014. \u201cOtton III et les saints asc\u00e8tes de son temps.\u201d Rivista di Storia della Chiesa in Italia, 43, 1989, pp. 377\u2013412. (See Giovanelli, Germano, ed. B\u00edos ka\u00ed politeia to\u00fb hos\u00edou patr\u00f2s especially pp. 390\u2013396.) hem\u00f4n Ne\u00edlou to\u00fb N\u00e9ou. Grottaferrata: Badia di Grottafer- rata, 1972. (Bartholomew, Saint, Abbot of Grottaferrata, \u2014\u2014. \u201cSaint Nil de Rossano et le monachisme latin.\u201d Bollet- ascribed author.) tino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata, n.s., 45, 1991, pp. 339\u2013386. Translations John B. Dillon Giovanelli, Germano, trans. Vita di S. Nilo, fondatore e patrono di Grottaferrata. Grottaferrata: Badia di Grottaferrata, 1966. NOTKER LABEO (ca. 950\u20131022) Romano, Roberto, trans. \u201cS. Nilo di Rossano, Kondakion per S. Also known as Notker III and Notker Teutonicus (Not- Nilo di Ancira.\u201d Italoellenika, 5, 1994\u20131998, pp. 401\u2013405. ker the German), Notker Labeo (the lip) was a St. Gall monk and teacher best known for his Old High German translation-commentaries of Latin classroom texts. In a letter to Bishop Hugo of Sitten (ca. 1019\u20131020), Notker refers to the vernacular translation project on which he has embarked as something uncommon and revo- lutionary and notes that it may even shock his reader. He argues, however, that students can understand texts in their mother tongue much more easily than in Latin. Notker\u2019s translation method adopts contemporary gloss- ing practices (syntactical, morphological, and lexical) and develops and integrates them into a continuous Latin\/German text. First Notker often rearranges the word order of the original Latin into a variant of the 483","NOTKER LABEO and vowel length. Notker\u2019s lexicon has also received considerable scholarly attention, owing to the many new so-called natural order, the ordo naturalis, a current words he coined to render into Old High German the pedagogic word order that roughly corresponds to a sub- highly complex Latin terminology he was translating. ject-verb-object typology. He then expands on the text with additional classroom commentary\u2014either his own See also Gregory I, Pope; Martianus Capella or culled from other sources\u2014by providing synonyms, supplying any implied subjects or objects, expounding Further Reading rhetorical figures and etymologies, and interpreting mythological figures. Finally Notker appends his Old Colemnan, Evelyn S. \u201cBibliographie zu Notker III. von St. Gal- High German translation, which is sprinkled with fur- len,\u201d in Germanic Studies in Honor of Edward H. Sehrt. Coral ther explanation in the vernacular and occasional Latin Gables, Fl.: University of Miami Press, 1968, pp. 61\u201376. terms, a kind of mixed prose (Mischsprosa). \u2014\u2014. \u201cBibliographie zu Notker III. von St. Gallen: Zweiter In his letter to the bishop, Notker also includes a list Teil,\u201d in Spectrum medii aevi. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1983, of works he had finished, thereby providing us with pp. 91\u2013110. a fairly accurate account of his corpus: Boethius, De consolatione Philosophiae (On the Consolation of Phi- De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii: Konkordanzen, Wortlisten losophy); Martianus Capella, De nuptiis Philologiae et und Abdruck des Textes nach dem Codex Sangallensis 872, Mercurii (On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury); ed. Evelyn S. Firchow. Hildesheim: Olms, 1999. Boethius\u2019s Latin versions of Aristotle\u2019s, De categoriis (Categories) and De interpretatione (On Interpretation), Ehrismann, Gustav. Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis and, his most popular work, the Psalter (together with zum Ausgang des Mittelalters. Munich: Beck, 1932, pp. the Cantica and three catechistic texts). He also refers 416\u2013458. to several of his own classroom compositions, which contain translations of technical terms and\/or examples Hellgardt, Ernst. \u201cNotker des Deutschen Brief an Bischof Hugo in Old High German; among these are thought to be von Sitten,\u201d in Befund und Deutung. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, De arte rhetorica (On the Art of Rhetoric), Computus 1979, pp. 169\u2013192. (Calculating the Calendar), De definitione (On Defini- tion), De musica (On Music), Partibus logicae (On the \u2014\u2014. \u201cNotker Teutonicus: \u00dcberlegungen zum Stand der Forsc- Parts of Logic), and De syllogismis (On Syllogisms). hung.\u201d Beitr\u00e4ge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und A few Latin treatises produced in the St. Gall school Literatur 108 (1986): 190\u2013205 and 109 (1987): 202\u2013221. may also have been compiled by him: De dialectica (On Dialectics), Distributio (Logic), and The St. Gall King, James, and Petrus Tax, eds. Die Werke Notkers des Tractate. Other translations listed by Notker have not Deutschen, Altdeutsche Textbibliothek. 10 vols. T\u00fcbingen: survived: Principia arithmetica (Arithmetic Principles, Niemeyer, 1972\u20131996. by Boethius?), De trinitate (On the Trinity, by Boethius or Remigius of Auxerre?), Gregory the Great\u2019s Moralia Notker der Deutsche. De interpretatione: Boethius\u2019Bearbeitung in Iob (Moral Deliberations on the Book of Job), and von Aristoteles\u2019 Schrift Peri hermeneias: Konkordanzen, Cato\u2019s Distichs, Vergil\u2019s Bucolica, and Terence\u2019s Andria. Wortlisten und Abdruck des Textes nach dem Codex Sangal- Notker\u2019s work did not find great resonance, and only the lensis 818, ed. Evelyn S. Firchow. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995. Psalter and several of the minor treatises are preserved outside of St. Gall. Notker der Deutsche von St. Gallen. Categoriae: Boethius\u2019 Bearbeitung von Aristoteles\u2019 Schrift Kategoriai: Konkor- Notker\u2019s late-tenth-century Alemannic marks an danzen, Wortlisten und Abdruck der Texte nach den Codices important transition period in the history of the German Sangallensis 818 and 825, ed. Evelyn S. Firchow. Berlin: de language. The extant eleventh-century St. Gall copies Gruyter, 1996. of his texts are recorded with a fairly consistent spell- ing, which modern scholars have interpreted to reflect Notker-Wortschatz, eds. Edward H. Sehrt und Wolfram K. Legner. guidelines that Notker imposed on the St. Gall scribes. Halle (Saale): Niemeyer, 1955. Sehrt, Edward H. Notker-Glos- They include the Anlautgesetz (devoicing initial voiced sar. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1962. stops \/b d g\/ following a voiceless consonant and\/or a pause and in compounds) and the use of the acute and The St. Gall Tractate: A Rhetorical Guide to Classroom Syntax, circumflex accents to mark word and\/or sentence stress eds. and trans. Anna Grotans and David Porter. Columbia, S.C.: Camden House, 1995. Schr\u00f6bler, Ingeborg. Notker III. von St. Gallen als \u00dcbersetzer und Kommentator von Boethius\u2019 De consolatione Philosophiae. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1953. Sonderegger, Stefan. Althochdeutsch in St. Gallen. St. Gallen: Ostschweiz, 1970. \u2014\u2014. Althochdeutsche Sprache und Literatur, 2d ed. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987. \u2014\u2014. \u201cNotker III. von St. Gallen,\u201d in Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, vol. 6., 2d ed. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987, cols. 1212\u20131236. Tax, Petrus W. \u201cNotker Teutonicus,\u201d in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, vol. 9. New York: Scribner\u2019s, 1987, pp. 188\u2013190. Anna A. Grotans 484","O OCKEGHEM, JOHANNES Tinctoris describes him not only as a distinguished com- poser but as the finest bass singer known to him. (ca. 1420\u20131497) Ockeghem\u2019s personal appearance and manner, as Franco-Flemish composer, active mainly in France. well as his musicianship, were often praised by his According to recently discovered documents, he was contemporaries. Guillaume Cr\u00e9tin wrote a D\u00e9ploration born in Saint-Ghislain, a village near Mons in the Bel- surle trespas de feu Okergan, praising his \u201csubtlety\u201d and gian province of Hainaut. His career is first traced in calling on his mourning colleagues, led by Dufay and Antwerp, where he was a singer at the church of Notre- Busnoys, to sing his music, including his \u201cexquisite and Dame in 1443\/44. From 1446 to 1448, he was singer in most perfect Requiem Mass.\u201d The poet Jean Molinet the chapel of Charles I, duke of Bourbon, at Moulins. also wrote a d\u00e9ploration on his death, which was set He became a member of the French royal chapel under to music by Josquin des Prez, the great master of the Charles VII ca. 1450 and continued to serve that institu- next generation of French composers. An epitaphium tion under Louis XI and Charles VIII. Named as first for Ockeghem by Erasmus of Rotterdam was set by chaplain in 1454, he was subsequently cited as master Johannes Lupi in the 16th century. of the chapel (1464) and counselor to the king (1477). In 1459, Charles VII, who was hereditary abbot of Saint- Ockeghem composed in all genres, but his most Martin of Tours, appointed Ockeghem to the important important works are his fourteen Masses. A single post of treasurer of Saint-Martin. Sometime before 1472, Credo and only five motets by him are known, but they possibly in 1464, he was ordained a priest at Cambrai. are each highly individual works. Twenty-two secular The only journey he is known to have undertaken outside songs, all but one in French, come down to us. The France and the Low Countries is one to Spain in 1470. exception is a Spanish song, probably a memento of In 1484, he revisited his native country when he and his visit to Spain. other members of the royal chapel traveled to Damme and Bruges in Flanders. He eventually retired to Tours, In his time and throughout subsequent centuries, where he died on February 6, 1497. Ockeghem was renowned for his contrapuntal skill, especially in canonic writing. His masterpiece in this Among his pupils may have been Antoine Busnoys, technique is his Missa prolationum, consisting almost a cleric at Saint-Martin of Tours in 1465 and subse- entirely of double canons at all intervals within the quently singer in the chapel of Charles the Bold, duke of octave, and in four different \u201cprolations\u201d (meters) Burgundy. Busnoys honored Ockeghem in his motet In simultaneously. Almost legendary in his time was a hydraulis, calling him the \u201ctrue image of Orpheus.\u201d At thirty-six-voice canon mentioned by Cr\u00e9tin and oth- Cambrai, Ockeghem met Guillaume Dufay, his greatest ers, the identity of which remains controversial. His musical contemporary, who in 1464 entertained him at Requiem Mass, which may have been written on the his house. The Flemish music theorist Johannes Tincto- death of Charles VII (1461), is the earliest surviving ris dedicated his treatise on the modes (1476) jointly to example of its kind. Ockeghem and Busnoys, and in his treatises on propor- tions and counterpoint he cited Ockeghem as \u201cthe most The most distinctive features of Ockeghem\u2019s mu- excellent of all the composers I have ever heard.\u201d In his sic are its varied, unpredictable rhythms and long- last treatise, De inventione et usu musicae (ca. 1481), breathed, overlapping phrases. Its texture of equally important though highly independent melodic lines 485","OCKEGHEM, JOHANNES natio, his lectures on the first book, and the Reportatio, comprising notes taken at his lectures. He also composed and its exploration of the bass register are progressive commentaries on Aristotle\u2019s Organon; Summa logicae, features, but in many respects its unpredictable, \u201cmysti- his major statement on logic; seven quodlibetals; and cal\u201d character, which virtually defies analysis, evokes a treatises on the Body of Christ, on the eucharist, and Late Gothic spirit rather than displaying the clarity of on predestination. After his departure from Avignon in the emerging Renaissance style of his contemporaries. 1328, he wrote works against the Avignon papacy, the chief ones being Opus nonaginta dierum, about papal See also Busnoys, Antoine; Charles VII; errors regarding poverty; Dialogus inter magistrum et Dufay, Guillaume; Louis XI discipulum (1333\u201347); eight quaestiones on papal au- thority (1340); and a treatise on the respective powers Further Reading of emperor and pope (ca. 1347). Ockeghem, Johannes. Collected Works, ed. Dragan Plamenac Ockham was principally a theologian, vigorously and Richard Wexler. 3 vols. N.p.: American Musicological exploring the philosophical limits of each epistemologi- Society, 1947\u201392. cal, logical, or metaphysical issue, often to see more clearly the theological application. He rejected the older Goldberg, Clemens, Die Chansons Johannes Ockeghems. Laaber: Platonic Realism and the via antiqua of the Aristotelians Laaber, 1992. to pursue a via moderna, a path of demonstration and the near-autonomy of faith. He insisted upon a method Lindmayr, Andrea. Quellenstudien zu den Motetten von Johannes of economy of explanation, later termed \u201cOckham\u2019s Ockeghem, Laaber: Laaber, 1992. razor.\u201d With the nominalists, he contested the reality of universals and affirmed the fundamental reality of Perkins, Leeman L. \u201cThe L\u2019homme arm\u00e9 Masses of Busnoys particulars for the human mind. His own solution to the and Ockeghem: A Comparison. \u201cJournal of Musicology 3 relationship between universals and particulars is often (1984): 363\u201396. called \u201cconceptualist\u201d instead of \u201cnominalist,\u201d because he viewed concepts not merely as creatures of the mind Picker, Martin. Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht: A Guide but rather as entities identical with the abstractive cogni- to Research. New York: Garland, 1988. tion by which the mind considers individual objects in a certain way. With Duns Scotus, he asserted the utter Sparks, Edgar H. Cantus Firmus in the Mass and Motet, 1420\u2013 transcendence and unique necessity and freedom of God 1520. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963. in contrast with the contingency of all else, including so- called natural and moral laws. He argued the distinction Thein, Wolfgang. Musikalischer Satz und Textdarbeitung im Werk between God\u2019s absolute power and that of his ordained von Johannes Ockeghem. Tutzing: Schneider, 1992. power, manifest in his decrees, by which God limits himself to operate within ordinations he established. Martin Picker Ockham also contributed to medieval and early-modern political theory and ecclesiology. He influenced con- OCKHAM, WILLIAM OF ciliarism, and his theological legacy reached to Pierre (William Occam; ca. 1285\u20131347) d\u2019Ailly, Gabriel Biel, and Martin Luther. He attacked the wealth of the church, challenged the notions of papal Born in Ockham in Surrey, England, William entered infallibility and plenitude of power, upheld the right a Franciscan convent at an early age. In 1306, he was of imperial election apart from papal interference, and ordained subdeacon at Southwark in London and conceded to the emperor the responsibility to depose began his education at Oxford, where he lectured on a heretical pope. He maintained that the papacy was Peter Lombard\u2019s Sententiae from 1317 to 1319. John not established by Christ, that the general council was Luttrell, the chancellor at Oxford, opposed Ockham\u2019s superior to the papacy, but that the pope possessed an views. Pope John XXII called him to Avignon in ordinary executive authority unless he were heretical. 1323\/24. A committee investigated Ockham\u2019s works and censured fifty-one propositions but did not formally See also D\u2019ailly, Pierre; Duns Scotus, John condemn him. In 1327, he met Michael of Cesena, the minister-general of the Franciscan order and leader of Further Reading the Spiritual Franciscans. Cesena requested Ockham to examine John XXII\u2019s constitutions on Franciscan Ockham, William of. Opera philosophica, ed. Philotheus Boehner poverty. Ockham declared them full of error and the et al. 3 vols. St. Bonaventure: Editiones Instituti Franciscani following year fled Avignon with Cesena and others. He Universitatis S. Bonaventurae, 1974\u201385. was excommunicated in 1328. He joined the emperor Louis of Bavaria in his dispute with the pope and in 1330 \u2014\u2014. Opera theologica, ed. Gedeon G\u00e1 et al. 10 vols. St. Bo- settled at the Franciscan convent in Munich. In 1331, Ockham was expelled from the order and sentenced to imprisonment. He died in Munich in 1347, still under Louis\u2019s protective care. Ockham\u2019s writings fall into three stages correspond- ing to his major residences: Oxford (1306\/07\u201323), Avi- gnon (1323\u201328), and Germany (1330\u201347). At Oxford and Avignon, his writings include his commentary on the Sententiae, later published in two parts: the Ordi- 486","naventure: Editiones Instituti Franciscani Universitatis S. \u00d3L\u00c1FR TRYGGVASON Bonaventurae, 1967\u201386. \u2014\u2014. Opera politica, ed. Jeffrey G. Sikes et al 3 vols. Manchester: assessment of the cultural and social contributions of University of Manchester Press, 1940\u2013. his reign can be made. \u2014\u2014. William of Ockham. Philosophical Writings: A Selection, ed. and trans. Philotheus Boehner. rev. ed. Stephen F. Brown. Though his achievements did not long survive him, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1990. he was regarded as a great figure in the Middle Ages. Adams, Marilyn McCord. William Ockham.2 vols. Notre Dame: Alfred claimed to have adopted and modified his laws; a University of Notre Dame Press, 1987. sword reputed to be his was still treasured two centuries Baudry, Le\u00f3n. Guillaume d\u2019Occam: sa vie, ses \u00e6uvres, ses id\u00e9es after his death; a 14th-century Life was composed by the sociales et politiques. Paris: Vrin, 1949, Vol. 1: L\u2019homme et monks of St. Albans, who revered him as their founder. les \u00e6uvres. An imitator rather than an innovator; his image of great- Boehner, Philotheus. Collected Articles on Ockham, ed. Eligii M. ness derived from his longevity, ruthlessness, and astute Buytaert. St. Bonaventure: Franciscan Institute, 1958. ability to exploit the imagery of rulership. Apart from McGrade, Arthur Stephen. The Political Thought of William the dike little evidence of his power survives; the Mer- of Ockham: Personal and Institutional Principles. London: cian archives are lost, as is his burial place. His palace Cambridge University Press, 1974. at Tamworm probably lies under the parish churchyard Moody, Emest A. The Logic of William Ockham. London: Sheed and so cannot be excavated. and Ward, 1935. Further Reading H. Lawrence Bond Blunt, Christopher E. \u201cThe Coinage of Offa.\u201d In Anglo-Saxon OFFA (r. 757\u201396) Coins: Studies Presented to F.M. Stenton on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday, ed. R.H.M. Dolley. London: Methuen, King of Mercia in 757, after ousting another claimant. 1961, pp. 39\u201362. By the time of his death on 28 July 796 Offa also held sway over Sussex, Kent, and East Anglia. His daughters Brooks, Nicholas. \u201cThe Development of Military Obligations in married rulers of Wessex and Northumbria, thus extend- Eighth- and Ninth-Century England.\u201d In England before the ing his sphere of influence. He clashed with the Welsh, Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy which probably led him to construct the dike that bears Whitelock, ed. Peter Clemoes and Kathleen Hughes. Cam- his name. Running along much of the nearly 150 miles bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, pp. 69\u201384. of the Welsh frontier, from the Severn estuary to a few miles south of the Dee estuary, Offa\u2019s Dyke is the longest Hart, Cyril. \u201cThe Kingdom of Mercia.\u201d In Mercian Studies, ed. earthwork in Britain. It could have been planned in one Ann Dornier. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977, season and completed in the next; if this was indeed so, pp. 43\u201361. it is testimony to the organizational and coercive power that made him the leading English ruler of his day. Keynes, Simon. \u201cChanging Faces: Offa, King of Mercia.\u201d History Today 40\/11 (November 1990): 14\u201319. Offa utilized the church to enhance his power. He persuaded Pope Hadrian to sanction the creation of a Levison, Wilhelm. England and the Continent in the Eighth new archdiocese at Lichfield in 787, only a few miles Century. Oxford: Clarendon, 1946. from his palace at Tamworth, thus effectively neutral- izing the hostile archbishop of Canterbury. Probably Noble, Frank. Offa\u2019s Dyke Reviewed. Ed. Margaret Gelling. BAR imitating Charlemagne, he had his son, Ecgfrith, con- Brit. Ser. 114. Oxford: BAR, 1983. secrated as his successor in 787, the first royal anointing in English history. Stenton, F.M. \u201cThe Supremacy of the Mercian Kings.\u201d In Prepa- ratory to Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Doris M. Stenton. Oxford: Offa seems to have had extensive trade contacts Clarendon, 1970, pp. 48\u201366. with the Carolingian realm, which in turn appears to have made monetary reform possible. His silver penny, Wormald, Patrick. \u201cThe Age of Offa and Alcuin.\u201d In The Anglo- influenced by a Carolingian model, was the basis of the Saxons, ed, James Campbell. Oxford: Phaidon, 1982, pp. English coinage until the reign of Henry III. He appreci- 101\u201331. ated the coin\u2019s potential for symbolism; many bear his name and a finely wrought effigy, and some even carry Wormald, Patrick. \u201cIn Search of King Offa\u2019s \u201cLaw-Code.\u201d In the likeness of his wife, Cynethryth, a practice drawn ei- People and Places in Northern Europe 500\u20141600: Essays ther from Byzantine Italy or even late-imperial Rome. in Honour of Peter Hayes Sawyer, ed. Ian Wood and Niels Lund. Woodbridge: Boydell, 1991, pp. 25\u201345. The poems Beowulf and Widsith, a tribute list known as \u201cThe Tribal Hidage\u201d\u2014even the origin of a system of David A.E. Pelteret burghal defense later associated with Alfred the Great of Wessex\u2014have been associated with Offa. Much more \u00d3L\u00c1FR TRYGGVASON research will be needed, however, before a balanced (r. 995-999\/1000) \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason was king of Norway 995\u2013999\/1000. He was the son of Tryggvi \u00d3l\u00e1fsson, grandson of Haraldr h\u00e1rfagri (\u201cfair-hair\u201d) H\u00e1lfdanarson, a petty king of Viken or the Upplands. Before \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason became king, he led great Viking raids to England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the years 991 and 994 states that \u00d3l\u00e1fr led a large Viking fleet to attack the eastern 487","\u00d3L\u00c1FR TRYGGVASON But it was not only in Norway that \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggva- son tried to spread Christianity. His pressure on the and southern coast of England. In both cases, the English Icelandic chieftains was undoubtedly one of the main king paid large amounts of silver, \u201cDanegeld,\u201d to buy reasons why the Icelanders accepted the new faith at the off the Vikings. Al\u00feingi in 999\/1000. He also made the Greenlanders accept Christianity. Just before \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason went to Norway, con- troversy arose in Tr\u00f8ndelag between Earl H\u00e1kon, who \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason\u2019s strengthening of the power of was the actual ruler of the country, and the Tronds. the king involved not only an expansion of the king\u2019s According to Heimskringla, the earl constantly abused territorial control over the country, but also an attempt to their wives and daughters, \u201cand the farmers began to develop the internal organization of the kingdom. It was grumble just as the Tronds are wont to do over anything most likely \u00d3l\u00e1f Tryggvason who introduced the office which goes against them\u201d (Heimskringla 1:343). One of of district governor, a service rendered by a chieftain the rich peasants who had refused to give up his wife to who received royal land in return. He was also the first the earl gathered the farmers and set out against H\u00e1kon. Norwegian king to mint coins. The earl fled and was killed by his own slave, Karkr, while escaping. \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason, who was on his way \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason died in the battle of Svo\u02dbl\u00f0r (Svold) to Ni\u00f0ar\u00f3ss (Trondheim), inadvertently encountered one in 999\/1000, where he fought the Danish king Sven of the earl\u2019s sons and killed him in battle; the two other Haraldsson (Forkbeard), who had been forced to give sons fled. \u00d3l\u00e1fr was chosen king by the people of Tr\u00f8n- up Viken, the Swedish king who wanted control of delag at the Eyra\u00feing. After that, he traveled throughout Gautaland, and Eirikr, son of Earl H\u00e1kon. the country and was made king of all Norway. In 996, \u00d3l\u00e1fr was in Vikin (Viken), and from there he carried Further Reading out his plans to introduce Christianity in Norway and to secure complete control over the country. Literature With the help of his paternal relatives, he succeeded Finnur J\u00f3nsson, ed. Heimskringla. 4 vols. Samfund til udgiv- in making the farmers of Viken accept the new faith in else af gammel nordisk litterarur, 23. Copenhagen: M\u00f8ller, 996\/7. Those who refused or disagreed with him, \u201che 1893\u20131901. dealt with hard; some he slew, some he maimed, and some he drove away from the land\u201d (Heimskringla Koht, Halvdan. \u201cThe Scandinavian Kingdoms Until the End of 1:362). Gradually, his actions led to a conflict between the Thirteenth Century.\u201d In The Cambridge Medieval History the king and the farmers. In the summer of 997, he 6. Ed. J. R. Turner et al. Cambridge: Cambridge University went to the southwestern part of the country, made the Press, 1929, pp. 362\u201392. Rogalenders embrace the new faith, and secured their support by marrying his sister to one of the chieftains Baetke, Walter. Christliches Lehngut in der Saga-religion. Das there, Erlingr Skj\u00e1lgsson, at S\u00f3li (Sole). In the west, he Svolder-Problem. Zwei Beitr\u00e4ge zur Saga-kritikk. Berichte introduced Christianity through the support of his ma- \u00fcber die Verhandlungen der s\u00e4chsischen Akademie der Wis- ternal relatives while securing control over this province. senschaften zu Leipzig. Philol.-hist. Klasse, 98.6. Berlin: The introduction of Christianity in these provinces, the Akademie-Verlag, 1951. west, and Viken, was facilitated by long-lasting contact with Christian western Europe, especially the British Elleh\u00f8j, Svend. \u201cThe Location of the Fall of Olaf Tryggvason.\u201d Isles. Arb\u00f3k hins \u00edslenzka fornleifaf\u00e9lags, Fylgirit (1958), 63\u201373 In the fall of 997, \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason, went to Tr\u00f8n- Gunnes, Erik. Rikssamlingogkristning 800\u20131177. Norges historie, delag. There and in the north, paganism was stronger 2. Oslo: Cappelen, 1976. than in the other provinces. \u00d3lafr Tryggvason met with strong opposition from the farmers and was forced to Andersen, Per Sveaas. Samlingen av Norge og kristningen av acquiesce. He returned one year later, killed the leader of landet, 800\u20131130. Handbok i Norges historie 2. Bergen: the farmers, J\u00e1rn-Skeggi, and made the Tronds embrace Universitetsforlaget, 1977. the new faith. Some of the rich farmers refused to accept the new order. They fled and went to Sweden, joining Helle, Knut. \u201cNorway in the High Middle Ages: Recent Views Eir\u00edkr, son of Earl H\u00e1kon. \u00d3l\u00e1fr Tryggvason tried to on the Structure of Society.\u201d Scandinavian Joumal of History secure control over Tr\u00f8ndelag and the good-will of the 6 (1981), 161\u201389. Tronds by marrying Gu\u00f0r\u00fan, J\u00e1rn-Skeggi\u2019s daughter. He did not succeed; Gu\u00f0r\u00fan attempted to murder him Birkeli, Fridtjov. Hva vet vi om kristningen av Norge? Oslo: on their wedding night. In 999, he made the people of Universitetsforlaget, 1982. H\u00e1leygjaland (H\u00e5logaland) accept Christianity. Thus, he had christianized the entire coastal area of Norway. Bagge, Sverre. Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson\u2019s Heim- \u00d3l\u00e1fr Haraldsson later christianized the interior. skringla. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991. J\u00f3n Vi\u00f0ar Sigur\u00f0sson OLIVER OF PADERBORN (d. 1224) Oliver of Paderborn (North Rhine-Westphalia) appears as the scholastic at Paderborn in the waning years of the twelfth century. His reputation was such, however, that by 1202 he had been appointed scholastic at Cologne Cathedral. In 1207 we find him in Paris, where he acted 488","as the mediator between a canon from Reims and the ORCAGNA, ANDREA DI CIONE monastery of St. Remy. Presumably, he had been attend- ing the schools of Paris at the time. The following year, des F\u00fcnften Kreuzzuges in Deutschland.\u201d Deutsches Archiv he appears in southern France, apparently as a preacher 34 (1978): 166\u2013191. against the Albigensians. At this time, he established his lifelong friendship with Jacques de Vitry and Robert de Paul B. Pixton Cour\u00e7on, both of whom became well-known preachers of the Fifth Crusade in France. ORCAGNA, ANDREA DI CIONE (d. 1368) In the papal encyclical Quia maior nunc of May 1213, Andrea di Cione, known as Orcagna, belonged to an ex- Oliver was named as one of several crusade-preachers tended family of Florentine artists, among whom he and for Germany, with specific duties in the ecclesiasti- his brother Nardo are best-known to modern scholars. cal province of Cologne. Assisting him was magister Both artists were also well-known in their own time. (master) Hermann, dean of St. Cassius\u2019s Church in Indeed, in a list identifying the six most prominent paint- Bonn. Over the next four years, he and his colleagues ers of Florence, compiled in 1349 (near the midpoint of crisscrossed Germany, convening assemblies of people Andrea\u2019s career), Andrea and Nardo occupy the third and exploiting every opportunity to present their mes- and fourth positions, respectively. sage and enlist support for the crusade. They were armed with letters of indulgence with which to entice Over the course of his career Orcagna worked as a and reward participants. Following the Fourth Lateran painter, sculptor, and architect, but he was trained as a Council in Rome (at which Oliver was also present), painter and identifies himself as such even on the great he and the other preachers were also charged with col- sculptured tabernacle in Or San Michele (Orsanmi- lecting the half-tithe that Innocent III had imposed on chele). Thanks to the efforts of Kreytenberg and others, the clergy as a means of providing financial support for who have pieced together the extant documents and the the crusade. known works, we now have a relatively comprehensive picture of Orcagna\u2019s career. We know that he matricu- In the summer of 1217 the first company of warriors lated in the Florentine painters\u2019 guild (part of the larger departed by ship from the Lower Rhine. Among them Arte dei Medici e Speziali) sometime between 1343 and was Oliver himself, who played a viral role in the cam- 1346. We also know that he joined the guild of builders paign against Damietta in the Nile delta. His Historia and masons in 1352. Between 1343 and 1360 Orcagna of this event and his other writings and letters make him executed paintings and sculptures for many important the best known of the German preachers. Only after the civic and ecclesiastical sites in Florence, including the fall of Damietta to the Muslims on September 8, 1221, city\u2019s prison, the city grain market of Or San Michele, did Oliver return to Cologne, where he appears again and the great mendicant churches of Santa Croce and in the spring of 1222. Santa Maria Novella. At Santa Maria Novella, he was involved in the decoration of the Cappella Maggiore, In 1223 Oliver was elected bishop of Paderborn. He one of the most important commissions of the day. never really occupied the office, however, having first re- Beginning in 1357 Orcagna participated in the ongoing sumed his role as crusade-preacher in 1224, and shortly planning of the cathedral of Florence; and in 1358 he thereafter being elevated to the cardinal-bishopric of St. was appointed capomaestro of the masons\u2019 workshop Sabina. One sees the influence of his fellow German, for the cathedral in Orvieto. Conrad of Urach, and perhaps also of Cardinal Robert de Cour\u00e7on, in this appointment. Like Conrad, however, Orcagna\u2019s presumed early works include the great Oliver lived but a short time after donning the cardinal\u2019s fresco of the Triumph of Death, the Last Judgment, and hat; he died the same year. Hell for the nave of the church of Santa Croce, which was attributed to him following Ghiberti\u2019s testimony See also Conrad of Urach and is now generally held to have been painted in 1344\u20131345. Another early work is a frescoed roundel de- Further Reading picting the Expulsion of the Duke of Athens (now in the Palazzo Vecchio), painted for the entry hall of Florence\u2019s Hoogeweg, Hermann. \u201cDer K\u00f6lner Domscholaster Oliver als prison, the carcere delle Stinche. This fresco, which Kreuzprediger.\u201d Westdeutsche Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Geschichte und has been attributed to Orcagna on stylistic grounds, Kunst 7 (1888): 237ff. was possibly commissioned as early as 1343\u20131344, immediately after the expulsion from Florence of the \u2014\u2014. Die Schriften des K\u00f6lner Domscholasters, sp\u00e4teren infamous duke of Athens, Walter of Brienne. It is a Bischofs von Paderborn und Kardinalbischof von S. Sabina permanent version of the type of ephemeral defamatory Oliverus. Stuttgart: Litterarischer Verein, 1894. images (pitture infamate) commonly commissioned by Italian cities to be painted on the facades of public build- \u2014\u2014. \u201cDie Kreuzpredigt des Jahres 1224 in Deutschland mit ings. In Orcagna\u2019s painting, realistic details, including besonderer R\u00fccksicht auf die Erzdi\u00f6zese K\u00f6ln.\u201d Deutsche a remarkably accurate portrait of the Palazzo Vecchio Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Geschichtswissenschaft 4 (1890): 54ff. Pixton, Paul B. \u201cDie Anwerbung des Heeres Christi: Prediger 489","ORCAGNA, ANDREA DI CIONE See also Daddi, Bernardo; Nardo di Cione as it appeared during the rule of the duke of Athens, are Further Reading unified in an abstract narrative structure to produce an effect of reality within a timeless image of the triumph Belting, Hans. \u201cDas Bild als Text: Wandmalerei und Literature im of virtue over tyranny. Zeitalter Dantes.\u201d In Malerei und Stadtkultur in der Dantezeit: Die Argumentation der Bilder, ed. Hans Belting and Dieter Until relatively recently, scholars of art history gen- Blume. Munich: Hirmer, 1989. erally associated Orcagna with a retrogressive style of painting that supposedly took hold in Florence after the Boskovitz, Mikl\u00f3s. \u201cOrcagna in 1357\u2014and in Other Times.\u201d black death. In fact, Meiss (1951) considered Orcagna\u2019s Burlington Magazine, 113, 1971, pp. 239\u2013251. great altarpiece Christ with Saints Thomas and Peter, made for the Strozzi Chapel in Santa Maria Novella, an Cassidy, Brendan. \u201cThe Assumption of the Virgin on the Taber- example of this style. Although Meiss\u2019s study remains nacle of Orsanmichele.\u201d Journal of the Warburg and Cour- a powerfully persuasive piece of eckphrasis, his assess- tauld Institutes, 51, 1988a, pp. 174\u2013180. ment of Orcagna\u2019s style as the repository of a general cultural psychology has been challenged by scholars \u2014\u2014. \u201cThe Financing of the Tabernacle of Orsanmichele.\u201d who have looked less to the history of style and more Source, 8, 1988b, pp. 1\u20136. to the circumstances of individual commissions to ex- plain the formal characteristics of Orcagna\u2019s work. In \u2014\u2014. \u201cOrcagna\u2019s Tabernacle in Florence: Design and Function.\u201d this process, paintings like the Strozzi altarpiece have Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Kunstgeschichte, 55, 1992, pp. 180\u2013211. emerged as highly sophisticated visual structures. In his work for the Strozzi Chapel, Orcagna manipulated space Cole, Bruce. \u201cSome Thoughts on Orcagna and the Black Death and form to evoke a sacred vision, which appears in the Style.\u201d Antichit\u00e0 Viva, 22(2), 1983, pp. 27\u201337. midst of a panoramic view of the Last Judgment painted by his brother Nardo on the surrounding walls. Giles, Kathleen Alden. \u201cThe Strozzi Chapel in Santa Maria Novella: Florentine Paintings and Patronage, 1340\u20131355.\u201d One of Orcagna\u2019s most important commissions was Dissertation, New York University, 1977. the richly decorated marble tabernacle for Or San Mi- chele, designed and executed between 1352 and 1360. Kreytenberg, Gert. \u201cL\u2019enfer d\u2019Orcagna: La premi\u00e8re peinture The site\u2014on the main street leading from the Duomo monumentale d\u2019apr\u00e8s les chants de Dante.\u201d Gazette des Beaux to the Palazzo Vecchio\u2014was not only the city\u2019s grain Arts, 6(114), 1989, pp. 243\u2013262. market but also a nexus of power. Or San Michele served as the center of devotion for the city\u2019s guilds, \u2014\u2014. \u201cBemerkungen zum Fresko der Vertreibung des Duca and Orcagna\u2019s tabernacle was commissioned by the d\u2019Atene aus Florenz.\u201d In Musagetes: Festschrift f\u00fcr Wolfram Compagnia della Madonna di Orsanmichele to enshrine Prinz zu seinem 60. Geburtstag am 5. February 1989. Berlin: a miracle-working image of the Madonna that had made Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1991, pp. 151\u2013165. the site the center of a popular cult. Actually, the object enshrined in Andrea\u2019s tabernacle was a newly painted \u2014\u2014. \u201cImage and Frame: Remarks on Orcagna\u2019s Pala Strozzi.\u201d image commissioned in 1346 by the compagnia from Burlington Magazine, 134, 1992, pp. 634\u2013638. Bernardo Daddi. The tabernacle itself is a freestanding marble structure, inlaid with stone and gold glass and \u2014\u2014. Orcagna\u2019s Tabernacle in Orsanmichele, Florence. New covered with relief sculptures, including scenes from York: Abrams, 1994. the Life of the Virgin. The structure is neatly tied, both thematically and visually, to the surrounding loggia, \u2014\u2014. \u201cOrcagnas Fresken im Hauptchor von Santa Maria No- with a crowning figure of Saint Michael (San Michele), vella und deren Fragmente.\u201d Studi di Storia dell\u2019Arte, 5\u20136, rising to nearly touch one of the bosses of the vaulting. 1994\u20131995, pp. 9\u201340. As Cassidy (1992) has shown, the tabernacle was also engineered to meet the needs of the cult, with movable Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black screens which normally shrouded the image of the Virgin Death. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951. but which could be raised to reveal the icon on Sundays, feast days, and other significant occasions. It was in con- Padoa Rizzo, Anna. \u201cPer Andrea Orcagna pittore.\u201d Annali della nection with this commission that Orcagna, a painter, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, Series 3, 11(3), 1981, became a member of the guild of masons and stone pp. 835\u2013893. workers; and it was presumably through this project, for which he must have assembled a workshop of skilled Paoletti, John T. \u201cThe Strozzi Altarpiece Reconsidered.\u201d Memorie masons and sculptors, that he established his credentials Domenicane, 20, 1989, pp. 279\u2013300. as an orchestrator of architectural decoration. Rash Fabbri, Nancy, and Nina Rutenberg. \u201cThe Tabernacle of Orsanmichele in Context.\u201d Art Bulletin, 63, 1981, pp. 385\u2013405. Taylor-Mitchell, Laurie. \u201cImages of Saint Matthew Commis- sioned by the Arte del Cambio for Orsanmichele in Florence: Some Observations on Conservatism in Form and Patronage.\u201d Gesta, 31, 1992, pp. 54\u201372. C. Jean Campbell ORESME, NICOLE (ca. 1320\/25\u20131382) A writer known mainly for his mathematical, scientific, and economic treatises and for his vernacular transla- tions of Aristotle. Educated in arts and theology at the Coll\u00e8ge de Navarre in Paris, Oresme was in 1356 ap- pointed its grand master. During this period, his long association with the royal family began; he may have 490","been tutor of John II\u2019s son, the future Charles V. Partly OSWALD VON WOLKENSTEIN because of his royal connections, Oresme obtained church offices, becoming canon at Rouen (1362), canon OSWALD VON WOLKENSTEIN at the Sainte-Chapelle (1363), dean of the cathedral of (1376 or 1377\u20131445) Rouen (1364), and bishop of Lisieux (1377). No other medieval German poet is better known to us Oresme\u2019s writings demonstrate his wide learning. today than the South Tyrolean Oswald von Wolkenstein. His mathematical and scientific works, such as De Apart from amazingly concrete autobiographical refer- proportionibus proportionum, De configurationibus ences contained in his large oeuvre of 133 songs, the qualitatum et motuum, and De commensurabilitate vel poet also left a vast number of historical traces in more incommensurabilitate motuum celi, are important for than one thousand still extant documents. Even though their treatment of fractional exponents, their graphic the poetic statements about his own life have often to be representation of mathematical functions, and their taken as tongue-in-cheek and as topical in nature, recent sophisticated discussions of mechanics and astronomy. research by Anton Schwob and others who have studied Oresme also used his learning, in such treatises as Con- the archival material has confirmed most of Oswald\u2019s tra judiciarios astronomos, Livre de divinacions, and De claims in his songs regarding his personal experiences. causis mirabilium, to attack the \u201cmisuse\u201d of science, Born as the second son of an aristocratic South Tyro- especially by the astrologers. lean family, Oswald had to struggle for many years to establish his own existence both on the local and the Certain of Oresme\u2019s works were written explicitly for international level. In 1401 he participated in a military the royal family. His economic treatise, De mutationibus campaign in Italy of the German King Ruprecht of the monetarum, was composed during the 1350s for John II. Palatinate; in 1410 he went on a pilgrimage to the Holy In the late 1360s, Charles V asked Oresme to translate Land; between 1413 and 1415 he served Bishop Ulrich the Latin versions of four Aristotelian texts, the Ethics, of Brixen and subsequently joined the diplomatic service the Politics, the pseudo-Aristotelian Economics, and of King Sigis-mund, with whom he traveled through De caelo et mundo. Oresme\u2019s vernacular translations western Europe. In 1417 Oswald married Margaretha helped to create a flexible French prose and to expand von Schwangau and thus gained the rank of an impe- the French vocabulary, introducing as many as 1,000 rial knight. In 1420\u20131421 he participated in one of the new words. several wars against the always victorious Hussites, but in one of his songs (\u201cKl[ein]. [no.] 27\u201d) Oswald Oresme has often been seen as anticipating modernity: ridiculed the opponents. In the following years the poet in certain ways, his astronomy foreshadows Copernicus, was involved in many struggles and military conflicts Galileo, and Kepler, and his mathematics Descartes; his with his neighbors, both peasants and aristocrats, and so economics may anticipate Gresham\u2019s Law. But Oresme also with the duke of Tyrol, Frederick IV of Habsburg. is perhaps most impressive in his ability to summarize A major bone of contention was the castle Hauenstein and synthesize logically and intelligently, all the while in Seis am Schlern, to which Oswald had only a partial advancing the important theories of his age. claim but which he took in his total possession after his marriage. At one point he even ended up in the ducal See also Charles V the Wise prison (1421\u20131422) and had to pay a huge ransom to be released. Although Oswald\u2019s power position improved Further Reading over the next years to some degree, he was imprisoned again in 1427 and then had finally to submit under the Oresme, Nicole. De proportionibus proportionum and Ad pauca centralized government of Duke Frederick. In 1429 respicientes, ed. and trans. Edward Grant. Madison: University Oswald joined the secret but highly influential court of Wisconsin Press, 1966. of justice, Feme, which was active all over Germany, and he also managed to consolidate his power base \u2014\u2014. Le livre de politiques d\u2019Aristote, ed. Albert Douglas Menut. back home through manifold political connections and Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1970. public services. In recognition of his accomplishments as diplomat and imperial servant, Oswald was inducted \u2014\u2014. Nicole Oresme and the Medieval Geometry of Qualities into the Order of the Dragon in 1431. In 1432 King Si- and Motions: A Treatise on the Uniformity and Difformity of gismund, while he stayed in northern Italy, called him Intensities Known as Tractatus de configurationibus quali- into his service again and soon after sent him as one tatum et motuum, ed. and trans. Marshall Clagett. Madison: of his representatives to the Council of Basel. In 1433 University of Wisconsin Press, 1968. Oswald probably witnessed the coronation of Sigismund as emperor at the hand of Pope Eugene IV in Rome. In Hansen, Bert, ed. and trans. Nicole Oresme and the Marvels of 1434 Oswald participated in the imperial diet of Ulm, Nature: A Study of His De causis mirabilium with Critical where Sigismund commissioned him to collect fines Edition, Translation, and Commentary. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1985. Menut, Albert Douglas. \u201cA Provisional Bibliography of Oresme\u2019s Writings.\u201d Mediaeval Studies 28 (1966): 279\u201399; supplemen- tary note, 31 (1969): 346\u201347. Steven F. Kruger 491","OSWALD VON WOLKENSTEIN his oeuvre contains marriage songs, spring songs, prison songs, war songs, autobiographical songs, travel songs, and taxes in South Tyrol and also confirmed his rank dawn songs, Marian hymns, calendar songs, Shrovetide as imperial knight. After the death of Duke Frederick, songs, songs about city life, songs in which he criticized Oswald and his allies successfully organized opposi- both the rich merchants and the arrogant courtiers, vari- tion against the Habsburgians in South Tyrol, as they ous religious songs, and repentance songs. could influence and dominate the young successor, Duke Sigmund, at that time still under age, for several Oswald was also a master of onomatopoetic expres- years. Ultimately, however, the landed gentry, and so the sions, such as in his Kl. 50, where the arrival of spring Wolkenstein family, increasingly lost ground and had is vividly conveyed through the imitation of birdsongs. to submit to the centralized government, the growing He seems to have learned much both from the Middle weight of the urban class, and even the economic power High German Neidhart tradition and from the Middle of the peasants. Latin tradition of boisterous and vivacious love songs as in the Carmina Burana. In addition, the Italian trecento Whereas Oswald\u2019s political career sheds significant (thirteenth-century) poets Cecco Angiolieri, Giannozzo, light on the political and economic history of the early and Franco Sacchetti might have provided Oswald with fifteenth century, his poetic production has earned him important poetic models, but in his many old-age songs greatest respect among modern philologists and mu- we also discover possible influences from the French sicologists since the full rediscovery of this amazing poet Charles d\u2019Orl\u00e9ans. Moreover, some scholars have literary personality as of the early 1960s. In contrast to suggested Fran\u00e7ois Villon as a possible source for most other medieval poets Oswald created his songs for Oswald\u2019s autobiographical songs. Considering Oswald\u2019s personal reasons and commissioned his first personal extensive travels throughout western and southern Eu- collection of his works in 1425, manuscript A, to which rope, Spanish and Flemish poetry also might have had he added songs until 1436, perhaps even 1441. In 1432 a considerable impact on his work, as he adapted his the second collection was completed, manuscript \u201cB,\u201d models by way of contrafacture (use of secular melody in which Oswald also incorporated a stunning portrait in religious song). Recently we have also learned that of himself created by the Italian Renaissance painter contemporary folk poetry, proverbs, and perhaps specific Antonio Pisanello or one of his disciples while the poet legal formulas can be discerned in Oswald\u2019s language. was staying in Piacenza, Italy, in the entourage of King Even narrative epics such as the Old Spanish El Cid Sigismund. Both manuscripts were most likely produced and the Italian Decamerone by Boccaccio might have in Neustift, near Brixen, and contain melodies for many influenced him in his compositions. Finally, the poet of the songs. In 1450 Oswald\u2019s family had another also translated several Latin sequences that were usually copy of his songs made in a paper manuscript (\u201cc\u201d\u2014by performed during the liturgy. convention, paper manuscripts are listed by lowercase, parchment by uppercase letters), which is almost identi- Oswald\u2019s poetic genius transformed all these sources cal with manuscript \u201cB\u201d but lacks the notations. and models into highly individual poetic expressions. We will probably never reach a full understanding of Although twenty of Oswald\u2019s more traditional which elements the poet borrowed from his predeces- songs were also copied in a number of other song sors and contemporaries, but we know for sure that collections all over Germany throughout the fifteenth Oswald had an extremely open mind for novel ideas and and sixteenth centuries (the last one in 1572), the poet thoroughly enjoyed experimenting with a wide variety was soon forgotten after his death, probably because of poetic genres, styles, and images. He was one of the his most important songs were too autobiographical first medieval German poets to correlate closely text and idiosyncratic, and also too innovative for his time. and melody and also created astoundingly polyphonic Some of the texts contain surprisingly erotic elements effects typical of Ars nova and the Italian trecento and seem to reflect Oswald\u2019s private experiences with culture. Curiously, though, Oswald does not seem to his wife. His prison songs and his dawn songs are have been in contact with humanists and Renaissance unique for his time, and so the various polyglot songs writers, even though he once refers to Petrarch (Kl. 10, in which he combined a string of languages to present 28), whose concept of man\u2019s sinfulness seems to have his own linguistic mastership. On the one hand Oswald influenced Oswald\u2019s religious thinking. In this regard demonstrated a thorough familiarity with conventional the poet is quite representative of his own time, as he German courtly love song, or Minnesang; on the other still lived in the medieval tradition and yet also opened he introduced melodies and poetic images from French, his mind to many new approaches to music (Ars nova) Flemish, and Italian contemporaries. Many of Oswald\u2019s and poetry. songs are polyphonic and reflect an amazing variety of musical forms, such as the caccia (hunt, Kl. 52), or the Oswald\u2019s oeuvre can be located at the crossroads lauda (praise, Kl. 109). between the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as the poet belonged to neither cultural period yet shared Hardly any other poet before him had such an excel- lent command of the broadest range of lyrical genres, as 492","elements with both. His songs already reflect a strong OTTO I sense of the modern individual with the emphasis on personal experiences, ideas, needs, and desires, but they show off the new verse form. Otfrid describes the meter are, at the same time, deeply drenched in the medieval and his spelling innovations in a letter to archbishop concept of human sinfulness and of life as nothing but Liutbert of Mainz (included in two manuscripts), where a transitional period here on earth. his pride of invention is everywhere apparent. Sugges- tions that Otfrid merely modified an existing German See also Charles d\u2019Orl\u00e9ans; Neidhart verse form are therefore unlikely. Neither did Otfrid slavishly imitate Latin hymnody of the period: though Further Reading some contemporary Latin hymns also show assonance, rhyme, and\/or alternating stress, the overall effect of his Classen, Albrecht. \u201cOswald von Wolkenstein,\u201d in German Writ- poem is quite different. Otfrid\u2019s verse form was quickly ers of the Renaissance and Reformation 1280\u20131580, ed. used in several other Old High German and early Middle James Hardin and Max Reinhart. Detroit: Gale, 1997, pp. High German poems and seems the likely basis for the 198\u2013205. couplets of the Middle High German courtly epics. Die Lieder Oswalds von Wolkenstein, ed. Karl Kurt Klein et al., Otfrid portrays the life of Christ as described in the 3d. ed. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1987. four gospels, but his work is not merely a verse transla- tion. After many narrative sections, he includes passages Jahrbuch der Oswald von Wolkenstein Gesellschaft, 1ff. for reflection, labeling them mystice, or in a mystical (1980\/1981ff.). sense. As in Germanic alliterative verse, Otfrid con- stantly repeats and restates ideas and phrases, often for Joschko, Dirk. Oswald von Wolkenstein. Eine Monographie zu the sake of the rhyme or the rhythm. His writing seems Person, Werk und Forschungsgeschichte. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcm- prolix; in the passage above, he uses thirty words where merle, 1985. the alliterating Old Saxon Heliand has twenty-one and the prose Wei\u00dfenburg Catechism only thirteen. Oswald von Wolkenstein. S\u00e4mtliche Lieder und Gedichte, trans. Wernfried Hofmeister. G\u00f6ppingen: K\u00fcmmerle, 1989 [modern Otfrid\u2019s attention to meter and orthography sug- German trans.]. gests that the poem was meant to be read aloud or even chanted (one manuscript has some neums, an early form Schwob, Anton. Oswald von Wolkenstein. Eine Biographie, 3d of musical notation), but it could have had no place in ed. Bozen: Athesia, 1979. the Latin liturgy of the time. \u2014\u2014. Die Lebenszeugnisse Oswalds von Wolkenstein. Edi- The dialect of the poem is Southern Rhenish Fran- tion und Kommentar. Bd. 1, 1382\u20131419, Nr. 1\u201392. Vienna: conian, though in part because of Otfrid\u2019s orthographic B\u00f6hlau, 1999. innovations, it differs slightly from that of other Wei\u00dfen- burg documents. Spicker, Johannes. Literarische Stilisierung und artistische Kom- petenz bei Oswald von Wolkenstein. Stuttgart: Hirzel, 1993. Further Reading Albrecht Classen Haubrichs, Wolfgang. \u201cOtfrid von Wei\u00dfenburg: \u00dcbersetzer, Erz\u00e4hler, Interpret. . . .\u201d in \u00dcbersetzer im Mittelalter, ed. OTFRID (ca. 800\u2013ca. 875) Joachim Heinzle et al. Wolfram-Studien 14. Berlin: Schmidt, 1996, pp. 13\u201345. A monk of the abbey of Wei\u00dfenburg (now Wissembourg in Alsace), Otfrid is the author of a remarkable poem Kleiber, Wolfgang. Otfrid von Wei\u00dfenburg: Untersuchungen zur based on the four gospels, completed by about 870 and handschriftlichen \u00dcberlieferung und Studien zum Aufbau des preserved in four manuscripts, three of them complete or Evangelienbuches. Bern: Francke, 1971. nearly so. The famous Vienna manuscript was carefully corrected, and perhaps written in part, by Otfrid himself. Murdoch, Brian O. Old High German Literature. Boston: Twayne, 1983. Otfrid composed the poem in a new, stress-based strophic verse form with two long lines per strophe. Patzlaff, Rainer. Otfrid von Wei\u00dfenburg und die mittelalterliche Each long line contains two half lines joined by rhyme versus-Tradition. T\u00fcbingen: Niemeyer, 1975. or at least assonance at the caesura (audible break at the middle of a line). Thus the Lord\u2019s Prayer begins: Schweikle, Gunther. \u201cDie Herkunft des althochdeutschen Reimes: Zu Otfried von Wei\u00dfenburgs formgeschichtlicher Stellung.\u201d F\u00e1ter unser g\u00faato, bist dr\u00fahtin thu gim\u2021ato Zeitschrifi f\u00fcr deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur 96 in h\u00edmilon io h\u00f3her, uu\u00edh si n\u00e1mo thiner. (1967): 166\u2013212. Biqu\u00e9me uns thinaz r\u00edchi, thaz hoha h\u00edmilrichi, th\u00e1ra uuir zua io g\u00edngen ioh \u00e9mmizigen th\u00edngen. Leo A. Connolly Our Father good, thou art a kindly king OTTO I (912\u2013973) so high in the heavens, holy be thy name. Thy kingdom come to us, the high kingdom of heaven, King of Germany 936\u2013973 and emperor 962\u2013973, Otto toward which may we always strive and \ufb01rmly (the Great) was a member of the Liudolfing, or Saxon, believe. (2,22,27-30) dynasty, born in 912 to the future Henry I and his wife, All four manuscripts show the caesura and use ini- tials, indentation, and rhythmic accents to explicate and 493","OTTO I control of Lombardy, though, the widower Otto mar- ried Adelheid, the widowed queen of the Lombards. At Mathilda. Little is known of his early years. In 930 that time, Otto requested that the pope crown him as Otto married Edith, the half sister of King Aethelstan of emperor, but the pope refused, probably from fear of a Wessex, beginning a policy of marriage to foreign prin- strong German presence in Italy. Otto had to cut short his cesses that became the norm in Germany. He was almost time in Italy, returning to Germany to deal with the revolt certainly designated at that time as the next king. After of his eldest son, Liudulf, who apparently felt threatened his father\u2019s death, Otto was acclaimed by the nobles by Otto\u2019s new marriage alliance. In 961, though, Pope and crowned in Aachen on August 7, 936, reviving the John XII appealed for Otto\u2019s help against his enemies. coronation ritual that Henry I had foregone. This is the Otto responded swiftly with a second expedition to Italy. first sign of Otto\u2019s new view of kingship, marked by a He prepared for a long campaign, taking the precaution policy of systematically increasing the gap between king of having the six-year-old Otto II, his eldest son by and dukes and rejecting the rule by personal pacts that Adelheid, elected and crowned as king, and establishing had characterized his father\u2019s reign. Perhaps this attitude a regency in Germany. The pope\u2019s enemies fled before helped provoke the civil wars of 937\u2013941, as nobles took Otto\u2019s army, and John XII crowned Otto I as emperor advantage of an unestablished king to settle old feuds on February 2, 962, reviving the imperial title that had and reduce royal rights. The two most important rebels fallen in abeyance early in the century, and creating a were Otto\u2019s elder half brother Thankmar (who deeply link to the prestige of Charlemagne. resented that Henry I had declared his first marriage to Thankmar\u2019s mother invalid) and his younger brother The imperial coronation led to a major shift in Henry, who was supported by their mother, Mathilda. Otto\u2019s interests, leading him to spend ten of the last This has been hailed as resistance against a new Ottonian twelve years of his life in Italy. John XII soon realized principle that the realm could not be divided as it had that Otto was exerting much more direct domination been by Merovingians and Carolingians; the truth was over Italian affairs than he had bargained for. The pope that Henry I had not had enough control of the kingdom therefore took part in a conspiracy aimed at ending to make a division possible, although he did divide his Ottonian involvement in Italy, which led Otto to drive personal lands and treasure among his sons. The period John from Rome and arrange his deposition. Otto then of rebellion concluded with Thankmar\u2019s death and the set up a new pope of his own choice, initiating almost submission of the other important rebels. Henry was a century of German control of the papacy. Imperial forgiven and, in 947, given the duchy of Bavaria. interests also led to campaigns in southern Italy from 966 on, especially with the goal of gaining Byzantine Otto continued his father\u2019s vigorous eastern and recognition of Otto\u2019s imperial title. northern policy. Margraves Hermann Billung and Gero, acting with Otto\u2019s support, won a series of victories Otto I was an even more peripatetic ruler than most against the Slavs, gaining territory that Otto strove to of his contemporaries, ruling largely through verbal pacify with an active policy that included both the estab- orders during constant travels throughout his realm. He lishment of fortified garrison outposts and active royal received little formal education, learning to read only in activity in missionary enterprises. The latter included 946, while mourning for his first wife, Edith. Despite the erection of several bishoprics\u2014Brandenburg and this, Otto established a particularly strong and secure Havelberg in 948; Oldenburg, Merseburg, Meissen, kingdom, thanks especially to his military successes, the and Zeitz later in 968\u2014at which time Otto\u2019s beloved wealth acquired through exploitation of the newly found monastic foundation of Magdeburg was also elevated to silver mines at Goslar, and his alliance with the church, an archbishopric with authority over much of the east- particularly with German monasteries. Beginning in the ern frontier. The success of the Ottonian eastern policy 940s, Otto gradually replaced the dukes of Germany culminated in a series of victories in 955. On August 10 with members of the Ottonian family, who on the whole of that year, Otto decisively defeated a Magyar coalition proved to be loyal supporters of the throne. His personal at the battle of Lechfeld near Augsburg, an event that prestige and close kinship to the top families in western marked the end of Magyar raiding in Germany. This Europe allowed Otto to act as mediator in Burgundy and was followed by a victory over the Slavs at Recknitz on in France between the last Carolingians and the rising October 16th. Further campaigns led to the subjection Capetian (French kings, tenth to fourteenth century) of the Slavs between the middle Elbe and the middle family. By the time of Otto\u2019s death at Memleben on Oder by 960, as well as making Bohemia and Poland May 7, 973, his German-based empire was the strongest tributary to the German king. state in Europe, a position it held for the next century. He is buried in the church he founded at Magdeburg, From an early period Otto had imperial ambitions. beside his wife, Edith. He took advantage of the disorders caused by Bangor\u2019s seizure of power in Lombardy to establish a foothold See also Charlemagne; Henry I of Saxony; Otto II in Italy in 951. Otto accepted Bangor\u2019s submission and reinstated him as subking. To strengthen his personal 494","OTTO II Further Reading Althoff, Gerd, and Hagen Keller. Heinrich I. und Otto der Gro\u00dfe: Neubeginn und karolingisches Erbe. G\u00f6ttingen: Muster- Schmidt, 1985. Leyser, Karl. Communications and Power in Medieval Europe: The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, ed. Timothy Reuter. London: Hambledon Press, 1994. Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages, 800\u20131056. London: Longman, 1991. Phyllis G. Jestice OTTO II (955\u2013983) Emperor Otto receives the homage of the nations. Gospels of Emperor Otto (II or III), also called \u201cRegistrum Gregorii.\u201d King 961\u2013983, emperor 967\u2013983, sole ruler of the Ger- Ottoian art, 10th. \u00a9 Erich Lessing\/Art Resource, New York. man Empire from 973, Otto II was born in 955 to Otto I and his second wife, Adelheid. His father arranged for In 972, Otto II had married the Byzantine princess the six-year-old Otto\u2019s election and coronation as king Theophanu, a marriage arranged by his father to enhance of the Germans in May 961, before setting out on his the prestige of the Ottonian dynasty. Contemporary second Italian expedition. To secure the imperial title sources suggest that Theophanu exerted a very strong to his dynasty, the elder Otto further arranged to have influence on Otto, including the belief that the empress\u2019s his son crowned co-emperor on Christmas Day 967; \u201cchildish advice\u201d led to Otto\u2019s disastrous campaign in Otto II was the last western emperor to receive imperial southern Italy in 982. In reality, the southern campaign coronation in his father\u2019s lifetime. Despite these honors, needs little explanation. Otto decided in 981 on the the future Otto II was not given an independent position conquest of southern Italy, split at that time among even after he came of age, and has left only twenty-seven Saracens, Greeks, and Lombards. He probably planned extant documents from the twelve years of his official the campaign as an extension of imperial policies be- shared rule with Otto I. At his father\u2019s death in 973, the gun by Otto I, who had conducted several inconclusive eighteen-year-old Otto was accepted as ruler without campaigns in the region. Otto II\u2019s army was, however, opposition. decisively defeated by a Saracen force at the battle of Cotrone (Cap Colonne) on July 13, 982. Almost the The early years of Otto II\u2019s reign were occupied by entire German army was destroyed; Otto himself es- a series of rebellions in Bavaria and Lotharingia. These caped only by swimming his horse out to a Greek ship rebellions were provoked by an attempt Otto made in in the bay, then disguising his identity until he reached 974 to reduce the power of his overly mighty cousin, safety. The Saracen army was too badly weakened to Henry II \u201cthe Quarrelsome\u201d (the nickname is not con- press its advantage, so the battle had little effect on the temporary), duke of the semiautonomous duchy of Ba- balance of power in Italy. This defeat, though, dealt a varia. Henry\u2019s defeat in 976 gave Otto the opportunity to severe blow to Otto\u2019s prestige. The Slavs responded reorganize the southern duchies, weakening Bavaria by to news of the German defeat with an uprising in the turning its province of Carinthia into a separate duchy. summer of 983. A Slavic confederation devastated the Henry, unsatisfied with his position, led a second up- rising in 976\u2013977, and Bavaria was pacified only with Henry\u2019s imprisonment in 978. Otto II\u2019s early military campaigns were successful, as Otto continued the strong eastern and northern policies of his father and grandfather. A victory over the Danes in 974 led to an expansion of German efforts to evangelize in the north. He also invaded Bohemia several times, returning it to its earlier tributary status after its ruler had seceded by joining with Henry the Quarrelsome in the rebellions of 974\u2013977. On the western front, though, Otto was unable to play as strong a role as his father had. An effort of the French King Lothar to gain control of Lotharingia in 978 caught Otto by surprise, forcing him to flee Aachen before the French army. Otto quickly retaliated with a raid that penetrated France to the gates of Paris, but that accomplished little besides salving Otto\u2019s pride. 495","OTTO II Otto II continued his own father\u2019s policy of assuring Ottonian rule by having the young Otto elected king at German border, destroyed the bishoprics of Havelberg Verona, May 27, 983. He then dispatched the three-year- and Brandenburg, and burned Hamburg, reversing most old Otto to Aachen for coronation on Christmas 983. of Otto I\u2019s successes in Slavic territory. Perhaps the This was several weeks after Otto II\u2019s death in Italy but seriousness of the political situation can be seen in the before the news had reached the north. feet that Otto II summoned an imperial diet at Verona on May 27, 983, where he had his three-year-old son A series of informal regents governed the empire for Otto III elected to the German kingship, then sent the most of Otto\u2019s short life. By German custom, the young child on to Aachen to be crowned. Otto II remained in king\u2019s proper guardian was his closest adult male rela- Italy, trying to subject Venice to imperial control. He tive, Duke Henry II the Quarrelsome of Bavaria. Henry, died of malaria in Rome on December 7, 983, at the age though, soon tried to supplant his charge, claiming the of twenty-eight, and is the only emperor to be buried in kingship in his own name. Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica. though, threw his support behind Otto III, summoning the young king\u2019s mother, Theophanu, and grandmother Otto II appears to have been dominated and over- Adelheid from Italy to help him preserve Otto\u2019s rights. shadowed throughout his life by people of stronger After a period of intense political maneuvering, Henry character, first his father, then his wife Theophanu, and surrendered Otto to the two empresses on June 29, 984. also by his counselors, especially the loyal and talented Theophanu assumed the regency for her son. After her Archbishop Willigis of Mainz. Physically Otto was not death in 991, Adelheid directed affairs until Otto III as impressive as his father; the exhumation of his body formally came of age in September 994. in 1609 revealed that he was a small man, and eleventh- century sources describe him as a redhead. Certainly Otto\u2019s role during his childhood was strictly sym- his reputation has suffered by comparison to his great bolic. In 986 he was sent on a campaign against the father and exotic son. In general, his reign is best seen Slavs\u2014not to fight but so Mieszko of Poland could join as one of consolidation and growing sophistication. the host and do homage. For the most part, though, Otto Unlike his predecessors, Otto II was well educated. His was not very visible in German affairs until he came love of luxury and ostentation was notorious, although of age. He was very well educated. His main tutor was this perhaps should be taken more as a sign of the Bernward, the future bishop of Hildesheim, but he also enormous wealth the Ottonians were able to command received instruction in Greek from his mother\u2019s friend than of character weakness. His reign saw advances in John Philagathos, a southern Italian. After coming of the imperial chancery and greater cooperation between age, Otto continued his education with the most learned the German and Italian parts of the empire. It also saw man of the age, Gerbert of Aurillac. a closer identification with the ancient Roman Empire and the city of Rome, setting aside the Byzantine Rome during Otto\u2019s minority had fallen into the emperor\u2019s claim to be the only true successor of the hands of the local noble Crescentius II. Pope John XV caesars. Otto\u2019s chancery in 982 adopted for the first asked for Otto\u2019s help in 995, leading to Otto\u2019s first Italian time the title Roman empire (imperator Romanorum expedition. John died before his arrival, so Otto forced augustus) as the designation of a German emperor, a the Roman Church to accept his own cousin Bruno of title that became standard to Otto\u2019s successors. Despite Carinthia as pope, who took the name Gregory V. Greg- his reverses in Italy and on the Slavic frontier, Otto left ory then crowned Otto as emperor on May 21, 996. The a firmly established realm, increasingly self-assured and imposition of a German pope shows Otto\u2019s early deter- international, to his son. mination to control Rome. This marked a new departure, since Gregory was the first non-Roman pope since the See also Otto I, Otto III Byzantine emperors had appointed Greeks to the office in the seventh century. Gregory was soon driven from Further Reading the city, forcing Otto to return and reinstate him in 998. This time Otto secured Rome by having Crescentius Beumann, Helmut. Die Ottonen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1987. executed, and had Crescentius\u2019s antipope (none other Reuter, Timothy. Germany in the Early Middle Ages, 800\u20131056. than Otto\u2019s former tutor, John Philagathos) blinded and imprisoned. Afterward, Otto stayed in Rome, having London: Longman, 1991. decided to make the city the capital of his empire. He had a palace built for himself on the Aventine. This Phyllis G. Jestice has been taken as evidence of Otto Ill\u2019s grandiose plan to create a new Roman empire. Certainly Otto greatly OTTO III (980\u20131002) developed the idea of a western empire, but it was not inextricably linked to Rome. At first he wanted to set King of the Germans, 983\u20131002, emperor 996\u20131002, up Aachen as a \u201cnew Rome,\u201d placing the focus of the Otto III was the most flamboyant and controversial of the German emperors. He was born in 980, the only son of Emperor Otto II and the Byzantine princess Theophanu. 496","empire in the north. It is probable that political instabil- OTTO IV ity in Italy made Otto decide to stay closer, where he could intervene effectively in affairs. Naturally enough, potential. He died unexpectedly on January 24, 1002, this made him very unpopular with the Romans, who at the age of twenty-one. revolted in early 1001, besieging Otto for a time in his own palace. Otto sent for more troops and was preparing See also Charlemagne; Otto II; an attack on Rome at the time of his death. Romuald of Ravenna, Saint The earlier Ottonians had ruled almost entirely by Further Reading means of continual travel throughout their realm. The decision to reside in a permanent capital thus marked Althoff, Gerd. Otto III. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchge- another new departure. It forced Otto to develop a larger sellschaft, 1996. bureaucracy and enabled him to acquire a larger and more glittering court. For a time Otto\u2019s aunt, Abbess Beumann, Helmut. Die Ottonen. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1987. Mathilda of Quedlinburg, acted as regent in Germany, Leyser, Karl J. Medieval Germany and Its Neighbours 900\u20131250. but after her death the emperor relied ever more on bishops to perform the work of government, laying the London: Hambledon, 1982. groundwork for the \u201cimperial Church system\u201d of the late Ottonians and Salians. In Rome itself, Otto created Phyllis G. Jestice a hierarchy of court officials, elaborate by German stan- dards, most of whom had Greek titles in emulation of the OTTO IV (1175\/1182\u2013May 19, 1218) Byzantine court. Otto also insisted on a higher degree of ceremony than had been known to earlier German Emperor and sometime ally of Pope Innocent III rulers, modeled on Byzantine practice. (1198\u20131216), Otto\u2019s reign was a time of chaos after the premature death of Henry VI. Leader of the Welf Otto clearly saw his role as emperor in terms of house and son of Henry the Lion, Otto was involved leadership over the Christian world, assuming the titles in a civil war for control of the empire with candidates \u201cservant of Jesus Christ,\u201d and \u201cservant of the apostles.\u201d of the rival Hohenstaufen house, Philip of Swabia and This strong development of the imperial idea was Frederick II. The struggle for control of the imperial already visible in 996 with Otto\u2019s appointment of the crown had international implications and involved the first German pope; after Gregory V\u2019s death in 999, the princes of Germany, the kings of England and France, emperor continued his effort to control the papacy by and the pope. Otto would ultimately lose the struggle to appointing his former tutor Gerbert of Aurillac, who maintain control of the empire to Frederick. took the name Sylvester II. The two cooperated closely, even declaring the Donation of Constantine to be invalid, The unexpected death of Henry in 1197 left the em- Otto appears to have been personally pious; he was close pire in a difficult situation because his heir, Frederick, to both St. Nilus and St. Romuald of Ravenna; Bruno of was only three years old. It also offered the papacy the Querfurt claims that the emperor even swore an oath to opportunity to break free from encirclement by the abdicate and retire to the wilds of Poland as a hermit. Hohenstaufen, an opportunity Innocent would exploit While this is unlikely, Otto did take very seriously his by playing one side against the other in the civil strife in duty toward the church. In 1000 he made a pilgrimage to Germany or by acting as referee between them. The situ- the tomb of the martyred Bishop Adalbert of Prague in ation was complicated by shifting alliances both inside Gniezno, arranging at that time for Gniezno to become and outside the empire. Frederick was first supported by the archbishopric of Poland. He went on from there to the Staufen, including his uncle, Philip of Swabia. But Aachen, where he had Charlemagne\u2019s grave opened, Philip, motivated by the activities of forces opposed to taking the pectoral cross from the body. Certainly this his family, presented himself as king and was crowned at was in part the effort of an upstart Ottonian to associate Mainz in September 1198. He also revived the alliance himself with the prestige of the Carolingian dynasty. It between his family and the Capetian dynasty, headed is very likely that the tomb opening was also the first by Philip Augustus, to improve his position in Germany step in a project to canonize Charlemagne, perhaps the and Europe. The anti-Staufen forces inside Germany, best example of Otto III\u2019s belief in the divine nature of supported by King Richard I of England, did not stand the empire (imperium). He also planned to continue the idly by but promoted a Welf candidate. The eldest son family alliance with the Byzantine emperors, arranging of Henry the Lion was still on crusade, and therefore the to marry the porphyrogenita (female successor) Theo- younger son, Otto, became the anti-Staufen candidate. dora, but she arrived in Italy only at about the time of Otto\u2019s death. Otto, who had been raised at the court of his uncle, Richard I, and had been made count of Poitou and duke Otto III\u2019s history, though, is one of largely unrealized of Aquitaine in 1190 and 1196, respectively, made the most of his opportunity. He was crowned before Philip by the proper ecclesiastic, the archbishop of Cologne, and in the right place, Aachen. His election also carried great weight because he was elected by those tradition- ally empowered to choose the king. Indeed, the nature 497","OTTO IV married Beatrix in 1212, but she died shortly after their marriage. He faced revolts in northern Italy, where op- of his election was of great importance to Innocent, who position to German domination had existed for more would involve himself in the succession crisis because than a generation, and in Germany, where the nobility of the close ties of empire and papacy and because of had been released from their obligation of loyalty by papal claims to superior jurisdiction. Innocent, suspi- the pope. He faced a rival king because Frederick fol- cious of the Hohenstaufen family and fearful of their lowed him to Germany, where the princely opposition territorial gains in northern and southern Italy, came to Otto, with papal support, crowned Frederick king at to support Otto. This was critical to the king\u2019s success Mainz. Frederick was able to gain a solid foothold in because his situation in Germany was weak despite southern Germany, thus undermining Otto\u2019s authority having been elected by the right people and crowned and blocking his access to Italy. And both Frederick in the right place, and because his greatest international and Otto benefited from their alliances with the kings ally, Richard, died in early 1199. To maintain papal of France and England. support, Otto made important territorial concessions to the pope in Italy. Otto\u2019s alliance with King John, however, would prove his undoing. Fearing that Philip Augustus would Otto\u2019s difficulties did not end, however, even though take English territory in France, John invaded with his he had papal support, which was reinforced by Otto\u2019s nephew and ally Otto, who hoped to weaken French concessions. Despite his excommunication, Philip man- support for his Hohenstaufen rival. First John was aged to increase his power in Germany in the opening defeated on the Loire and then, on July 27, 1214, Otto decade of the thirteenth century. He managed to increase was disastrously defeated at the Battle of Bouvines. His support among the bishops of the empire, including the supporters melted away after the defeat, and Frederick very important archbishop of Cologne, Adolf. Perhaps went on the offensive in the empire, imposing himself motivated by hostility to Rome, many princes also came on Otto\u2019s remaining allies. Otto was formally deposed to support Philip. By 1207 the papal curia had come to the following July and was confined to his personal lands support Philip\u2019s claim to the imperial dignity and king- in Brunswick until his death on May 19, 1218. ship in Germany, and in the following year the pope himself recognized Philip as king. Negotiations over See also Frederick II; Henry the Lion; Innocent territory in Italy and the imperial coronation were held III, Pope between Philip and the pope, but they made little head- way before Philip was murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach Further Reading over Philip\u2019s broken engagement to Otto\u2019s daughter. Abulafia, David. Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. Oxford: In 1208, fortunes once again turned for Otto, and he Oxford University Press, 1988. now received widespread support in Germany. He was elected king by the German princes a second time in Duby, Georges. The Legend of Bouvines: War, Religion and Cul- November in Frankfurt and was victorious over French ture in the Middle Ages, trans. Catherine Tihanyi. Berkeley: attempts to establish a rival king. To further strengthen University of California Press, 1990. his position in Germany, Otto was betrothed to Philip\u2019s daughter Beatrix. He was then crowned emperor by Haverkamp, Alfred. Medieval Germany, 1056\u20131273. 2d ed., Innocent in Rome in October 1209, after renewing his trans. Helga Braun and Richard Mortimer. Oxford: Oxford promises to respect papal territory in Italy and also to University Press, 1992. refrain from intervening in Sicilian affairs. Michael Frassetto Otto\u2019s success, however, seems to have gotten the better of him and, following the advice of his minis- OTTO OF FREISING (ca. 1112\u20131158) terials, he decided to extend his authority in Italy. He sought to expand his rights into papal lands, and thus The most important historian of the twelfth century, alienated an important ally and created a dangerous op- Otto of Freising was well placed to write his works of ponent, Innocent. He further raised the ire of the pope history. He was born into the most prominent families by occupying Tuscany and invading the Hohenstaufen in the empire and was related to the imperial Salian and kingdom of Sicily. His invasion and conquest of Sicily Staufen lines. His father was Leopold III of Austria and in November 1210 led to the very encirclement by a his mother was Agnes, daughter of Henry IV and whose German ruler that Innocent had struggled to prevent. first husband was Frederick I, duke of Swabia. Otto was Otto\u2019s actions also led Innocent to excommunicate the thus half brother of Conrad III and uncle of Frederick emperor in the autumn of 1210, and in the spring of I Barbarossa. His ecclesiastical career began while he 1211 Innocent released Otto\u2019s vassals from their oaths was still a child, when he became provost of the house to the emperor. of canons at Klosterneuburg (near Vienna). In 1127 or 1128, Otto journeyed to France to study with the great Otto\u2019s difficulties were not limited to the opposition masters at Paris, including Hugo of St. Victor, Gilbert from the pope. To secure his position in Germany, Otto de la Porr\u00e9e, and, probably, Peter Abelard. He left Paris 498","in 1133 and on his way home joined the Cistercian OTTO OF FREISING abbey at Morimond. He was later elected bishop of Freising, before the canonical age and as the result of the first two books before his death in 1158, Otto fol- family influence. He participated in the Second Crusade lowed the plan outlined in a letter requested by Otto from (1147\u20141148) and, while en route to a Cistercian general his sponsor, Barbarossa himself. The first book details chapter, died in Morimond in 1158. the events of the tumultuous reigns of Barbarossa\u2019s pre- decessors, and the second describes the first four years of Otto is best known for two historical works, The Two the reign of Barbarossa, a time of peace and glory for the Cities and The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa. The first empire. Although Deeds overlooks matters unfavorable of the two, is the more pessimistic but also the more to the Staufen line, misrepresents the state of the realm philosophical work. Written between 1143 and 1146, at Barbarossa\u2019s ascension, and overstates his successes The Two Cities is a world chronicle that tells the tale in Italy, it remains the most important source for events of salvation history that was heavily influenced by the in the early years of Barabarossa\u2019s reign. work of St. Augustine. The first seven books outline the history of the world from creation to 1146. Otto\u2019s history See also Frederick I Barbarossa; describes the struggles of good and evil and praises the Henry IV Emperor monks, the true representatives of the City of God on earth. The Two Cities also is a history of the translatio Further Reading imperii, describing the transfer of universal power from the Greeks to the Romans to the Franks and ultimately Otto of Freising. Chronica sive Historia de Duabus Civitatibus, to the Germans. It was in the Christian empire of the ed. A. Hofmeister. Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scrip- Germans that Otto saw the possibility of the existence of tores Rerum Germanicarum 40. Hannover: Hahn, 1912. the City of God on earth, but the troubled times facing the empire from the time of Henry IV to Conrad III left Otto of Freising and Rahewin. Gesta Friderici Imperatoris, ed. him with little hope. The eighth, and final, book of The G. Waitz. Monumenta Germaniae Historica Scriptores Rerum Two Cities is thoroughly eschatological and describes Germanicarum 46. Hannover: Hahn, 1912. the coming of Antichrist, the Final judgment, and es- tablishment of the heavenly Jerusalem. Otto\u2019s somber Otto of Freising. The Two Cities, by Otto, Bishop of Freising, perspective is not continued, however, in his other great trans. Charles Christopher Mierow. New York: Columbia work, The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa. Completing University Press, 1928. Otto of Freising and his continuator, Rahewin. The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa, trans. Charles Christopher Mierow with Richard Emery, 1953; rpt. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. Michael Frassetto 499","","P PACHER, MICHAEL to the Archangel Michael, made for the parish church in Bozen between 1481 and 1484. (ca. 1430\/1435\u20131498) Of four Virgin altarpieces, all with richly sculptured Born in the Puster valley in south Tyrol, the painter shrines, three are fragmentarily preserved. An enthroned and wood carver Michael Pacher was one of those rare Madonna from 1462\u20131465 in the parish church of St. double talents of the late Middle Ages whose reputation Lorenz near Bruneck, probably accompanied by the reached well beyond his native region. Contemporary figures of St. Michael (Munich, Bayerisches Landes- documents reveal, however, that he was primarily a museum) and St. Lawrence (Innsbruck, Museum Fer- painter, like Friedrich Pacher, who is presumed to be dinandeum), has lasted through the centuries, although a relative. Thus, in spite of his astounding professional without the original shrine structure. Single panels activity as a sculptor, most of his religious works com- from the wings, which were painted on both sides, are prise panel paintings and frescoes, including the vault now housed in Munich (Alte Pinakothek) and Vienna paintings in the old sacristy at the cloister Neustift from (\u00d6sterreichische Galerie). Pacher set a Coronation about 1470. By 1467 at the latest he directed a workshop of the Virgin, composed as a scene rather than a stiff in Bruneck. row of saints, into the center of the polyptych at Gries near Bozen (1471\u20131475); polychromed and gilded Pacher\u2019s importance lies in his adaptation of new reliefs occupy the wings of the chapel-like shrine. artistic forms from Italy, the Netherlands, and south- Pacher\u2019s representation of the coronation before a gold ern Germany, which, in combination with his Alpine brocade curtain supported by angels is based on Hans piety, he transforms into a new pictorial language. A Multscher\u2019s altar in Sterzing. The contract mentions clear understanding of Mantegna\u2019s frescoes in Padua guard figures, which would have flanked the shrine; and Mantua with their bold foreshortening and deep these, along with the painted wing panels, have disap- spaces constructed in virtuoso perspective is already peared. The masterpiece among Pacher\u2019s altars is the apparent in four early panel paintings preserved from double triptych in the choir of the pilgrimage church an otherwise lost altar dedicated to Thomas Becket at St. Wolfgang in the Salzkammergut; the contract is (about 1460; Graz, Joanneum). In the altarpiece of the dated 1471, the execution between 1475 and 1481. With church fathers from Neustift near Brixen (1482\u20131483; this work Pacher set the artistic standards against which Munich, Alte Pinakothek), he developed these picto- other paintings and sculptures of the last phase of the rial techniques fully, setting the monumental figures late Gothic are measured. Here this \u201cgenius among altar under diagonally arranged trompe l\u2019oeil baldachins sculptors of south Tyrol\u201d (Paatz 1963: 44, my trans.) (realistic figures) that seem to spring out of the paint- developed his own artistic language in the shimmering ings. Realistic, portraitlike facial features characterize gold coronation set onto a stage under a filigreed tracery the four small panels with the apostles and the helpers superstructure that reaches up to the vaults, in the im- in need that were located at Wilten after 1820 (about posing figures of the church\u2019s patron and St. Benedict, 1465; now divided among the \u00d6sterreichische Galerie in the militant knight-saints at the sides of the shrine, in Vienna, the Museum Ferdinandeum in Innsbruck, and in the accompanying painted cycles with scenes and a private collection in the United States). No trace remains of a documented altarpiece, probably dedicated 501","PACHER, MICHAEL de Bourbon in 1353. Jealousy leads Mar\u00eda to hire a Jew- ish necromancer to put a spell on a gem-encrusted belt from the lives of Christ, the Virgin, and St. Wolfgang. that Blanche gave the king to wear on their wedding Probably the largest of Pacher\u2019s Virgin altars was that night. As Pedro puts it on, the belt turns into a snake; commissioned for the Franciscan church in Salzburg in the king, horrified, flees from his bride. 1484 and finished in 1498. This structure, greater than seventeen meters, was dismantled in the baroque period; Pedro\u2019s refusal to live with his French wife, and his its enthroned Madonna, later inserted into an altar by attachment to Mar\u00eda, served as a political excuse for his Fischer von Erlach, and several panels are preserved enemies and resulted in the alienation of Albur querque. (Vienna, \u00d6sterreichische Galerie). The extraordinary At the same time, Mar\u00eda\u2019s relatives gained ascendancy sum of 3,300 Rhenish gold florins was likely the high- at court and replaced Alburquerque and his circle. Juan est paid for an altarpiece of this period. Pacher died in Fern\u00e1ndez de Henestrosa, an uncle, became camarero 1498, shortly before its completion. mayor mayordomo mayor, and canciller mayor. Mar\u00eda\u2019s brother Diego Garc\u00eda de Padilla owed his election as See also Multscher, Hans Master of the Order of Calatrava to Pedro\u2019s influence. He later became the king\u2019s mayordomo mayor. A half- Further Reading brother of Mar\u00eda received the encomienda mayor of the Order of Santiago, while another relative, Juan Tenorio, Egg, Erich. Gotik in Tirol: Die Fl\u00fcgelalt\u00e4re. Innsbruck: Haymon- became repostero mayor. Verlag, 1985, pp. 177\u2013189. Mar\u00eda, with Pedro\u2019s financial support, founded the Evans, Mark. \u201cAppropriation and Application: The Significance monastery of Santa Clara at Astudillo in 1354 which, of the Sources of Michael Pacher\u2019s Altarpieces,\u201d in The Al- together with an earlier cession of Huelva, constituted tarpiece in the Renaissance, ed. Peter Humphrey and Martin the only significant settlement the king made on her. Kemp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, pp. 106\u2013128. Mar\u00eda died in July 1361. She bore Pedro four chil- dren: three daughters and a son. Immediately after her Goldberg, Gisela. \u201cLate Gothic Painting from South Tyrol: death Pedro proclaimed Mar\u00eda queen of Castile and Michael Pacher and Marx Reichlich.\u201d Apollo 116 (1982): ordered a royal burial at the monastery at Astudillo. The 240\u2013245. following year, Pedro hastily assembled a meeting of the cortes at Seville to declare their son Alfonso, then Hempel, Erhard. Michael Pacher. Vienna: A. Schroll, 1931. two years old, heir to the Castilian throne. Upon the Koller, Manfred, and Norbert Wibiral. Der Pacher-Altar von child\u2019s death the following year, Pedro designated his first daughter Beatriz his heir. He also insisted that he St. Wolfgang: Untersuchung, Konservierung, Restaurierung and Mar\u00eda had been legally wed and had her remains 1969\u20131976. Studien zu Denkmalschutz und Denkmalpflege transferred and buried in the royal chapel at Seville. The 11. Vienna: Hermann B\u00f6hlaus Nachfolger, 1981. Trastam\u00e1ran usurpation of the Castilian throne in 1369 Michael Pacher und sein Kreis: Bin Tiroler K\u00fcnstler der eu- made Pedro\u2019s succession arrangements moot. However, rop\u00e4ischen Sp\u00e4tgotik (1498\u20131998). Bozen: S\u00fcdtiroler Lan- Pedro\u2019s line eventually returned to the throne when his desregierung, 1998. granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, daughter of his Paatz, Walter. \u201cS\u00fcddeutsche Schnitzalt\u00e4re der Sp\u00e4tgotik.\u201d Hei- and Mar\u00eda\u2019s second child Constanza and John of Gaunt, delberger kunstgeschichtliche Abhandlungen. Neue Folge 8 duke of Lancaster, wed Enrique III of Castile. (1963): 44\u201354. Rasmo, Nicolo. Michael Pacher. London: Phaidon, 1971. See also Pedro I the Cruel, King of Castile Brigitte Schliewen Further Reading PADILLA, MAR\u00cdA DE (d. 1361) Romancero del rey don Pedro, 1368\u20131800. Ed. Antonio P\u00e9rez de G\u00f3mez. Valencia, 1954. The daughter of a Castilian family of the lesser aristoc- racy, Mar\u00eda de Padilla became Pedro I\u2019s favorite in 1352, Clara Estow shortly after meeting through the Pedro\u2019s chief minister Juan Alfonso de Alburquerque. Mar\u00eda was a member of PAOLO DA FIRENZE the household staff of Alburquerque\u2019s wife, Isabel de (d. September 1419) Meneses. In spite of two subsequent marriages, Pedro\u2019s attachment to Mar\u00eda was the most enduring relationship The composer Paolo da Firenze (Tenorista, Magister of his life. It lasted, with brief interruptions, until her Dominus Paulus Abbas de Florentia) was born sometime death in 1361. in the latter half of the fourteenth century and became a Camaldolese monk; he died in the order\u2019s monastery of Mar\u00eda\u2019s reputation has remained largely unscathed, in spite of Pedro\u2019s many excesses. Contemporary sources generally praise her for her beauty and charm, and for attempting to soften Pedro\u2019s harshness. A notable excep- tion is the collection of anti-Pedro ballads, Romancero del rey don Pedro, in which she is portrayed as cruel and vengeful. In Romance 9, for example, she is held responsible for breaking up Pedro\u2019s marriage to Blanche 502","San Viti (Arezzo). He was a member of the final genera- PASCHAL II, POPE tion of Italian Trecento composers and is a connecting figure between Francesco Landini of the earlier genera- Corsi, Giuseppe. Poesie musicali del Trecento. Bologna: Com- tion and Andrea da Firenze of his own, both of whom missione per i Testi di Lingua, 1970. he seems to have known well. Paolo is supposed to have accompanied one patron, Cardinal Angelo Acciaiuoli, to Fischer, Kurt von. Studien zur italienischen Musik des Trecento Rome c. 1404; and one of his madrigals, Godi, Firen\u00e7e und fr\u00fchen Quattrocento. Bern: P. Haupt, 1956. (with a text from Dante\u2019s Commedia: Inferno, 26), was clearly composed to celebrate Florence\u2019s conquest of \u2014\u2014. \u201cPaolo da Firenze und der Sqnarcialupi-Kodex (I-Fl 87).\u201d Pisa in 1406. Quadrivium, 9, 1968, pp. 5\u201329. Paolo was not only an active and admired composer Fischer, Kurt von, and F. Alberto Gallo, eds. Italian Sacred Music. but a learned and distinguished music theorist. Though Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, 12. Monaco: the issue is hotly contested, some scholars have argued \u00c9ditions de L\u2019Oiseau-Lyre, 1976. that he played a crucial role in assembling the famous Squarcialupi Codex. If so, it is ironic that, although his K\u00f6nigsglow, Annamarie von. Die italienischen Madrigalisten supposed portrait appears in the codex, the place re- des Trecento. W\u00fcrzburg: Triltsch, 1940. served for his own musical works was left as seventeen blank folios; his surviving works are preserved in other Li Gotti, Ettore, and Nino Pirrotta. \u201cPaolo Tenorista fiorentino, Tuscan manuscripts. extra moenia.\u201d In Estudios dedicados a Mend\u00e9nez Pi\u00e1al, Vol. 3. Madrid, 1952, pp. 577\u2013606. These works comprise, beyond two scant Latin liturgical pieces, a sizable body of Italian vocal music. Marrocco, William Thomas, ed. Italian Secular Music. Poly- Attributed with relative certainty are twenty-two ballate, phonic Music of the Fourteenth Century, 9. Monaco: \u00c9ditions variously for two or three voices; and eleven madrigals, de L\u2019Oiseau-Lyre, 1975. all for two voices. There are also two more ballate that survive as fragments; and thirteen other ballate, vari- Pirrotta, Nino. \u201cPaolo da Firenze in un nuovo frammento dell\u2019Ars ously for two or three voices, which are preserved in one Nova.\u201d Musica Disciplina, 10, 1956, pp. 61\u201366. manuscript where the attributions of his name have been erased, leaving us uncertain as to their authenticity. \u2014\u2014. ed. Paolo Tenorista in a New Fragment of the Italian Ars Nova. Palm Springs, Calif.: Gottlieb, 1961. On the one hand, Paolo impresses for his conserva- tism. He is unusual in clinging to the madrigal, an older Pirrotta, Nino, and Ursula G\u00fcnther, eds. The Music of Fourteenth- form bypassed by most musicians of his generation. Century Italy, Vol. 6. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae, 8(6). In both, of his vocal forms, Paolo generally seems to Rome: American Institute of Musicology, n.d. continue the traditions of his older colleague, Landini. On the other hand, Paolo\u2019s writing clearly shows an Seay, Albert, \u201cPaolo da Firenze: A Trecento Theorist.\u201d In L\u2019Ars assimilation not only of more progressive Italian styles nova italiana del Trecento: Primo convegno internazionale but also of some influence from French styles of the 23\u201326 luglio 1959, ed. Bianca Becherini. Certaldo: Centro late ars nova. Though his vocal lines are simple and di Studi sull\u2019Ars Nova Italiana del Trecento, 1962, pp. clearly Italianate in tradition, he attempts to go beyond 118\u2013140. earlier flexibility and construct compositions with an overall logic of motivic development. His two liturgical Wolf, Johannes. \u201cFlorenz in der Musikgeschichte des 14. Jahrhun- works also show him combining Italianate vocal lines derts.\u201d Sammelb\u00e4nde der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, with cantus firmus material after the French polyphonic 3, 1901\u20131902, 599\u2013646. (Leipzig.) manner. He seems to have known something of Johannes Ciconia and Ciconia\u2019s work. Paolo belongs to a trend John W. Barker that envisioned a fusion of French and Italian elements at the dawn of the Quattrocento. PASCHAL II, POPE (d. 1118, r. 13 August 1099\u201321 January 1118) See also Ciconia, Johannes; Landini, Francesco Pope Paschal II (Rainerius) was born of a noble family Further Reading at Bieda, south of Faenza in central Italy; his parents were Crescentius and Alfatia. While still a young boy, he Becherini, Bianca. \u201cAntonio Squarcialupi e il codice Mediceo was put into a Benedictine monastery. A general belief Palatino 87.\u201d In L\u2019Ars nova italiana del Trecento: Primo con- that he entered the monastery at Cluny was dismissed vegno internazionale 23\u201326 luglio 1959, ed. Bianca Becherini. by Odericus, who confirmed that the monastery was Certaldo: Centro di Srudi sull\u2019Ars Nova Italiana del Trecento, Vallombrosa, between Florence and Arezzo. Rainerius 1962, pp. 140\u2013180. was highly esteemed by his superiors and at age twenty was sent to Rome, where he gained the trust and favor of Pope Gregory VII, who made him cardinal priest of San Clemente. Under Urban II, Rainerius served as legate to Spain. He later became abbot of San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura. His intellectual and spiritual qualities made him an excellent candidate for the papacy and helped secure his election to succeed Pope Urban II. He was highly educated, a promoter of learning and culture; he was also pious, merciful, and forgiving. It was reported that during the conclave, when he realized that the consensus was turning toward him, he attempted to avoid being elected by fleeing, deeming himself unworthy of such an important position. His pontificate as Paschal II was to prove very difficult because of the struggle between church and 503","PASCHAL II, POPE lowing the lead of his predecessors, congratulated the crusaders for their successes in Palestine and then urged the state over the right of investiture for major church bishops and soldiers to hasten to their help. offices, but it also saw the initial signs of emancipation of the church from the state, which Gregory VII had Although the relationship between papacy and empire worked so hard to achieve. Throughout his reign, Pas- was exceedingly tumultuous during his reign, Paschal\u2019s chal had to fight on many fronts: against the antipopes, diplomatic accomplishments were instrumental in the German kings, and the Roman nobles. Paschal also bringing a conclusion to the investiture controversy; his strenuously fostered the crusade movement. pontificate opened the way to the concordat that Pope Calixtus II concluded at Worms in 1122. During Paschal\u2019s reign, settlements were made be- tween Saint Anselm and Henry I of England and with See also Gregory VII, Pope; Henry I; Philip I of France; but there was a constant struggle with Henry IV, Emperor; Urban II, Pope the German king Henry IV, who persistently encour- aged and supported the elections of antipopes, in order Further Reading to undermine the authority of the legitimately elected pope. There was a whole succession of antipopes. At Cantarella, Glauco Maria. Pasquale II e il suo tempo. Naples: the death of the antipope Guibert of Ravenna (Clement Liguori, 1997. Enciclopedia Cattolica. Florence: Sansoni, III) in 1100, Theoderic became antipope after a mock 1950. election in Saint Peter\u2019s (1101\u20131102); then came the antipopes Albert (1102) and Sylvester IV (1105\u20131111). Mann, Horace K. The Lives of the Popes in the Middle Ages. Henry IV was excommunicated by Paschal in 1302 but London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner; Saint Louis, Mo.: restored himself to the pope\u2019s favor by promising to lead Herder, 1925. a crusade, although he never fulfilled this promise. In 1104, Henry IV\u2019s young son, Henry V, spurred on by Morrison, Karl F. Tradition and Authority in the Western Church, disappointed princes, rebelled against his father. Weary 300\u20131140. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, of the constant struggle with the king, Paschal made 1969. an agreement with his rebellious son. The elder Henry resigned his power at Ingelheim on 31 December 1105, The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. Detroit, Mich.: Thom- and his son was solemnly crowned emperor at Mainz son-Gale, 2003. on 1 February 1106. While the dethroned monarch was getting ready to fight back, he fell ill and died in Strayer, Joseph R., ed. Dictionary of the Middle Ages. NewYork: August 1106. Scribner, 1983. The struggle between papacy and empire found no Alessandro Vettori resolution with Henry V. From the beginning of his reign, the younger Henry proved just as determined as PAUL THE DEACON his father not to give up the right of investiture. Paschal (c. 720\u2013c. 799) II and Henry V met at Sutri in 1110. Initially, Henry showed willingness to renounce the right to investiture, Paul the Deacon (Paulus Diaconis) was the son of while the pope committed himself to giving back all Warnefrid and was probably born at Cividale in Friuli. lands and rights received from the German crown by the Paul was educated by the grammarian Flavianus, joined church. However, these conditions were rejected by the the royal court at Pavia, and became tutor to Adelperga, German bishops, who considered that they were being a daughter of the last independent Lombard king, Desid- deprived of all temporal power. Henry V fled Rome erius (r. 756\u2013774). When Adelperga\u2019s husband, Arichis, and took the pope with him as a prisoner, until Paschal was made duke of Benevento in 758, Paul became a conceded the right of investiture to the king. Despite the part of the literary circle that developed at Benevento. strong opposition of the Roman curia, Paschal crowned There, in 763, Paul wrote his first poetic work (dedi- Henry V emperor in Saint Peter\u2019s on 13 April 1111, as cated to Adelperga), followed by a prose continuation part of their agreement. In September 1112, the emperor (also dedicated to Adelperga) of Eutropius\u2019s Historia was excommunicated by the French bishops because Romanum. of his capture of the pope and his extortion of the con- cession regarding investiture. Paschal subsequently After Charlemagne\u2019s defeat of the Lombards and his confirmed the emperor\u2019s excommunication. assumption of the Lombard crown in 774, Paul retired to the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino, where While struggling to achieve peace with the empire, he remained until 783. He then left to seek the court of Paschal had to fend off revolts in Rome itself. The Corsi Charlemagne, ostensibly to plead on behalf of a brother, family supported the third antipope, and Paschal retaliat- Arichis, who had been taken prisoner after participating ed by destroying their stronghold on the Capitoline hill. in an unsuccessful revolt in northern Italy in 776. Paul remained at Charlemagne\u2019s court for two or three years Soon after his election to the papacy, Paschal, fol- before returning to Monte Cassino, where he continued to live and write until his death. Paul is an important figure both in Italian letters and in the early Carolingian renaissance. He wrote in verse 504","and in prose on secular and religious subjects. While PECOCK, REGINALD he was at Aachen, in addition to a number of literary efforts that were primarily liturgical and homiletic, he larly of syllogistic logic, over that of the church doctors, composed in honor of the Carolingians a History of the of the scriptures, and sometimes of the church itself. Bishops of Metz (Historia episcoporum Metensium); after returning to Monte Cassino he produced a number Pecock\u2019s position on these issues was not as extreme of other works including his last and most important, as his accusers asserted, but enough evidence was found History of the Lombards (Historia Langobardorum). in his works (many of which, he pointed out, had cir- This last work, which was never finished, covers the culated without his approval) to convict him of heresy story of the Lombards from their semilegendary begin- in 1457. Upon conviction he was offered the choice of nings through the reign of King Liutprand (712\u2013744). recanting or being burned at the stake. He publicly ab- Paul\u2019s history is a typical eighth-century product, relying jured and handed over fourteen of his books, which were heavily on the materials available to him: Pliny; Isidore; consigned to flames. Although he was reinstated in his Gregory of Tours; a work on the Lombards (now lost) bishopric for one more year, his enemies were soon able by Secundus of Nun from Trent, who was a member to remove him from office and have him placed under of the court circle of King Agilulf (r. 590\u2013616); Bede; restrictive house arrest at Thorney Abbey in 1459. Not and several much shorter and less reliable Lombard long after, perhaps within a year or so, he died there. chronicles\u2014an interesting commentary on the literary materials available at Monte Cassino in the late eighth Pecock wrote or planned to write some 30 to 50 books century. in Latin and English, but only a few have survived. We know of at least some of those that perished by their See also Charlemagne; Gregory of Tours; mention in the surviving works, which in probable Isidore of Seville, Saint; Wyclif, John chronological order are these: The Rule of Christian Religion (ca. 1443); The Donet (ca. 1443\u201349); The Poor Further Reading Men\u2019s Mirror (an extract of part 1 of The Donet); the \u201cAbbreviatio Reginaldi Pecok\u201d (ca. 1447); The Folewer Belting, Hans. \u201cStudien zum beneventanischen Hof im 8. Jahr- to the Donet (ca. 1453\u201354); The Repressor of Over Much hundert.\u201d Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 16, 1962. Blaming of the Clergy (written ca. 1449, published ca. 1455); and The Book of Faith (ca. 1456). Bethmann, L., and G. Waitz, eds. Pauli Historia Langobardo- rum. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores Rerum Pecock\u2019s extant English treatises are notable for Langobardicarum et Italicarum, Saec. VI\u2013IX. Hannover: their prose style, which is strongly shaped by the at- Hahn, 1878. tempt to render theological and philosophical concepts in a relatively nonlatinate English, leading to frequent Goffart, Walter. Narrators of Barbarian History: Jordanes, neologisms (e.g., un-away-fallable; folewer for \u201cse- Gregory of Tours, Bede, and Paul the Deacon. Princeton, N.J.: quel\u201d; eendal and meenal for \u201cpertaining to ends\u201d and Princeton University Press, 1988. \u201cpertaining to means\u201d). His language is often abstract and syntactically complex, especially in his expositions Paul the Deacon. History of the Lombards, trans. William Dud- of logical arguments. He thoroughly reorganized the ley Foulke. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, standard religious instructional topics (vices and virtues, 1974. sacraments, articles of faith, etc.) into a nontraditional arrangement of 31 virtues. Not surprisingly, given the Katherine Fischer Drew destruction of many of his books and the dense, com- plex style of those few that survived, Pecock\u2019s works PECOCK, REGINALD had little influence on later writers. Nonetheless, they (early 1390s-ca. 1460) remain worthy of study for what they reveal about the ca- pacities of late ME prose as a medium for philosophical Theologian, religious educator, and bishop tried for discourse and the degree to which 15th-century English and convicted of heresy. Pecock was a fellow of Oriel religious instruction could\u2014and could not\u2014diverge College, Oxford (ca. 1414\u201324); rector of St. Michael\u2019s, from institutionally approved form and content. Gloucester (1424\u201331); rector of St. Michael Royal (also called St. Michael in Riola) and master of Whittington Further Reading College (1431\u201344); bishop of St. Asaph (1444\u201350); and bishop of Chichester (1450\u201358). He was unusual in that Primary Sources he tried to bring the Lollards out of error by means of logical persuasion in vernacular treatises, especially Babington, Churchill, ed. The Repressor of Over Much Blaming in his Repressor of Over Much Blaming of the Clergy. of the Clergy. 2 vols. Rolls Series. London: Longman, Green, Ironically the legal ground for his trial may have been Longman, & Roberts, 1860. an ecclesiastical statute originally designed to suppress Lollardy, not only because he wrote in English but also Greet, William Cabell, ed. The Reule of Crysten Religioun. EETS because he stressed the authority of reason, and particu- o.s. 171. London: Humphrey Milford, 1927. Hitchcock, Elsie Vaughan, ed. The Donet and The Folewer to the Donet. EETS o.s. 156, 164. London: Humphrey Milford, 1921\u201324. 505","PECOCK, REGINALD Pedro Alfonso\u2019s name has become unquestionably most associated with the Disciplina clericalis, a com- Morison, John L., ed. The Book of Faith. Glasgow: Maclehose, bination of exempla (thirty-four total), comparisons, 1909. proverbs, and so on\u2014all focusing on the indoctrina- tion of students as the title indicates. For the subject\u2019s Secondary Sources organization, the author likely found inspiration in the books of the Bible, Hebrew religious texts, and mixed New CBEL 1:665\u201366, 805. genres of oriental origin. The dialogue between anony- Brockwell, Charles W., Jr. \u201cAnswering the \u2018Known Men\u2019: Bishop mous characters (father-son, teacher-disciple) creates a frame that reaches its maximum development between Reginald Pecock and Mr. Richard Hooker.\u201d Church History examples 9 and 17. The subject matter\u2014knowledge of 49 (1980): 133\u201346. self and of neighbor, but always remembering the fear Patrouch, Joseph E, Jr. Reginald Pecock. New York: Twayne, of God\u2014corresponds to other similar works of oriental 1970. literature. The most popular stories, though, deal with misogynistic themes, and are closer to the fabliaux in Lara Ruffolo their narrative scheme. Medieval preachers turned to the Discliplina clericalis frequently, explaining its wide PEDRO ALFONSO, OR diffusion and its importance in the origins of the novel. PETRUS ALFONSI Because it was written in Latin, the Disciplina clericalis became the first pathway through which oriental narra- Mois\u00e9s Sefard\u00ed, a noted Jew from Huesca, adopted tive began to circulate in the West. the name Pedro Alfonso when he was baptized on 29 June 1106, with King Alfonso I el Batallador serving Further Reading as godfather. Pedro Alfonso probably left the Iberian Peninsula soon after his baptism; a few years later he Alfonso, Pedro. Disciplina clericalis. Intr. M. J. Lacarra, tran. E. was located in England as a magister of liberal arts, Ducay. Zaragoza, 1980. where he likely contributed to the diffusion of Arabic science, especially astronomy and calculus, around the Reinhardt, K., and H. Santiago-Otero, Biblioteca b\u00edblica ib\u00e9rica monastery of Malvern. Whether he was the physician medieval Madrid, 1986, 250\u201358. to both Alfonso I and Henry I of England, as is often claimed, is not certain. Mar\u00eda Jes\u00fas Lacarra The preserved literary production of Pedro Alfonso PEDRO I THE CRUEL, is in Latin, and can be separated into three fields of KING OF CASTILE (1334\u20131369) interest: apologetic, scientific, and didactic literature. As a response to the scandal caused by his conversion, Born 30 August 1334 in Burgos, Pedro was the only he wrote Di\u00e1logos contra los jud\u00edos, in which two char- legitimate child and heir of Alfonso XI of Castile acters, Pedro and Mois\u00e9s, represent the author before (1312\u20131350). His mother was Mar\u00eda daughter of King and after his baptism. Throughout the work\u2019s twelve Afonso IV of Portugal. One of the most controversial chapters, Pedro turns to a wide variety of medical, cab- kings of the Castilian Middle Ages, he is the only one balistic, and theological arguments to show Mois\u00e9s the who came to be known by the sobriquet of \u201cthe Cruel\u201d error of his ways. At the latter\u2019s insistence, in the fifth for the many acts of violence associated with the last chapter Pedro traces a broad critical panorama of Islam. stages of his rule. Aside from the personal excesses that If the Di\u00e1logos enjoyed especially wide distribution, as inspired this reputation, Pedro\u2019s reign (1350\u20131369) is the more than seventy preserved manuscripts dispersed distinctive for a number of other reasons. throughout European libraries prove, the repercussions of this chapter were even greater. His subjects experienced the full economic and demographic effects of the first wave of the Black Very few of Pedro Alfonso\u2019s scientific works are pre- Death that hit Castile from 1348 to 1350. He led an ag- served, and only some incomplete Tablas astron\u00f3micas gressive war of expansion against Arag\u00f3n that lasted, can be attributed to him with surety. These tablas are intermittently, from 1357 until the end of the reign. His preceded by a curious preliminary text titled \u201cCarta a policies and alliances contributed to the involvement los estudiosos franceses\u201d, which seems to have been of international troops in the peninsular conflict, motivated by a stay in France, and which becomes an making Spain, from 1366 to 1369, the main theater important document with regard to the author\u2019s position for the larger military conflict known as the Hundred on the cultural renaissance of the twelfth century. In the Years\u2019 War. His treatment of the aristocracy and his letter, Pedro Alfonso criticizes European intellectuals poor relations with the Castilian Church and the Avi- for their bookish culture, far removed from the world gnon papacy alienated a substantial portion of his most of scientific practice. He also addresses the traditional division of the liberal arts, positioning himself among those partial to the quadrivium, which includes the study of medicine; in the trivium only the study of dialectics is saved from the author\u2019s condemnation, but is still only regarded as a supplementary subject. 506"]